JournalJournal
of Manufacturing
Study of Pulse Electrochemical Micromachining
J. Kozak, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
K.P. Rajurkar and Y. Makkar, Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research,
University of NebraskaLincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
Abstract
The need for complex and accurate microcomponents is
increasing rapidly for many industrial and consumer prod-
ucts. The electrochemical machining (ECM) process has the
potential of generating desired crack-free and stress-free
surfaces of microcomponents. However, it is necessary to
modify the existing ECM process for reduction of the
interelectrode gap (improved accuracy) and higher local-
ized electrochemical dissolution (smaller feature size). This
paper reports a newly developed pulse electrochemical
micromachining (ECMM) process for generating complex 2
and possibly 3-D microcomponents of high accuracy. A math-
ematical model based on the first principle of the process
mechanism has been developed and experimentally veri-
fied using a recently designed and built ECMM system. The
effect of voltage and feed rate on process performance has
been studied. The application of the proposed method has
been illustrated by machining complex cavities of 160 m
and 180 m slot width with straight edges.
Keywords: Electrochemical Machining, Pulse Electrochem-
ical Micromachining, Micromachining, Microcomponent Man-
ufacturing
Introduction
It is expected that the world market for microparts
and microproducts needed in all areas of industrial
and consumer products will reach 60 billion USD
by 2005 (Alting et al. 2003; Eversheim et al. 1997).
Many existing precision engineering technologies
in modified form are being tried to manufacture
microcomponents. At the same time, new processes
are being developed to produce microscale parts with
desired accuracies (Kirchmer et al. 2001; Kozak,
Rajurkar, and Wei 1994; Shuster et al. 2000). The
process technologies such as lithography, various
etching techniques, and the deposition of thin films
are being used mainly to produce two-dimensional
microcomponents (Friedrich et al. 1997; Jerman and
Terry 1997). However, only recently have attempts
been made to investigate processes for producing
This paper is an original work and has not been previously published
except in the Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. 31, 2003.
7
of Manufacturing
ProcessesProcesses
Vol. 6/No.
Vol.1 6/No. 1
2004 2004
three-dimensional microcomponents. Besides tradi-
tional machining techniques such as microturning
and milling, attention is being focused on nontradi-
tional machining techniques such as micro electri-
cal discharge machining (EDM) and micro
electrochemical machining (ECM) and laser machin-
ing because of their unique characteristics (Datta and
Romankiw 1989; Datta, Shinoy, and Romankiw
1993; Datta 1998; Masuzawa 2000). The ability of
ECM in rapidly generating a stress-free and crack-
free smooth surface on any electrically conductive
material (irrespective of hardness) makes it an ex-
cellent choice as a microproduction process. Elec-
trochemical machining (ECM) is based on a
controlled anodic dissolution process of the
workpiece (anode) with the tool as the cathode in an
electrolyte cell. In the ECM process, a low voltage
(830 V) is normally applied between electrodes with
a small gap (usually 0.20.8 mm), producing a high
2
current density of the order of 10100 A/cm , and a
3
metal removal rate ranging from 0.1 mm /min. to
3
10 mm/min. Electrolyte (typically NaCl or NaNO3
aqueous solutions) is supplied to flow through the
gap with a velocity of 1050 m/s to maintain the
electrochemical dissolution with a high rate to flush
away the reactions products (usually gases and hy-
droxides) and the heat generated by the passage of
current and electrochemical reactions.
However, to make ECM suitable for microma-
chining applications, it is necessary to develop a
modified ECM system that will provide as small a
gap as possible (for higher accuracy) and highly
localized and controlled electrochemical dissolu-
tion (for desired microfeatures). Instead of design-
ing and fabricating a tool for a given component
size and shape, a recently reported electrochemi-
cal micromachining (ECMM) approach uses a uni-
versal tool electrode (e.g., cylindrical) that is
numerically controlled. Although the feasibility of
such a system has been described in Kirchmer et
al. (2001) and Shuster et al. (2000), a comprehen-
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004

