CONTENTS

Title Page No.

Acknowledgement .....I
Abstract..II
List of Figures.3
Chapter 1: Introduction..5
1.1: List of departments.....5
Chapter 2 : Power Supply System.13
2.1: 132 KV Switch Yard..14
2.2 : Switch Gear Room....15
2.3 : 11 KV System...16
Chapter 3: Mechanical...17
3.1: Pump..17
3.2: Valves ...19
3.3: Compressors...19
Chapter 4: Instrumentation20
4.1: Temperature measurement21
4.2: Pressure measurement...23
4.3: Flow measurement....24
4.4: Level indication27
4.5: Distributed Control System..29
Chapter 5: IEM Plant ....33
5.1: Cell house operation....33
Chapter 6: Fusion Plant.35
6.1: Caustic concentration unit....35
6.2: Flaker unit.....35
Chapter 7: Rectiformer......38
7.1: Introduction..38
7.2: Parts Of Rectiformer....38
7.3: Rectiformer Diagram....39
Chapter 8: Capacitor Bank.40

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 8.1: Introduction..40
8.2: Calculation of reactive power required....40
Chapter 9: Motor Starters..41
9.1: Introduction...41
9.2: DOL Starter...42
9.3: Star-Delta Starter...43
9.4: Soft Starter.44
Chapter 10: Circuit Breaker...45
10.1: SF6 Circuit Breaker45
10.2: Air Circuit Breaker.46
Chapter 11: Earthing..48
11.1: Introduction48
Chapter 12: Relays.49
12.1: Buchholz relay......49
12.2: Over Current and Earth Fault Protection50
Chapter 13: Safety.....52
Chapter 14: Environment...53
Chapter 15: Conclusion......54
References..55

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Title Page NO.
2.1: 132 KV Single Line Diagram.14

2.2: Switch Gear Room..15

2.3: 11 KV System.16

3.1: Centrifugal Pump...17

3.2: Mechanism of centrifugal pump.18

4.1: RTD.21

4.2: Thermocouple..22

4.3 Pressure gauge..24

4.4: Magnetic flow meter...25

4.5: Orifice type flow meter...26

4.6: Rotameter26

4.7 Ultra sonic level indicator27

4.8 Bypass type level indicator..28

4.9 Bubbler type level indicator.29

4.10 Flow diagram of DCS30

4.11: 20mA current loop control....31

5.1 Cell house.....34

7.1 parts of rectiformer...38

7.2 Rectiformer..39

8.1 Power triangle......40

9.1 Dol Starter42

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9.2 Star- delta Starter43

9.3Soft Starter...44

12.1 Buchholz Relay.49

12.2 Over Current and Earth Fault Protection...51

4
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
This report describes the two months vocational summer training we have undergone during the
period 16 May 2017 to 16 July 2017 at Orient Paper Mill (OPM)-caustic soda unit, Amlai, Madhya
Pradesh.
OPM Caustic soda unit was set up in the year 1967 in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The unit is
situated on the west bank of river Sone at village Amlai in Shahdol district. The unit is located in
the centre of the country giving it easy access to all india markets. The unit is well connected by rail
having Amlai Railway Station on Bilaspur- Katni broad gauge railway section of South Eastern
Railways.
The company was incorporated as Hukumchand Mills (Calcutta) Ltd. on 25th Sept, 1919 and
originally carried on the business as a manufacturer of Jute goods with its plant at Naihati in West
Bengal. The company was subsequently acquired by the present promoters. The name of the
company was changed to Hukumchand Jute Mills Ltd. on 26th April 1967. The company diversified
into Chloro-Alkali business by setting up a plant for the manufacture of caustic soda (with Mercury
Cells) with a capacity of 30 tons per day at Amlai(Madhya Pradesh) to the 1965. The companies
name was changed to its present name Hukumchand Jute & Industries Ltd. on 30 th May 1984.The
company sold the Jute division in September, 1988, however, it continued to export jute goods until
1994.HJI has been merged with GMMCO Limited on 1st April 1999 to April 2009.It is a C.K.Birla
Group Company.

Now this chemical plant operates as a chemical division of Orient Paper Mills Ltd. Since April,
2009.
At present HJI manufactures (NaOH) Caustic Soda of about 100 tons per day. Caustic soda is
manufactured in the ION EXCHANGE MEMBRANE PLANT unit. The other main units are
FUSION PLANT & CHLORINE PLANT.
The main product of the plant is Caustic Soda & bi-products are Hypo, Chlorine & HCl(Hydro
Chloric Acid).
Presently companys production capacity of caustic soda (NaOH) is 100-110-tons/ day. For this
caustic production, the chlorine produced will be 90.869 tons per day. HCL plant has full capacity
of 30 tons per day.

1.1 List of departments

Human resources department-

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The main purpose of the department is to enhance the human resource which in turn termed as
Organization Development has been categorized as:
1. Traditional Development
2. Upgradation of Knowledge
3. Skill Development

Thus to look after the social care and modify the human resources
TOTAL STAFF: 136
TOTAL COMPANY LABOURS: 116+05
TOTAL CONTRACT LABOURS: 230

General Shift-
08:00 am to 12:00 noon
1:30pm TO 05:30 pm

Shift For Workers-

A SHIFT: 07:30 AM to 03:30 pm
B SHIFT: 03:30 PM to 11:30 pm
C SHIFT: 11:30 PM to 07:30 am

Shift For Staff-

06:00 am to 02:00 pm
02:00 pm to 10:00 pm
10:00 pm to 06:00 am

Security Department-
This department details the procedure for Access Control, Deployment of Guards and Patrols and
related duties, vigilance and anti-corruption activities, information and networking and investigation
of minor / major crimes.
The procedure is applicable for:

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 Employees entering /exiting the gates
Guards and their deployment
Visitors system
Vehicular movements & records related to stores & items
Maintenance of records related to security dept.

Dispensary-
It provides 24 hours medical facility to the plant employees.

Sales Department-
The function of Sales department is to dispatch Caustic & Bi-products.
This department also maintains an input register of sales for maintaining the invoice.

Accounts Department-
Account department deals with every money related enquiry in the plant.This department maintains
the records of income, expenditure, assets, liabilities, profit & loss etc. It also prepares Balance
Sheet for every financial year.

Purchase Department-
Purchase department invites tenders from various parties as per indents received from various
departments for different process related items. After it makes order to appropriate party after going
through a detailed study of the ordered products/items in order to purchase the required items.

QA & EP Department-
This department ensures testing of raw materials, intermediate & finished products of the plant.
This department also concerns with environmental protection. It takes necessary steps in order to
control the waste generated by the plant as per norms of environment protection.

