HVAC Clinic

HVAC System
Control
Table Of Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Fundamentals ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Fundamentals ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Interoperability ..................................................................................................................................... 12
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Introduction

Since the advent of HVAC systems, we humans have attempted to optimize and simplify the control of those systems.
Even before the advent of modern temperature controls, humans have attempted to control the environment with
manual systems. Take for example a 19th Century house heated in Reno with a fireplace. If the house became cold,
a person would add wood to the fire in an attempt to maintain a comfortable temperature. While this is an extremely
rudimentary example of a control system, it is nonetheless an example of a system control. As technology has
advanced, so has HVAC system control. The purpose of this clinic is to discuss the principles of automatic control
and the various types of control systems available in modern HVAC systems.

Fundamentals

Modern HVAC system controls will ensure that a system is operated as it is intended to design, maintain a
comfortable building environment, optimize system efficiency and provide for a healthy occupant environment.

Every control system consists of a controlled variable, a sensor, a controller, a controlled device and a controlled
agent.

The controlled variable is the parameter being measured and controlled.

The sensor measures the condition of the controlled variable and sends an input signal to the controller.
The controller is the brain of the system. It compares the measured condition of the controlled variable to the desired
condition (setpoint), and transmits a corrective output signal to the controlled device.
The controlled device is the component that reacts to the output signal from the controller and takes action to vary the
controlled agent.
The controlled agent is the medium that is manipulated by the controlled device.

A pressure dependent variable air volume (VAV) box control system provides a good example on the principles
defined above. For a single duct VAV box, the controlled variable is the dry bulb temperature in the space. The
sensor is the thermostat in the space. The controller is the brain of the VAV box and is generally mounted in an
enclosure on the side of the box. The controlled device is the terminal unit damper. Finally, the controlled agent is
airflow being delivered to the space (figure 1).

Figure 1. Pressure Dependet Example

As the load to the space changes, the airflow to the space will change in response to the load. Assuming a cooling
only zone, as the load decreases (corresponding to a decrease in space temperature), the airflow would decrease.
Conversely, as the load increases (corresponding to an increase in space temperature), the airflow would increase.
As the load or temperature (the controlled variable changes), the temperature sensor in the space would measure the
change, communicate the change to the controller, modulate the damper (the controlled device) and vary the airflow
(the controlled agent).

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Open Loop Vs Closed Loop Controls
Generally, there are two types of control loops used in modern HVAC control systems. In an open loop control
system, the strategy assumes there is a somewhat linear relationship between an external condition and the
controlled variable. In the VAV terminal unit example, an open loop control system might control the volume of air to
the space as a function of ambient temperature rather than space temperature (figure 2). While outdoor air
temperature may be a good indicator of load, it does not take into account other variables such as solar heat gain,
occupancy based loads, etc. Thus, open loop control systems often are not idea when controlling HVAC systems. In
those instances where multiple variables may affect the controlled variable, a closed loop control strategy is preferred.

Figure 2. Open Loop Control

In a closed loop control strategy, the controlled variable is directly measured and used to vary the controlled agent. In
the VAV terminal unit example, the actual dry bulb temperature in the space is measured and the airflow is then
adjusted in order to maintain the temperature in the space. A closed loop control strategy is far less arbitrary and will
result in more accurate control than an open loop control strategy. However, open loop control strategies do have
their place in modern HVAC systems. In certain applications, direct measurement of the controlled variable is not
practical or cost effective. In these instances, an open loop strategy may be appropriate.

Figure 3. Pressure Indepedend VAV Closed Loop Control

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Open loop control strategies should not be confused with reset controls. Control reset is a strategy in which a second
controlled agent is varied in order maintain the control variable. In a typical closed loop control strategy a controller
can only vary a single independent input variable in order to directly control the controlled variable. Take for example
a chilled water coil cooling a fixed volumetric flow of air (figure 4).

Figure 4. Control Reset

There are two possible independent variables or controlled agents which could determine the controlled variable (the
temperature of air leaving the coil). Those are the input water temperature to the coil or the water flow rate through
the coil. Recall that the capacity of a coil follows the relationship:

Where:

Flow = Water Flow Rate (gpm)

DeltaT = Tentering - Tleaving

However, the Delta-T is a function of the log mean temperature difference. As the entering fluid temperature is
decreased at a constant flow, the coil capacity will increase. Thus, varying either the entering water temperature or
fluid flow will affect the capacity of the coil and the temperature of the air leaving the coil.

Mathematically, if we are to accurately control an output variable, we can only adjust a single input variable. If we
were to attempt to vary two input variables simultaneously (like flow and entering water temperature), it would be very
difficult to accurately predict the impact on the output variable.

