Pure Appl. Geophys.

2017 Springer International Publishing AG

DOI 10.1007/s00024-017-1584-0 Pure and Applied Geophysics

Meteotsunamis Occurring Along the Southwest Coast of South America During an Intense
Storm
MATIAS CARVAJAL,1,2 MANUEL CONTRERAS-LOPEZ,3 PATRICIO WINCKLER,4 and IGNACIO SEPULVEDA5

AbstractIn this paper, we report meteotsunamis occurring 1. Introduction

along the Chilean and Peruvian coasts. These atmospherically
induced tsunami-like oscillations were instrumentally recorded
during an intense storm that affected central Chile on August 8th,
2015. The storm was characterized by strong winds, a locally
unprecedented atmospheric low pressure and intense sea-level
oscillations which caused six casualties and severe damage to
infrastructure along *500 km of coastline. The meteotsunamis are
analyzed on both regional and local scales. On the regional scale,
the temporal behavior and spatial behavior were discussed from the
analysis of various tide gauges covering roughly 3000 km of the
southwest coast of South America, between Callao, in central Peru,
and Lebu, in southern Chile. Surprisingly, the phenomenon was
recorded in the majority of the tide gauges in this vast region. On
the area constrained by the storm region, a more detailed analysis is
performed. We confirm the atmospheric origin of these intense sea-
level oscillations by further analyzing meteorological records of air
pressure and wind. An attempt to explain local (shelf and harbor)
resonant mechanisms is achieved by means of wavelet analysis,
while Greenspan and Proudman resonance mechanisms are
superficially analyzed. Our results indicate that large meteot-
sunamis can occur along the west coast of South America and,
when combined with other meteooceanographic conditions, may
cause damage levels comparable to those resulting from Mw [8
earthquake generated tsunamis.
Key words: Tsunami, wavelet analysis, storm of August 8th
2015 in central Chile.
1 tiaratchi and Wijeratne 2015). Conversely, evidence
Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad
Catolica de Valparaso, Valparaso, Chile. E-mail:
matias.carvajal.ramirez@gmail.com
2
Millennium Nucleus for the Earthquake Cycle Along
Subduction Zones (CYCLO), Valparaso, Chile.
3
Facultad de Ingeniera y Centro de Estudios Avanzados,
Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaso, Chile. E-mail:
manuel.contreras@upla.cl
4
Escuela de Ingeniera Civil Oceanica, Universidad de
Valparaso, Valparaso, Chile. E-mail: patricio.winckler@uv.cl
5
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell
University, Ithaca, USA. E-mail: is328@cornell.edu
The destructive effects produced by recent
meteotsunamis in different coastal regions of the
world highlight their importance as coastal hazards
and the need for their characterization. Meteot-
sunamis are typically defined as tsunami-like waves
induced by atmospheric disturbances that can reach
the coast with hazardous heights as a consequence of
various resonant processes (Monserrat et al. 2006;
Vilibic et al. 2015; Pattiaratchi and Wijeratne 2015).
The resonant mechanisms occur when the atmo-
spheric disturbance persistently transfers energy
either into local free ocean waves propagating
towards the coast (Proudman 1929) or into trapped
edge waves propagating along the coast (Greenspan
1956). Meteotsunamis can further be intensified near
the coast through other local mechanisms such as
shelf and harbor resonance (Raichlen 1966; Mon-
serrat et al. 2006; Sepic et al. 2009; Vilibic and Sepic
2009).
Although meteotsunamis might occur anywhere
in the world, most reports have been limited to the
northern hemisphere. For instance, meteotsunamis
have been observed along the coasts of Spain,
Croatia, Japan, United States, Italy, China, the Baltic
Sea, and Sri Lanka, as depicted in Fig. 1a (Pat-
for meteotsunamis in the southern hemisphere is
scarce. The few confirmed cases have been reported
mainly in New Zealand (Goring 2009), Australia
(Pattiaratchi and Wijeratne 2014), South Africa (Okal
et al. 2014), Argentina (Dragani et al. 2014), and
Brazil (Candella 2009). Although recently, Vilibic
and Sepic (2017) reported tsunami-like sea-level
oscillations of up to 152 cm in Baha Mansa (40.68
M. Carvajal et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.
 Meteotsunami in Southeast Pacific
b Figure 1
a Worldwide distribution of meteotsunamis. Red dots indicate the
location of previously reported meteotsunamis (Pattiaratchi and
Wijeratne 2015; Vilibic and Sepic 2017). The light green area
indicates the coastal region of the meteotsunamis reported in this
study. b 2-h high pass filtered time series of sea-level records for
Chile and south Peru. The storm path, defined by the lowest
atmospheric pressure obtained from synoptic charts (DGAC 2016),
is depicted in red circles every 6 h. The white triangle shows the