E.D.P.(electro data processing) Department-

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 E.D.P. manages all commercial, material management, store/purchase, sales, dispatch related
computer work and data processing and Local Area networking in the plant.

Civil Department-
This department deals with all types of construction work, all civil related project work, plant labor
requirements fulfillment, general plant house- keeping & cleaning work, colony area maintenance
work, drinking water supply management etc. for HJI. The labors have been categorized into three
grades as under :-
A 279 +PF +ESI +LEAVE +BONUS
B 220 TO 229 + PF +ESI +LEAVE +BONUS
C -144 + PF +ESI +LEAVE +BONUS

Safety Department-
Safety department works for safety of personnel & plant. It provides general safety wear like
helmets, safety goggles & P.P.Es.(Personnel protective Equipments) to the plant employees.
This department also organizes various seminars/meetings to keep up safety norms in the plant.

Electrical Department-
Electricity is one of the main raw materials for Chlor-alkali industry. In HJI-Division of Orient
Paper Mills, source of electricity is 132kV substation, which gets power from Chachai Thermal
Power Station. Electrical Department performs following functions:
To perform preventive & breakdown maintenance of Electrical equipments.
To keep equipments in safe & good operating condition for better operation of the plant.
Ensure availability of necessary resources at scheduled time at site.
Ensure proper precaution for safe working
Explain purpose, safety requirements and job description to maintenance team including
contract labors.
If testing and inspection results are not up to-desired level (due to lack of resources i.e. time,
spares etc.) and it is still safe to energize the Instrument, this can be done only after Head of
Department permission.
Arrange resources and plan another outage so that the equipments reliability & safety can be
ensured.
Ensure that equipment get in service without any trouble to ensure removal of men & material
from site.
Handover to the concern department.

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 Instrumentation Department-
Aim of Instrumentation Dept. is to establish a system to keep instruments in safe & good
operating condition for better operation of the plant.
The main function of the department is to:
Calibration of Pressure gauge
Calibration of Temperature gauge
Calibration of Transmitter
Calibration of Control valve
Calibration of Process Controller

Mechanical Department-
The main purpose of Mechanical Department is to sustain the production of the company in a better
way maintaining all the mechanical equipments in healthy condition so that the plant should be in a
continuous form.
The various material used for piping-

Caustic nickel , MSRL , MS , PVC

Chlorine PVC, FRP
Dry chlorine MS
Chlorine (moist) - PVC+FRP, titanium.
Brine- Titanium, FRP, PVC+FRP, Rubber line
Depleted brine- alpolite
Feed brine- CPVC
Hydrogen MS
Hypo cast iron
Sulphuric acid (78%)- PVC+FRP
Sulphuric acid (98%)- MS
HCL PVC, FRP, PVC+FRP (32%)

Various types of valves using for controlling flow-:

Ball type
Butter fly
Diaphragm
Globe valve
Gate valve

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 Plug valve
Non return valve

Various colors used for detection of line:-

Water- green
Hydrogen & H2SO4- red
Caustic blue
HCL & CL2- yellow
Brine grey

Various types of pumps using in chemical plant:-

To keep pumps operating successfully for long periods of time, several elements are required.
These elements include careful pump design selection proper installation, careful operation; the
ability to observe changes in performance over time, and in the event of a failure, the capacity to
thoroughly investigate the cause of the failure and take measures to prevent the problem from
recurring.
Pumps that are properly sized and dynamically balanced that sit on stable foundations with good
shaft alignment and with proper lubrication that operators start run and stop carefully and that
maintenance personnel observe for the appearance of unhealthy trends, usually never experience a
catastrophic failure.
The family of pumps comprises a large number of types based on application and capabilities.
The two major of pumps are dynamic and positive displacement.
Liquid is allowed to flow into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid
is forced out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. These principles applies to all types of positive
displacement pumps where the pump is a rotary lobe, gear within a gear, piston, diaphragm, screw,
progressing cavity, etc.

A positive displacement pump, unlike centrifugal pumps, will produce the same flow at a given rpm
no matter what the discharge pressure is a positive displacement pump cannot be operated against a
closed valve on the discharge side of the pump i.e. it does not have a shut off dead like a centrifugal
pump does

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Raw Material Department-
The aim of the raw material department is to decide the accumulating place in the Salt Godown
after knowing the description, amount and analysis data of the raw salt and Select the raw salt so
that the quality of the raw salt used becomes as equally as possible.
Normally at HJI salt comes from three sources
Gandhi Dham
Sambhar Lake
Bharat Salt

Ion Exchance Membrane Cell-

The ion exchange membrane cell (IEM Cell) introduced in HJI in 1993, it is unique compact in
arrangement unlike mercury & diaphragm cells.
The process of manufacture of caustic soda and chlorine by Ion Exchange Membrane [IEM] process
consists of the following sections:
Primary brine
Secondary brine
Electrolysys
At present, there are total eight electrolyzers of CCM-408D*2 of monopolar type in two rows. Each
electrolyzer has two cells.
For electrolyzing D.C. current is required.
The AC current is converted to DC current in thyristor Rectifier then supplied to cell through
busbars at the bottom of the cell.

Chlorine Plant-
The chlorine gas coming out of the cells can be taken to any of the three-section i.e. Liquefaction
section. Hydrochloric acid section or Calcium hypochlorite section.
Normally 50-55% chlorine of IEM cell is taken to Hydrochloric acid section to produce mercury
free acid.

Caustic Fusion Plant-

Part of Caustic soda solution having 46 47 % concentration is transferred to Caustic soda flaking
section (or Caustic concentration unit).

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The plant is designed for the concentration of caustic soda lye from 45% up-to 99% into baggable
flakes. The flakes are filled into open type plastic bags.
The flakes are filled into HDPE bags and sealed by stitching. These are then ready for dispatch to
consumers.

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 CHAPTER-2
POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM
The plant is supplied with 11KV high tension overhead power lines from OPM 30MW generating
unit. A supply of 132KV substation which gets power from Chachai thermal power plant, is kept as
standby, to be used in case of blackout at the OPM end. The same power is used to supply to the
OPM feeder in case of failure of OPM turbine generator.
11KV supply is fed to the incoming feeder in the switch gear room, from where the power is
supplied to different units from the outgoing feeder through the circuit breakers connecting the
incoming and outgoing feeders for protection purpose. Switch gear room is equipped with various
metering and protection devices.
The power from 132KV line is received at one end of the switch yard and at the other end it is
converted to 11KV by a 15MVA transformer. The switch yard equipped with the following devices-

Lightening arrester: A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical systems

and telecommunication systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from
the damaging effects of lightening.

Potential transformer: Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT),
are a parallel connected type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present
negligible load to the supply being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase
relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering.