Yet, there are instances when we may want to vary both controlled agents (the input variables). Take for example a
scenario when we might be able to utilize chilled water reset in order to save chiller energy. As the ambient
temperature decreases, we may be able to reset or increase the chilled water temperature entering the coils without
losing the load in the space. In this scenario, we would utilize an open loop control strategy to reset the entering
chilled water temperature at the coils based on outside air temperature (otherwise known as chilled water reset).
Simultaneously, we run a closed loop control strategy that modulates the flow through the coil in order to maintain the
temperature of the air leaving the coil. Chilled water reset at a cooling coil is a good example of a strategy that
employs both open and closed loop control strategies.

Control Points

A non-networked controller will communicate with HVAC end devices (valves, actuators, temperature sensors,
pressure sensors, flow sensors, etc) using one of four types of control signals. Those signals are:

Binary Input
Binary Output
Analog Input
Analog Output

Determining if a control signal is an input versus an output is simply matter of resolving the flow of information to the
controller. If the information is coming in to the controller, the signal is an input. If the information is being sent out of
the controller, it is an output. A binary signal is simply an on/off signal. Examples of binary signals would be flow
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switches, two position valves, fan or pump status, etc. A binary signal functions very similarly to a contact closure. It
indicates that a device is either on or off. Often binary signals can be something as simple as an end device sensing
a constant 24 Vdc signal. Conversely, an analog signal is a modulating signal. Analog signals typically come in one
of three variations:

0-10 Vdc
4-20 mA
Floating Point (3 wire)

Both 0-10 Vdc and 4-20 mA signals require two wires. On wire is hot and the other wire is common. The signal
generally ranges such the bottom of the scale (0 Vdc or 4 mA) corresponds to the bottom of the desired range. On
the other hand, the top of the scale (10 Vdc or 20 mA) will likely correspond to the top of the desired range.

Take for example a pressure dependent VAV terminal unit that requires a modulating 0-10Vdc signal. Output signal
versus damper position for such a terminal unit will very likely follow the representation shown in figure 5.

VAV Damper Position (%)

100
Damper Postion (%)

80

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Control Signal (Vdc)

Figure 5. Pressure Dependent VAV Terminal

As cooling load or temperature increases in a space, the required airflow to the space will increase. The controller will
output a low voltage dc signal and the damper will modulate in a linear fashion, increasing the airflow to the space.

A floating point control signal requires three wires. However, from a hardware and end device standpoint, floating
point control signals are often less expensive to implement. A floating point signal utilizes two binary points rather than
a single analog point. Of the two binarys, one signal is dedicated to opening the end device while the other of the two
signals is dedicated to closing the end device. Thus, a floating point signal requires three wires. One wire is common
while the other two wires output the 24 Vac binary signals. As the controller senses a devation from setpoint, the
controller either drives open or drives closed the end device by enabling one of the two binary signals for a set
amount of time. As the controller senses a return to setpoint, the binary signal is deactivated. Thus, a floating point
signal drives a device either open or closed by sending an open or closed 24 Vac signal for an indeterminate amount
of time. As the controller senses a return to setpoint, the open or closed 24 Vac signal is terminated.

While floating point control signals require three wires to implement, most end devices (valves, actuators, etc) that
utilize floating point signals are less expensive than comparative hardware which implement analog signals. The
reduced cost of floating point end devices often make them a less expensive alternative to analog signals for systems
that require some means of modulation. However, analog system control is generally accepted as being a more
accurate means of modulation compared to floating point control.

Methods of Analog Output Control

Three methods of analog output control are generally implemented when controlling HVAC equipment. Those
methods are:

Proportional Control (P)

Proportional Integral Control (PI)
Proportional Integral Derivative Control (PID)

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Proportional control varies the output signal in direct proportion to the deviation of the controlled variable from the
setpoint (figure 6).

Figure 6. Proportional Only Control

The range in which the controlled variable is allowed deviate from the setpoint is called the throttling range. For
example (figure 6), if we are controlling the leaving discharge air temperature of a coil, the discharge air temperature
may be allowed to vary +/-5 oF from setpoint. In this instance, the throttling range would be 10oF. That is to say, if the
temperature strays to above 5oF from setpoint, the controller would request that the valve open 100%. Conversely, if
the temperature falls below 5oF from setpoint, the controller would request that the valve completely close.