sive study consisting of a mathematical model for tion of ultra short (in microseconds) voltage pulses
the micromachining process and influence of ma- (Kirchmer et al. 2001). It seems that the localization of
chining parameters on the process performance dissolution coupled with the capability of NC drive
has not been reported. This paper presents such a system to obtain a stable and highly accurate feed (of
micro ECM system, related mathematical model the order of nanometer scale) in the direction of depth
for microshaping, and experimental verification of cut helps in maintaining a very small and stable gap
and results. between the workpiece and the tool electrode.
The anodic electrochemical dissolution occurs
ECMM Process and Model during the short pulse-on time, tp, each ranging from
0.005 to 5 ms, for the pulse ECM process and 5 ns
The proposed numerically controlled ECMM (NC-
to 5000 ns for the ECMM process using ultra short
ECMM) process uses a universal flat-faced wire tool
voltage pulses (Figure 1). The dissolution products
electrode, which is moved in a manner similar to
(sludge, gas bubbles, and heat) can be flushed away
that of a miniature milling cutter, along the three axes
from the interelectrode gap by the flowing electro-
using a computer-controlled nanoresolution drive
lyte during the pulse-off time, to = T tp, where T is
system. The proposed NC-ECMM method has nu-
the cycle time.
merous advantages, such as the elimination of the
Existing work on pulse ECM has shown consid-
tool design process, which is complex, time con-
erable improvements in dimensional controllability,
suming, and costly. Additionally, with the proposed
shaping accuracy, process stability, and simplifica-
approach, the long path of electrolyte flow is elimi-
tion of tool design (Kozak, Rajurkar, and Wei 1994).
nated, thus maintaining a small interelectrode gap,
These performance characteristics of pulse ECM,
which is necessary for accurate micromachining.
along with the abovementioned special circuit for
A very small gap of a few micrometers range is
localization of electrochemical dissolution, make the
achieved through a specially designed circuit con-
proposed ECMM a very desirable alternative for pro-
sisting of two electrodes submerged in electrolyte
ducing accurate and complex 3-D microcomponents.
and resulting in electrochemical double layers (DL)
The purpose of ECMM process modeling is to
on electrode surfaces. The DL works like a parallel
predict the shape of the workpiece for a given set
plate capacitor, which gets charged during the pulse-
of machining conditions. To formulate the math-
on time and is discharged during the pulse-off time.
ematical model, a general case is considered that
This phenomenon of DL helps building a special
describes the changes in the electrochemically
circuit, which consists of the DL itself, a variable
generated shape of a workpiece using a wire tool
DC power supply, and a pulse power supply. A very
electrode. It is assumed that a coordinate system
small DC voltage reinforced with the high-frequency
is attached to the workpiece, which is stationary
pulse voltage is supplied to the machining chamber
during machining.
through this circuit. As the electrochemical reactions
The workpiece surface at a given point in time
are exponentially dependent on the potential drop
(Figure 2) is described as: z = Z (x,y,t).
in the DL, the reactions are confined to the polar-
Following are additional assumptions that have
ized regions, which are very close to the electrode
been made in developing the mathematical model
surfaces. However, the discharging of DL during the
of the ECMM process:
pulse-off time is neutralized by the DC voltage,
thereby preventing the reversal of polarity and hence
preventing the tool dissolution. U
The ECMM process, similar to pulse ECM, uses a
pulse generator to supply the working voltage pulses
across the two electrodes, typically in the form of
tp t
pulse strings consisting of single pulses or group
pulses (Figure 1). The proposed ECMM approach T

results in the localization of the electrochemical dis- Figure 1

solution to sub-micrometer regions, by the applica- Principle Scheme of ECMM Process