Current transformer: A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to

measure AC Current. It produces an alternating current (AC) in its secondary which is
proportional to the AC current in its primary. It has relay connected to it in series so that it
can detect faults and send signal to the circuit breaker.

Isolators: Isolator is a switch operated manually, which separate the circuit from the power
main and discharges the trapped charges in the circuit.

Circuit breaker: A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to

protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current, typically resulting from
an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is
detected.

13
2.1 132KV SWITCH YARD
Single line diagram of 132 KV switch yard -

Fig. 2.1 132 KV Single line diagram

14
2.2 Switch gear room
11 kV supply from the OPM end energizes the busbar through system coupler Q2. Different
tappings are then taken from the busbar for different sections of the plant.
132kV supply is converted to 11kV by a 15MVA transformer and is connected to the busbar
through system coupler Q4 and SF6 circuit breaker in case of power failure from the OPM end.
Tappings are taken from the busbar to feed 1MVAR, 2MVAR, 3MVAR, 5MVAR capacitor banks,
1.5MVA, 2MVA auxiliary transformer and IEM rectiformer through SF6 circuit breakers.

Fig. 2.2 Switch gear room

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2.3 11 kV System
The plant is supplied with 11KV high tension overhead power lines from OPM 30MW generating
unit. 11KV supply is fed to the incoming feeder in the switch gear room, from where the power is
supplied to different units

Fig. 2.3 11KV System

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 CHAPTER-3

MECHANICAL
Every industry involves the use of different mechanical equipment to accomplish the various
operations/tasks of the plant. Some of the common mechanical equipment are pumps, compressors,
air blowers, lathe machines, etc. Thus a mechanical department is employed in every industry to
carry out the maintenance and implementation of such equipment.
The mechanical department at HJI is responsible for the maintenance and implementation of the
different pumps, air blowers, compressors and pumps employed at different units of the plant. It
also carries out the welding operations. This department, like the other departments in the industry
follows the national rules of safety and environment.
Some of the equipment that comes under this department are explained below:
3.1 PUMP: Different types of pumps are used all over the industry to give a head to the fluids
and gases that run through the pipes. Only two types of pumps are used in the industry, which
are mentioned below:

Centrifugal pump: Centrifugal pumps are the most preferred hydraulic pumps used in domestic
and industrial world. Thus centrifugal pumps are used all over the industry where fluids are to
be transferred.
Centrifugal pumps are used to induce flow or raise pressure of a liquid. Its working is simple. At
the heart of the system lies impeller. It has a series of curved vanes fitted inside the shroud
plates. The impeller is always immersed in the water. When the impeller is made to rotate, it
makes the fluid surrounding it also rotate. This imparts centrifugal force to the water particles,
and water moves radially out.

Fig 3.1: Centrifugal Pump

Since the rotational mechanical energy is transferred to the fluid, at the discharge side of the
impeller, both the pressure and kinetic energy of the water will rise. At the suction side, water is

17
 getting displaced, so a negative pressure will be induced at the eye. Such a low pressure helps to
suck fresh water stream into the system again, and this process continues.
From foregoing discussions it is clear that, the negative pressure at the eye of the impeller helps
to maintain the flow in the system. If no water is present initially, the negative pressure
developed by the rotating air, at the eye will be negligibly small to suck fresh stream of water.
As a result the impeller will rotate without sucking and discharging any water content. So the
pump should be initially filled with water before starting it. This process is known as priming.

Fig 3.2: Mechanism of centrifugal pump

The impeller is fitted inside a casing. As a result the water moves out will be collected inside it,
and will move in the same direction of rotation of the impeller, to the discharge nozzle, as
shown in the above figure.

Reciprocating pump: Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. The given pump is
single acting single cylinder pump with air vessel. It can be used for less discharge at higher
heads.

Mainly centrifugal pumps are used in the plant, which are driven by 3 phase induction motors.
The selection of motor to drive a particular pump is calculated by the following formula:
KW(Pabsorbed) = (H*Flow)/ (Pump eff.*367)
Motor Power = Pabsorbed * Motor efficiency
Here,
H = Head provided (in m)
Flow = Volume of fluid per second( in m3 /sec)

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3.2VALVES: Different types of valves are installed in the industry to facilitate the movement of
different fluids and gasses. Some of the valves are mentioned below:

Diaphragm type valve ( for fluids)

Lobe control type valve (for non-corrosive gasses and high pressure applications )
Plug type valve (for acidic medium)
Ball valve (used in air compressors)
Butterfly type valve (for low pressure applications)
Pressure regulating valve(PRV)

3.3 COMPRESSOR: A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid
and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also
reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be
compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

19
 CHAPTER-4

INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments used for indicating, measuring and
recording physical quantities.

The term instrumentation may refer to something as simple as direct reading thermometers or, when
using many sensors, may become part of a complex Industrial control system such as in
manufacturing industry, vehicles and transportation. Instrumentation can be found in the household
as well; a smoke detector or a heating thermostat etc.

The instrumentation department at HJI consists of various sensors, measuring instruments and
detectors to deal with the varying temperature, pressure, level, flow, chemical activity, ph values,
etc. in different units of the industry.

This department also maintains the working of the DCS i.e. distributed control system. The DCS is
basically an automated monitoring and control system which ensures the proper working of the
whole system by giving accurate run time information as well as by providing access to manipulate
and regulate various settings as per the requirements of the industrial production/working. The DCS
is thus used to change the flow, pressure, load, etc. as per the demand of the user, just by giving a
simple command on the computer rather than actually going into field and making the changes
manually.

This department like the other departments in the industry follows the national rules of safety and
environment. Their work is to maintain the sensors and measuring instruments as well as to
implement new devises wherever necessary and to make use of the latest technologies wherever
possible. The maintenance and regulation of the various valves also come under this department.

The instruments employed in the industry are basically for the following purposes-

Temperature measurement
Flow measurement
Pressure measurement
Ph measurement / ph sensors
Level indication
Leakage detection
Control valves

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4.1 Temperature Measurement

The various devices that are being used in the industry for temperature measurement are discussed
below:

Resistance Temperature Detectors:

Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD
elements consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but other
constructions are also used. The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper.
The material has an accurate resistance/temperature relationship which is used to provide an
indication of temperature. As RTD elements are fragile, they are often housed in protective probes.
They are used to measure low temperatures up to 200 C

Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a repeatable
resistance versus temperature relationship (R v/s T) and operating temperature range. The R v/s T
relationship is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature
change. The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of resistance) varies only slightly
over the useful range of the sensor.