location of Robinson Crusoe Island. The plot on the right shows the
latitudinal distribution of the maximum crest-to-trough heights at
coastal stations. From north to south, stations are located in Callao,
Matarani, Arica, Pisagua, Iquique, Patache, Tocopilla, Mejillones,
Antofagasta, Paposo, Tal Tal, Chanaral, Caldera, Huasco,
Coquimbo, Pichidangui, Quintero, San Antonio, Bucalemu, Con-
stitucion, Quiriquina, Talchauano, Coronel, Lebu, Queule, Corral,
Baha Mansa, and Ancud. The continuous and dashed red lines
indicate the locations shown and not shown in b, respectively.
c Along-shore distance of tide gauges, measured northward from
Pichidangui, versus arrival times for the sea-level disturbances. The
propagation speed of 21 m/s was inferred from the best-fit line.
d Magnitude of the lowest atmospheric pressure (LP) offshore
Chile, adapted from DGAC (2016). All times are in UTC
73.78W), located in southwestern South America, to
date, no meteotsunamis in this region of the world
ocean have been well characterized.
Here, we use high-resolution sea-level records to
characterize meteotsunamis occurring in the south-
east Pacific region during the intense storm that
affected central Chile (3035S) on August 8th, 2015
(Winckler et al. 2017). Sea-level oscillations are
characterized in terms of both amplitude and fre-
quency and then compared with current definitions of
meteotsunamis (Rabinovich 1997; Monserrat et al.
2006; Pattiaratchi and Wijeratne 2015; Vilibic and
Sepic 2017). We show that unusual, intense tsunami-
like waves with an atmospheric origin occurred along
central Chile, eventually reaching Callao (Peru),
roughly 2000 km north of the storm path.
2. The August 8th, 2015 Storm of Central Chile
On August 8th, 2015, an intense storm caused
massive destruction of coastal infrastructure along
*500 km of the coast of central Chile, from
Coquimbo to Bucalemu (Fig. 1b). The combination
of wind gusts of up to 110 km/h, a locally unprece-
dented atmospheric pressure of 991 hPa, recorded on
coastal stations and waves of significant wave heights
of up to 7.2 m off the coast of Valparaso resulted in
six casualties, massive beach erosion, and destruction
of port facilities (Winckler et al. 2017; EM-DAT
2017). Figure 2 depicts the impact of the storm and
the aftermath in various sites within Valparaso Bay.
Losses to fishing ports and promenades in the bays of
Valparaso and Quintero exceeded US$ 8 million
(Winckler et al. 2017, op. cit.).
The storm path, defined herein by the position of
the lowest atmospheric pressure, is depicted in
Fig. 1b. The storm became significant around 500 km
off the Chilean coasts, as a consequence of the sud-
den reduction of the atmospheric pressure of up to
981 hPa on August 7th at 18 h UTM (Fig. 1d). The
storm travelled steadily eastward for about 18 h and
then drifted southeastward, making landfall near
Talcahuano upon reaching normal atmospheric
pressures.
On a regional scale, sea-level oscillations exhib-
ited an interesting spatial and temporal behavior.
Figure 1b shows that intense sea-level oscillations
with periods lower than 2 h affected a coastal region
extending for about 3000 km. The duration of the
sea-level disturbance increased with the distance to
the storm path: in stations located in central Chile
(e.g., Pichidangui and Bucalemu), the initial distur-
bance decayed in less than a day, while in distant
stations (e.g., Arica and Callao), disturbances
remained significant for roughly 2 days after which
the signal returned to background levels.
Maximum crest-to-trough heights, estimated
through the zero-up-crossing method (Fig. 1b, right),
were larger between Pichidangui and Bucalemu,
showing a subtle attenuation toward the north and a
rapid decrease toward the south. The stations of
Arica, Pisagua, and Iquique, located at about
1500 km from the storm path, also recorded signifi-
cant oscillations. Stations located southward from
Bucalemu and those sited to the north of Callao
showed negligible disturbances.
Figure 1c depicts the propagation speed of the
sea-level disturbance, obtained from the slope of the
best-fit line between the along-shore distance from
Pichidangui and the arrival time at each station. The
inferred propagation speed of 21 m/s suggests that
the disturbances did not travel as free long waves
from the source (since the phase speed of a long wave
at a depth of 4 km is in the order of 200 m/s). Instead,
 M. Carvajal et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 2
Damage to coastal infrastructure in Valparaso Bay during the storm of August 8th, 2015 (adapted from Winckler et al. 2017). a Piers in
Caleta Portales, which suffered damage due to wave slamming. b Overtopping causing damage to a railway and a highway connecting the
cities of Valparaso and Vina del Mar. Yolanda beach c before and after the storm, experiencing massive erosion

