'I PROJECT ENGINEERING

of Process Plants
RASE, H. F. AKD B.<RROW, Y.H .
Project Engineering of Process Plants
RASE, 11. F.

Pipi~igDesign for Process Plants

PROJECT ENGINEERING
of Process Plants

HOWARD F. RASE
Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering
The University of Texas
and

M. H. BARROW
Project Engineer
Foster Ti7heeler Corporation

Original Illustrations
by

Assistant Professor of Drawing

The University of Texas

NEW YORK . JOHN WlLEY 8 SONS, INC.

london . Sydney
PREFACE
I n the early days oi the chemical industry, new plants were des~gned
by a chemist and a mechanical engineer \ ~ i t hthe assistance of one
or two draftsmen. The design work progressed slowly, but since the
processes were simple, the job could be completed in a reasonable
amount of time.
The simplicity of design methods used in industry's early days con-
trasts sharply with the complexity of modern plant design. The joint
efforts of specialists in engineering, construction, and management and
a close interrelationship between them are necessary ior the design and
construction of a modern plant.
The supervision and coordination of these specialists has become the
job of a specialist. He is called the project engineer.
I n many cases the project cnginccr has a background in chemical
engineering. I n addition to chemical engineering he must understand
mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering problems. He must keep
informed on procurement practices and he well schooled in the ways of
office management. I n the past this vast amount of know-how not
included in a chemical engineering education has been gained by trial
and error or from experienced project engineers.
I t is the purpose of this book to record information and techniques
used in plant design and to discuss ideas that many project engineers
have developed through years of practice. It is written from the point
vii
 ...
vtlo Preface Preface ix

of vier!- of a project engineer, hut is not intended only for him or for 2. Yisualization rif equilment is facilitated hy isonirtric and pictorial
the indiridual aspiring t o becolne a project engineer. It should he v i e m or rross-sections supplemented by other r i e x s .
useful t o any engineer wlro designs process equipment, since he must 3. Design equations, unless con~pletelpeinpirical, should be developed
know the tlicories and techniques of mechanical design, procurement, sn that their l i n ~ i t a t i o nwill
~ he unrlerstond.
and construction, in addition to hasic chelniral engineering principles. 4. Oily ronrlnonly w r d drsign mrthorl. -iio~llrl hf p r ? s m t r d
Project Engineeririg of Process Plnnts is also intended a s a test for ;i. E X R I I I ~01
I ~ achl:d
S c i c i l i i t i ~ i i sspecifications, and con-
chemical engineering plant design courses. Most chemical engineering tracts are a t times prefcmblc to detailed e s l h n a t i o n s .
curricula in the United States h a r e courses in process plant design. The 6. Conipilations of design data arid sources of inforniation sliorrld he
student finds such courses inraluable for three reasons. H e is able to given tliroughout the text.
integrate the compartmentalized k n o d e d g e obtained from bmic courses. 7. Economics sl~oulrlbe discusse<l in relation to each phase of plant
H e has greater opportunity for original thinking. And, third, he gains the design and procurement. rather than isolatcd ill a separate chaptcr.
healthy self-assurance t h a t conles with being able t o apply his kno\dedge 8. T l ~ cyoung engineer vill profit from the definition and usc of terxni-
to n comprehensive practical problen~. nology common to the cor~stsrictiuninilrlstry.
'l'l~e principles of chelnicnl engineering have been nhly rcconled in
T h e authors are grateful to the illany conipanics which furnished illua-
sucli texts as Hougcn and \V:~tson's Chei,iici~l Process principle,^ and
tratiuns. Specific nrknordedgments arc made in the text. Thanks are
Brown's V n i t Operations, and the student s-ill h a r e such hooks i o r
:rko due Professor hl. !-an \\'inklc for his many helpful suggestions.
reference in making process design calculations.
The cwnvcrsion of these process calculations to a workable plant de-
sign is project mgincering. Project Engineering of Process Plants has
hccn planned to acquaint the student ivith the niethods, organization.
and pliilosopliy of project engineering.
The book is rlivided into four sections. T h e major steps in plant design
are outlined in the first section, and the business and 1eg:ll phases of plant
design are discussed in part t w . P:~rt three gives principles of cquip-
mcnt design and selection and design of structure foundations and piping.
E q u i p e n t common to all process plants is considered in detail d l e r r a s
o t l ~ c requipment is treated briefly in a single chapter, althougli refer-
ences t o more conil~lctesources of inforlilation are given. X o attelnpt
has heen made t o providc n handbook or guide t o the selection of all
types of equipment. Technological progress is too rapid t o make such
a n undertaking n-ortlinMe. Instead design principles and reasons for
current practices arc elnpha~izcilso that the reader can derelop a sound
basis for his own decisions.
T h e last part of the book is a clcscription of construction operations,
and any enginecr cngaged in plant dasign is adrised t o accept the first
opportunity t o observe the coi~stroctioll of a plant from start t o finish.
After t h a t experience the engineer 11iua11y becomes a much better
designer.
T o aid in making the book useRrl t o both student and practical engi-
neer, a n effort is made to adhere to the f o l l o ~ i n gprinciples:

