TYPICAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS IN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

The major differences between signs and symptoms are described on the table below:
SIGNS SYMPTOMS
Objective Subjective
Based from clinicians observation Subjective experiences of the patient

However, psychopathological signs and symptoms are not clearly differentiated, they often
overlap. A syndrome, or a constellation of signs and symptoms that make up a recognizable condition, is
often used to show the overlap of the two.

TYPICAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS IN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

DISTURBANCES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness - state of awareness
Apperception: perception modified by ones own thoughts and emotions
Sensorium: (sometimes used as another term for consciousness) refers to the state of functioning
of the special senses
1. Disorientation disturbed orientation regarding time, place, or person.
2. Delirium patient exhibits confusion, restlessness, bewilderment, and a disoriented reaction that
is usually associated with hallucinations and fear.
3. Clouding of consciousness a state of perceptual and cognitive confusion.
4. Stupor a general condition wherein the patient exhibits extreme unresponsiveness and loss of
orientation to the environment.
5. Twilight state a disturbance in consciousness, with hallucinations.
6. Dreamlike state another term for psychomotor epilepsy or complex partial seizure.
7. Somnolence abnormal drowsiness, usually displayed in organic processes.
8. Coma vigil (akinetic mutism) patient appears to be sleeping but is aroused easily.
9. Coma profound level of consciousness, abnormal state of deep stupor that is accompanied by a
total loss of consciousness, loss of voluntary behavior and some reflexes.

DISTURBANCES OF ATTENTION
Attention selective aspects of perception; quantity of effort given to focusing on parts of an
experience; ability to concentrate
1. Distractibility the inability to concentrate or focus attention because patient is easily drawn to
irrelevant external stimuli.
2. Selective attention blocking out of anxiety-causing stimuli.
3. Hyper vigilance excessive focus and attention is given to all internal and external stimuli due to
paranoia.

DISTURBANCES IN SUGGESTIBILITY
Suggestibility - uncritical and compliant response to influence or an idea.
1. Folie a deux (or folie a trois) emotional/mental illness shared between two (or three) persons;
also called shared psychosis between two (or three) persons.
2. Hypnosis artificially induced consciousness characterized by heightened suggestibility.

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DISTURBANCES IN EMOTION
Emotion a complex feeling or state related to mood and affect with psychic, somatic, and behavioral
components.

Affect the expression or outward manifestation of emotion observable to others.

1. Appropriate affect a normal condition wherein emotional tone is in harmony or is consistent
with the accompanying thought, idea, or speech. It is also described as broad or full affect wherein
a full range of emotions is appropriately expressed.
2. Inappropriate affect inconsistency between the emotional tone and the idea, thought, or
speech accompanying it.
3. Blunted affect characterized by a severe reduction in the intensity of the externalized feeling
tone.
4. Restricted or constricted affect reduction in the intensity of feeling tone. It is less severe than
blunted affect.
5. Flat affect the absence or near absence of any signs of affective expression. It can be
characterized by an immobile face and a monotonous voice.
6. Labile affect rapid and abrupt changes in the emotional feeling tone which is unrelated to an
external stimuli.

Mood the sustained and pervasive emotion subjectively experienced and reported by the patient,
and is observable to others.
1. Dysphoric Mood unpleasant mood
2. Euthymic Mood normal range of mood
3. Expansive Mood the expression of ones feelings without any restraint. It is frequently and
overestimation of ones significance or importance.
4. Irritable Mood the person is easily provoked to anger and is easily annoyed.
5. Mood Swings (labile mood) moving between euphoria and depression or anxiety.
6. Elevated Mood characterized by an air of enjoyment and confidence. A mood which is more
cheerful than normal but is not considered pathological.
7. Euphoria intense elation with feelings of grandeur.
8. Ecstasy feeling of intense rapture or delight.
9. Depression the psychopathological feeling of sadness.
10. Anhedonia loss of interest and withdrawal from all regular and pleasurable activities. Often
associated with depression.
11. Grief or Mourning sadness that is appropriate to a real loss.
12. Alexithymia the inability or difficulty in describing ones moods or emotions.