Fig 4.1: RTD

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Thermocouple-

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar conductors forming electrical

junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a
result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard

connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of
temperature measurement, thermocouples are self- powered and require no external form of
excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one
degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.
Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in
thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety devices for gas-powered major appliances.

It is used to measure higher temperatures between 200-1000C.

Fig 4.2: Thermocouple

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K type thermocouple instruments are used in this industry. It is a nickel alloy thermocouple. The
type K is the most common type of thermocouple. It is inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and has a
wide temperature range. The type K is commonly found in nuclear applications because of its
relative radiation hardness. Maximum continuous temperature is around 1,100C.

They operate very well in oxidizing atmospheres. If, however, a mostly reducing atmosphere (such
as hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen) comes into contact with the wires, the chromium in the
chromel alloy oxidizes. This reduces the emf output, and the thermocouple reads low.

4.2 Pressure Measurement

The various devices that are used in this industry for pressure measurement are described below:

Pressure gauge-

Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are called pressure gauges or
vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good example as it uses a column of liquid to both measure and
indicate pressure. Likewise the widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device which both
measures and indicates, and is probably the best known type of gauge.

A vacuum gauge is an absolute pressure gauge used to measure the pressures lower than the
ambient atmospheric pressure.

Everyday pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to
ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other
specific reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are
used:

Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is

equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a
negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or the gauge may be
labeled a "vacuum gauge." These are further divided into two subcategories: high and low
vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure ranges of many of the
techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different
types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to
1011 mbar.
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

23
 Fig 4.3 Pressure gauge

Diaphragm type pressure gages are used in this industry. Diaphragm pressure gauges are used to
measure the pressure of gases and liquids. They cover measuring spans from 10 mbar to 40 bar. The
measuring element consists of one circular diaphragm clamped between a pair of flanges. The
positive or negative pressure acting on these diaphragms causes deformation of the measuring
element. The magnitude of the deformation is proportional to the pressure to be measured, and it is
coupled to the pointer mechanism.

Pressure gauges with horizontal diaphragm allow finding suitable versions for even difficult kinds
of media, such as aggressive, contaminated or viscous media. The stainless steel bayonet ring case
is designed for applications where a rust resistant, sealed case of high chemical resistance is
required (dirty damp or corrosive atmosphere).

4.3 Flow measurement

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. A number of flow meters are
installed in the industry to measure the rate of flow of liquid or gases in various tubes and tanks
carrying water, steam and chemicals. They are discussed below:

Magnetic flow meter -

A common flow meter is the magnetic flow meter, also technically an electromagnetic flow meter
or more commonly just called a mag meter. A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which
results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The
physical principle at work is electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a
conducting fluid, for example, water that contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface, for
example, a rubber-lined steel tube.

24
If the magnetic field direction were constant, electrochemical and other effects at the electrodes
would make the potential difference difficult to distinguish from the fluid flow induced potential
difference. To mitigate this in modern magnetic flow meter, the magnetic field is constantly
reversed, cancelling out the electrochemical potential difference, which does not change direction
with the magnetic field. This however prevents the use of permanent magnets for magnetic flow
meters.

Fig 4.4: Magnetic flow meter

Orifice type flow meter-

Orifice plates are still the most widely used type of flow meter in the world today. They offer
significant cost benefits over other types of flow meter, especially in larger line sizes, and have
proved to be rugged, effective and reliable over many years. Where a need exists for a rugged, cost
effective flow meter which has a low installation cost and a turndown of not more than 4:1, the
orifice plate continues to offer a very competitive solutions.

An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting
flow (in the latter two cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a volumetric or mass flow
rate may be determined, depending on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses the
same principle as a venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a
relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity
increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.

25
 Fig 4.5: orifice type flow meter

Rotameter-

A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. It belongs
to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-
sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing a measurable effect.

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float' (a shaped weight, made
either of anodized aluminum or a ceramic), inside that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow
and pulled down by gravity. The drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of
flow speed squared only, see drag equation.

Fig 4.6: Rotameter

26
4.4 Level Indication

Level indicators are being used in the industry for determining the level of fluids or gas in different
containers/tanks or cylinders. The different types of level indicators installed in the industry are
discussed below:

Ultra sonic level indicator-

Ultrasonic frequencies are above 20 KHz. Ultrasonic waves are used to measure level of liquids and
solid objects in industries. Ultrasonic level measurement is contactless principle and most suitable
for level measurements of hot, corrosive and boiling liquids.

When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an object, it is reflected by the object and echo
returns to the sender. The time travelled by the ultrasonic pulse is calculated, and the distance of the
object is found. The normal frequency range used for ultrasonic level measurements is within a
range of 40 200 KHz.

Fig 4.7 Ultra sonic level indicator

By-pass type-

The level gauge model BNA consists of a bypass chamber, which, as a communicating tube, is
connected laterally to a vessel via at least 2 process connections (flanged, threaded or welded).

27
Through this type of arrangement of the level gauge, the level in the bypass chamber corresponds to
the level in the vessel. The float with a built-in permanent magnetic system, which is mounted
within the bypass chamber, transmits the liquid level, contact-free, to the magnetic display mounted
to the outside of the bypass chamber. In this are fitted, at 10 mm intervals, two-coloured plastic
rollers or stainless steel flaps with bar magnets.

Fig 4.8 Bypass type level indicator

Bubbler type-

Bubbler systems are ideal for level measurement of open channel run off systems or duct and tank
situations where debris, foam, steam, or surface turbulence makes standard methods of level
measurement impractical. This technique of level detection is primarily employed for vessels which
work below atmospheric pressure. Thus in the industry, bubbler type level indicator is installed in
the hydrogen tank, which works at very high temperatures.

28
 Fig 4.9 Bubbler type level indicator

4.5 Distributed Control System

The distributed control system, abbreviated as DCS is a computerised control system for a process
or plant, in which autonomous controllers are distributed throughout the system, but there is central
operator supervisory control. This is in contrast to non-distributed control systems that use
centralised controllers; either discrete controller located at a central control room or within a central
computer. The DCS concept increases reliability and reduces installation costs by localising control
functions near the process plant, but enables monitoring and supervisory control of the process
remotely.

Structure-

The key attribute of a DCS is its reliability due to the distribution of the control processing around
nodes in the system. This mitigates a single processor failure. If a processor fails, it will only affect
one section of the plant process, as opposed to a failure of a central computer which would affect
the whole process. This distribution of computing power local to the field Input/Output (I/O) field
connection racks also ensures fast controller processing times by removing possible network and
central processing delays.