8

Electrolyte flow rate between the two electrodes
is high enough to neglect changes in electrical
conductivity of electrolyte.
Workpiece material is homogeneous.
Reaction products do not affect electrolyte
properties.
Workpiece (anode) surface is uniformly cov-
ered by electrolyte.
Electrical field in the gap is quasi-stationary.
Primary distribution of electrical potential in the
gap, i.e., electrode polarization is constant and
is taken as an average value.
A moving boundary simulation is required to pre-
dict the final shape where, at each time step, the dis-
tribution of dissolution velocity on the workpiece
surface needs to be determined. According to elec-
trochemical shaping theory, the evolution of the
shape of the workpiece Z (x, y, t) (Kozak 1967) can
be described as follows:
2 Assuming perfectly conducting electrodes, connected
Z Z Z
2
(1)
= Kv iA 1+ + with the external source of voltage U, the boundary
t x y conditions can be given as follows:
where Kv is the coefficient of electrochemical ma-
chinability and iA is the current density on the anode
surface.
At the beginning, at time t = 0, the initial space of
the workpiece surface is given by the following:
z = Z0 (x, y) (2)
In the region where the concentration gradient can
be ignored, Ohms law in differential form describes
current density i in the electrolyte, as follows:
v tential, Ea, and the cathodic potential, Ec, depend on
i = u (3)
TE
U the electrode. The governing partial differential
X
y
WP
z z=Z(x,y,t)
Figure 2
Scheme for Modeling ECMM
(TETool electrode, WPWorkpiece)
9
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004
where u is the potential gradient and is the elec-
trical conductivity of the electrolyte.
Based on electrical neutrality of the electrolyte,
the electric field is sourceless and has a quasi-sta-
tionary nature. Therefore, the distribution of electri-
cal potential, u, in the electrolyte can be described
by the following:
div( u) = 0 (4)
(div = divergence)
Assuming that heating and gas generation do not
affect electrolyte conductivity in the interelectrode
gap, Eq. (4) can be transformed into a Laplace equa-
tion, as follows:
2 u 2u 2u
+ + =0 (5)
x 2 y 2 z 2
The boundary conditions for Eqs. (1)(5) are
given by the state of the system on the electrodes.
U = E c (t) on the cathode (TE)
u = U(t) Ea (t) on the anode(WP)
u on the insulating walls
=0
n
The last condition expresses the fact that current
does not flow through an insulator. The anodic po-
current density and are determined by the sum of
both the concentration and the activation over po-
tential for each electrode.
Equations (1)(5) give the relative motion of
equations have been solved by the finite differ-
ence method for simulating the shape generation
by ECMM. A small time interval, t, needs to be
selected so that the interfaces can be regarded as
stationary when calculating the electrical field and
current density on the anode during this time in-
terval. After solving the corresponding problem
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004

for a known boundary, the problem is solved, it-

Tool electrode
eratively, for a new boundary at the next instant,
given by t +t.
At known time, t, the partial differential Eq. (1)
can be further modified to represent the profile gen-
eration of a workpiece during machining (Figure 2) Electrolyte supply line
in two sections separately, one describing the fron-
tal gap and second describing the side gap. P
Return line
The equation in the differential form for the fron-
tal gap is obtained as follows: Drive table

dz 1 (6) NC control unit

= Oscilloscope
dx 2
2 2

Vf
( )
x + z 1
Kv (U E)
and similarly for the side gap the equation is ob-
tained as:
Figure 3
Schematic Diagram for ECMM Process