1. The rclationahip between each design phase ran be hetter under-

stood if the scrpencc of chapters fo1lon.s the usual steps in plant design.
 CONTENTS
1 The Pro,j~ctEngineer

Part 1 MAJOR STEPS IN PLANT DESIGN

Plant Location
Preliminary Data for Construction Projects
Process Engineering
Flow Diagrams
Plot Plans
Scheduling the Project
Engineering Design and Drafting

Part 2 BUSINESS AND LEGAL PROCEDURES

9 Procurement Operatims
10 Office Procedure
- 11 Contracts and Contractors
!

Part 3 DETAILS OF ENGINEERING DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

SELECTION

12 Vessels
13 Heat Exchangers
 1
Contents
Process Punips
Colllpressurs mil T a r ~ u u ~Pnu n ~ p s CHAPTER
Motors :ind Turl~incs
Other Process Equipment
Piping Design
Thermal Insulation
Process Instrunlents
Plant Ctilitics
Foundatious
Structures and Buildings
Safety in Plant Design

Part 4 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLANT THE

25 Construction
j PROJECT
ENGINEER
I
! The design and erection of a process plant could nerer i ~ ecompleted
solcly by nlelnhers of one branch u f cngineering. Instead such an
undertaking must result from courdiuatcd efforts of chemical, mechani-
cal, electrical, and civil mgincera, chemists, and specialists from man:-
other fields. This combined effort, horvercr, must be directed by a
single individual wlio can guide the engineering, anticipate the routine
problems, and nchcdule the rarious phascs of work. It has, therefore.
hecome the practice in process industries to assign this overall respon-
sibility for thc entire design and erection of a process plant to a singlc!
individual called the project engineer or manager. The duties of thc
project engineer for a process plant, other than requiring a round
chemical engineering background,' demand knowledge of other engi-
neering fields, hueiness administrationl and economics. Although it is
not neressary for him to he an expert in any of these, he must have
sufficient knorvledge to cr~ordinatcthe activities in all of them.
The larger operating companies in the process industries, w c h as
chemical and petroleum, maintain extensive staffs of technologist,^ in
all hranchcs of engineering for research, de~clol)ment,and plant main-
tenance. Such a firm will ordinarily explore any new process under
consirleration both tecllnirally and economically. However, rvhen an
*Sonre practicing projrcl engineers have mechanical engineering training and
additional study in chemistry.
t 1
2 The Project Engineer 3
Project Engineering of Process Plants
~ q ~ e r a t i ncorr~pany
g ~leciclvstu build :I couil~lrteplaut or a binglr process
unit, an engineering and condrnction fir111 sjieriiilizing in such work is
usually retained.
Kumerous variatirmi art> ilo-silllt in I i i i o r of v o r k hetween
the engineering and euu;tructiou fir111 c o ~ t r c t riind the opcrating
company (customer).
1. Prorrsa rlerciopnit.nt, pruress ~lesign.euginecring and construction
by contractor. Examples: (01 Fort4gu customers desiring plants of
American deaign. it]I Sen-ly i ~ r i i ~0 1 .d young process industry firms.
I c J Established firms uot having the pcrsmnel available for active
participation in any pilase of the iiesign or firnls which prefer to have
contrartor hantllc all phases. id I Contrnctor frmishing patented process
or developing a snitable process.
2. Process developed by customer, pri~rrss design a joint effort,
engineering and ronstrnctiun hy contrnct(~r. This is a common ar-
rangenlent when the customer lins. tlrrol~glii~envlr scale and pilot plant
uwrk, developed a proccss arirl ~vishet.to luilcl a full-scale plant. The
contractor use? the customer':: basic (latn.
3. All process design done by customer. When the customer has a
large process design group that has been cli~scly associated mith a
process, it is often advisable for this group to upp ply a complete proc-
ess deaign t o the contractor. I t is not uncmlruon, l i o ~ e v e r ,for the
customer to rcquest the contractor t o check the dcsign.
Other variations of tbe division of responsibility are possible. It is
important to note, however, that the projert enginecr's role is extremely
important in any arrangement. \\-lien both the contractor and cus-
touier are participating, the customer's project ellginerr nud the contrac-
tor's project eugineer havc dutics essentially r a l l l ; and the chart
in Fig. 1-1 depicts the duties of both.
The customer's project engineer niust supply tile contractor's project
