Yaar University Foundation Course Programme

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY

OF SCIENCE
UFND10 C
Lecturer Hanife Kocakaya
Yaar University
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

MODULE 1:
THE BEGINING OF THE HISTORY
OF THE HUMANITY AND THE
EARTH
Lecturer Hanife Kocakaya
Yaar University

Key Terms
Big Bang Theory
Hubble Telescobe
Theory Of Evolution

Aims
After this module;
With comparing the theories which are related to the earths formation, it will
be seen that how the big bang theory is different,
With determining the key futures of theory of evolution, it will be examined
that what the three key futures that separate humans from other living things.
 Introduction
The history of human being on earth is shorter than the history of the universe and
the world. First the universe was formed and then the world. Just humans thought
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about the formation of the earth however many engendered species took place in
the history before the human being. Humans not only tried to explain how they
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formed but also tried to understand their surroundings.

Well, how could the formation is explained? Could it be explained with chance or
fortune or coincidence? Maybe it could be explained with a superior power? Did
everything begin with god or the own rules of nature? Some people tried to explain
life on earth with a creator god based on a supernatural power (spiritual forces).
Thus it would be so simple approach and it would make science needless. On the
other hand sense of wonder cannot be satisfied just knowing they were created by
someone. Human being has always been in an endeavor to understand the formation
since science developed. This section will explain these efforts, in other words the
journal of human for understanding themselves and the environment.

HOW WAS THE UNIVERSE FORMED?

Humans have the feeling of wonder about their environment since their consciousness
began. With development of science, they also tried to explain the earth and the
universe.
They have a tried to find answers for How was the world formed?, Are there any
other worlds?, Is there any other life on other planet.
For centuries, answers to these questions have been tried to be explained with many
theories. Worked on these questions for centuries but the big bang theory is the
most effective one. We can put in an order the theories which are tries to explain the
universe:
Big Bang Theory: It will be explained in detail below.
Steady State Theory: It is one of the most important theories that were generated
before Big Bang Theory. According to the theory which was supported by Newton
during 17th century and is still supported today by some of the scientists, the
universe always was without any motion. Today, Steady State Theory is known
as Plasma Theory and it held that the universe has neither a start nor an end. The
A.Friedman universe is eternal.
Multiverse Theory: According to this theory, millions of universes exist but ours
is the one which involves life.
Intelligent Design Theory: According to this theory, our universe is a simulation
which was generated by a higher technology creature or a group.
Island Universe Theory: This theory was proposed by Kant. According to the
theory, universe is not alone. In other words, there are several universes hundreds
of thousands of light years far from each other. In 1775, Kant proposed this theory
but even after this theory and until American astronomer Edwin Hubble discovery,
scientists still continued to claim that universe consists of three galaxies and has
the diameter of two hundred thousand light years. Edwin Powel Hubble changed
G.Lemaitre this wrong belief by showing that Andromeda nebula was much further away
than previously thought. Then, Kants Island Universe Theory was also proved by
the discovery of the several galaxies much far away from each other. Today, it is
known that the universe is much bigger than tens of billions of light years.

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As can be seen, today the most widely accepted theory is the Big Bang Theory
however many other alternative answers related to the formation of the universe
still exist. The earth was also formed due to big explosion. According to the Big
Bang Theory which was proposed by Russian cosmologist and mathematician A.

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Friedman and Belgian physicist and priest G. Lemaitre during the 1920s, the universe
was formed 13.7 billion years ago by expanding from an infinitesimal volume with

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extremely high density and temperature and cooling simultaneously.
By using telescope that he built, Edwin Hubble identified the motions of the planets
in 1929 and his observations supported the theory. During his observation, Hubble
discovered Red Shift on distant galaxies. According to the opinion which claims that
galaxies have speed of recession and they move faster when there is more distance
among one another, galaxies used to remain together.

THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Einsteins the general theory of relativity turned the space and time concepts which
take place passively into the active participants in the dynamics of the universe. The
universe is filled with stuff and stuff, with its mass, curves the space-time. Even today
in the science field this is still a problem Einstein discovered that the principle of
equivalence has no solution describing a stable universe. Instead of giving up on
an eternal universe that he and many others believe in, he simply introduced the
term cosmological constant thus he fixed the equations. The space-time bends this
constant the other way around. And consequently, the masses were moving away
from each other. The driving power of the universal constant by balancing the tractive
power, would find a stable solution for the universe. If Einstein hadnt been stuck with
the original equations, he might have said that the universe had to expand or shrink.
But later, Einstein admitted that his assertion of universal constant is the biggest
mistake of life. The general theory of relativity radically changed the discussion about
the origin of the universe and its fate. The stable universe would always exist or in the
past it might have been created in its current form. Also if galaxies were moving away
from one another, then they would be closer in the past. Fifteen billion years ago,
they would be gathered together and density would be in a perfect balance.
This case was called as primeval atom by a Catholic priest George Lemaitre and
he was the first to propose what became known as the Big Bang theory. It seems
that Einstein always ignored the big bang. He must have thought that there was a
shrinking phase and it might have leaped from an average density to our current
expansion. The general theory of relativity was busted by Big Bang theory. The reason
is that the general theory of relativity does not correspond to another revolutionary
concept of 21st century which is called quantum. Quantum Theory was formulated
by German theoretical physicist Max Planck in 1900 and he discovered that radiation,
inflicting from a glowing mass, can only be explained if it is discharged and emitted
in packets called quanta.
The most apparent thing about space is its being endless. This was proved by modern
devices like Hubbles telescope which enabled us to do research about the depth of
the space. As far as we can see, it extends infinitely in the universe. Until the first years
of the 21st century, the universe was considered as as stable in time.
He also witnessed that all the galaxies are moving away from one another. He also
saw that the more distant there is, the faster they move away from each other. With
his discovery, Hubble concluded that the universe is expanding. For the Big Bang
theory is still valid, we accept it as true, too. Here are its features:
It does not accept eternal and limitless universe model
Our universe had a start so it will have an end as well.

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 The universe has expanded and is still expanding.
The orbs are moving away from each other rapidly and the farther they go, the
faster their speed gets.
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According to this theory claiming that the universe had a start, it must have an end as
well. Nowadays most of the scientists have been trying to support this idea by doing
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research.
Beside all these theories, there is also a monotheistic religion approach towards the
formation of the universe. According to the monotheistic religions, the universe was
created by God. For there is no way to prove this hypothesis with scientific methods,
we cannot evaluate it as a scientific approach. This hypothesis is metaphysical and
the source of existence and value is the creator who is the absolute, the supreme
and the unchangeable. He is the creator or the reason of nature; he is timeless and
placeless, greater than nature; he is eternal. This is a dogmatic point of view so it is
not open to argument; we cannot discuss it in a scientific environment. But if we
see it from a philosophical point of view, this Big Bang theory is approved by the
theologists for it shows some similarities with their genesis creation theory.
This problem stuck in the fields of religion and philosophy so far, is now a problematic
of science as well. No matter how much the theory is approved by many people,
there are still some people who refuse it dramatically. For example; some scientists
are defending the stable universe hypothesis. As we mention before; the stable
universe theory claims that the universe has always existed in a stable way since
the beginning of the universe though theres no such thing as beginning. They were
criticizing dark energy and dark matter for they cannot be found hundred percent.
With recent experiments, this dark matter has been researched. Nowadays, the
scientists have been looking for this particle in CERN (The European Organization for
Nuclear Research) in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the FrancoSwiss border.
By spending big amount of money for experiments, they try to find the Higgs
boson or Higgs particle which has often been called the God particle. The theory,
A. Einstein developed in 1964 by Peter Higgs and his friends, claimed that all the particles come
up after big bang were massless and these massless particles were in Higgs Field
while wandering in the universe. In this field, thanks to the Higgs boson, they have a
mass. The deformations being fast or slow determined the variety of the substances.
Higgs field is not a particle but Higgs boson is a particle just like W or Z bosons. And
that boson is the magical thing that gives life to massless particles and turns them
into substances.

Pic. 1.1 Hubble Telescobe

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WHAT IS CERN EXPERIMENT AND WHAT
HAPPENS IN CERN?
The purpose of the experiment is to practice big bang in a lab, with a large hadron

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collider and small particles and to observe the formation of earth, what a substance

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actually is and how it was formed.
Following this, observations in a nano and micro-second will be recorded and
everything happened after the big bang will be discussed. These experiments will
prove us that it is possible to observe a nano second in which substance and anti-
substance do not destroy one another. For the sake of humanity, CERN experiment
looks for answers to where did we come from and where are we going? It is the
discovery of what people believe as creative power. Thats why the Higgs boson is
often called as god particle by some people.
The Big Bang theory was supported by many important physicists such as Einstein
and S. Hawking. But one should always keep in mind that scientific laws can change
at any time with new evidence and discoveries thus we cannot say that the Big Bang
is the ultimate explanation to the formation of the universe.