Other Emotions
1. Anxiety a feeling of apprehension that is caused by anticipation of internal or external
danger/threat.
2. Free-floating anxiety unfocused and pervasive fear that is not attached to any idea.
3. Fear anxiety caused by a consciously recognized and realistic danger.
4. Agitation motor restlessness associated with severe anxiety.
5. Tension unpleasant increased motor and psychological activity.
6. Panic acute, episodic, intense anxiety attack associated with overwhelming feelings of dread.
7. Apathy dulled emotional tone associated with indifference or detachment
8. Ambivalence presence of two opposing impulses toward the same thing, in the same person,
at the same time.

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Physiological disturbances associated with mood

- Signs that refer to the somatic (usually autonomic) dysfunction of a person, which are most often
associated with depression; also known as vegetative signs.
1. Anorexia loss of or decrease in appetite.
2. Hyperphagia increase in appetite and food intake.
3. Insomnia difficulty or lack the lack of ability to fall asleep.
a. Initial difficulty in falling asleep. (early onset)
b. Middle difficulty in sleeping through the night without waking up; difficulty in going back
to sleep if awaken in the middle of the night. (middle onset)
c. Terminal early morning awakening. (late onset)
4. Hypersomnia excessive sleeping.
5. Diurnal variation mood is regularly worst in morning, immediately after awakening, and
improves as the day progresses.
6. Diminished libido decreased sexual interest, drive, and performance.
*Increased libido is usually associated with manic states.
7. Constipation inability or difficulty in defecating.

DISTURBANCES IN MOTOR FUNCTIONING

Motor Behavior the aspect of the psyche which includes impulses, motivations, wishes, drives,
instincts, and cravings, as expressed by a persons behavior or motor activity.
1. Echopraxia the persons pathological imitation of movements of another person.
2. Catatonia motor anomalies in non-organic disorders (as opposed to disturbances of
consciousness and motor activity secondary to organic pathology)
a. Catalepsy general term used to describe an immobile position that is constantly
maintained.
b. Catatonic Excitement agitated, purposeless motor activity that is uninfluenced by external
stimuli.
c. Catatonic Stupor noticeable slowed motor activity, often to a point of immobility and
seeming unawareness of surroundings.
d. Catatonic Rigidity voluntary assumption of a rigid posture, held against all efforts to be
moved.
e. Catatonic Posturing voluntary assumption of an inappropriate or bizarre posture which is
generally maintained for long periods of time.
f. Cerea Flexibilitas (Waxy Flexibility) a condition wherein the person can be molded into a
position that is then maintained. When the examiner moves the persons limb, the limb feels
as if it were made of wax.
3. Negativism motiveless resistance to all instructions or to all attempts to be moved.
4. Cataplexy temporary muscle weakness and loss of muscle tone precipitated by a variety of
emotional states.
5. Stereotypy repetitive fixed pattern of physical action or speech.
6. Mannerism deep-seated/ingrained and habitual involuntary movement.
7. Automatism automatic performance of an act or acts generally representative of unconscious
symbolic activity.
8. Command Automatism automatic following of suggestions. (automatic obedience)
9. Mutism voicelessness that is not caused by structural abnormalities or physical conditions.
10. Overactivity abnormality in motor behavior that can manifest itself as psychomotor agitation,
hyperactivity, tic, sleepwalking, or compulsions

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a. Psychomotor Agitation excessive motor and cognitive overactivity, usually nonproductive

and in response to inner tension.
b. Hyperactivity (Hyperkinesis) restless, aggressive, and destructive activity, often associated
with some underlying organic pathology.
c. Tic involuntary, spasmodic motor movement.
d. Sleepwalking (Somnambulism) motor activity during sleep.
e. Akathisia subjective feeling of muscular tension secondary to antipsychotic or other
medication, which can cause restlessness, pacing, repeated sitting and standing; can be
mistaken for psychotic agitation.
f. Compulsion uncontrollable impulse to perform an act repetitively
i. Dipsomania compulsion to drink alcohol.
ii. Kleptomania compulsion to steal.
iii. Nymphomania excessive and compulsive need for coitus in a woman.
iv. Satyriasis excessive and compulsive need for coitus in a man.
v. Trichotillomania compulsion to pull out ones hair.
vi. Ritual automatic activity compulsive in nature, anxiety-reducing in origin.
11. Hypoactivity (Hypokinesis) decreased motor and cognitive activity, as in psychomotor
retardation; visible slowing of thought, speech and movements.
12. Mimicry simple, imitative motor activity of childhood.
13. Aggression forceful goal-directed action that may be verbal or physical; the motor counterpart
of the affect of rage, anger, or hostility.
14. Acting out direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse in action; unconscious fantasy
is lived out impulsively in behavior.