dy 1 (7)
= A 30X magnification microscope (with two mea-

( )
dx Vf
2
2 2 2 suring micrometer attachments of 1 m least count

K (UE) x + y R 1 for 2-D measurements) is used to measure the length
v and width of the machined microcavity. To measure
where V is the feed rate of tool electrode, is the the depth of the cavity, a needle probe attached on a
f
duty factor, R is the tool electrode radius, E is the Mitutoyo dial gauge having a least count of 0.002
potential drop, and is the electrolyte conductivity. mm is used.
To verify the theoretical results obtained using Eqs. Similar to the conventional ECM process, the
(6) and (7), the following experimental study has ECMM process performance is mainly governed
been conducted. by the electrical potential difference between the
electrodes, interelectrode distance, and the tool
Experimental Setup and Procedure electrode feed rate. However the ECMM process
The ECMM experiment setup designed is shown
in Figure 3. The specifications of the designed and Table 1
System Specifications
developed ECMM system are listed in Table 1.
The system mainly consists of a three-axis NC Drive System
Motor type DC
drive table, a high-frequency pulse power supply, a
Maximum travel 15 mm
variable DC power supply, a 20X magnification mi-
Resolution 7 nm
croscope, and an oscilloscope. The drive table pro- Number of axes 3
vides a motion along each axis by a micro translation Maximum velocity 1.4 mm/sec
motor, which in turn can be controlled by a control- Operating system Windows 2000
ler installed in a computer. Thus, any complex 3-D Operating software Win Move
motion of the drive table and hence of the workpiece Power Supply

is obtained by writing a program in the Windows - Operation mode Pulse or DC
based software of the controller. An oscilloscope is Current output 0 1A
connected in parallel to the power supply line of the Voltage output 0 15 V
electrochemical machining cell to monitor the cur- Pulse frequency 10 Hz 1000 KHz
rent waveforms. Duty Cycle 20% 80%