engineer with all the information concerning the custnmer's require- Fig. 1-1. Project al.gmiznlion
ments and preferences. He must check and approve all designs, and
obtain comments from various design and operating groups in his own and basic research, decided to construct a plant. Firm A sends out
organization. The contractor's project engineer must be responsible inquiries to various contractors xvhich are prepared hy A's process dc-
for transmitting information to the rarious groups in his own organiza- partmcnt and project engineer, These includc a dcscription of the
tion, for guarding both the contractor'y and customer's interest in all proposed location of the plant, tlic scope of the project, the production
engineering decisions, for contractual obligations, and above all for required, and any other inforiuation not available to the contractor.
seeing t'hat the plant is completed on time and that it operates arcord- The contractor assigns a project engineer t o the job, who immediately
ing t o specifications. becomes the liaison b e h e e n the customer and all dcpartments of the con-
Referring again t o Fig. 1-1, the dutics of a project engineer can be tractor. Thc project engineer works with his process design and estimating
briefly traced in a clockwise manner around the chart starting a t the groups in preparing an estimate for thc cost oi designing and construct-
top. Assume that a process plant, Fir111 A, has, after economic studies ing the proposed plant. The estimate is presented to the customer in
4 Project Engineering of Process Plants
hound fornl. It c:ircfuIIy outlin(>>all duties and oblign tionr of cwtom-
cr and contrartor, decrrihee the proreis units an11 equipmrnt, givrs
the design spccifirationi, opera~ion:~land merirnnir:rl gnnrnnters, and
.sets a completion rlatc,.
Aseume that the contract is an-:irdcd to Contwctor B. H'.? project
engineer then immediately starts organizing tlre jol, The project
nlanager of '4 is rr~ntactetl ;rnd tlic p r n r ~ vrequiren~ents are firmly
establislled by agrerlucnt wit11 -1's IIrocess groul~.using the proposal
as a basis. The contr;~vtor'>prorr.ss group tlrrn proweds Kit11 the final
process dmign. As the rlcign is l~cingdeveloped, n~cclianiral specifi-
cations are !!-rittc~~ an11 :~greerl uptm and :dl pl~niesof tlw projcrt arc
s c l ~ d u l c dso that tlir c ~ ~ ~ n p l c t il;rtt
i r ~ n r:rn bc met. T h r p r o c r ~ sinfor-
ination is transmitted to tlit- various dezign and ~lrnftinggroups by
tire project engineer and his nsist:mts. They interpret and ilcvelol~
this infornrntion and ?e? that t l ~ c1 1 r o c ~ ~requirrn~rnts
s are ronll~letely
satisfied in the layout and ilrsigu and that euston~er specification^ are
met.
-4s -eon as the debiyn begins to talcc forin, purchnsing conrmit~nents
are n ~ n d et o wsurr j~ro~irpt rlrlivery. Purr,lr;~ncsthat require engineering
judgment arc rcvicn.ed 11y the projcct engineer an11 specialty enginerrs
MAJOR STEPS
before being purrl~arcd so that the lwrt available crgiipnrmt vill he
obtaincrl a t a m t i ~ f a c t o r yprice.
.Is the design ilevelq~s,rel~rcscntntiwsof the conetrurtion ricpart-
1 1 m t are hiefed by the project engineer Crn the .scope :lnd details of
the prujcct so that construction may be plannctl and lrcparation of
the zitc 11t,gu11. l\Irml)ws uf the 01)ernting d e p r t m r n t s ( ~ f hot11 PLANT DESIGN
custo~nerand contractor are a s k d to revie~vtlrc design and to ~ ~ g g c s t
ilnprorclncnts.
r.
I liruoglrout ;ill this activity thc. cuetonl~r's project engineer m t l tire
c o n t m ~ t o r '1,rvjcct
~ enginecr and tlicir nsiktants 11:ivc been icrir~i-ing
all dra~i-ings:ind n~:~lerinlrquisitionr. Cmrnrent.? arc assemt~lc~l and
r e t u r n d t r ~the design groups so that thc 111~rrisaryclranycs ran 1,c
madr. The oontractrds project engineer nus st see that these c11ange.i
are pro]wrly ext,cutetl and that hoth tlic custon~er'sand contr:~ct~~r't:
interests are gunrrled. Changw niust not alter the original prow?. re-
quircnients, scope of !!-nrk," or specifications. 111 fnct, the prujrrt en-
gineer's responsibilities do not end until the c,pcrating department 113s
si~ownthat the plant meets tlre design specifications and process and
meclranical guarantees.
*If changes in thc scupe of work nw desired by tlre customer, he must ask for
thwe changes in wcordance with t h e h n r s oi tile contract. The contrario~.can
;,+I, fur :~rlditionnlfees for tliesp elumgcs. (See Chapter 11.)