the arrival times of the perturbations are consistent
with edge waves travelling in the southnorth direc-
tion, as shown in Sect. 5.
3. Meteotsunamis Identification
To identify meteotsunamis during the storm of
August 8th, 2015, we initially processed digital sea-
level records from 28 stations covering nearly
3000 km in Chile and Peru. The time series of 1-min
sampling interval were provided by the Hydrographic
and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy
(SHOA) and UNESCO-IOC (http://www.ioc-
sealevelmonitoring.org). In this report, meteot-
sunamis were classified as atmospherically induced
sea-level oscillations meeting the following criteria:
(1) periods of sea-level disturbances ranging between
2 min and 2 h and (2) sea-level surface elevations
exceeding four standard deviations in the residual
 Meteotsunami in Southeast Pacific

signal, obtained by removing the astronomical tide
and low-frequency oscillations beyond 2 h from the
sea-level record (e.g., Monserrat et al. 2006; Pellikka
et al. 2014; Pattiaratchi and Wijeratne 2015; Bechle
et al. 2015). Surface elevation is defined herein as the
vertical distance between the instantaneous sea-level
and the 2-h mean sea-level.
Although storm-induced sea-level oscillations
were observed in many tide stations along the Chi-
lean and south Peruvian coasts (Fig. 1b), in this
study, we focused on those located within the storm
path (Coquimbo, Pichidangui, Quintero, San Anto-
nio, and Bucalemu) and on two stations far away
from the storm path (Arica and Callao). Unfortu-
nately, sea-level records in Valparaso, where most of
the coastal damage was reported, failed to measure
during the storm.
Sea-level records were first subjected to careful
quality control, in which outliers were removed.
The time series for the selected stations are shown
in Fig. 3a. The meteotsunami signal was extracted
from each record through a series of filtering pro-
cesses (e.g. Dragani et al. 2014). We first removed
the tidal components from the original time series
by applying a harmonic analysis with the T-Tide
MATLAB toolbox (Pawlowicz et al. 2002). A 2-h
low-pass filter was then applied to the de-tided time
series to remove low-frequency oscillations that fall
outside the range defined for meteotsunamis. This
step yielded two signals associated to long-period
phenomena (Fig. 3b) and high-frequency residual
time series from which meteotsunamis can be
identified (Fig. 3c). It is important to remark that
the residual time series can contain infragravity
waves between 30 s and 5 min (Munk 1950) as
well as swell waves that are aliased into the long-
wave signal which may be overlapped with
meteotsunamis. The separation of these oscillations
would require wave records at high sampling
intervals which were unfortunately unavailable at
these or nearby stations. Note that the filtering
process based on a cut-off period of 2 h for the
low-pass filter is not universally used. For instance,
Pattiaratchi and Wijeratne (2014, 2015) used a 36-h
cut-off period, while Bechle et al. (2015) filtered
long-period oscillations beyond 6 h. We assume
herein that high energy oscillations beyond 2 h are
associated with other long-period phenomena (e.g.,
storm surge) and are thus removed from the
residual signal to isolate the meteotsunami.

