CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
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Literature Review

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

This chapter contains a literature review covering the following

aspects:

a. Concrete historical review.

b. Fundamental concept of shear resistance.

c. Use of discontinuous fibers to reinforce the brittle matrix in

order to improve the mechanical properties in general and shear

strength in particular.

d. Behaviour of SFRC beams with and without web reinforcement

e. Nonlinear analysis of SFRC beams using finite element

method/ANSYS.

Finally conclusions of the review and objectives of the research are

presented.

2.2 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF CONCRETE:

Concrete is a compilation of various components, designed for a

suitable performance. The various components are binding agent

(most commonly used today is cement), fine aggregate, coarse

aggregate, admixtures and water. In 8,000 years BC the first uses of

lime mortar as a binding agent in buildings in the region of present

Turkey. About 2000 years ago the Romans used cementitious

materials called 'Opus Caementitium' to build structures like

aqueducts and the Pantheon. Similarly around 2000 years BC the

Egyptians have built the Pyramids using similar materials. The basic
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components of the early concrete were quicklime, water, sand and

coarse aggregates.

Many improvements have been made to concrete materials during

the centuries. Introducing reinforcement is one of the most important

improvements made by into the cementitious material. Thus it was

now possible to use concrete in structural members where tension or

bending forces are occurring. This innovation made the concrete to

cope up with compression forces. The introduction of iron wires and

steel bars into concrete in starting stages and development of pre-

stressed concrete in 1920's by Freyssinet made concrete more

popular. Boris Kolle [22] stated that these developments made

concrete as one of the most used materials in the world, with which

almost every new structure is built.

Surendra P. Shah et al [23] affirmed that cementitious materials

are typically characterised as brittle materials with low tensile

strength and low shear capacity. However it has been studied that

with the use of fiber reinforcement, the brittleness can be reduced

thus resulting with improved strength, ductility and durability. The

concept of using fibers in the matrix is not new. Initially during the

Egyptian and Babylonian civilisation, fibers had been used to

reinforce brittle material. Straw was being used to reinforce sun-baked

bricks and horsehair was also used to reinforce masonry mortar and

plaster. In present time, a wide range of engineering materials

(including ceramics, plastic, cement and gypsum products)

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Literature Review

incorporate fibers to enhance composites properties. Naaman, A. E,

[24] stated that experimental investigation involving the use of

discontinuous fibers to improve the properties of concrete has started

in 1910. Beginning from early 1920s Fiber Reinforced Concretes

(FRC) was being introduced using many different kinds of fibers. The

usage was being from the well known steel fibers to organic fibers,

with parallel developments in glass fibers and textiles. During the

early 1960, the first major investigation was being made to evaluate

the potential of steel fibers as a reinforcement of the concrete by

Romualdi, J. P., and Batson, G. B, [25]. Over the past 50 years,

significant research work has been done to understand the role of

fibers in enhancing mechanical properties of concrete and others

cementitious materials.

The most recent improvement in the material properties of fiber

reinforced concrete was being achieved with a combination of different

fiber types, a fiber cocktail called hybrid fiber reinforced concrete. In

FRC, fibers can be effective in restraining cracks at both micro and

macro levels. The use of two or more types of fibers in a suitable

combination may potentially not only improve the properties of

concrete over a wide range of deformation, but may also result in

performance synergy as stated by Banthia N. and Gupta R.[26]. Even

after recent developments, many research projects on concrete and

cementitious materials are being carried out throughout the world in

order to improve their mechanical properties. Because of the huge

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quantity of concrete being used today even small improvement in the

material properties will produce a significant technological impact and

financial benefits. In this regard, modern materials like fiber

reinforced concrete could contribute to a larger extent.

2.3 REVIEWS ON SFRC:

Job Thomas and Ananth Ramaswamy [27] (2007): The authors have

studied on the mechanical properties of Steel Fiber-Reinforced

Concrete. The research presented the results from an experimental

program and analytical results on the influence of addition of fibers on

mechanical properties of concrete. The mechanical properties studied

are cube and cylinder compressive strength, split tensile strength,

modulus of rupture and post cracking performance, modulus of

elasticity, Poissons ratio, and strain corresponding to peak

compressive stress. The grades of concrete they have adopted are

38MPa, 65Mpa and 85 MPa and the volume fraction of the fiber Vf

=0.0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5%. The test results have been compared with

analytical results and found to be convincing with data reported in the

literature. The study revealed that the fiber matrix interaction play a

vital role in improvement of mechanical properties caused by the

introduction of fibers.

Antoine E. Naaman [28] (2003): The author has extended his

research on engineered steel fibers with optimal properties for

reinforcement of cement composites. The authors emphasized

technical background behind the development and design of a new

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Literature Review

generation of steel fibers for use in cement, ceramic and polymeric

matrices. The fibers are engineered to achieve optimal properties in

terms of shape, size, and mechanical properties, as well as

compatibility with a given matrix. They are identified as Torex fibers.

These new fibers will enhance the use of high performance fiber

reinforced cement composites in structural applications such as in

blast and seismic resistant structures, as well as in stand-alone

applications such as in thin cement sheet products.

J. A. O. Barros and J. A. Figueiras (29) (1999): have studied on

flexural behavior of SFRC. The authors have performed tests on

specimens and structural elements with steel fiber reinforced concrete

(SFRC). Fiber content of the concrete ranged from 0 to 60 kg/m3. The

tests performed under displacement control condition to evaluate the

stress-strain relationship for fiber concrete in compression was

attempted. To evaluate the fracture energy a three-point bending tests

on notched beams were done to predict the post cracking behavior.

Based on the experimental results, a layered model for the analysis of

SFRC cross sections was developed. The model performance and the

benefits of fiber reinforcement on thin slabs reinforced with steel bars

were assessed by carrying out tests on slab strips.