29
The accompanying diagram is a general model which shows functional manufacturing levels using
computerised control.

Fig 4.10 Flow diagram of DCS

Referring to the diagram;

Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control
elements, such as control valves
Level 1 contains the industrialized Input/ Output (I/O) modules, and their associated distributed
electronic processors.
Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collect information from processor nodes on
the system, and provide the operator control screens.
Level 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is
concerned with monitoring production and monitoring targets
Level 4 is the production scheduling level.

Levels 1 and 2 are the functional levels of a traditional DCS, in which all equipment are part of an
integrated system from a single manufacturer.

Levels 3 and 4 are not strictly process control in the traditional sense, but where production control
and scheduling takes place.

30
Working-

The processor nodes and operator graphical displays are connected over proprietary or industry
standard networks, and network reliability is increased by dual redundancy cabling over diverse
routes. This distributed topology also reduces the amount of field cabling by siting the I/O modules
and their associated processors close to the process plant.

Fig 4.11: 20mA current loop control

The processors receive information from input modules, process the information and decide control
actions to be signaled by the output modules. The field inputs and outputs can be analog signals e.g.
4~ 20mA dc current loop or 2 state signals that switch either "on" or "off", such as relay contacts or
a semiconductor switch.

DCSs are connected to sensors and actuators and use set-point control to control the flow of
material through the plant. A typical application is a PID controller fed by a flow meter and using a
control valve as the final control element. The DCS sends the set-point required by the process to
the controller which instructs a valve to operate so that the process reaches and stays at the desired
set-point.

31
The DCS at HJI consists of two control systems, namely-

System control(SC): The system control is directly connected

Marshal control (MC): The marshal control box consists of the input/output cards. It takes in all
the inputs from the different units of the plant and feeds the information to the system control
which further processes the information and feeds to the marshal control box, which in turn
sends the desired output, back to the source.

Applications-

Opening and closing of different valves as per the demand.

To set the readings of different measuring instruments as per the production.
To raise alarms in case of anomaly.
To trigger the thyrisors used in the rectiformer.
To maintain the output current of the rectiformer.
To receive input from the MCC and thus control speed of various motors.

32
 CHAPTER - 5

IEM PLANT
The Ion Exchange Membrane (IEM) plant is the plant in which the elementary production of caustic
soda takes place. This task is accomplished by passing brine and 28% solution of caustic soda
through a specially designed cell, which performs electrolysis of the solution and in turn gives 31%
caustic soda solution as its output.
The cell house is fed by a high DC current from the rectiformer. The rectiformer supplies 8kA
current to the busbars of the cell house, which energizes the anodes and cathodes of the each cell.

5.1 Cell house operation and working:

The ion exchange membrane cell is compact in arrangement unlike mercury and diaphragm cells
since it is compact in size, the space required is minimum and totally free from pollution. At present
there are 16 monopolar type electrolyzers, out of which 4 are DCM type and the other 14 are i-CME
zero gap monopolar type electrolyzer.
Each eletrolyzer has two cells. Each has four anode, three cathode and two half cathode. Membrane
is fixed in between anode and cathode elements. A total of eight membranes are fixed in each cell,
all the elements are in mesh type with eight current distributers and conductor rods. The anode is
dimensionally stable and is made of titanium with special metal oxide (RuO2) so that it consumes
less power. The cathode is made up of stainless steel and is coated with nickel to avoid iron carry
over because of corrosion of the element.
The figure given below shows the actual site photograph of the cell house:

33
 Fig 5.1 Cell house

AC current is converted into DC current through thyristor rectifier then supplied to the cell through
busbars, which are situated at the bottom of the cell.
Brine from the secondary brine head tank flow through a flowmeter then feed to individual cells
through a float type rotameter by adjusting the fed brine value. For uniform flow to all anodic
elements an orifice is placed at the inlet of taflon tube of the brine manifold header. A strainer is
fixed between the manifold flange joint which prevent carry over by foreign material entering into
the element. It also consists of a drain line with a valve, which is connected to the feed brine inlet
to cells and the drain is connected to the depleted brine header. A drain valve is also provided to the
main feed brine line.
The same system is employed for the inlet of the recycled caustic soda i.e 28% solution of NaOH.
And thus by the process of electrolysis 31% caustic soda is obtained which is then further fed to an
evaporator to turn it into 34% solution. This solution is then led to the fusion plant where the final
products (flakes & 48% solution) are obtained by further reducing the concentration of this solution.

34
 CHAPTER-6

FUSION PLANT
The Caustic Fusion Plant has been developed for the concentration of caustic soda lye from 48% to
99% NaOH. The fusion plant is divided into two units:
Caustic concentration unit
Flaker unit

6.1 Caustic concentration unit:

The 32% caustic solution obtained from the IEM plant is stored in an intermediate tank, which is
drawn by the fusion plant. The solution is first converted to 38% concentration by passing it through
a vacuum evaporator, which is further fed to a steam evaporator through a heat exchanger to obtain
a concentration of 48%. A part of the 48% solution is then sent to the flaker unit and the other part
is send out for sale.
6.2 Flaker unit:
The flaker unit produces flakes of 98% caustic soda. The first step involves heating of 48% solution
through a vacuum pre-condenser to convert it into 57% solution. The 57% solution is further heated
at a very high temperature (370-405) to convert it into 98% concentration. This high temperature is
obtained by hydrogen (H2 is a by-product of the IEM plant) bombing which transfers its heat to a
heat transfer salt (HTS). HTS is a mixture of 53% KNO2, 40% NaNO2 and 7% NaNO3. It runs
through tubes in a vessel alongside which the 57% solution flows. The HTS transfers its heat to the
caustic which thus leads to the change in its concentration.
The 98% solution is then fed to the flaker drum, in which the solution is cooled with the help of
water and is made to rotate along a drum with the help of a gearbox. The cooled liquid sticks to the
drum and is finally cut into small flakes and is ultimately led to the filling and packaging unit.
The critical equipment of this unit are:
Salt pump: The function of this pump is to circulate the liquid heat transfer salt (HTS) through the
heater coil and concentrator tubes. This unit is the heart of the plant and the total plant is stopped if
this unit shows any problem. So this unit is one of the most critical unit.
The capacity of this pump is 66.3 M3/hr. And motor capacity is 45 Kwh and normally it takes 65-
70 Amp., during smooth running. Increment in current indicates any abnormality of the pump.
Gland cooling water flow will be 0.02M3/hr.

Flaker drum: It is the unit which is directly related to the flakes production. Quality of Flakes is
50% depended on the performance of this unit. There are six/four blades attached with this drum

35
whose performances are also calculated along with this drum. The drum is made up of nickel and
the surface area is 5.65 m2 .
The inlet water pressure should be 0.5 to 2.5 Kg/cm2 and water inlet temperature should be 35-45C
(max.) and outlet water temperature should be 50-60C (max. ). The Drums Speed (RPM) depends
on the rate of production and its limit, which is 2-5 RPM. The layer of concentrated caustic on the
drum which is solidified after cooling will be 0.8 to 1.4 mm and flakes thickness will also be the
same. The colors and stiffness of the flakes depends on the concentration and sugar contents.