Figure 3
Time series from tide stations located far away from the storm path (Callao and Arica) and in Central Chile (Coquimbo, Pichidangui,
Quintero, San Antonio, and Bucalemu). For each station, time series of 1-min sampling are shown for the period between August 7th and 11th,
2015, in UTC time. a Original time series, b 2-h low-pass filtered time series with the tidal component removed, and c residual time series
from which meteotsunamis are identified
M. Carvajal et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.
 Meteotsunami in Southeast Pacific
b Figure 4
Time and frequency characteristics of the residual time series for
the sea-level measurements at a Callao, b Coquimbo, c Bucalemu,
and d San Antonio between August 7th and 11th, 2015. The upper
panel of each station shows the sea-surface elevation (g) compared
with the 4r threshold criterion. The bottom left panels show the
wavelet power spectrum, in which red contours indicate a 95%
level of confidence. The bottom right panels show the global
wavelet spectrum (GWS) for the same time interval (blue) and for a
2-month period of background oscillations covering June and July
2015 (red). The numbers correspond to local peak periods. The
dashed line indicates a 95% level of confidence. All times are in
UTC
Because of the transient nature of meteotsunamis,
we analyzed the timefrequency characteristics of the
residual time series by means of wavelets. We used
the software package developed by Torrence and
Compo (1998), and used the Morlet mother wavelet.
To verify the atmospheric origin for the sea-level
disturbances, we examined nearby meteorological
stations that were active during the storm. We com-
pared time series of wind and atmospheric pressure
from meteorological stations at Montemar (5-min
sampling), Las Cruces (10-min sampling), and El
Yali (10-min sampling) with the sea-level records
from the nearby stations of Quintero, San Antonio,
and Bucalemu, respectively.
4. Meteotsunamis Along the Central Coast of Chile
Figure 3 shows the signal processing for each of
the selected sea-level records, covering from the
August 7th to 11th, 2015. The records of Pichidangui,
Quintero, and Bucalemu contain minor gaps, the
largest of which is of about 5.5 h. With the exception
of a short gap occurring in Pichidangui, these gaps
occur roughly 2 days after the storm peak, making
them irrelevant for the analyses.
The 2-h low-pass filtered time series of Fig. 3b
provide information of long-period phenomena
affecting the sea level. These long-period signals
indicate that the storm surge was relatively minor in
Central Chile, with the exception of Bucalemu.
Indeed, the sea-level increment within the low-fre-
quency band at this station was almost 1 m, while for
other stations, these oscillations were minor. On the
other hand, the residual time series in Fig. 3c reveal
unusual sea-level oscillations that took place during
the August 8th in all stations. Surprisingly, high-
frequency oscillations observed at Callao and Arica,
located roughly 1500 and 2500 km away from the
storm path, respectively, are comparable in amplitude
with those observed in Central Chile. In contrast,
relatively small sea-surface elevations in San Antonio
are remarkably smaller than those at neighboring
stations (e.g., Quintero and Bucalemu).
Timefrequency characteristics of the residual
time series in Callao, Coquimbo, San Antonio, and
Bucalemu are shown in Fig. 4 (the record of Arica is
similar to that of Callao, and those of Pichidangui and
Quintero are similar to that of Bucalemu and are thus
omitted for brevity). The upper panels of each station
show the sea-surface elevations (g) of the residual
time series and the 4 standard deviation threshold
(4r), beyond which many meteotsunamis are
identified according to the adopted definition.
Wavelet power spectra (WPS) are shown in the lower
left panels. To define background levels at each
location, a global wavelet spectrum (GWS) of a
2-month period covering between June and July 2015
is computed and shown in red line on the lower right
panels.
Site-specific timefrequency patterns are
observed in some records. For instance, the time
series in Coquimbo shows a strong background
energy band around 30 min, which was doubled
during the storm (Fig. 4b). The peaks of 3 and
18 min, probably associated with free modes of the
Bay of Coquimbo, were enhanced after the storm
peak as a consequence of harbor resonance. Simi-
larly, the existing background peak of 5 min in
Bucalemu was increased during the storm, while
peaks of 14, 42, and 66 min seem to appear only
during the occurrence of the event (Fig. 4c). The
energy levels in San Antonio are relatively milder
than those in the other stations (Fig. 4d). Probably,
due to the intrincated layout of the port where the San
Antonio tide gauge is located, the GWS is charac-
terized by various peaks which were exited beyond
background levels during the storm.
The timefrequency characteristics of the sea-
level oscillations observed far away to the north of
the storm region provide evidence for propagation of
 M. Carvajal et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