DISTURBANCES IN THINKING/THOUGHT
Thinking the goal-directed flow of ideas. Symbols and associations initiated by problem or task and
leading toward a reality-oriented conclusion.

General disturbances in form or process of thinking

1. Mental disorder clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome that is associated
with distress or disability, and not just an expected response to a particular event.
2. Psychosis inability to distinguish reality from fantasy. Impairment in reality testing, with creation
of a new reality.
3. Reality testing the objective evaluation and judgment of the world outside the self.
4. Formal though disorder disturbance in the form of thought instead of the content of thought.
Thinking is characterized by loosened associations, neologisms, and illogical constructs. Thought
process is disordered and the person defined psychotic.
5. Illogical thinking thinking containing erroneous conclusions or internal contradictions. It is
considered psychopathological only when it is marked and when not caused by cultural values or
intellectual deficit.
6. Dereism mental activity not concordant with logic experience.
7. Autistic Thinking thinking that gratifies unfulfilled desires but has no regard for reality; a
preoccupation phase in children in which thoughts, words, or actions assume power.
8. Magical thinking a form of dereistic thought; thinking similar to that of the preoperational phase
in children (Jean Piaget), in which thoughts, words, or actions assume power (e.g., to cause or to
prevent events).
9. Primary process thinking general term for thinking that is dereistic; illogical and magical;
normally found in dreams, abnormally in psychotics.

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Specific disturbances in form of thought

1. Neologism new word or phrase whose derivation cannot be understood; often seen in
schizophrenia; it has also been used to mean a word that has been incorrectly constructed but
whose origins are nonetheless understandable (e.g., headshoe to mean hat), but such
constructions are more properly referred to as word approximations.
2. Word Salad incoherent, essentially incomprehensible, mixture of words and phrases commonly
seen in far-advanced cases of schizophrenia (See also incoherence.).
3. Circumstantiality disturbance in the associative thought and speech processes in which a
patient digresses into unnecessary details and inappropriate thoughts before communicating the
central idea; observed in schizophrenia, obsessional disturbances, and certain cases of dementia.
4. Tangentiality oblique, digressive, or even irrelevant manner of speech in which the central idea
is not communicated.
5. Incoherence thought that, generally is not understandable; patient never gets from desired
point to desired goal.
6. Perseveration pathological repetition of the same response to different stimuli, as in a
repetition of the same verbal response to different questions; persistent repetition of specific
words or concepts in the process of speaking. Seen in cognitive disorders, schizophrenia, and
other mental illness.
7. Verbigeration meaningless and stereotyped repetition of words or phrases, as seen in
schizophrenia; also called cataphasia.
8. Echolalia a persons psychopathological repeating of words or phrases of by another; tends to
be repetitive and persistent. Seen in certain kinds of schizophrenia, particularly the catatonic
types.
9. Condensation mental process in which one symbol stands for a number of components.
10. Irrelevant answer answer that is not in harmony with question asked.
11. Loosening of associations characteristic schizophrenic thinking or speech disturbance involving
a disorder in the logical progression of thoughts; manifested as a failure to communicate verbally
adequately; unrelated and unconnected ideas shift from one subject to another.
12. Derailment gradual or sudden deviation in train of thought without blocking; sometimes used
synonymously with loosening of association.
13. Flight of ideas rapid succession of fragmentary thoughts or speech in which content changes
abruptly and speech may be incoherent.
14. Clang association association or speech directed by the sound of a word rather than by its
meaning; words have no logical connection; punning and rhyming may dominate the verbal
behavior. Seen most frequently in schizophrenia or mania.
15. Blocking abrupt interaction in train of thinking before a thought or idea is finished after brief
pause, person indicates no recall of what was being said or was going to be said.
16. Glossolalia unintelligible jargon that has meaning to the speaker but not to the listener; occurs
in schizophrenia.

Specific disturbances in content of thought

1. Poverty of content thought that gives little information because of vagueness, empty
repetitions, or obscure phrases.
2. Overvalued idea false or unreasonable belief or idea that is sustained beyond the bounds of
reason; it is held with less intensity or duration than a delusion, but is usually associated with
mental illness.