10

involves the use of pulse power supply, therefore
the pulse parameters, which are pulse-on time,
duty cycle, and pulse frequency, also affect the
process performance. In this stage of investiga-
tion, the effect of pulse frequency, pulse voltage,
duty cycle, and the tool electrode feed rate has
been studied on the process performance.
The performance measures in the present investi-
gation are dimensions of the microcavity machined.
Two measured dimensions side gap along the
width (Sx) and side gap along the length (Sy) are
shown in Figure 4a. The frontal gap (that is, the dis-
tance between the workpiece surface and the flat face
of the tool during steady-state ECM operation) is
shown in Figure 4b.
Initially, a tool electrode of diameter 280 m
(made by the micro WEDM process) is used for
Sy
Y
Tool electrode
Sx
L1
d
b of the performance measures (side and frontal
(a)
Tool electrode
S0
Sf
(b)
Figure 4
(a) Side gap along width and along length,
(b) frontal gap from the face of the tool
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004
machining the slots of 2 mm length on stainless
steel (SS-440). The electrolyte used is 10% solu-
tion of NaNO3. The initial interelectrode gap is
kept at 20 m.
After setting up control parameters, which are
the voltage, pulse frequency, duty factor, and the
feed rate, an experiment is started by moving the
workpiece relative to a stationary tool electrode
in a desired profile in an electrolyte environment
repeatedly to remove material layer by layer simi-
lar to that of removing material by a miniature
milling cutter. At the end of each iteration, the
workpiece is given a microfeed relative to the tool
electrode in the direction opposite to the depth of
cut. Because ECMM is a self-adjusting process,
after certain number of iterations the machining
process reaches an equilibrium state such that the
downward feed and the machining rate in each
iteration become equal. It has been determined ex-
perimentally that starting with an initial gap of 20
m, and for any value of control parameters in the
range as specified earlier, the equilibrium state is
obtained after approximately 80120 iterations,
Machined given the feed is maintained between 0 and 1 m.
slot
An extensive experimental investigation was
conducted following a full-factorial experimental
design scheme of four factors, two levels each and
three repetitions for each treatment. ANOVA re-
sults (including second-order interactions) for each
X 2
gaps) indicated a high R value (95.76%), sug-
gesting that all four factors play an important role
in obtaining the small gaps. However, the men-
tioned gaps were consistently smaller at the 1 MHz
level of frequency and the interaction effect of fre-
quency with other factors was not found to be sig-
nificant. So further investigation was carried out
at a frequency level of 1 MHz, and the voltage
and feed rate were found to be most significant.
The effect of these two factors (at 1 MHz frequency
level) is shown in Figures 5 and 6.
h
Experimental Results
Workpiece
The side gap and frontal gap are calculated as per
the geometry shown in Figures 4a and 4b and by
measuring the slot width using the measurement sys-
tem described earlier.
11
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004
The experimental results of the effect of voltage
on side gap (Sx ) and frontal gap (Sf ) are shown in
Figure 5. The plot shows that with the increase in
voltage both the side gap and the frontal gap increase.
A sudden increase in the gap can be observed at
about 12 volts, suggesting that it is necessary to keep
the applied voltage below 10 volts. The microscopic
examination shows that the edges of the cavity ma-
chined are sharper at the lower voltage values.
It can be seen from Figure 6 that both the side gap
and the frontal gap decrease with increasing feed
rate. However, for the feed rate above 63 mm/min.,
the sharpness of the edges of the machined slots was
observed to be less. Therefore, for all the subsequent
analysis, the tool electrode feed rate has been kept
between 21 and 63 mm/min.
Verification of Theoretical Model
The stated assumptions in the development of a
theoretical model, such as the primary distribution
of electrical potential in the gap is linear and the elec-
trode polarization is constant and is taken as an av-
erage value, and the other assumptions, stand valid
for the first-order approximation of the process. Also
in this stage of investigation, the data for mathemati-
cal modeling, the value of overpotential (E = 3 V),
3
and Kv (1.2 mm / A min) has been assumed. But
these values may be different during the experimen-
tal conditions and also may not remain constant
throughout the process. Additionally, the simulation
results have been obtained only for a single pass of
the tool electrode, while the experimental results
0.18
0.16
Side gap
0.14
Gap in mm
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
Frontal gap
0.02
4 6 8 10 12
Voltage (V)
Figure 5
Effect of Voltage on Side Gap and Frontal Gap
obtained are the outcome of a multiple number of
passes over a certain work area. So, to neutralize the
difference of multiple number of passes and the as-
sumed data for theoretical modeling, the relative
changes in the side gap and the frontal gap with the
input parameters (voltage) have been studied. The
strategy used for verification of the theoretical mod-
eling is to compare the percent increase in the side
gap (or frontal gap) with the percent increase in volt-
age. In this, the smallest level of voltage has been
kept as the base voltage level, and the correspond-
ing value of side gap as the base value. The percent
increase in the side gap and frontal gap, with the
percent increase in the voltage with reference to the
base level, are shown in Figures 7 and 8.
Figure 7 shows a very close agreement between
theoretical estimates and experimental results of the
frontal gap, Sf. The figure shows that the frontal gap
increases linearly and increases by 100% for a simi-
lar increase in applied voltage. The agreement be-
tween the theoretical estimates and experimental
results of the side gap is limited to a narrow range of
voltage with the 100 % increase in base voltage value
(12 V). The experimental side gap is almost 2.5 times
that predicted by the theoretical model at higher volt-
age. The close agreement around 8 V and the large
differences at 12 V can be attributed to a finding
that, in micromachining, supplying a low voltage
(less than 10 V) is a necessary condition for main-
taining the small gaps.
The results obtained by the initial analysis of the
ECMM process have been applied further for the
55
50
Side gap
45
Gap in micrometers
40
35
30
25
20
Frontal gap
15
10
14 10 30 50 70 90
Vf mm/min
Figure 6
Effect of Feed Rate on Side Gap and Frontal Gap
12
 Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004

2.15 6.00
Frontal gap ratio to

1.95 5.00

Side gap ratio to

the base level

the base level

1.75
4.00
1.55
3.00
1.35
1.15 2.00
.95 1.00
.75 0.00
0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25
Voltage ratio to the base level Voltage ratio to the base level

Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental

Linear (Experimental) Linear (Theoretical) Linear (Experimental) Linear (Theoretical)