edge waves. The WPS of Callao (Fig. 4a) and Arica
(not shown) shows that most of the incoming waves
are associated with relatively high periods of around
7 min, suggesting the presence of edge waves trav-
elling northward along the continental shelf from the
storm region. This is supported by the similarity
between the propagation speed inferred from the
records and the theoretical speed for edge waves
(e.g., Mei et al. 2005). Indeed, if we consider a
constant average slope of 1.3% in the continental
shelf of Chile and South Peru (200 m isobath is
15 km offshore; Fig. 5a, b) and a wave period of
7 min, the theoretical phase speed for the Stokes
(n = 0) and first mode (n = 1) are 8.5 and 25.5 m/s,
respectively, which have the same order of magnitude
of the observed propagation speed inferred from the
records (Fig. 1c).
To establish a possible relation between the high-
frequency sea-level fluctuations and the atmospheric
forcing, wind and atmospheric pressure records in the
coastal stations of Montemar, El Yali, and Las Cruces
are compared to the near tide stations of Quintero,
Bucalemu, and San Antonio, respectively. The WPSs
of atmospheric pressure in Fig. 6 show that the sea-
level oscillations at tide stations during August 8th
were preceded by an increase in high-frequency
fluctuations of atmospheric pressure over a broad
frequency band of up to 128 min. This frequency

Figure 5
a Map and depth contours of the bathymetry of central Chile. b Cross-sectional bathymetric profile of the Chilean margin, including the
ChilePeru trench, near Pichidangui, as depicted in a. The inset shows a zoom in the continental shelf. c Time series of atmospheric pressure
in La Punta, located in Robinson Crusoe Island, and San Antonio. The inset shows the cross-correlation function and the lag of maximum
correlation from which the propagation speed of the storm was estimated. Note that the high-frequency oscillations at both stations occur at a
similar time after the atmospheric pressure minima, which allows us to assume that these perturbations and the storm travelled at similar
speeds
 Meteotsunami in Southeast Pacific

Figure 6
Meteorological records for a Montemar, b El Yali, and c Las Cruces, located near the tide stations of Quintero, Bucalemu, and San Antonio,
respectively. Upper panels show the original time series of wind. Middle panels show time series of atmospheric pressure of both original
records (grey line) and 2-h high pass filtered signal (black). The high-frequency sea-level oscillations for Quintero, Bucalemu, and San
Antonio are shown in light green for comparison. Lower panels show wavelet power spectrum (WPS) for the high-frequency time series of
atmospheric pressure plotted in middle panels. All times are in UTC