project engineer coordinates and directs the entire
T HE
design project. His active participation increases after
the completion of process engineering, but in many in-
stances he also takes part in the early stages of job
planning. He may assist management in the selection of
a site and will also direct the gathering of preliminary
data. His rnost intensive work, however, comes during
the period of detailed engineering design and drafting, for
it is this work that culminates in the selection of equip-
ment and production of drawings for use in construction.
CHAPTER 2
PLANT
LOCATION
The proper location of a plant is as important to its success as the
selection of a process. Xot only must many tangible factors such as
labor supply and raw material sources be carefully considered, but ulw
a numbcr of intangible factors which are morc difficult t o evaluate.
The selection of a plant site must be based upon a very detailed
study in which all factors are weighed as well as possible. Such a
study often requires a substantial outlay of money, hut false ecmou~ies
a t this p i n t may lead t o great losses in the future.
T l ~ c r e is cmsiderahle literature on t11c subject of plant location
ranging from practical considerations to the theory of plant l o c a t i ~ m
r.
Ll~etheoretical aspects are rxtretncly interesting, and in grnrral s t c ~ n
e d1909 in thc German
from the classical work of \ V e b e r ~ ~ ~ u b l i z hin
and translated in 1928 in English. Many excellent outlines or chcck
lists h a r e bccn puhlishcd which aid in illant location studies by listing
factors that must be considcrcd. 4 n aht~reviated listing of mule of
thc literature in this ficld appears a t the end of this ~ h a p t e r . Tlresr
references will incvitably lead tlre interested reader t o tile entire litera-
ture on plant location.
GENERAL PROCEDURE
Before proceeding with any plant location study, one must have a
complete knowledge of the existing company organization, history,
cost data, and marketing techniques. Just as a family must know its
8 Project Engineering of Procerr Plants
I r i t I [)nr!,l~:i-i!~:: :i II(.\V I I ~ u - 1 %so :I colmpitny 11111-1
:rls(~ knoll- itticlf lhciorc locating :I new plant. r\cquiririg such knor~--
ledge, l ~ o w r e r ,is not :~ln-ayseasy. I n the fast g r ~ ~ v i nIWJW-s
dustry, many organizntionc have grown i r ~ m i?mall family-orvned con-
g ill-
cerns iuto lnrge corpurate mterprises in a short span r ~ fye:lrs. ('Iwlr-
('ut ,~rg:~nization and lroli,,y ~ F t c nfail to 11,. (lrfinr:il <Iririnx -111.11 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 -
no~ucnalperiods of grun-th. I t is vell w x t h vhile fur a cornlxtny in
this situation t o attempt definition of policy and organiz:~tion Ilciore
proceeding ni!!l cxpanbion in nrrv areas.
I n devising a TI-\-orkahlellrocednre for a plmt, location study. soulc
em~proniisculust he made b e t m c n tlvu extremes. One, a n exlianstiv<,
.statistical study requiring a decade for conipletion and the other, :I
short-cut study heavily weighted wit11 preconceived icleas m ~ dlacking
in ohjectirit?-. A complete study of thousancls of possi!)lc locations ii.
of emme, out of the question. Some rneans of decreasing the n u u i l m
of 1mssibilities nus st hc found. .%ires1 has suggcstcd the niethod of
allparent nss<~cintion. A surrey of existing plants of the type being
co~uidered~villoften indicatc th:it ccrtirin types of locations 11aw h e w
referred in the 11a.t. Questioning of the ~ n a n n g e m m tof tlicsc plants
niay indicatc spccial considerations ~ 1 1 i c l dictxted i such locations. I11
this nianner, it niay bc possible t o rcstrict the *tudy t o several genrral
areas.
1 I a n y processrs have one or more predominant factors vhich serve
to uiinirnize the nunibcr of possibilities for plant location. R a w ~nntcrial
and transportation costs may 11c such t h a t n p1:lnt must be located near
a source. This ~villsuto~natici~lly rcducc the sitvs studiecl to those ncnr
sources of raw ~naterixl,rrliich nlay be i1nl3- st,vernl in u u ~ n b r r . Labor
require~nmts may be such that citics k l o ~:u rertain size must l!v
~~xrlrnlcd, because only n larger city can supply the h r g r 1;ibor rcquirc-
nients, l'l~eseand other f:ictors s ~ r w:IS eKective scrcming i ~ ~ c n~t vs l ~ i c h
.wve 110th tinic and n ~ m e y .
H a r i n g derided upon scvcrnl por.;il~lr regions for p l ; ~ n tl ~ ~ c a t i o nthe , sln~uldalso hc located and evaluated. The rost of SCIK matrrial de-