T. S. Lok, and J. R. Xiao (30) (1999) have studied on flexural

strength assessment of steel fiber reinforced concrete. Based on the

previous studies the authors have predicted equations for the first

crack and the ultimate flexural strength. Their investigation involved

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the parameters viz., the direct tensile strength, residual strength, the

product of bond strength and fiber aspect ratio (L/d). The bond-

aspect ratio index d (L/d) and fiber volume fraction play important

roles in influencing the flexural behavior of SFRC. The analytical

flexural strengths evaluated from the equations are compared with

experimental data on SFRC beams and slabs. The analytical and

experimental results were in good agreement. The authors also have

predicted expressions with varying volume fraction of fibers to simplify

the ultimate strength prediction. Predictions using the simplified

ultimate strength expression are compared with analytical results and

with experimental data. The approaches serve as an effective tool for

flexural strength assessment of SFRC.

2.4 REVIEWS ON BAHAVIOUR OF SFRC IN SHEAR WITH AND

WITHOUT WEB REINFORCEMENT:

Julia Sauer et al [31] (2010) have investigated on Shear capacity of

steel fiber reinforced concrete beams without stirrups. The research

checked the effectiveness of steel fibers on the shear capacity of

beams without stirrups. A comparison between the ultimate shear

force and the calculated shear force showed that the German

guideline estimates the shear capacity on the safe side. However, there

is still potential for optimization. The main parameters for calculating

shear force were analyzed. These are the concrete compressive

strength, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, the effective depth and

the web width. The tests results show a slight increase over increasing
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longitudinal reinforcement ratio. Based on the comparison between

test results excluding and including steel fibers for prestressed beams

the authors concluded that steel fibers also have an influence on

shear capacity.

Mohamed Zakaria et al [32] (2009): has investigated on Shear

Cracking Behavior in Reinforced Concrete Beams with Shear

Reinforcement. The author has emphasized on shear cracking

behavior of reinforced concrete beams. The investigations included the

effects of the various influential parameters on the spacing between

shear cracks and the relationship between shear crack width and

stirrup strain at the intersection with shear cracks. The investigations

revealed that shear crack width proportionally increases with both the

strain of shear reinforcement and with the spacing between shear

cracks. The experimental results revealed that the diagonal crack

spacings and openings are influential on side concrete cover to

stirrup, stirrup spacing and/or stirrup configuration and longitudinal

reinforcement. The experimental results presented are helpful in the

development of a rational shear crack displacement prediction method

in existing design codes.

Guray Arslan [33] (2008) has investigated on Cracking shear strength

of RC slender beams without stirrups. The author has made an

attempt to predict a simplified equation of cracking shear strength of

RC beams and to compare test results reported in the literature with

the current ACI Code provisions. The author concluded that proposed
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shear strength equations can predict with satisfactory accuracy

cracking shear strength capacity of RC slender beams without

stirrups. However, because the test data for high-strength concrete

members are very limited, further research is required to verify the

proposed equations.

Remigijus Salna and Gediminas Marciukaitis [34] (2007) have

reported on The influence of shear span ratio on load capacity of fiber

reinforced concrete elements with various steel fiber volumes and the

results analyses the influence of steel fiber volume and shear span

ratio on the strength of fiber reinforced concrete elements in various

states of stress. The authors conducted experiments on thirty six

beams (with average cube strength as 45MPa) with three different

shear spans (a/h = 1, 1, 5, and 2) and three different fiber volumes (1,

1. 5, and 2 %) to examine how these factors influence the behavior of

such elements. Test results suggest that steel fiber volume and shear

span can increase load capacity, plasticity and cracking. Experimental

research showed that steel fiber volume has different influence at

different shear span ratios. Regression analysis of experimental data

was carried out and empirical approach showing different effect of

these factors was proposed. Furthermore, test results were compared

with different theoretical and empirical approaches of other authors.

The experimental research showed that fiber volume and shear span

ratio is very important. Based on regression analysis of experimental

data, empirical equation, evaluating these factors, was proposed.

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Literature Review

J. S. Kuang and Bartlomiej Jan Baczkowski [35] (2006): have

presented their research on Shear capacity of steel fiber reinforced

concrete coupling beams. The authors considered the use of

reinforced steel-fiber-concrete in coupling beams as innovative

solution to the problem of insufficient shear strength. The steel fibers

in concrete can substantially improve shear behavior of concrete

beams. This paper presents the results of tests on large-scale steel

fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) coupling beams with span-to-depth

ratios of 1, 1.5 and 2 under monotonic loading. The prominence of the

experiment is on the shear behavior and shear strength of the tested

beams. It has been shown from the tests that the shear capacity of

SFRC coupling beams is much higher than that of conventional

reinforced concrete ones. The tests show that adding even small

amounts of steel fibers into concrete can substantially improve Steel

fiber is shown to have very significant effect on the enhancement of

shear strength of traditional concrete. The SFRC coupling beams

exhibit much higher shear capacity than that of conventional

reinforced concrete ones. The best scenario in this investigation is that

the shear strength is 3 times the design strength predicted by the

codes of practice.

Yoon-Keun Kwak et al [36] (2002): have studied on shear strength of

steel fiber-reinforced concrete beams without stirrups. The authors

have conducted twelve tests on reinforced concrete beams with varying

steel fiber fractions, compressive strengths and a/d ratio as 0, 0.5, and 0.75%,
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31 and 65MPa and 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The experimental results

revealed that the nominal stress at shear cracking and the ultimate

shear strength increased with increasing fiber volume and concrete

compressive strength, but with the increase in a/d ratio both the strengths

decreased. Further they reported that the failure mode changed from shear to

flexure. To estimate the shear strength of beams without shear reinforcement

the authors have conducted tests on 139 beams and predicted an equation.

The analytical results almost matched the experimental results and

the coefficient of variation was reported to be 15%.

Collins and Kuchma [37] (1999) demonstrated that the size effect

disappears when beams without stirrups contain well-distributed

longitudinal reinforcement. The application of simple strut-and-tie

models, which have their theoretical basis in the lower-bound theorem

of plasticity, requires a minimum amount of distributed reinforcement

in all directions to ensure sufficient ductility in order for internal

stresses to be redistributed after cracking. However, it is possible to

extend this simple strut-and- tie model to members without web

reinforcement by using a clearly different approach.