range enfolds the peaks of energy in sea-level fluc-
tuations observed in coastal stations of central Chile
(WPS in Fig. 4bd). The match between the spectral
energy content of atmospheric pressure and sea-level
records along the coast of central Chile provides
evidence of the meteorological origin of the latter.
However, the intensity of the sea-level oscillations at
the coast cannot be explained by the atmospheric
pressure disturbances alone. For instance, while high-
frequency atmospheric pressure oscillations at Las
Cruces (near San Antonio) were significantly larger
than those at El Yali (near Bucalemu), the sea-level
response was significantly stronger in Bucalemu than
in San Antonio. Wind records suggest that this vari-
able also played a role in the meteotsunamis observed
on the coast, since in contrast to the atmospheric
pressure observations, stronger winds were observed
at El Yali than in Las Cruces (upper panels of Fig. 6).
5. Discussion and Concluding Remarks
The large meteotsunamis of up to 1.25 m crest-to-
trough heights observed on August 8th along central
Chile likely required at least one of the amplification
mechanisms mentioned in the Introduction. Because
the storm propagated eastward and almost perpen-
dicular to the shore, and then drifted southeast
(Fig. 1b), we assume that Greenspan resonance was
not particularly relevant in this event. This specula-
tion leaves Proudman, shelf, and harbor resonance as
possible candidates responsible for the large
meteotsunamis.
To verify to what extent Proudman resonance
could have contributed, we calculated the offshore
region along the storm path where this resonant
mechanism could have occurred. To this end, we
estimated the propagation speed of the atmospheric
disturbance by cross-correlating the time series of
atmospheric pressure in La Punta, in Robinson Cru-
soe Island (white triangle in Fig. 1b), and San
Antonio; both located 680 km apart and roughly
aligned with the storm path (Fig. 1b). The computed
lag of 381 min for the maximum correlation between
both time series (Fig. 5c) suggests that the storm
travelled eastward at an average speed of 30 m/s.
Since the high-frequency atmospheric disturbances
occurred systematically after the atmospheric pres-
sure minima (Fig. 6), it is reasonable to assume that
these disturbances also travelled at a similar speed.
 M. Carvajal et al.
Such inferred speed of 30 m/s is comparable to the
p
phase speed of a long wave (c gh) travelling
along the local continental shelf, which mean depth is
about 100 m (Fig. 5a, b). Although this simple
analysis may support the occurrence of Proudman
resonance, we presume that its contribution was
minor, since the local continental shelf is unusually
narrow (*15 km) and thus the horizontal distance of
coupling may be too small to explain the large
meteotsunamis observed at the coast (Hibiya and
Kajiura 1982; Vilibic 2008). Indeed, being this con-
tinental shelf one of the narrowest worldwide (Paris
et al. 2016), we believe that its response to both storm
surge and meteotsunamis is quite unique and should
be further addressed.
The contribution of shelf and harbor resonance is
difficult to estimate, since, as mentioned above, sea-
level stations are located in coastal areas. Though the
background peaks obtained from wavelet analysis
provide some of the evidence needed to prove if such
mechanisms are relevant, further analyses using
numerical models (e.g. Yamazaki and Cheung 2011;
Tolkova and Power 2011) are required to quantify the
relative contribution of each form of resonance on the
observed meteotsunamis.
In this short account, we confirm that the west
coast of South America is not free from meteot-
sunamis. Moreover, when these phenomena coincide
with strong storm surges and wind waves, they can
cause damage levels comparable to those resulted
from seismically induced tsunamis, as those caused
by the 2016 Mw 8.3 Illapel earthquake that affected
Central Chile just 39 days after the storm of August
8th (Contreras-Lopez et al. 2016). The relative con-
tribution of meteotsunamis, storm surge, and wind
waves to the effects observed in the storms aftermath
remains unknown and should be addressed in further
studies.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the collaboration of the
Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the
Chilean Navy (SHOA) for providing the sea-level
records at 5 tidal stations. M. Carvajal thanks the
Millennium Nucleus for the Earthquake cycle along
Pure Appl. Geophys.
subduction zones (CYCLO), Chile, and Dr. Samuel
Hormazabal (PUCV) for his advice and encouragement
on the use of timefrequency analysis techniques.
P. Winckler would like to thank CONICYT (Chile)
through its grant FONDECYT 11150003. I. Sepulveda
thanks Fulbright and CONICYT for financial assistance
in the form of studentships. We thank the following
institutions for providing meteorological data: Fondo de
Desarrollo Disciplinario de Medio Ambiente-Facultad
de Ingeniera (UPLA), Laboratorio de Meteorologa-
Instituto de Geografa (PUCV), Estacion Costera de
Investigaciones Marinas (PUC), Estacion Montemar-
Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y de Recursos Naturales
(UV), Secretara Regional Ministerial de Medio Ambi-
ente de Valparaso (MMA), SOPRAVAL, and
AGROSUPER. Finally, we would like to deeply thank
Alexander Rabinovich, Jadranka Sepic, and two anony-
mous reviewers for providing useful comments and
suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript.
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