With proportional control, there is always some amount of control offset or steady state error. Offset is the difference
between the measured controlled variable and the setpoint. Because the output position (in this case valve position)
is always a function of deviation from setpoint, some deviation must occur in order to hold the current position. Thus,
the offset will be the amount of error from the setpoint at all load conditions. The exception being (in the example
shown above) is when the valve is at 50% position or its initial setup position. Proportional control algorithms make
no attempt to reduce the amount of offset present in any system.

Proportional integral control attempts to overcome the offset characteristic of proportional only control by responding
to the magnitude of deviation and the amount of time that deviation exists. Mathematically, integral is defined to be
the area of the region in the xy-plane bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, such
that area above the x-axis adds to the total, and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total (figure 7).

Figure 7. Integral

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In the controls realm, integral represents the time value of the error away from setpoint. Thus, integral control
attempts to minimize the integral value from setpoint. With each consecutive cycle, proper integral control will reduce
the offset from setpoint (figure 8).

Figure 8. Integral Control

Ultimately, integral control reduces the time deviation from setpoint. Referencing figure 8, as the control loop initiates,
integral only control will increase the control signal as the deviation from setpoint persists (point A). The control
output will continue to increase in magnitude until the deviation from setpoint is zero (point B). It is not until the
controlled variable as a function of time becomes negative that the algorithm decreases the controller output (points B
to C). As the controlled variables integral value returns to a zero value (point C), the algorithm stops decreasing the
controller output.

The advantage of integral control is that is attempts to return the controlled variable toward the setpoint. However,
integral control on its own will generally lead to the controlled variable oscillating above and below the setpoint.

A solution is to combine integral with proportional control to form proportional integral control (PI). Proportional
Integral control takes advantage of proportional controls ability to reduce deviation from setpoint while integral control
minimizes the offset characteristic of proportional control (figure 9).

Figure 9 Proportional Integral Control

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Finally, derivative control produces a corrective output signal only when the condition of the controlled variable is
changing. The mathematic definition of derivative is the instantaneous slope of a mathematic function at a specific
time (figure 10).

Figure 10. Deritive

Derivative control acts to oppose change. Any slope, positive or negative, is interpreted as change mathematically
with derivative control. The magnitude of corrective action is a function of the slope or rate of change. Derivative
control will only take action if there exists some rate of change. It does not take corrective action if some amount of
offset exists. This remains true regardless of the magnitude of offset. Thus, derivative control is of little use without
some other types of control action.

Figure 11. Proportional Integral Control

Proportional, integral derivative (PID) control combines all three methods of correct action (figure 11). Proportional
control can quickly correct for deviation from setpoint, integral control corrects for offset from setpoint and derivative
control anticipates change and reduces the magnitude of the deviation from offset. When properly tuned, PID control
will provide a superior method of control compared to proportional or proportion integral control. A properly tuned PID
loop can accurately maintain the controlled variable without experiencing rapid changes.

Proportional control is generally acceptable in instances where an offset from setpoint is acceptable. Proportinal
integral is used in application where minimizing offset is required. Proportinal integral control can be applied to
sytems with on/off control of the controlled device. However, when the goal is to minimize overshoot and provide
more stable fast acting control, PID control should be implemented. PID control generally requires the the controlled
device be a modulating device.

Summary
Proportional Deviation from Setpoint
Integral Minimize Offset or Time Deviation from Setpoint
Derivative Acts to Oppose Change

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Automatic Control
Generally, three levels of automatic temperature control are present in any building automation system. Those levels
of temperature control are:

Unit Level Control

System Level Control
Building Level (Supervisory) Control & Management

Unit level control involves commainding and controlling individual pieces of equipment. For example, a unit level
controller might control the damper and hot water valve on a pressure independent terminal variable air volume
device (figure 12). The unit controller would accept inputs, such as the space temperature and the air volume at the
airlfow ring. It would then run some type of control logic, implementing either P, PI or PID control and control the
damper position and possible the water valve position in order to maintain the space temperature.

Figure 12. Unit Level Control

Unit level controls can utilize either application specific controllers or programmable input outuput field controllers.
Applciation specific controllers are designed for specific pieces of equipment. For example, an application specific
controller might be made to control a VAV box, pacakged unit, chiller, air handler or fan coil. An application specific
controller comes pre-loaded generic program designed specififically for that type of equipent. Certain parameters of
that program generally may be customized. An application specific controller also generally includes only the specific
number of inputs and outputs required to run that type of equipment. For example, a VAV application specific
controller may only only include inputs for space temperature and airflow with outputs for the VAV damper and hot
water valve. Application specific controllers are generally lower in first cost due to the elimation of unused
input/output hardware points. They are also generally lower in cost to implement being that they come pre-loaded
with a generic program designed to be used for that type of equipment.