2.5 BACKGROUND OF SHEAR STUDIES WITHOUT WEB

REINFORCEMENT:

Kani [38] in 1964 attempted a more pragmatic approach by

addressing the problem of the bending of the teeth of the concrete

between flexural cracks. The tooth in a comb was considered to be

analogous to concrete between two adjacent flexural cracks. Although

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this theory did not cover most of the shear transfer mechanisms, but

was beginning of more rational approaches.

Kani [39] raised the size effect subject in 1967, when he

demonstrated that as the depth of the beam increases the shear stress

at failure decreases. As the depth of the beam increases, the crack

widths at points above the main reinforcement shall tend to increase.

Some authors think that this leads to a reduction in the aggregate

interlock across the crack, which shall result in earlier inclined

cracking.

Fenwick and Paulay [40] (1968), working with tooth models,

pointed out the significance of the forces transferred across cracks in

normal beams by crack friction.

Taylor [41], also evaluating Kanis model, found that for normal

test beams the components of shear resistance were found to be,

compression zone shear (20-40%), crack friction (35-50%) and dowel

action (15-25%).

Hamadi and Regan [42], based on extensive experimental work on

interface shear, published an analysis of a tooth model. It was being

assumed that the cracks were vertical and that their spacing was

being equal to half the effective depth of a particular beam.

Reineck [43] further developed the tooth model, taking all the

shear transfer mechanisms into account, carrying out a full nonlinear

calculation including compatibility. Based on his mechanical model,

derived an explicit formula for the ultimate shear force, which

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matched with the results of the test as well as with those of many

empirical formulas.

Collins (44) demonstrated that the size effect disappears when

beams without stirrups shall contain well-distributed longitudinal

reinforcement. Other authors Bazant and Kim (45) have believed that

the most important consequence of wider cracks is the reduction in

residual tensile stresses.

The application of simple strut-and-tie models, whose theoretical

basis is in the lower-bound theorem of plasticity, requires a minimum

amount of distributed reinforcement in all directions. This ensures

sufficient ductility in order for internal stresses which shall be

redistributed after cracking. However, it shall be possible to extend this

simple strut-and- tie model to structural elements without web

reinforcement by using a clearly different approach.

Marti [46] extended the plasticity approach by using a Coulomb-

Mohr yield criterion for concrete which included tensile stresses.

In 1987, Schlaich [47] suggested a refined strut-and-tie approach

which included concrete tension ties. Reineck showed that such truss

models comply with the tooth model proposed by him.

The Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT, Vecchio and

Collins [12]) is a general model for the load-deformation behaviour of

two-dimensional cracked reinforced concrete subjected to shear. The

MCFT is formulated in terms of average stresses. For members

without transverse reinforcement, the capacity of the member at a

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Literature Review

crack is controlled by the local stresses. Thus the average stress

calculation shall be for estimating the inclination of the critical

diagonal crack.

2.5.1 Different models to predict shear capacity:

Most well known shear models which are used to calculate shear

resistance of beams without web reinforcement are:

ACI code Equation.

Canadian Equation.

CEP-FIP Model.

Zsutty Equation.

Bazant Equation.

Indian Code Equation

a) ACI code Equation:

According to ACI Building Code 318 [48], the shear strength of

concrete members without transverse reinforcement subjected to

shear is given two equations. The simplified equation is as follows:

(2.1)

The second equation is applicable for members a/d 1.4

.. (2.2)
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b) Canadian Equation:

According to Canadian Standard [49], the shear strength of concrete

members is given by following equation:

(N). (2.3)

The Canadian standard in Eq (2) has not considered the effect of

shear span to depth ratio and longitudinal tension reinforcement

effect on shear strength of concrete.

c) CEP FIP Model:

According to CEP FIP Model [50], the shear strength of concrete

members is given by following equation:

(N) (2.4)

The CEP FIP model as formulated in Eq (3) takes into formula,

the size effect and longitudinal steel effect, but still underestimates

shear strength of short beams.

d) Zsutty Equation:

Zsutty [51] has formulated the following equation for shear strength of

concrete members:

.. (2.5)

.. (2.6)

Most of researchers suggested that Zsutty equation is more

appropriate and simple to predict the shear strength of both shorter

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and long beams as it takes into account size effect and longitudinal

steel effect.

e) Bazant Equation:

Bazant [45] has formulated the following equation for shear strength

of concrete members:

d (N) (2.7)

The Eq (2.7) stated by Bazant to predict shear strength of

concrete members looks complicated, but takes into account all the

parameters involved in predicting the shear strength of concrete

members.

- Compressive strength of concrete at 28 days in MPa.

MuVu Factored moment and Factored shear force at Cross section.
bwd - Width and depth of Effective cross section in mm.
a/d Shear span to Depth ratio.
Longitudinal Reinforcement Ratio.

f) Indian Code IS 456 2000:

The design shear strength of concrete in beams without shear

reinforcement is based on the percentage of longitudinal

reinforcement which is calculated based on the formula:

. (2.8)

Where

. (2.9)
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. (2.10)

Using the above formula the shear strength of beams without shear

reinforcement is given in the table 2.1. The code has not taken into

account the effect of shear span/ depth (a/d) ratio.

Table 2.1: Design shear strength of Concrete c (MPa)

Concrete Grade

M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 and above

0.15 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30

0.25 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
0.50 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
0.75 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60
1.00 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68
1.25 0.64 0.67 0.7 0.71 0.73 0.74
1.5 0.68 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.75 0.71 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84
2.00 0.71 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
2.25 0.71 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92
2.50 0.71 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95
2.75 0.71 0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98
3.00 and 0.71 0.82 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01
above
Note The term As is the area of the longitudinal tension
reinforcement

2.6 BACKGROUND OF SHEAR STUDIES WITH WEB

REINFORCEMENT:

The mechanism of shear resistance in the RC beam can be better

understood by the truss analogy (TA), the simplest form of which is

shown in figure 2.1. The design model was being first enunciated by

Ritter in 1980. In this model, a reinforced concrete beam with inclined

cracks is replaced with a pin-jointed truss, whose compression chord

represents the concrete in compression zone at the top, and whose

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tension chord at the bottom represents the longitudinal tension

reinforcement. Further, the tension web members as shown in figure:

2.1 represent the shear reinforcement and the diagonal web members

represent the concrete in compression between the inclined cracks.