Pic. 1.2. Cern

Pic. 1.3. Higgs Boson

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 HOW ABOUT OUR WORLD?
According to the calculations our world is 4.5 billion years old. As a result of the big
bang, the universe expanded and started to cool down and it was formed from a
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cloud of dust and gas. There are some other theories about the formation of our
world like: A piece fell apart from sun and by spinning around its axis it cooled down
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and after millions of years, it took its final shape with the effects of gravity or It was
formed when a black hole exploded and besides there are also some myths about
formation. Current scientists think that the earth is the only planet that has life on it.
That is, there is no life form in our standards.
But what if none of them is correct? Then, who created the universe and mankind?
Is it God? Are we all here because Adam and Eve fell from heaven? A great number
of people are supporting this idea. But as we cannot support it with a scientific base
and it has no measurability, it is not in our subject. Whether or not we are here and
we should enjoy it!

HOW ABOUT HUMANS?

Since prehistoric times, scientists have done research and developed methods
to explain existence of humankind did research about the roots of humans and
contributed to the development of science. Evolution of man began in Paleolithic
Era or the Stone Age and Homo Sapiens, what is called as wise man, showed up.

C.Darwin

OPINIONS ABOUT THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

First opinions about evolution go back to the Ancient Greece where the roots of
science were thought to be born. Anaximander thought that human originated from
some other kind of animal that is there are no Gods to create humans. He claimed
that the first living creatures were aquatic and their bodies were covered with
spines. Anaximander asserted that the first people resemble fish a lot but when they
landed, their scales fell. His assertion shows similarities with the human evolution.
Anaximander also claimed that the substance is first and endless and put forward
some theories similar to Heraclitus. He thought that the universe or the earth was not
created by God and this eternal universe had its own laws and was burning in flames.

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Once it cooled down, then the universe was formed. He might mean that the universe
was in motion with this approach. Empedocles tried to explain evolution thousands
of years before Darwin. He thought that the evolution of creatures in accordance
with a law. Stronger species were able to survive by selection and that was the way

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he explained evolution but his claims sounded ridiculous. He said living things were
the combination of Water, Air, Fire and Earth. At the beginning they were stemless,

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had shoulders with no arms but the more the elements run into each other the more
they were combined and changed. Thus, the Tup Head Sarcophagus and other weird
types of creatures were derived, luckily these creatures became extinct in time and
only the ones that came together properly with their will. Here, we may think that the
Greek Mythology may have influenced him.
Todays people were originated from a species what we can simply call anthropoid.
Thanks to the technological developments, the recent studies have shown that
actually all the species genetically very similar to each other. People and chimpanzees
have many things in common so they are considered as the descent of humans.
The theory claims that humans descended from monkeys and the most famous
expression about it is We evolve from apes (monkeys).
Darwin is the one who theorized this idea. After years of research and observations,
he published his book the Origin of Species and since then the conflict between
evolutionists and creationists has going on.
Only fifty thousand years ago the evolution of modern people came up. There are
many differences between early and modern people, maybe not physically but
mentally. And the reason for the survival of humankind was their ability to think.
Otherwise there wouldnt be any human being now.
Because they were seen in Africa first, it is thought that the modern humans
originated in Africa. It had the best climate conditions at the time of the formation.
The first known fossil was the female chimpanzee fossil found around Ethiopia. This
fossil, called Lucy, was assumed that it was the ancestor of the humans.
In order to survive in nature, human beings they used their brains more than other
species. The journey of humans started with their ability to use their hands thus they
became superior to others.
But how did the Homo sapiens sapiens (wise man) become superior to others?
While modern people were in the process of evolution, the technology started to
develop as well. They learned how to use fire which is a revolution for the history of
humans. Thanks to fire, they solved their main problems. They started to cook their
foods, they protected themselves from wild animals and they got light. Also it was
the first time that they had a control over nature.
Early people first made simple tools for their daily needs, and then with their
developing technology, they started to make more complex tools. Discovery of fire
had a great role on humans to complete their evolution. Humans maintained their lives
with hunting and gathering and they were living in a nomadic society in Paleolithic
Era. With discovery of fire, they used fire for heating themselves; they protected from
wild animals and became free in nature. As the technology developed, the literature
and art started to develop as well. For example, in Ice Age, with tools made of wood,
stone and bone, people drew animal figures in cave walls so that they performed the
first primitive art samples. In Paleolithic Era, they observed the phases of the moon
to calculate time which proved that even the first humans were interested in science
and technology.
At the end of the Ice Age, there were some socio-economic and technological
developments. So Paleolithic Era was over and the Neolithic, or New Stone, period