nrxt step is a dct:iilctl -tudy of tlic possiblc locations. This study in-
clndee a survey of all tht: important f:tctors involved, arld n cost stody.
It is not possihlc to assign dollar value.? to all the factors t h a t uiust bc
considered. Such intangible factor*: however, can often he conlparerl
by assigning each a numerical valne (100, 200. 300. ctc) the size of
1r.hic11 depends upon t l ~ cimportance attadled to the particular i t c n ~
bciug considered. T h e assigning of the nutnerical values is b a r d 011
opjniou, hut such opinion can bc agreed upon by the management at t l ~ c
outset of the study no ns to insure a n objective nppraacl~to the accumula-
tion and preseutatirln of data.
After the dctailecl study of sevewl arras indicates a partirulnr
Plant Locotion 9
region or corninunity as being idedly suited. thcn a specific site in t11:it
rcgion must be selected. Yasecnl" has emphasized the importance
ui ~ l c t e r n ~ i n i nthe -
p specific site after the conilnunity has been sclcctcd.
If d u r ~ n gthe study of sewral comn~unitiesa particular site in one is
found that has nnwual appeal. tlir eutire stndy may he influenced by
it. Such ~nflucnccin effwt y r e s undue ~ v r i y l ~t ot the sitc itself, I~eearrsc
it is so o f t e ~ ipwsible for ouc or more individuals t o fa\-or thc appear-
:tncc u i :I g i x n sitc and 11lace excessive enlplia?is on its iuq~ortancc.
PLANT LOCATION FACTORS
R o w Materials
r
I>h e selection of the sonrce of r:1~1- nmatcrials, :rlthough i t nlny not
be a t the plant site, is an rxtrrmely ini]~ortantfactor in t l ~ cu l t i ~ n a t c
i I<]cation of the plant. I n many cases, the stud?- of the r a material
situation m:ly ~ ~ r e c e (tlic
~
l c analysis of t , l ~ eother plant lowtionnl facturr,
sinec pilot plant 7vol.k on a. p ~ c c s srequires a t least n knon.leilge of t l ~ r
ultimate ~ : I K uiilterial supply. Process devclop~nent~ o r kand econ~~niic
studies d l indicate the m i n i n m n ~stantlartl~for rurv ~uatc,rinlselection.
Once thcse st:.ntlards arc dcterminctl, then all possible sonrrer of :~cccpt-
:ii~ler a x ninterials can be located :md more rlet:lilcd analysis of thc
source; r a n prorccd.
T h e extent of each raw riiatcrinl source must be determined in tlic
I
light of existing and estimated future requiremmts. .In a t t c ~ n p tto
1 estimate the life of tllc r a ~ vinaterial source hasctl on fntnre require-
~ n c n t s niust be made. Alternate sourccs or substitutes in t l ~ carea
livered to tllc plant site can then he dctermined for a11 tlmsc sources
mectiug thc quality and quant,ity specifications required by the process.
.Iccuratti frcigl~trates must be used in determining thcse costs. Bc-
cause o l tlic conlplex freight ratc strncture that exists in tlic United
States, i t is not 1111ssiblcto use soul? sinq~lcdol1:ir 11er mile figurt, iscc
IJC!IJ\\-I.A ~ r l : ~ ~ srule
i ~ ~s;t~a tl t , ~tlnlt if thv raw 111xtcrix1lo>cs ~ a l > i , l c ~ r -
;ibk woigllt during processing tu the fimil product,, it is cheaper t o loetitc
the plant a t the source of the raw material. As is true, hon-ever, wit11
all sue11 general rules, there arc a n u n ~ b c r uf notable cxccptions. X
~lrlivere,l ran- nintcrial cost analysis sliould n l w i y ~IF n1:idr for e;tch
111nntl w ~ t i u ubeing w n ~ i d < , r c d
10 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Transportation
.is stated previously, no simple dollar per nlile cost rule can be ap-
plied t o freight rates. Railroad freight rates in particular are cx-
trcmcly complex. An example given hy Yaseen'Vllustrates this
complexity most effectively. H e describes a nianufacturer d i n is
~'onsidcringa central Ohio location for a nen. plant and who has dis-
tribution in surrounding territory and also in the 1.0s Angeles area. A
rnajor imnpetitor is located in Cleveland, Ohio. Considering Jlarysville
as a locatim. it is found tlrat the freight rate per hundred pounds will
he $556 to Lns .Angeles. The rate fn)m Cleveland is the same, h loca-
tion in Pcnria, Ohio, only scvcn miles furthcr west of hlarysrille ill
enjoy a rate of $4.83 per hundred pounds producing an advantage over
tlrc (Ilevelmd ro~npctitur.
I t is not possible to prcscnt a coniplete discussion of freight rates
in this rhaptcr. The engineer in charge of obtaining information re-
latcd to plant location need m l y realize that transpr~rtation experts
must bc cousultcd in crtnblishing freight charges and optimum location