Figure 13. Application Specific Controller

However, in certain instances, application specific controllers may not provide the flexibility required for certain types
of equipment. For example, an application specific rooftop unit contoller may not contain the output points required to
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operate an energy recovery wheel in conjunction with an exahaust fan. As such, in those instances, the installation
may require a programmable input output field controller. Input output field controllers generally come with a fixed
number of inputs and outputs (some of which can be configured as analog or binary) and do not come pre-loaded with
any type of program. While considerably more flexible, field controllers can be considerably more expensive to
implement (figure 14).

Figure 14. Field Controller

System level control involves directing and coordinating the components of unit level controllers. An example of
system level control would be traditional variable air volume system. The system controller would communicate with
the individual variable air volume boxes in order to determine their heating or cooling status and damper position
(figure 15).

Figure 15. System Level Control

In addition, the system controller would determine global variables such as the time of day, occupancy schedule and
outside ambient temperature. Based on those specific inputs, the system controller would then:

Determine supply air setpoint based on outside air temperature and damper position,
Assuming some method of static pressure reset is implemented; determine the static pressure at the air
handler based on the damper position at the VAV boxes.
Assuming morning warmup is implemented; implement a morning warmup sequence based on time of day.
Determine the outside air damper position based on outside airflow and VAV damper position.
Cycle the supply fan based on the occupancy schedule.

Without specific knowledge of global variables such as the occupancy schedule, time of day and outside air
temperature in addition to the damper position and heating or cooling status at each and every terminal unit, the
system controller would not be able to implement the sequences described above. In instances where there may be
budget constraints or simplicity is required, the system controller may be eliminated in favor of a unit level controller.
In this instance, the air handlers unit controller would simply maintain a constant duct static pressure, maintain a
constant volume of outside airflow and potentially enable/disable the supply fan based on a time clock. Sequences
such as static pressure reset, outdoor airflow reset and morning warmup would generally be eliminated. However,
when more complex systems are required, it is often not practical to eliminate the system controllers in lieu of unit

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level controllers. For example, with chilled water plants involving multiple chillers and variable flow pumps, it is
extremely implausible that the plant could be run efficiently or reliably without some means of system level control.

In the previous example, a system controller was communicating with the terminal unit controllers while
simultaneously polling several global variables. Those global variables were the time of day, occupancy schedule and
outside air temperature. Often, the global variables are provided by a building level or supervisory level controller.
Supervisory level controllers are responsible for:

Scheduling
Central time clock
Alarms
Histories
Reporting
Graphics
Global Variables

The supervisory level controller stands at the top of the pyramid of a HVAC control system (figure 16).

Figure 16. Supervisory Level Control

The supervisory level controller provides scheduling, acts a central time clock, provides alarms, histories, reports,
graphics and provides global variables. Often, the supervisory level controller is provided with an integral web server.
This enables users to access graphics and supervise the system remotely.

Interoperability

Interoperability is defined as the property of a product or system, whose interfaces are completely understood, to work
with other products or systems, present or future, without any restricted access or implementation. In the controls
world, interoperability refers to the ability of controllers of different types and manufacturers to be able to communicate
with one another.

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Depending on the type of building or system, interoperability might be required at the unit level, system level or
supervisory level. In todays environment, building owners are demanding interoperability at all levels of the HVAC
system. This allows the building owner to obtain competitive pricing from multiple vendors should any part of the
system, at any level, need to be replaced and expanded. The most common types of interoperable protocols at each
level of the system architecture are:

Unit Level
o Modbus
o BACnet
o LonWorks
System Level
o BACnet
Supervisory Level
o Niagara
o BACnet

The three most common medium for controls communication are MSTP as defined by BACnet, IP (Ethernet) and
Zigbee (a wireless communication protocol defined by BACnet). Each of these the transport mediums will be
discussed in further detail later in this clinic.

Modbus is a serial communications protocol published by Modicon in 1979 for use with its programmable logic
controllers (PLCs). Modbus has since become a de facto standard communication protocol in the industrial
automation field, and it is now amongst the most commonly available means of connecting industrial electronic
devices. Modbus is openly published and royalty-free. Modbus is commonly used among unit level controllers in the
HVAC controls industry. However, due to its complexity and difficulty to implement, it is rapidly being replaced by
BACnet and LonWorks at the unit level.

BACnet is a communications protocol designed specifically for building automation and control networks. It is an
ASHRAE, ANSI, and ISO standard open protocol. The development of the BACnet protocol began in June, 1987.
BACnet became an ASHRAE/ANSI Standard 1995 and an ISO standard in 2003. The Method of Test for
Conformance to BACnet was published in 2003 as BSR/ASHRAE Standard 135.1. BACnet is under continuous
maintenance by the ASHRAE Standing Standard Project Committee 135.