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 started. They moved from a gatherer society to a agricultural society and instead of
hunting they started to tame animals. They showed progress in weaving, pottery and
ceramics.
There was not a progress in specialization but
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they worked together greatly. People could

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live in one place for a long time because

farming provided a reliable source of food.
Thus people had more permanent lives. In
late Neolithic Era, hunting animals decreased
while agriculture increased. Regarding with
the changes in life styles, peoples believes
also changed. The concerns about breeding made them believe in mother goddess.
Women became superior to men. People buried their dead away from their living
space.
Hereby language was born which enables effective communication. Then people
understood their environments and tried to find new works and hobbies

SUMMARY
Aim 1. With comparing the theories which are related to the earths
formation, it will be seen that how the big bang theory is different.
The most widely accepted theory is the Big Bang Theory about our universe.
According to this theory claiming that the universe had a start, it must have an end
as well. Thats the reason why this theory is different form others. The universe has
expanded and is still expanding.
Aim 2. With determining the key futures of theory of evolution, it will
be examined that what the three key futures that separate humans
from other living things.
We briefly mentioned the history of our universe and humans in it.
We observed how people gained control over nature and became superior to other
species. Humans have the power to produce food, to transfer culture, to make and use
tools; also they do not adapt themselves to nature; nature adapts itself to humans.
With this power, humans were able to survive and founded civilizations.

QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following theory is not about the formation of the universe?
a. Big Bang Theory
b. Steady State Theory
c. Multiverse Theory
d. Molecular Theory

2. According to the monotheistic religions, the universe was created by God so this
approach is not scientific. What is the reason for it?
a. There is no way to prove this hypothesis with scientific methods

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b. It is based on thoughts
c. It is dogmatic
d. It is based on oracles and beliefs

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3. How did American cosmologist Edwin Powel refute the thesis which says the
universe includes only three galaxies and is two thousand light year diameter?
a. By observing the stars with his telescope
b. By doing research about tides observing the phases of the moon
c. By discovering the bacteria findings in space
d. By analyzing speed of light and sound in galaxy.

4. Which of the following information given is not true about Big Bang?
a. An unknown dark substance, with the effect of another unknown driving force,
started to expand.
b. This theory was developed by a Russian cosmologist and mathematician
A.Friedman in 1920s and a Belgian physicist and theologian G.Lemaitre
c. According to A.Friedman and G.Lemaitre, the universe was formed expanding
from an infinitesimal volume with extremely high density and temperature and
cooling simultaneously.
d. According to Big Bang, by moving off constantly, the molecular structure cooled
down the pieces from sun and it provided us the suitable living conditions in
the world.

5. Which of the following is not about Big Bang?

a. Although there are millions of universe, ours is the only one where there is life
on it.
b. It rejects the idea of eternal and endless universe.
c. Our universe had a start so it will have an end as well.
d. The universe has expanded and is still expanding.

6. Which of the following information is not correct about the experiment in CERN?
a. To observe the formation of earth, what a substance actually is and how it was
formed.
b. To practice Big bang in a lab with a large hadron collider and small particles
c. Observations in nano and micro-second will be recorded and everything
happened after the big bang will be discussed.
d. Beside all these theories, there is also a monotheistic religion approach towards
the formation of the universe.

7. All of the followings distinguish people from other living creatures except
a. People can control and use fire
b. People can change nature for his own sake
c. People can invent tools for his needs.
d. People can hunt to survive.
8. Which of the following is not a theory about the evolution of human?

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 a. The living said living things were the combination of Water, Air, Fire and Earth.
b. The first living creatures were aquatic
c. The first humans evolved from cats.
d. The first humans evolved from apes.
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9. ................ is the one who theorized the evolution idea. After years of research and
observations, he published his book the Origin of Species and since then the conflict
between evolutionists and creationists has going on. Complete the text with the
correct name.
a. Edwin Powel Hubble
b. Max Planck
c. Charles Darwin
d. Isaac Newton

10. Which of the following is not correct about Einsteins theory of relativity?
a. The universe is filled with stuff and stuff, with its mass, curves the space-time.
b. The principle of equivalence has no solution describing a stable universe. .
c. The substances n the universe consist of DNA and they can be transferred by
copying the DNA.
d. The driving power of the universal constant by balancing the tractive power,
would find a stable solution for the universe.

ANSWER KEY
1. D
2. A
3. A
4. D
5. A
6. D
7. D
8. C
9. C
10.C

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