lvith r t q e c t to transportation. Such expert information is available
from the frrigllt agents and traffic cxpcrts of tlrc railroads and othcr
transportation facilitic;. In addition, thc traffic manager of one's own
rompany can l ~ of e great assistance in obtaining the necessary inforwa-
tion and aiding in its interpretation.
The effect of transportation facilities and ratc.; on plant location
van he a rontrolliug factor, Industries such as the plastic industry, for
instance, 15-hich must dclivcr many small slripnients to various users in
the miniurum of time, find location near the majority of users inanda-
tory. I,t,ss-tl~an-car-Itlad-lot (LCL) rates are very high; and, there-
fore. the distanre that the material must he shipl)ed should be kept t o
a minimum.
Railroad Freight
Although truck transportation has increased inarkeitly in tlrc past
tcn or fifteen ytm" it is safe t o say that fcrv process plants could exist
ivitlir~ut awess t o at lcast one milroad. The railri~ads continuc t o
carr? the hulk of industrial products. Disrnssions 5~1thrailroad freight
agents conwrning frcight rates ant1 methods of handling in the various
ronimunitics under consideration are necessary if a true picture i~ t o
hc ihtainrd for comparing the relativc advantages of *everal locations.
A .study of the railroad freight structure n-ill reveal several funda-
nrental r r c i l . Because of t l ~ crelatively high iwst ( ~ ft,ransferring
rlripments fronr m e railroad tu another, it is desirable t r ~locate plants
along major railrmtd ruutes so t l ~ st l ~ i ~ ~ u will
~ ~ nfollo\v
ts the major
Plant Location 11
lines betn-ccn the shipping point and ultiinatc destination. TVhere pos-
sihlc it is desirable t o have more than one railrond servicing a com-
~ i ~ u n i because
ty of thc greater flexibility snch service providw.
JInny larger communities served by several railroads have terulinal
companies or so-callctl belt-line railroa~lsnhicli are often jointly orwed
by the several railroads in the region. Thebe trrminal railroad; provide
service hetveen the tracks of the major railroads entering the com-
n ~ u n i t yand all plant sites. Such service is rapid and proiluces cheaper
transfer from road to road and ultin~atelyt o tllc pltrnt. Area< served
by terminal companies, therefore, are t o be derirwl.
If large amounts of LCL ehipmcnk are anticipitfd, the esistmce
of a car-loading company in the area is advantagrou.;, These car
loaders offer door-to-duor LCL service. They collrrt a nulnhcr of LCL
shipments from an area having the same ( l f h n a t i o n , and are able to
assemble complete carload shipments for delivery to the r:iiIroad
Some railroads provide similar service in large communities.
At first t l ~ m g h tit may seem that a plant should either be located
a t the raw n~aterialsource or a t the market for its ~irocluctr. Consider-
ing t,ranq~ortatioaali~nc,horrever, an intermediate location may he
just as advantageous. Railroads offer fahrii.ation-in-trw~lsit privileg~.~
for certain commorlities. This privilcgc pcrmits the material to be
shipped t o a plant. processed, and then sent on its v n y t ( ~tlrc ultilnate
destination for essentially the same rate that ~ ~ - o u hl da r e been clrargcd
for a non-stop trip. It is n.ell t o check the existence of such pririlegcs
for the comniodities to be produced. Many other rate pcculiarities
lravc cvi~lvedas the railroads d c \ ~ l o p c dand conil1etition became keen.
Trucking
Interstate truck n~overnents,a s in the case of the interstate railroad
transportation, are now regulated by the Interstate Commcrcc Com-
mission. Truck lines are elasscd as schctlulcd or non-scheduled car-
riers, depending upon xhether the line offers a regularly scheduled
service b e t w e n t v o points or operates on a contract basis a t timcs
convenient to the shipper. Truck lines have been able to compete
vigorously with tlrc milroads on small shipments and in particular on
short hauls. Because of the competitive advantage in this phase of
freight shipment, the truck lines have concentrated on the development
of efficient means of handling less-than-truck-load-lots (LTI,). As
with railroad freight, excessive transfer should be avoided. Location
of a plant on the route of a major carrier providing direct connections
to various shipping points eliminates the need for transfer and cuts
costs.
I n considering truck transportation in a given community. the fran-
12 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 13