The non-critical equipment of this unit are:

1. 32% Caustic Pump: The role of this pump is to supply caustic lye of 32% to vacuum
evaporator. The capacity of this pump is 15 m3/hr. Its head is 51 m and normally it takes 16
17A current with a motor of 12.5 HP . The discharge pressure normally runs in between 5-6
Kg/cm2.

2. 38% Caustic Pump: The role of this pump is to supply caustic lye of 38% to vacuum
evaporator. The capacity of this pump is 9 m3/hr. Its head is 41.2 m and normally it takes 12
13A current with a motor of 7.5 HP . Gland cooling water is necessary for this pump so we
should maintain a flow of 200-250 liter/hour water. The discharge pressure normally runs in
between 5-6 Kg/cm2.

3. 48% Caustic Pump: The role of this pump is to supply caustic lye of 48% to Flaking Plant and
Storage Tank. The capacity of this pump is 7.1 m3/hr. Its head is 36.6 m and normally it takes 12
13A current with a motor of 7.5 HP. Gland cooling water is necessary for this pump so we
should maintain a flow of 200-250 liters/hour water. The discharge pressure normally runs in
between 5-6 Kg/cm2.

4. Vacuum Pump: The role of this pump is to produce vacuum at surface condenser where the
vapors of caustic lye comes from the EV-1101 (32% caustic). Normally the range of vacuum is
0.940-0.970 Kg/cm2. Its role is very important in this plant to increase the lye percentage and
accordingly reduce the fuel consumption. Production rate can be affected in case of any
malfunctioning of this pump. Water feeding is necessary for lubrication of rotor and dissolving
the vapors of lye. Normally it takes 17-22A current with a motor of 20 HP as per the load on it.
We can regulate the vacuum through a purging valve at its suction head.

5. Sugar Pump: This pump has a great importance in maintaining the quality of flakes along with
the performance and life of nickel tubes. By sugar feeding we want to kill the nascent oxygen
(O) produced from chlorate at high temperature, which is responsible for the corrosion of nickel
tubes. Sugar converts itself in carbonate by reacting with this oxygen. The feeding of sugar can
be increased by regulating a speed variation and normal feeding rate is 120-180gram/M.T which
can be calculated from the level of tank of 5% sugar solution. Discharge pressure is 5.8-6

36
 kg/cm2. The performance of this pump also depends on the suction strainer which should be
cleaned at regular intervals. There is NRV at the discharge line to prevent backing of caustic lye
in the system.

6. C.T. Pump: The cooling tower pump plays a great roll in a heat transfer plant. There are three
important areas where cold water is required in the plant which is fulfilled by this pump. The
areas are surface condenser, Flaker Drum and Vacuum pump. Stoppage /tripping of this pump
can disturb the total system immediately. The capacity of this pump is 600 TR. It has a head of
60 m and it takes normally 60-70A current. Its discharge pressure runs between 3.5-4 kg/cm2.
The pump has a NRV at its discharge. It has a suction strainer at its suction to prevent chocking
of surface condenser. Power rating of its motor is 25 HP.

7. Condensate Pump: This pump has a great role in saving the cost as well as raw material. The
alkaline vapor condensate produced at surface condenser and EV-1101 is collected in a tank and
from there this pump pumps the material to the membrane plant. The capacity of this pump is
6.6 m2/hr and rating of its motor is 7.5 HP, RPM- 2900 and Head- 72 meter.

37
 CHAPTER-7

RECTIFORMER
7.1 Introduction
Rectiformer is an essential part of the industrial electro chemical process, which provides high DC
current at low voltage. The rectiformers consist of a 20 MVA transformer, thyristor rectifier, a
cooling system to remove heat during the process and an additional demineralized water cooling
system regulates the temperature inside the rectiformer .
It is a 12 pulse transformer and has 84 thyristors connected in the rectifier unit. The input to the
transformer is 11kV and the output can be varied between any of these AC voltages 196V, 156V,
116V, 76V. The output is varied with the autotransformers connected in the 3 input phases
according to the number of monopolar cells connected in the electrolysis setup . These AC outputs
are then converted to DC outputs of 180V, 140V, 100V, 60V to be supplied to the cells. There is a
tap position indicator for the auto transformer with tap rise and lower push button.

7.2 Parts of Rectiformer

Fig.7.1 Parts of rectiformer

The transformer has 2 primary windings, one is star connected and another is delta connected, and 4
star connected secondary windings. This forms two systems one, with star connected primary
winding and two star connected secondary windings with vector group YY6Y6 and system two,
with delta connected primary winding ad two star connected secondary windings with vector group
DY1Y7 .
The secondary side of the transformer has 2 Inter phase transformer (IPT). Each one is connected
between the neutrals of the two secondary windings of one system and these are again connected
together to each other to be connected to the cells negative terminal.
The thyristors are connected to the 12 phases in the secondary winding. There are 6 thyristors
connected in parallel with an additional spare thyristor to each phase, thus we have 84 thyristors in

38
total. The gate pulse to the thyristors is provided with a push button, and is varied according to the
amount of tons of caustic soda being manufactured. Also there are snubber circuits connected with
the rectifier to suppress the voltage spikes. And to keep the thyristor system at a normal temperature
there is a demineralised water cooling system.

7.3 Rectiformer Diagram

Fig.7.2 Rectiformer

39
 CHAPTER-8

CAPACITOR BANK
8.1 Introduction
In AC electrical system inductive loads consume active power and also reactive power. This
reactive power is needed to generate magnetic field for inductive loads.
The power factor is the ratio of kW (active power) component to the kVA (apparent power)
component.