Rinforcement
Stirrups
in Tension
Concrete in
Compression

Longitudinal Reinforcement

Figure 2.1: Truss Analogy method for Shear Mechanism

The truss model is useful tool in visualizing the forces in stirrups

(which are under tension) and the concrete (which are under diagonal

compression), providing a pathway for simplified design concepts and

methods to estimate shear capacity of RC members. According to the

450 truss model, the shear capacity is reached when the stirrups yield

and will correspond to a shear stress of

(2.11)

Where
Av - Area of the transverse reinforcement,
S - Spacing of the transverse reinforcement,
fy - Yielding stress of steel
bw - the web width.
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Between 1921 and 1951 each new edition in shear theories

provided somewhat less conservative design procedures. The brittle

shear failure of beams in certain practical cases leads to doubt on the

traditional shear design procedures. From 1950s the

shear/compression theories started to be develop. The idea behind

them is that beam failure is caused by crushing of the concrete

compression zones. Thus the depth of which has been reduced by a

shear crack. The limiting compressive stresses shall also be reduced

by the effects of shear in the compression zone.

Leonhardt and Walther [52] have done extensive research on

beams failing in shear and developed a model that combined the beam

and the arch effects. It was being shown that these two resistant

mechanisms interact and the relative importance of each one shall

vary on the slenderness of the beam. Kupfer [53] by considering

linearly elastic members and ignoring the concrete tensile strength

provided a solution for the inclination of the diagonal cracks. Further

development of plasticity theories extended the applicability of the

model to non-yielding domains by Nielsen and Braestrup [54].

Schlaich [55] extended the truss model for beams with uniformly

inclined diagonals.

Modified truss models are used in more recent design codes. For

example, ACI Building Code 318-99 still adds a concrete contribution

term to the shear reinforcement capacity obtained, assuming a 450

truss. Another procedure involves the use of a truss with a variable

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angle of inclination for the diagonals. The inclination of the truss

diagonals is allowed to deviate from 450 within certain limits based on

the theory of plasticity. The CEB-FIP model code for concrete

structures (1978), and many codes of practice derived from it, adopted

a combination of the variable-angle truss and concrete contribution.

Mitchell and Collins [56] developed the diagonal Compression Field

Theory for members subjected to pure torsion. The Compression Field

Theory (CFT, Collins 1978) and the Modified Compression Field

Theory (MCFT, Vecchio and Collins 1986) developed the first of its

kind, dating from 1974, to shear. The MCFT is a further development

over the CFT that takes into consideration the influence of the tensile

stresses in the cracked concrete.

The analysis of MCFT were derived from the experimental testing

of thirty reinforced concrete panels subjected to pure shear or in

combination of shear and axial loads. From these test results,

equilibrium, compatibility, and stress-strain relationships were

formulated in terms of average stresses and average strains.

Equilibrium conditions shall ensure the balance between the

externally applied loads and the internal element forces within

the structural element.

Compatibility shall enforce the conformity between deformations

experienced by the concrete to an identical deformation to the

reinforcement.
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Constitutive relationships shall relate average stresses to

average strains for both cracked concrete and reinforcement.

The MCFT has considered cracked reinforced concrete elements as

an orthotropic material where the smeared cracks shall fully rotate

and freely re-orient. This theory also accounts for compression

softening, which shall refer to the reduced concrete compressive

stresses in the presence of large transverse tensile strains. The

tension stiffening is also incorporated which shall account for the

tensile concrete stresses which exist between cracks. Local failure

mechanisms are considered with yielding or fracture of reinforcement

at crack locations, and sliding shear failure along cracks.

The Disturbed Stress Field Model (DSFM) developed by Vecchio

[57] and Vecchio [58] as an extension of the MCFT. It explicitly

incorporates rigid slipping along crack surfaces into the compatibility

relations for the element. The theory allows for a divergence of the

angles of inclination of average principal stress and apparent average

principal strain in the concrete. The model represented cracks as

gradually rotating, but were lagging behind the reorientation of the

principal strains.

2.6.1 Code Provisions for shear with web reinforcement:

ACI Code 318-99

For members requiring design shear reinforcement, their design is

based on a 45 truss model plus a concrete contribution. Hence

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. (2.12)

(2.13)

The concrete contribution Vc is equal to the failure shear strength of

an identical beam without web reinforcement, given by equation 2.13.

Euro code 2: April 2002 Final Draft:

To design shear reinforcement, the code uses the truss model. For

members with vertical shear reinforcement, the shear resistance,

VRd,s, should be taken to be the lesser of either:

. (2.14)

(2.15)

The recommended limiting values for cot are given by the expression

Asw Area of shear reinforcement.

s Spacing of shear reinforcement.
fywd- is the yield strength of the shear reinforcement,
v - may be taken to be 0.6 for fck 60 MPa, and 0.9-fck/200 for high-
strength concrete beams and
c= 1, for non-prestressed structures.

Spanish Code EHE-99

The EHE code of practice assumes that a concrete contribution, Vc,

can be added to the steel contribution. Hence

(2.16)
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Where

(2.17)

(2.18)

All the parameters have the same meaning as for members without

web reinforcement. Cot is compressed between 0.5 and 2. For non-

prestressed members without axial force equals 1 if is taken to be

450. If Cot is assumed to be equal to 2 (thus, 26.60), then = 0).

Indian Code IS 456 2000:

The design shear strength of concrete beams with shear reinforcement

provided in the following forms is given as

For Vertical Stirrups:

. (2.19)

For bent-up bars along with stirrups

.. (2.20)

For single bar or single group of parallel bars, all bent-up at the same

cross-section

.. (2.21)
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Where

Vus strength of shear reinforcement.