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3. Delusion false belief, based on incorrect inference about external reality, not consistent with
patients intelligence and cultural background that cannot be corrected by reasoning
a. Bizarre delusion false belief that is patently absurd or fantastic (e.g., invaders from space
have implanted electrodes in a person's brain), common in schizophrenia.
b. Systematized delusion group of elaborate delusions related to a single event or theme.
c. Mood-congruent delusion delusion with content that is mood appropriate (e.g., depressed
patients who believe that they are responsible for the destruction of the world).
d. Mood-incongruent delusion delusion with content that has no association to mood or is
mood-neutral.
e. Nihilistic delusion depressive delusion that the world and everything related to it have
ceased to exist.
f. Delusion of poverty false belief that one is bereft or will be deprived of all material
possessions
g. Somatic Delusion delusion pertaining to the functioning of one's body.
h. Paranoid delusions includes persecutory delusions and delusions of reference, control, and
grandeur
a) Delusion of persecution false belief of being harassed or persecuted; often found in
litigious patients who have a pathological tendency to take legal action because of
imagined mistreatment. (most common delusion)
b) Delusion of grandeur exaggerated conception of one's importance, power, or identity.
c) Delusion of reference false belief that the behavior of others refers to oneself or that
events, objects, or other people have a particular and unusual significance, usually of a
negative nature; derived from idea of reference, in which persons falsely feel that others
are talking about them (e.g., belief that people on television or radio are talking to or
about the person). See also thought broadcasting.
i. Delusion of self-accusation false feeling of remorse and guilt. Seen in depression with
psychotic features.
j. Delusion of control false belief that a person's will, thoughts, or feelings are being controlled
by external forces.
a) Thought withdrawal delusion that ones thoughts are being removed from ones mind
by other people or forces.
b) Thought insertion delusion that thoughts are being implanted in one's mind by other
people or forces.
c) Thought broadcasting feeling that one's thoughts are being broadcast or projected into
the environment.
k. Delusion of infidelity false belief that one's lover is unfaithful. Sometimes called
pathological jealousy.
l. Erotomania delusional belief, more common in women than in men, that someone is deeply
in love with them (also known as de Clrembault syndrome).
m. Pseudologia fantastica a type of lying, in which the person appears to believe in the reality
of his or her fantasies and acts on them.
4. Preoccupation of thought centering of thought content on a particular idea, associated with a
strong affective tone, such as a paranoid trend or a suicidal or homicidal preoccupation.
5. Egomania morbid self-preoccupation or self-centeredness.
6. Monomania mental state characterized by preoccupation with one subject.
7. Hypochondria exaggerated concern about health that is based not on real medical pathology,
but on unrealistic interpretations of physical signs or sensations as abnormal.

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8. Obsession persistent and recurrent idea, thought, or impulse that cannot be eliminated from
consciousness by logic or reasoning; obsessions are involuntary and ego-dystonic. See also
compulsion.
9. Compulsion pathological need to act on an impulse that, if resisted, produces anxiety; repetitive
behavior in response to an obsession or performed according to certain rules, with no true end in
itself other than to prevent something from occurring in the future.
10. Coprolalia involuntary use of vulgar or obscene language. Observed in some cases of
schizophrenia and in Tourette's syndrome.
11. Phobia persistent, pathological, unrealistic, intense fear of an object or situation; the phobic
person may realize that the fear is irrational but, nonetheless, cannot dispel it.
a. Simple phobia circumscribed dread of a discrete object or situation.
b. Social phobia fear of public humiliation, as in fear of public speaking, performing, or eating
in public.
c. Acrophobia fear of high places.
d. Algophobia fear of pain.
e. Claustrophobia Abnormal fear of closed or confining spaces.
f. Xenophobia Abnormal fear of strangers.
g. Zoophobia Abnormal fear of animals.
12. Noesis a revelation in which immense illumination occurs in association with a sense that one
has been chosen to lead and command.
13. Unio mystica feeling of mystic unity with an infinite power.