BACnet describes controls entities as objects with a specific property. The standard defines 50 types of objects.
Examples of objects include:

Binary Input
Binary Output
Analog Input
Analog Output
Multi-State Input
Multi-State Output
Calendar
Loop
Schedule
Command

Properties define the state of each object. For example, a binary output may have a state of true or false.
Similarly, a calendar object might include properties such as the month and day of the week. BACnet specifies 123
properties of objects. Three properties, Object-identifier, Object-name, and Object-type must be present in every
object. BACnet also may require that certain objects support specific additional properties. The type of object and the
type of device in which that object resides determine which properties are present. BACnet objects have two classes
of properties, required properties that must exist in the device and optional properties that exist at the discretion of the
device manufacturer.

Additionally, BACnet uses services to communicate between devices. A service is the mechanism which a building
automation system uses to access a property or request an action from a BACnet Object. Services are how one
BACnet device gets information from another device, commands a device to perform certain actions, or

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communicates events to other objects. As a system designer or user, you don't need to be concerned with the
execution or processing of service requests; these will be transparent and automatic.

LonWorks is an open protocol created by Echelon Corporation for networking devices over media such as twisted
pair, powerlines, fiber optics, and RF. Unlike BACnet, LonWorks is not free and requires a microprocessor chip
(called a Neuron Chip) that is licensed and sold by the Echelon Corporation. The technology has its origins with chip
designs, power line and twisted pair, signaling technology, routers, network management software, and other
products from Echelon Corporation. In 1999 the communications protocol (then known as LonTalk) was submitted to
ANSI and accepted as a standard for control networking (ANSI/CEA-709.1-B). The protocol is also one of several
data link/physical layers of the BACnet standard for building automation.

Unlike BACnet which defines objects and properties, LonWorks defines profiles and variables. Echelon defines a
network variable as a data item that a particular device application expects to get from other devices on a network.
Examples of network variables might be water temperature, relative humidity, occupied/unoccupied, etc. In order for
applications from multiple manufacturers to be interpreted in the same manner, their network variables must be
interpreted the same way. Thus, LonMark has defined and published common system variables called SNVTs
(standard network variable types). SNVTs are essentially control points. Each SNVT has standardized properties
that are used to define the variables. These properties can include variable context (temperature, address, etc), unit
of measure (ohms, degrees, etc) and dimensions (CFM, gallons, etc).

In addition to variables or SNVT, LonWorks uses profiles to define the functionality of devices. This level of definition
is referred to as a function profile. Device manufacturers use functional profiles to make public the network variables
(SNVTs), configuration properties, default behavior and power up behavior for their particular device. Profiles
standardize functional behavior, not products. An example of a functional profile might be that of a heat pump (figure
17).

Figure 17. Heat Pump Functional Profile

The downside to LonWorks is that if a profile or SNVT does not exist as defined by LonMark, it makes communication
via LonWorks more challenging. For example, think of the number of components and points that might exist when
defining a custom air handler. It is very likely that LonMark has not defined a profile that clearly and definitively
defines the operation of that air handler. Conversely BACnet, through its more generic use of objects and properties,
allows an integrator to relatively easily define systems with higher levels of complexity.

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Communications medium (physical layers) for the various open protocols include RS485, LonTalk, Ethernet, Point-to-
Point, ARCNET, master slave token passing (MS/TP) and wireless. At inception, the BACnet committee of ASHRAE
decided to support five data links; Ethernet, ARCNET, MS/TP, Point-to-Point protocol (PTP), and Lontalk. In addition,
BACnet has recently approved Zigbee as an open protocol wireless communication method. Zigbee employees a
wireless mesh technology that utilizes the 2.4 GHz radio frequency (a derivation of the IEEE 802.11 standard). A
wireless mesh network is a network in which each device can both transmit and receive data. The Zigbee alliance is
an open, non-profit association. Most wired open protocols generally utilize either 3 wire MS/TP bus (as defined in
BACnet standard protocol SSPC-135, Clause 9) an Ethernet bus, LonTalk or Zigbee. The BACnet MS/TP protocol is
a peer-to-peer, multiple master protocol based on token passing. Only master devices can receive the token, and
only the device holding the token is allowed to originate a message on the bus. The token is passed from master
device to master device using a small message. The token is passed in consecutive order starting with the lowest
address. Slave devices on the bus only communicate on the bus when responding to a data request from a master
device.

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