Asv - Total Cross- section area of stirrups.
Sv Spacing of the stirrups.
Angle between the inclined stirrups and the axis of the member
not less than 450
fy Characteristic strength of stirrup not greater than 415 MPa.

2.7 REVIEW ON HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE (HSC):

Surendra P. Shah and Weiss, W. J., [59] (2000): have investigated on

High performance concrete and reported on strength, permeability,

and shrinkage cracking. The authors have presented test results from

five mixtures to demonstrate the properties viz., compressive strength,

chloride permeability, and restrained shrinkage cracking potential.

The results revealed that decreasing the w/c substantially improves

strength, stiffness, and chloride penetration resistance. The

investigations indicated that admixtures have improved the durability

without much increase in strength.

Samir A.Ashour et al [60] (2000): Authors investigated that the

immediate and long term deflections of high-strength concrete

beams. The authors have tested twelve beams with tension and

compression bars with concrete compressive strength of 85Mpa, and

were provided with steel fiber. The investigations revealed that the

addition of steel fibers improved the modulus of rupture and splitting

strength of high strength concrete. The improvement in compressive

strength was being negligible. The inclusion of fibers changed the

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Literature Review

failure mode from brittle to ductile. Addition of fibers reduces the

immediate and total long-term deflection of singly reinforced HSFRC

beams.

2.8 REVIEWS ON SHEAR STRENGTH OF HSC BEAMS WITHOUT

WEB REINFORCEMENT:

Most of the research in recent years has intended to evaluate the

shear strength of high-strength concrete beams without web

reinforcement.

Imran A. Bukhari and Saeed Ahmad [61] (2008) have studied on

evaluation of shear strength of high-strength Concrete beams without

stirrups. A comparative analysis on shear behavior of high-strength

concrete beams using various international design approaches like

ACI], Canadian, AASHTO, European Code and the method proposed

by Zararis is presented. To estimate the shear strength the authors

have tested twenty-seven reinforced concrete beams without web

reinforcement under three point loading. In addition, 95 other similar

beams having similar cross sectional dimensions, concrete strength,

and loading conditions are analyzed varying the shear span-to-depth

ratio ranged from 1 to 6 and longitudinal reinforcement ratio from

0.35% to 1.94%. Based on the analysis of total of 122 similar beams,

it is observed that shear strength and failure mode depends upon

shear span and longitudinal reinforcement ratio. For values of a/d

ratio less than 2.5, the experimental shear strength was being found

greater than that predicted values as given by different shear design

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approaches. But for slender beams having a/d ranging from 2.5 to 6,

the predicted shear capacity was being found greater.

Piotr PACZKOWSKI and Andrzej S. NOWAK [62] (2008): have

studied on shear resistance of high strength concrete beams without

web reinforcement. The authors have reviewed the available models

and selected the most efficient design code for concrete structures.

Using the test results the authors established the relation between

shear capacity and parameters such as cross section, longitudinal

reinforcement ratio and compressive strength of concrete. Five shear

analysis models considered are, ACI 318 Sectional Shear Design, Equation by

Frosch,, Equation by Zsutty, and Equation by the Euro code. The best fit for the

test data is provided by Zsuttys Equation. However, taking into consideration

accuracy, required input data and simplicity, Froschs equation could

be recommended for the design code. The most significant advantage

of this equation is its simplicity. To calculate the shear resistance, a

designer is required to provide only four basic parameters namely

concrete compressive strength, beam width, effective depth, and

longitudinal reinforcement ratio. Despite its simplicity Frosch

equation provides consistent results compared to other much more

complex equations.

Fujita et al. [63] (2002) demonstrated that the size effect on the

shear capacity is linked to the concrete compressive strength.

Experimental tests they carried out showed that shear fracture in

HSC is characterized by a conspicuous localization of cracking in

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comparison with ordinary strength concrete. The propagation of these

cracks was being rapid, resulting in a more brittle fracture. A study

using Fracture Mechanics was being conducted by Fujita et al. to

determine the relationship between size effect and concrete

compressive strength.

Collins and Kuchma [64] (1999) published the results of an

extensive experimental investigation aimed at evaluating the

significant parameters which influence the size effect in shear. It was

being found that the reduction in shear stress at failure was being

related more directly to the maximum spacing between the layers of

longitudinal reinforcement rather than the overall member depth.

Moreover, high-strength concrete beam specimens showed a more

significant size effect in shear than normal-strength concrete

members. Angelakos, Bentz and Collins determined that for members

without stirrups, the shear stress at failure can decrease substantially

as the members become larger and as the longitudinal reinforcement

ratio decreases.

Thorenfeldt and Drangsholt [65] [1990] tested 28 reinforced

concrete beams without shear reinforcement in shear by two-point

loading. For members made of concrete with fc > 80 MPa, the

diagonal cracking strength remained largely constant, with a minor

decrease, in spite of the increasing tensile strength of the concrete.

Surprisingly, the ultimate shear strength decreased as the concrete

compressive strength increased above 80 MPa, probably because of

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the increasing brittleness due to the increase in strength.

Ahmad et al. [66, 67 and 68] between 1986 and 1995 carried out

several experimental campaigns to evaluate the shear strength of

reinforced lightweight concrete beams made of normal and high-

strength concrete with and without shear reinforcement. The results

indicated that the predicted ultimate shear capacities, in accordance

with the ACI Code and the BS 8110 Code, provide an adequate margin

of safety when compared with the observed values for normal as well

as high-strength lightweight concrete beams using different types of

lightweight aggregates such as stalite, lytag, pellite and pumice.

Elzanaty, Nilson and Slate [69] (1986) carried out an experimental

study of the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams using

concrete with compressive strengths ranging from 21 to 83 MPa. A

total of 18 beams were tested. Their conclusions were very similar to

those of Ahmad et al.