DISTURBANCES IN SPEECH
Speech ideas, thoughts, feelings as expressed through language; communication through the use of
words and language.
1. Pressure of Speech rapid speech that is increased in amount difficult to interpret.
2. Volubility (logorrhea) copious, coherent, logical speech; excessive talking observed in manic
episodes of bipolar disorder. (also known as tachylogia, verbomania)
3. Poverty of Speech restriction in the amount of speech used; replies may be mono-syllabic.
4. Nonspontaneous speech verbal responses given only when asked or spoken to directly; no self-
initiation of speech.
5. Poverty of content of speech speech that is adequate in amount but conveys little information
because of vagueness, emptiness or stereotyped phrases.
6. Dysprosod loss of normal speech melody. (called prosody)
7. Dysarthria difficulty in articulation, not in word finding or in grammar.
8. Excessively loud or soft speech loss of modulation of normal speech volume; may reflect a
variety of pathological conditions ranging from psychosis to depression to deafness.
9. Stuttering frequent repetition or prolongation of a sound or syllable, leading to markedly
impaired speech fluency.
10. Cluttering erratic and dysrhythmic speech, consisting of rapid and jerky spurts.

APHASIC DISTURBANCES (disturbances in language output)

1. Motor Aphasia disturbance of speech caused by an organic mental disorder in which
understanding remains but ability to speak is grossly impaired; speech is halting laborious, and
inaccurate. (also known as Brocas, non-fluent, or expressive aphasia)
2. Sensory Aphasia organic loss of ability to comprehend the meaning of words; speech is fluid
and spontaneous, but incoherent and nonsensical. (also known as Wernickes, fluent, or receptive
aphasia)

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3. Nominal Aphasia difficulty in finding correct name for an object. (also termed anomia)
4. Syntactical Aphasia inability to arrange words in proper sequence.
5. Jargon Aphasia words produced are totally neologistic; nonsense words repeated with various
intonations and inflections.
6. Global Aphasia combination of a grossly non-fluent aphasia and a severe fluent aphasia.

DISTURBANCES OF PERCEPTION
Perception process of transferring physical stimulation into psychological information; the mental
process by which sensory stimuli are brought into awareness.
1. Hallucination false sensory perception not associated with real external stimuli; there may or
may not be a delusional interpretation of the hallucinatory experience; hallucinations indicate a
psychotic disturbance only when associated with impairment in reality testing
a. Hypnagogic Hallucination false sensory perception occurring while falling asleep; generally
considered a non-pathological phenomenon.
b. Hypnopompic Hallucination false perception occurring while awakening from sleep;
generally considered non-pathological.
c. Auditory Hallucination false perception of sound, usually voices but also other noises such
as music; most common hallucination in psychiatric disorders.
d. Visual Hallucination false perception involving sight consisting of both formed images(e.g.
people) and unformed images (e.g. flashes of light); most common in organically determined
disorders.
e. Olfactory Hallucination false perception in smell; most common in organic disorders.
f. Gustatory Hallucination false perception of taste, such as unpleasant taste caused by an
uncinate seizure; most common in organic disorders.
g. Tactile (Haptic) Hallucination false perception of touch or surface sensation, as from an
amputated limb (phantom limb), crawling sensation on or under the skin (formication).
h. Somatic Hallucination false sensation of things occurring in or to the body, most often
visceral in origin (also known as cenesthetsic hallucination).
i. Lilliputian Hallucination false perception in which objects are seen as reduced in size (also
termed micropsia).
j. Mood-congruent Hallucination a kind of hallucination wherein the content of which is
consistent with either a depressed or manic mood (e.g. a depressed patient hears voices
saying that the patient is a bad person; a manic patient hears voices saying that the patient is
inflated of worth, power, knowledge, etc.)
k. Mood-incongruent Hallucination Hallucination whose content is not consistent with either
depressed or manic mood (e.g. in depression, hallucinations not involving such themes as
guilt, deserved punishment, or inadequacy; in mania, hallucinations not involving such
themes as inflated worth or power)
l. Hallucinosis Hallucinations, most often auditory, that are associated with chronic alcohol
abuse and that occur within a clear sensorium.
m. Trailing Phenomenon perceptual abnormality associated with hallucinogenic drugs in which
moving object are seen as a series of discrete and discontinuous stages.
2. Illusion misperception or misinterpretation of real external sensory stimuli.

DISTURBANCES ASSOCIATED WITH ORGANIC MENTAL DISORDER

Agnosia an inability to recognize and interpret the significance of sensory impressions.
1. Anosognosia inability to recognize illness as occurring to oneself.