Fig.8.1 Power triangle

cos = Real Power / kVA
= kW/ kVA
Power factor will be leading if current is leading the voltage and it is lagging when current is
lagging the voltage. The reactive power needs to be generated in electrical system. For that most of
electrical utilities penalize for lower power factor with additional charges. AC capacitor is the most
economical component to supply reactive power which gives following advantages
Power factor improvement
Additional power will be available at secondary of transformer
Improved voltage profile
Decrease in cable losses
8.2 Calculation of reactive power required
The reactive power necessary to achieve the power factor is calculated as under
kVAR = kW (tan1 - tan2)
cos1 = Original P.F.
cos2 = Desired P.F.
The company has maintained a PF of 0.8-0.9 by installing capacitor banks of capacity 1MVAR,
2MVAR, 3MVAR and 5MVAR.
40
 CHAPTER-9

MOTOR STARTERS
9.1 Introduction
Starter is a device that reduces initial high current of the motor by reducing the supply voltage
applied to the motor. Such reduction is applied for very short duration and once the motor
accelerates, a normal voltage is then applied.
At starting condition a very high current flows through the rotor. As the rotor needs a high current,
stator winding draws a very high current from the supply. This initial drawing current can be of the
order of 5-8 times the full load current of the motor. This huge current at the starting of a motor can
damage the motor windings.
Therefore, a starter is necessary to limit this starting current to avoid damage to the motor as well
as to other adjoining equipment.
In addition to the starting current protection, motor starter also provides the protection against
overload.
This huge current at the starting of a motor can damage the motor windings and also this current can
cause a large voltage drop in the line. These voltage spikes may affect the other appliances
connected to the same line. Therefore, a starter is necessary to limit this starting current to avoid
damage to the motor as well as to other adjoining equipment.
All starter devices are provided with some overheating protection element to limit high current
during overload. Most starters are equipped with bimetallic strips to achieve this operation.
In addition to the starting current protection, motor starter also provides the protection against
overload, single phasing and low voltage protection. The overload protection is necessary because
motor draws more current during overload condition and it causes to produce excessive heat in the
windings. This extra heat reduces the motors life and may cause burning of windings and hence
fire.
Electrically operated starters, electromechanical relays are used for switching the power carrying
conductors. These relays are called as contactors. When the coil in the contactor is energized, it
produces the electromagnetic field and that pulls the switch contacts.
And when the coil is de-energized, contacts are pulled back to normal position by the spring
arrangement.
Usually, the motor starters are provided with push buttons (start and stop buttons) in order to
energize and de-energize the coil.

41
Motor starters are available in different ratings and sizes depending on the motor (AC motor) rating
and size. These staters safely switch the necessary power to the motor and also prevent the motor
from drawing heavy currents.
The types of starters being used in the industry are DOL starter, star delta starter, and soft starter.

9.2 DOL Starters-

Fig.9.1 DOL Starter

In case of electrically operated starters, electromechanical relays are used for switching the power
carrying conductors. These relays are called as contactors. When the coil in the contactor is
energized, it produces the electromagnetic field and that pulls the switch contacts.
And when the coil is de-energized, contacts are pulled back to normal position by the spring
arrangement. Usually, the motor starters are provided with push buttons (start and stop buttons) in
order to energize and de-energize the coil so that contacts will be operated. These electrically
operated starters will not restart after a power failure until the start button is pressed.

42
9.3 Star-delta Starter

Fig. 9.2 Star- delta Starter

It is the most commonly used reduced voltage starter as it is the cheapest starter among all. In this
method, induction motor is connected in star during start and delta while running with rated speeds.
These starters are designed to run on delta connected stator of an induction motor. The schematic
diagram of this starter is shown in figure below.
This starter uses a TPDT (triple pole double throw) switch and it connects the stator winding in star
during the starting condition. Due to this star connection, the applied voltage to the motor is reduced
by the factor 1/3. This reduced voltage results the less current through the motor.
When the motor picks up the speed, the TPST switch is thrown automatically on the other side by
using relays such that the winding is now connected in delta across the supply. So the normal
voltage is applied to the motor (because in delta connection voltage is same, VL =VP) and hence
the motor runs at normal speed.

43
This method is cheap and maintenance free as compared to other methods. However, this is suitable
only for delta connected motors and also the factor by which starting voltage reduced, i.e., 1/3
cannot be altered.
9.4 Soft Starter -

Fig. 9.3 Soft Starter

In this method, semiconductor power switches are employed for reducing the starting current to the
induction motor. It is another type of reduced voltage starter and it connected in series with the line
voltage applied to the motor. The schematic diagram of soft starter is shown in figure above.
This starter consists of back to back thyristors or TRIACs in each phase of the stator winding. By
controlling the firing angle to these thyristors, the voltage applied to the motor will be reduced
steplessly. This type of voltage reduction gives a smoother operation as compared to other methods
discussed above.
This results the absence of torque pulsations and hence there no jerking when starting of the motor.
Once the motor gets the normal speed, the firing angle to the thyristors is applied such that they
allow full voltage to the motor.
For larger motors, a variable frequency drives are used that incorporates the soft start function. Such
drives control the starting current as well as the speed of the motor to a desired value.

44
 CHAPTER-10

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and automatically
for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively.
The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal "ON"
condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to
applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential
energy in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker which is released if switching signal is given
to the breaker.
The circuit breakers being used in the industry are
SF6 Circuit Breakers
Air Circuit Breaker

10.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in sulphur hexafluoride or
SF6 gas is known as an SF6 circuit breaker. SF6 has excellent insulating property. SF6 has high
electro-negativity. That means it has high affinity of absorbing free electron. Whenever a free
electron collides with the SF6 gas molecule, it is absorbed by that gas molecule and forms a
negative ion. The attachment of electron with SF6 gas molecules may occur in two different ways,

These negative ions obviously much heavier than a free electron and therefore over all mobility of
the charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less as compared to other common gases. We know that
mobility of charged particle is majorly responsible for conducting current through a gas.

The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite simple and it is some extent similar to air blast
circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a high pressure reservoir.
During operation of SF6 circuit breaker this highly compressed gas is released through the arc in
breaker and collected to relatively low pressure reservoir and then it is pumped back to the high
pressure reservoir for re utilize. The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in modern
time. Innovation of puffer type design makes operation of SF6 CB much easier. In buffer type
design, the arc energy is utilized to develop pressure in the arcing chamber for arc quenching.

45
Here the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure. There are two fixed contact fitted with a
specific contact gap. A sliding cylinder bridges these to fixed contacts. The cylinder can axially
slide upward and downward along the contacts. There is one stationary piston inside the cylinder
which is fixed with other stationary parts of the SF6 circuit breaker, in such a way that it cannot
change its position during the movement of the cylinder. As the piston is fixed and cylinder is
movable or sliding, the internal volume of the cylinder changes when the cylinder slides.
10.2 Air Circuit Breaker
These type of circuit breakers are those kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at atmospheric
pressure. After development of oil circuit breaker, the medium voltage air circuit breaker (ACB) is
replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in different countries. But in countries like France and
Italy, ACBs are still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV. It is also good choice to avoid the risk
of oil fire, in case of oil circuit breaker. In America ACBs were exclusively used for the system up
to 15 KV until the development of new vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.
The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit
breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after
current zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system recovery
voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For interrupting arc it creates
an arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage
required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different
ways,
1.It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is
decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced; hence more voltage gradient is
required to maintain the arc.
2.It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is increased,
the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc current more voltage
is required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased.
3.Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large an area as
possible of insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a chamber surrounding the
contact. This chamber is called 'arc chute'. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is
suitably shaped, and if the arc can be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to
achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be made from some kind of refractory material.
High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and ceramics are preferable materials for
making arc chute.
The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved concurrently with fist objective.
If the inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only forced into
close proximity with it but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall.
The lengthening of the arc path increases the arc resistance.
46
 The third technique is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc chute. The main arc chute
is divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic separation plates. These
metallic separation plates are actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments
behaves as individual mini arc chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a number of series
arcs, each of which will have its own mini arc chute. So each of the split arcs has its own
cooling and lengthening effect due to its own mini arc chute and hence individual split arc
voltage becomes high. These collectively, make the overall arc voltage, much higher than the
system voltage.