Mphonde and Frantz [70] (1984) tested 3 series of reinforced

concrete beams with nominal concrete compressive strengths ranging

from 21 to 103 MPa. Within each series the shear span-depth ratio

was being held constant at either 3.6; 2.5; or 1.0. Test results

indicated that for slender beams the accuracy of the ACI beam shear

strength equations varies greatly with the concrete strength.

Furthermore, the effect of the concrete strength on the shear capacity

becomes more significant as the beams become shorter. Ahmad,

Khaloo and Poveda (1986) tested thirty-six reinforced concrete beams

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using 65 MPa concrete. None of the beams had shear reinforcement

and half of them had an a/d ratio greater than 2.5. They concluded

that the current ACI Code could be un-conservative for high-strength

concrete beams with a low percentage of longitudinal steel.

Kim and Park [71] (1984) carried out an experimental campaign

testing 20 beam specimens whose concrete compressive strengths

were around 54 MPa. They concluded that the MC-90 equation

predicts the shear strength relatively well and that the ACI equation is

unsafe for large beams. They also determined that the effect of size on

shear strength was being the same for normal-strength and high-

strength concrete.

2.9 REVIEWS ON SHEAR STRENGTH OF HSC BEAMS WITH WEB

REINFORCEMENT:

The number of experimental campaigns with higher amounts of web

reinforcement is not as high as the number of studies on beams

without web reinforcement.

S.V.T.J.PERERA, et al [72] (2009), the authors have investigated on

shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams using high-strength

concrete. To predict the shear failure mechanism the authors have

tested eleven reinforced concrete (RC) beams using high strength

concrete (HSC). The experimental variables include compressive

strength of concrete (40, 100, 160MPa) and shear span to depth ratio

(a/d=3, 3.5, 4). The experimental results revealed that, the shear

strength of RC beam using HSC did not increase. In addition, as

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compared to normal strength concrete (NSC) specimen, the transition

point of HSC specimen (on a/d ratio) from the arch action into beam

action shifted to a higher value.

Keivan Noghabai [73] (2001): The author has investigated on Steel

fibers as shear reinforcement in high strength concrete beams. The

authors have tested twenty beams of various dimensions reinforced

with different types of shear reinforcement. The results of this study

concluded that by adding steel fibers in relatively small concentrations

(1% by volume or less), it is possible to reach shear capacities of the

same order as in the case of conventional shear reinforcement, for

small beams with an effective depth of about 200 mm.

Sarsam and Al-Musawi [74](1992) tested fourteen HSC beams failing

in shear with vertical shear reinforcement under combined bending

moment and shear with a/d ratios ranging from 1.51 to 3.60. They

reported the results of a statistical analysis performed on 147 earlier

test results. The authors have concluded that a large coefficient of

variation was being obtained when HSC test beam results were

compared with the predictions made by various code provisions.

Elzanaty et al. [69] (1986) tested three beams with web

reinforcement. One of them was made of high-strength concrete.

According to their tests, the use of HSC tends to prevent shear-

compression failure and to ensure a diagonal tension failure instead,

thus increasing the effectiveness of shear reinforcement.

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2.10 REVIEWS ON STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ANALYSIS USING

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD/ANSYS:

Alper Buyukkaragoz [75] (2010) has used Finite element analysis of

the beam strengthened with prefabricated reinforced concrete plate.

The authors have compared results of the experiments with the

results obtained from the beam modeled with ANSYS finite element

program. The comparisons revealed that the computer model gave

similar results to the real behaviour. The models that are made with

ANSYS finite element program can be useful for saving money and

time in terms of the specimen.

Amer M. Ibrahim and Mohammed Sh. Mahmood [76] (2010) used

Finite Element Modeling for Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened

with FRP Laminates. In their research, an analysis model is presented

for reinforced concrete beams externally reinforced with fiber

reinforced polymer (FRP) laminates using finite elements method

adopted by ANSYS. The authors have compared the analytical results

of the ANSYS models and the experimental data. The comparisons are

made for load-deflection curves at mid-span; and failure load. The

results from finite element analysis were calculated at the same

location as the experimental test of the beams. The results were found

to be in good agreement with experimental results.

Tavio, T. and Tata, A., [77] (2009): have predicted the Nonlinear

Behavior and Stress-Strain Relationship of Rectangular Confined

Reinforced Concrete Columns with ANSYS .The authors have

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presented a nonlinear finite element modeling and analysis of

rectangular normal-strength reinforced concrete columns confined

with transverse steel under axial compressive loading. For modeling

the columns the discrete elements of ANSYS nonlinear finite element

software were used.

The concrete was being modeled with 8-noded SOLID65,

longitudinal and transverse steels were modeled using 3D-LINK8 bar

elements available in the ANSYS element library. The results indicate

that the stress-strain relationships obtained from the analytical model

using ANSYS are in good agreement with the experimental data. The

comparison shows that the ANSYS nonlinear finite element program is

capable of modeling and predicting the actual nonlinear behavior of

confined concrete column under axial loading. The actual stress-

strain relationship, the strength gain and ductility improvement have

also been confirmed to be satisfactorily.

Job Thomas and Ananth Ramaswamy [78] (2008) have extensively

studied on Finite element analysis of shear critical prestressed SFRC

beams. This study reports the details of the finite element analysis of

eleven shear critical partially prestressed concrete T-beams having

steel fibers over partial or full depth. Prestressed concrete T-beams

having a shear span to depth ratio of 2.65 and 1.59 and failing in the

shear have been analyzed using ANSYS. The authors have modeled

concrete using SOLID65-eight-node brick element, LINK8 3D spar

element was being used for modeling reinforcements such as

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deformed bars, prestressing wires and steel fibers. The slip between

the reinforcement (rebar, fibers) and the concrete has been modeled

using a COMBIN39-non-linear spring element connecting the nodes

of the LINK8 element representing the reinforcement and nodes of the

SOLID65 elements representing the concrete. The authors have

concluded that at various stages was being found to be in good

agreement with the test data. The results revealed that ANSYS model

correctly predicted the diagonal tension failure and shear compression

failure of prestressed concrete beams observed in the experiment. The

finite element analysis proposed in this study shall be useful for

designing/ analyzing SFRC reinforced and prestressed concrete

members.