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2. Autotopagnosia inability to recognize a body part as ones own.

3. Visual Agnosia inability to recognize objects or persons.
4. Astereognosia inability to recognize objects by touch.
5. Prosopagnosia inability to recognize faces.
6. Apraxia inability to carry out specific tasks.

DISTURBANCES ASSOCIATED WITH CONVERSION AND DISSOCIATIVE PHENOMENA

Somatization of repressed material or the development of physical symptoms and distortions
involving the voluntary muscle or special sense organs; not under voluntary control and not explained
by any physical disorder.
1. Hysterical Anesthesia loss of sensory modalities resulting from emotional conflicts.
2. Macropsia state in which objects seem larger than they are.
3. Micropsia state in which objects seem smaller than they are (both macropsia and micropsia can
also be associated with clear organic conditions such as complex partial seizures).
4. Depersonalization a subjective sense of being unreal, strange, or unfamiliar to oneself.
5. Derealization a subjective sense that the environment is strange or unreal; a feeling of changed
reality.
6. Fugue taking on a new identity with amnesia for the old identity; often involves travel or
wandering to new environments.
7. Multiple personality one person who appears at different times to be in possession of an
entirely different personality and character.

DISTURBANCES OF MEMORY
Memory function by which information stored in the brain is later recalled to consciousness
1. Amnesia partial or total inability to recall past experiences; may be organic or emotional in
origin.
2. Paramnesia falsification of memory by distortion of recall.
a. Fausse reconnaissance false recognition.
b. Retrospective falsification memory becomes unintentionally (unconsciously) distorted by
being filtered through patients present emotional, cognitive, and experiential state.
c. Confabulation unconscious filling of gaps in memory by imagined or untrue experiences
that patient believes but that have no basis in fact; most often associated with organic
pathology.
d. Dj vu illusion of visual recognition in which a new situation is correctly regarded as a
repetition of a previous memory.
e. Dj entendu illusion of auditory recognition.
f. Dj pense illusion that a new thought is recognized as a thought previously felt or
expressed.
g. Jamias vu false feeling of unfamiliarity with a real situation one has experienced.
h. False memory a persons recollection and belief by the patient of an event that did not
actually occur.
3. Hypermnesia exaggerated degree of retention and recall.
4. Eidetic image visual memory of almost hallucinatory vividness.
5. Screen memory a consciously tolerable memory covering for a painful memory.
6. Repression a defense mechanism characterized by unconscious forgetting of unacceptable
ideas or impulses.
7. Lethologica temporary inability to remember a name or a proper noun.

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8. Blackout amnesia experienced by alcoholics about behavior during drinking bouts; usually
indicates that reversible brain damage has occurred.

Levels of Memory
a. Immediate reproduction or recall of perceived material within seconds to minutes.
b. Recent recall of events over past few days.
c. Recent past recall of events over past few months.
d. Remote recall of events in distant past.

DISTURBANCES OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence the ability to understand, recall, mobilized, and constructively integrates previous
learning in meeting new situations.
1. Mental Retardation: Lack of intelligence to a degree in which there is interference with social
and vocational performance:
a. Mild (I.Q. of 50 or 55 to approximately 70)
b. Moderate (I.Q. of 35 or 40 to 50 or 55)
c. Severe (I.Q. of 20 or 25 to 35 or 40)
d. Profound (I.Q. below 20 or 25)
Obsolete terms are idiot (mental age less than 3 years), imbecile (mental age of 3 to 7
years), and moron (mental age of about 8)
2. Dementia organic and global deterioration of intellectual functioning without clouding of
consciousness
a. Dyscalculia loss of ability to do calculations not caused by anxiety or impairment in
concentration.
b. Dysgraphia loss of ability to write in cursive style; loss of word structure.
3. Pseudodementia clinical features resembling a dementia not caused by an organic mental
dysfunction; most often caused by depression.
4. Concrete thinking literal thinking; limited use of metaphor without understanding of nuances
of meaning; one dimensional thought.
5. Abstract thinking ability to appreciate nuances of meaning; multidimensional thinking with
ability to use metaphors and hypotheses appropriately.

REFERENCE:
Sadock, B.J., & Sadock, V.A. (2007). Kaplan & Sadocks Synopsis of Psychiatry (10 th ed.) Philadelphia, USA:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

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