47
 CHAPTER-11

EARTHING
11.1 Introduction
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the earth
(ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.
In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth plate or
earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor wire (which has
very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or grounding.

To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as metallic
covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry current to the earth.
Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a power supply system to the earth so
as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of electrical energy.

Needs of Earthing-
To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances from leakage
current.
To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of electrical
installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches, distribution boards, Switches,
fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of electrical machines such as, motors,
generators, transformers and the metallic framework where electrical devices and components are
installed is known as earth wire or earth continuity conductor as shown in the above fig.
The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE rules, resistance
between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the end) should not be
increased than 1. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should be less than 1.
The earth wire resistance is maintained at 1 at the industry.

48
 CHAPTER-12

RELAYS
The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection between two or
more points in response to the application of a control signal.
12.1 Buchholz relay

It is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay universally used on all oil immersed transformers
having rating more than 500 kVA. Buchholz relay is not provided in relays having rating below 500
kVA from the point of view of economic considerations.

Buchholz relay is used for the protection of transformers from the faults occurring inside the
transformer. Short circuit faults such as inter turn faults, incipient winding faults, and core faults
may occur due to the impulse breakdown of the insulating oil or simply the transformer oil.
Buchholz relay will sense such faults and closes the alarm circuit.

Fig.12.1 Buchholz Relay

49
Buchholz relay relies on the fact that an electrical fault inside the transformer tank is accompanied
by the generation of gas and if the fault is high enough it will be accompanied by a surge of oil from
the tank to the conservator

Whenever a fault occurs inside the transformer, the oil in the transformer tank gets overheated and
gases are generated. The generation of the gases depends mainly on the intensity of fault produced.
The heat generated during the fault will be high enough to decompose the transformer oil and the
gases produced can be used to detect the winding faults. This is the basic principle behind the
working of the Buchholz relay.

Buchholz relay can be used in the transformers having the conservators only. It is placed in the pipe
connecting the conservator and the transformer tank. It consists of an oil filled chamber. Two
hinged floats, one at the top of the chamber and the other at the bottom of the chamber which
accompanies a mercury switch each is present in the oil filled chamber. The mercury switch on the
upper float is connected to an external alarm circuit and the mercury switch on the lower is
connected to an external trip circuit.

12.2 Over Current and Earth Fault Protection

Over Current and Earth Fault protection are applied against external short circuit and excessive over
loads. These over current and earth Fault relays may be of Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
or Definite Time type relays (DMT). Generally IDMT relays are connected to the in-feed side of the
transformer.
The over current relays can not distinguish between external short circuit, over load and internal
faults of the transformer. For any of the above fault, backup protection i.e. over current and earth
fault protection connected to in-feed side of the transformer will operate.
Backup protection is although generally installed at in feed side of the transformer, but it should trip
both the primary and secondary circuit breakers of the transformer. Over Current and Earth
Fault protection relays may be also provided in load side of the transformer too, but it should not
inter trip the primary side circuit breaker like the case of backup protection at in-feed side. The
operation is governed primarily by current and time settings and the characteristic curve of the
relay. To permit use of over load capacity of the transformer and co-ordination with other similar
relays at about 125 to 150% of full load current of the transformer but below the minimum short
circuit current.

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Fig.12.2 Over Current and Earth Fault Protection

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 CHAPTER-13

SAFETY

The safety department works for safety of the industrial personnel & plant.

Its objective is to provide general awareness about safety in the plant and make sure that the
safety norms are being followed.

It provides general safety wear like helmets, safety goggles & P.P.Es (Personnel Protective
Equipment) to the plant employees.

It also makes sure that the safety devices like fire extinguishers, hose pipes, SCBA (self-
content breathing apparatus), etc. are conveniently available in the plant and are in good
&running conditions.

It also makes sure that the leakage detecting instruments are working properly.

This department also looks after the electrical safety by maintaining the resistance of the
earth pits and by making sure that the devices for cutting off power are properly maintained.

Apart from maintaining the various safety devices, this department holds safety audits and
carry out mock drills periodically.

It also makes sure that the vehicles that carries toxic substances (chlorine, HCl, etc.) from
the industry, maintains the safety rules and are free from any leakage.

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 CHAPTER-14

ENVIRONMENT

The main aim of this department is to minimise the pollution caused by the plant. It
accomplishes this task by employing various national and international environmental rules
within the plant.

It makes sure that no waste water is released from the plant. All the waste water is collected
and stored in a specially constructed basin from where it is treated and used again in the
plant.

It also makes sure that no harmful chemicals or gasses are released into the atmosphere,
without proper treatment.

It also supervises the functioning of the sewage treatment plant of the industrial colony.

It conducts regular air pollution tests, using specially designed machines to keep a track on
the suspended particles in the atmosphere.

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 CHAPTER- 15

CONCLUSION
The two months long training that I went through, brought in new technologies and expanded my
knowledge in the electrical field. I got an opportunity to see how; known theoretical concepts are
put in practice in the industry. Meeting with deadlines, how to keep safety the first priority, how to
manage the running of motors through a single control unit, and finally how to keep the system
working were experiences that I gained throughout the training period.
Also during the training I learnt that it is always good to keep the system technologically sound, that
is to keep the system up to date by replacing as many equipment as possible in case of any
technological advancement.
In addition to the electrical distribution system of the plant, we also learned about the functioning of
a device called rectiforer, which is the most critical part of the plant. We learned about the working
of the monopolar cells in the cell house as well as the complete production process of the plant.

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 REFERENCES

https://www.macromatic.com/blog/relays/what-is-undervoltage
https://owlcation.com/stem/How-does-a-Buchholz-relay-work
http://www.electronicshub.org/what-is-motor-starter/
https://www.electrical4u.com/
www.ckbirlagroup.com/orient-paper.php

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