Figure 7 Figure 8
Comparison of Experimental and Comparison of Experimental and
Theoretical Results for Frontal Gap Theoretical Results for Side Gap

fabrication of complex microcavities in the shape of and also the straight walls of the slot in Figures 9
an arrowhead, with the tool electrode of 100 m and 10 also confirm the applicability of the proposed
diameter. Simulation of the ECMM process using the ECMM system. Therefore, by using the proposed
developed theoretical model for a smaller sized tool machining scheme, and using the designed ECMM
electrode (100 m) also revealed that at smaller volt- setup, which is equipped with the computer-con-
age levels (45 V) and keeping the other parameters trolled nanoresolution 3-D drive system, 2-D mi-
same as in the previously conducted experiments crostructures can be fabricated very effectively. The
would result in metal dissolution in the very close application of the proposed system with motorized
vicinity of tool electrode (around 20 m). The theo- X, Y, and Z-axis CNC control to generate 3-D com-
retical side gap and the frontal gap values were found plex cavities is under investigation.
in the range of 20 to 30 m.
A microcavity with a slot width 160 m has been Conclusions
generated with the application of 5 V pulses of 1 The ECMM process has been found to be a
MHz frequency, initial interelectrode gap of 20 m, promising machining method for generating com-
and tool electrode feed rate of 42 mm/min. (Figure plex microcavities. The application of microsec-
9). Similarly, a microcavity of pentagonal shape has ond pulse durations and the small interelectrode
been generated with a slot width of 180 m (Figure gap maintained by a highly accurate, numerically
10). The sharp edges of the triangle and the sides controlled tool electrode movement, assures the

160 m
180 m

30X 30X

1.5 mm
2.18 mm

Figure 9 Figure 10
Triangular Microcavity by ECMM Process Pentagonal Microcavity by ECMM Process

13
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
Vol. 6/No. 1
2004
desired results. Some key findings from both the
theoretical modeling and the experimental inves-
tigation are listed as follows:
1. Key factors affecting ECMM process perfor-
mance are voltage, feed rate, frequency, and
2 vances in the study of electrochemical micro machining. ASME
duty factor. A high R value (95.76%) from
the ANOVA results indicates the validity of
the model.
2. A theoretical assumption of application of high-
frequency pulses in obtaining smaller gap has
been verified experimentally, as the results at
higher frequency (1 MHz) indicated smaller
side and frontal gaps with sharper edges than
the results at 250 KHz.
3. A mathematical model for predicting frontal and
side gap has been developed and experimen-
tally verified. A close agreement between the
theoretical estimates and experimental values
at the frontal gap has been observed. Similarly,
a close agreement for side gap values has also
been observed for applied voltage pulses be-
low 8 V, supporting the hypothesis of model
applicability at small voltage.
4. The ability of the proposed system has been
demonstrated by machining two complex cavi-
ties of 160 and 180 m slot width with sharp
edges and straight walls.
Further work on micro ECM involves the intro-
duction of the planetary motion of the tool electrode,
integration of the micro EDM and micro ECM, and
generation of 3-D microcavities.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful for the support from the
Nebraska Research Initiative Fund (NRI). Dr. K.P.
Rajurkar acknowledges support from the National
Science Foundation.
14
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Authors Biographies
Dr. J. Kozak is a professor of manufacturing technology at the War-
saw University of Technology, Poland. He was a visiting professor at the
University of Nebraska during 19901994 and 20002002. His re-
search interests include nontraditional machining processes and microma-
chining and their industrial applications.
Dr. K. Rajurkar is Distinguished Professor of Engineering and Direc-
tor of the Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research at the Uni-
versity of NebraskaLincoln. His research interests include nontraditional
machining processes at the macro, micro, and nano scale.
Mr. Y. Makker finished his MS degree with a thesis in micro-
ECM. Currently he is pursuing his PhD degree at the University of
NebraskaLincoln.