Antonio F. Barbosan Gabriel O. Ribeiro [79] (1998) worked on

analyzing the reinforced concrete beam using ANSYS. Each mesh

has been analyzed four times, according to four different material

models. The authors concluded that, load-deflection curves show very

close results at the early stages of load history for all analyses

conducted when compared with experimental results. The satisfactory

prediction of the response of reinforced concrete structures may be

obtained using ANSYS.

Murugappan et al [80] (1992), the authors presented finite element

formulation for the analysis of fiber reinforced concrete beams under

predominant shear. The formulation treated the cracked reinforced

fiber concrete as an orthotropic nonlinear elastic material, based on

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smeared rotating crack model. The response of fiber reinforced

concrete with different shear span to effective depth and varying

volume fraction of the fiber were investigated using four noded

quadrilateral finite elements and the results were found in agreement

with the test results.

AL-Taan and Al-Saffar [81] (1992), described a method for the

nonlinear finite element analysis of concrete beams, reinforced with

both longitudinal steel bars and steel fibers. The authors presented

nonlinear response of fiber concrete in compression and the stiffening

effect of the steel fibers in the tension zone the pre and post peak

stages. The behavior of the member in the post peak stages under

increasing loads is predicted. The deflection, curvature, strains,

neutral axis positions, maximum crack width, and ultimate loads

obtained analytically shown good agreement with the test results.

2.11 PREDICTION OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SFRC BEAMS:

As discussed earlier the prediction of shear strength involves various

parameters and is complicated, most of the predictive methods used

regression analysis. The parameters considered to evaluate shear

strength are selected based on factors involved in the shear failure

mechanism. The main factors involved are the shear span-to-effective

depth ratio, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and other factors that

affect tensile strength of fiber reinforced concrete, which include fiber

aspect ratio, fiber geometry, fiber content, fiber tensile strength and

cement composite properties.

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Sharma [82] (1986) : Sharma proposed an simple empirical

expression which shall predict the ultimate shear strength based on

the splitting tensile strength, fct , and shear span-to-effective depth

ratio, a / d .

(2.22)

where k =2/3 . The product, kfct, could be understood as the direct

tensile strength because Sharma followed the work of Wright (1955).

He found out that the direct tensile stress is in the order of 2/3 of the

splitting tensile strength. The tensile reinforcement ratio and content of

fiber are not taken into count.

Narayanan and Darwish [83] (1987): These researchers have

considered the shear contribution of fiber reinforced concrete taking

into account the parameters such as, the splitting tensile strength - fct,

dowel action (as a function of longitudinal reinforcement ratio, ),

shear span-to-effective depth ratio - a/d , and fiber pullout forces

along the inclined crack through a term vb ,as follows:

. (2.23)

The coefficient e shall consider the arch/beam action effect which is

approximately taken as 1 for slender beams (a/d > 2.8) and for shorter

beams (a/d 2.8) it is 2.8 times (d/a). The researchers proposed the
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following formula based on regression analysis, for computing fct from

cube compressive strength, fcuf , and fiber factor, F:

.. (2.24)

Where

.. (2.25)

The bond factor , was being adopted from the work of Narayanan and

Kareem-Palanjian (1984), and is approximately 0.5, 0.75, and 1 for

round, crimped, and indented fibers respectively. A and B were being

determined based on a regression analysis of 91 tests and was taken

as A = 0.24 and B = 80MPa. The vb term is being based on the bond

stress of all fibers crossing a 45-degree diagonal. The fiber bond stress,

, termed as average fiber matrix interfacial bond stress, was being

assumed to exist along of the fiber length. The number of fibers over

a unit area, nw, was being adopted from the work of Romualdi et al.

(1964) as follows:

.. (2.26)

Between the center of reinforcement to the lower tip of the compression

region the number of fibers is counted on a diagonal crack. With all

those definitions, the authors have derived the formula for vb as

follows:
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(2.27)

To account for the effect of fiber geometry on bond, they added the

bond factor to Eq.

. (2.28)

The bond stress is being equal to 4.15 MPa, as proposed by Swamy et

al. (1974). The model did not consider the parameters such as

aggregate interlock and shear in the compression region till the

formula proposed is acceptable.

Mansur, Ong, and Paramasivam [84] (1986): These researchers used

the equation for shear strength at diagonal cracking for an RC beam

without stirrups proposed by ACI- ASCE Committee 426 in order to

account for the contribution of concrete. The contribution of steel

fibers was being derived based on the post-cracking tensile strength,

pc,. It was obtained from direct tensile tests of dog-bone specimens.

In the absence of test data, they have suggested using pc which was

being proposed by Swamy and Al-Taan (85). This stress was assumed

to be uniformly distributed over the critical diagonal crack. They also

made an assumption that the horizontal projection of this critical crack

was being equal to the beam effective depth. Therefore, the total shear

strength has the following form:

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.. (2.29)

In this equation, the critical M / V ratio is defined as:

. (2.30)

.. (2.31)

The equation fairly predicted the shear strength of the beams. It

overestimated the shear strength of beams with larger a/d values,

whereas at smaller a/d the strength of the beams was being

underestimated. The equation is found to be more attractive because

the formulation is based on simple logic. The direct tensile test also

gives the most fundamental tensile strength of FRC.

Al-Taan and Al-Feel [86] (1990). Al-Taan and Al-Feel proposed a

method based on a combination of shear-resisting mechanism. The

contribution of the compression region, aggregate interlock, and dowel

action has the following form, which is adopted from the work of Zsutty

and Placas and Regan in 1971:

. (2.32)

.. (2.33)

The authors have taken into account the contribution of fiber by

considering a post-cracking tensile stress along the diagonal crack, in

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a similar manner what Narayanan & Darwish and Mansur et al.

proposed in 1987 and 1986 respectively. However, they excluded the

depth of the compression region from the crack height. The depth of

the compression region is calculated by equating the external moment

to the nominal moment, as follows:

.. (2.34)

The number of fibers crossing a unit area follows the proposal of

Aveston et al. (1974):

. (2.35)

This leads to a post-cracking strength pc as follows:

. (2.36)

If the depth of the compression region is c , the vertical component of

the pullout force is:

(2.37)

The method gave acceptable results compared to experimental data.