W a t e r Transportation
\v;lltT tr:ili,~l~nrtntioni. nnii i t p o l :ll!Y:iy. hc tilt, r ~ l l v l ~ ~ l ~ s t
IIIC:II I t i ~ ~ c ~ r :t t i ~ ,I I I I I of g e t I I ~ It . is
certainly an a,iv;rnt;~gefor n prow-s p h n t to 11c I~uateII: ~ d j i ~ ( , ~ton t
n:iaigal)l~~ a t c,vcn thnugli initial oper:rtions do not require n-atcr
sllipmenrs. \Inn? co~npiinics11:lre becn :ihlr t o ctirnprtc~rlfectivi~lyin
(Iist:~nt111xrkc,t-eren tl~ou!J~these I I I : I ~ ~ I ? Snrcx ~ e r 11y ~ p1~11ts
~ ~ in l tht>
~ilarket n r w .\ (':~lifornia ~ ~ r o ~ t u cill c r a n ~ n ~ m i Ia, : I I ~ slri]) li~lui(l
: I I I I I I I I ) I ~ ~ : Iin ?e:i-g~i~rg 1,arge.s to the P;rrifiv S ~ r t l ~ \ v e si itn ~ l cuuil~t'te
\\-it11 plants 1oc:iterl in tlic J'acifir Sorth\\-cbt rerrit,~ry. :\ h r g e Gulf
C'oa.4 r a w t i c 1 1 r o ~ l n ( w >hips 735 caustic by XI-going t a r r k ~ rto c a d Process W a t e r
roast tcr~iii~i:ilsfro111 ~11en1:cit is S c ~ r w i r i l ~11y ~ ~rtiil
l m d tniuk to east T h e ~ ~ O C Ci ~Si ~~ l u - t r irca~n k : ~ l ) o ~ -:ill
e uthcr. :I- users o i n-a(i,r. 1-11
coast u:ers. Here ~igain lor^ c w t water frc4gllt enables tlic p r o ~ l u i wto process plant cuuld operate \vithout rratcr 3 5 a rooling medium and :IS
c u n q ~ e t r1~it11~ i r ~ d w t in ~ r the
s ~ i i : ~ r k carc^
t ;I direct r:ix material in certain ] ~ l ~ a s icr fs :I process. T h e n.att.r i ~ ~ p l ' l y
In irilditim to occ:i~~ tra11sp~rtiitim1,tllc C n i t ~ dStzit?> is f i ~ v ~ r ewit11 d of an area, ~ I I I W ~ O Y C . IIIII-t 111: stuili~11IJ~EOTCt h a t area 1,:11i eveii IIC?
many ~ n i l e so i navigable s t r e a ~ n sa n d canal.;. Pcrllnps tile most ? p c - runsidered as a pussil~lerite. .id\-icc rhould be sought from competmt
taclllar c:ilial s y s t c n ~is tlic Intercoastal Canal \vl~irhI ~ I I X - i t lpre~tcrte,l ei iv:itcr experts, inrlwling grologists iincl cl~crnir~al rrrgini'rr.~ ;~~r~r~i:iliziirx
shipping I:ine.. for barge traffic iron1 Bra\\-nsrillc, T c m s to S e w Eng- in n-ater prol~lcuis.
