BONDING

Metallic Bonding

This occurs in metals and is when electrons are given out from the metal atoms to make a "sea" of free

electrons in between all of the metal atoms. These free electrons hold the metal as a mass together.

This is known as being a giant structure.

The free electrons present make it possible for electricity to be transferred easily because the charge is

carried by them. Because the metal atoms have lost electrons, they have a positive charge.

Ionic Bonding

This occurs typically between a metal and a non-metal (from groups 1 + 2 and 6 + 7 on the periodic

table). The metal atom loses electrons which are taken by the non-metal. Therefore, the metal ion

produced has a positive charge and the non-metal ion is negatively charged.

Sodium (metal - group 1) + Chlorine (non-metal - group 7) ----> Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

In the example below, the sodium atom has lost an electron to form a positive ion. The chlorine atom

has gained the electron lost from the sodium to form a negative ion. The NaCl molecules are arranged

in a giant structure to form the substance more commonly known as Salt.

Covalent Bonding

This is when electrons are shared between atoms. Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals due to

the fact that all of the atoms need to gain electrons, so they have to share.

Common substances that covalent bonding occurs in: Water (H2O), Hydrogen gas (H2), and Methane

(CH4)
 FRACTIONAL DISTILATION

Fractional distillation is the process of heating up a mixture containing different substances with different

boiling points, and drawing the different fractions off as they each boil and liquify at its own level. Crude

oil contains a lot of useful substances that can be used for different purposes.

Each fraction is not a pure compound but is a mixture of different alkanes with similar boiling points.

Fractional distillation is used because the substances in crude oil are miscible (which means that they

mix) therefore they do not separate out into layers. The following table shows the products of fractional

distillation:

Name of Fraction Boiling Point Uses of Fraction

Petroleum gases 25oc Bottled gas and chemicals
Gasoline 40oc - 75oc Petrol
Naphtha 75oc - 150oc Chemicals
Kerosene 150oc - 240oc Jet Fuel
Diesel Oil 220oc - 250oc Diesel Fuel
Lubricating Oil 250oc - 350oc Lubricants and chemicals
Fuel Oil 350oc Fuels for ships
Bitumen stays solid/liquid Roads and Roofing Felt
 Reactivity series
The following list shows how reactive different elements are in relation to each other. This is a shortened

list but contains most of the elements that you need to know about.

Potassium (Very reactive)

Sodium

Calcium

Magnesium

Aluminium

Carbon

Zinc

Iron

Tin

Lead

Hydrogen

Copper

Silver

Gold (Very unreactive)

 TYPES OF REACTIONS
Thermal Decomposition

A single substance is broken down by heating. A good example of this is the cracking of hydrocarbons.

Displacement

When one more reactive element pushes another less reactive element out of a compound. This mainly

occurs with metals.

e.g. Magnesium + Iron Sulphate ----> Magnesium Sulphate + Iron

Neutralisation

An acid and an alkali react to form a neutral product

Precipitation

A solid (the precipitate) is formed from the reaction of two solutions (i.e. no solids present at beginning

of reaction)

Exothermic Reactions

A reaction that GIVES OUT heat. (e.g. combustion of fuels)

Endothermic Reactions

A reaction that TAKES IN heat. This energy is used to form the bonds needed to gain the products.

Reduction

The GAIN of electrons. This is the opposite of oxidation.

e.g. Iron oxide ----> Iron

Oxidation

The LOSS of electrons. This is the opposite of reduction.

e.g. Iron + Oxygen ----> Iron Oxide

Reversible Reactions

When the reaction goes "both ways". The conditions surrounding the reaction determines which way the

reaction favours i.e. more products or more reactants formed. (e.g. The Haber Process in forming

ammonia)