Ashour, Hasanain, and Wafa [60] (1992). These researchers modified

one of the ACI Committee 318 equations on shear by applying factors

determined from a regression fc and (d/a)

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(2.38)

They also modified the equation proposed by Zsutty (1968) by

introducing the fiber factor F as follows:

.. (2.39)

.. (2.40)

In the latter formula, these researchers took into account the

supplementary shear strength of fiber along the shear crack, vb. The

coefficient (2.5-(a/d)) shall only apply to short beams. The two

modified approaches have been reported to give good estimations of

shear capacity of the tested beams, except for those with low

reinforcement ratios (0.37%). The usage of these formulae is restricted

to the beams that shall have similar parameters (a/d, , and fc) as

they were being validated against the accompanying experiments.

Khuntia, Stojadinovic and Goel [87] (1999): These researchers

proposed an expression that takes into account the fiber factor. The

contribution of the compression region, dowel action and aggregate

interlock are put into a single lower bound term, which is stipulated

by ACI Committee 318 , i.e.:

. (2.41)

The contribution of fibers is based on the post-cracking tensile

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strength, which is taken equivalent to 0.41F. By assuming bond

stress of:

. (2.42)

and a vertical projection of the diagonal crack equal to 0.9d, the shear

contribution of the fibers becomes:

.. (2.43)

By multiplying the arch action factor , equal to 2.5(d/a ), to the term

vc , the total shear strength becomes:

(2.44)

The expression was being validated against tested beams with a wide

range of variables and as shown to be conservative.

2.12 CONCLUSIONS:

Existing codes and specifications of different countries for reinforced

concrete design with regard to shear differ considerably in important

aspects, such as a/d ratio, percentage of longitudinal reinforcement

and tensile capacity of the concrete. This reflects the fact that very

little is known about the behavior and strength of reinforced concrete

subjected to shearing force. As a consequence, the current provisions

for shear in standard codes such as ACI code, BIS code, BS code are

still based on empirical or semi empirical considerations.

The literature review revealed that most of the researchers and

codes have not still arrived at a common formula which involves all
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the parameters, to evaluate the shear capacity of RC and SFRC

elements with, without web reinforcement. At this stage of the

research it is clear indications that, shear in structural elements is a

potential topic of research in general and SFRC in particular. Most of

the researchers have studied the behaviour of SFRC without web

reinforcement and a very little has been done on the SFRC elements

with web reinforcement.

The RC elements are subjected to loading are critical in shear

between the support and the load point known as shear span. The

beams under shear loading are critical in shear span region known as

shear critical regions as shown in the figure 2.2. This indicates special

concentration is necessary only in shear critical regions. But the

researchers have focused their study on use of steel fibers throughout

the element.

Therefore the above said problem can be addressed by considering

the following aspects:

It is necessary to improve inherent properties of the concrete

basically in the shear critical regions.

As SFRC is costly, keeping in view cost analysis, it can be

used in critical regions.

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b
a a

Span of the beam (L)

Figure 2.2: Typical Beam showing shear critical regions.

2.13 ECONCOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF RC-SFRC ELEMENTS:

The cost involved in producing standard grade RCC and RCC with

addition of steel fibers with dosages of 0.4%, 0.8% and 1.2% by volume

of concrete is given in table 2.2:

Table:2.2 Cost of standard grade RCC and RCC with Fibers (SFRC)
Cost of RCC Additional Cost for SFRC (Rs)
Sl.No
(Rs) 0.4% 0.8% 1.2%
1 6500 4710 9420 14130

Sl.No Cost of RCC Total Cost for SFRC (Rs)

(Rs) 0.4% 0.8% 1.2%
1 6500 11210 15920 20630

From the table 2.2 it is clear that the cost of SFRC is 1.6, 2.5, 3.1

times higher than conventional standard grade concretes for 0.4%,

0.8%, 1.2% dosage of fibers. Therefore it is evident that cost analysis

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shall be made for the usage of SFRC, and it is suggestible to use it

economically in stress concentration regions.

From the literature studied, it is understood that most of the

researchers [82, 83 and 84] have predicted the shear strength of SFRC

beams without shear reinforcement, which provide wide range of

equations considering different parameters. These equations are still

on research papers and are not incorporated by any design codes.

Another potential reason for the lack of shear design provisions is the

fact that the shear resistance mechanisms for RC beams are not fully

understood. When steel fibers are added to RC beams, these

mechanisms become even more complicated. The research is scanty

on shear behaviour of HSC beams with fiber termed as High Strength

steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HSSFRC). The literature studies on

use of SFRC in stress concentration regions considering economy of

structural elements is almost nil.

These aspects motivated to take up the research on shear studies

of HSSFRC specimens with and without shear reinforcement as well

their behaviour with fiber in critical regions (Shear predominant

regions). Based on the conclusions drawn on literature review the

following research objectives have been formulated.

2.14 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:

The objectives of the research are:

a) The behaviour and ultimate shear strength study of HSC

specimens with and without shear reinforcement.

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b) The behaviour and ultimate shear strength study of HSSFRC

specimens with and without shear reinforcement.

c) Investigate the effect of SFRC only in shear predominant regions

with and without shear reinforcement.

d) Compare the test results with the analytical model developed

using Finite Element Method (FEM) software - ANSYS.

e) Evaluate the shear strength of HSSFRC beams with and without

shear reinforcement using regression analysis.

2.15 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH:

To establish above said objectives the investigations are planned with

following limitations:

a) The support conditions for beams are simply supported.

b) Concentrated monotonic loading is adopted.

c) Straight steel fibers with constant aspect ratio were chosen.

d) Concrete grade, percentage of longitudinal and shear

reinforcement is kept constant.