land. Tlle Grc;it I.akcr am1 large rivers sue11 a s the ~ l i ~ i i ~ s i()trio, p~~i. Prior to the study, a clutaileil estimwtr of water rrquirclncnts 110th
Hu11sti11. am1 'L'rnncrsc~ llrovirle a d i l i t i ~ ~ r ~tlroos;~nds nl of milei 111 navi- for tile i~rescnt an11 the f n t w e luust 11c ~uacle. Thi? ~ I I I U I I I t11c,1i IIV
g a b k n.;it~.n\-:i>-s~nis>iugthrougli t l ~ el>ol~ui:~tiou centrr- ( l f the 1-nit~vl i'ollon-etl by wrcful study of the v-atcr a v a i l a l ~ l rin t h e rt,gion heinlr
Sti~tes. t~unsidcrccl. IS well n-ater is to III, used a. twmplrtc stud? of tlie II;I..(.
I 1 v o r c s ~11lants Irave iound it ;~~l\-auingcwus to ojrerate their Iliatory of the underground \v:iter table is necessary. Because o i their
OII-II .sIrip ;ir~d b:l~jir.<.:1ltlroug11 tllc. .wvicc.- of .Aipping coll~l~;~nit.; art, l o ~ e temperature,
r u n d e r g r i ~ u ~ iwater
d supplies arc prefcrrrd if :i~lcqoatt,.
I Y ~ I I : I I I I . Ti, *tin~lrl:ite I\-iiter tr:~nb]~orti~tion the i w l w i l gover11- Powell and Yon I ~ s s b c r g "Ilave clescril~e~l n ~netliod ior predictilig
~ i i e n tI I : I ~iur :i rrunlber o i years ol~erate(lR large barge linv rallcil T h e tire Suture a ~ a i l a t l i l i t yand rrlial~ilityof utidergror~~ld \I--;ltt.r bupl~ly hy
Fw11,r:iI I h r g t , 1.i1iw tpsting existing ivell.!. IYater lrvrls in obsrrvatiim n-clls are ~rleasurc<l
during tlie pumping of nr:lrl~y active n-rlls. T h e iur~luilx uf T l ~ e i + f J
Other M e a n s of Transportation is thcn ustvl to prcrlict t11c il~~:in-clon-i~ iinticipatui or-er :I long period r ~ f
Tllc, wrvirvs offcwcl 11y t l ~ c:tir linvs, expwss co~npariiw,the I'wt p~~rnpi~ig.
Ofliw Ik.part111e11t~aid pipt,Iincs vnry in illq~ortance (lcpen~lingupon R I ~ ~ : n.;itcrs
I ~ I , f r i m ~S ~ ~ ~ : I I I rlr
I S I;tl<cs also reqriirc r:1wf111t , o ~ ~ s i ~ l e r ; t -
the p s r t i ~ w l a r plant in question. Heenare of t l ~ ei n c r e a ~ ein airlinr t,ion s i ~ ~ etllcy
o arc often :~ffected scvcrcly I irason;d variations.
trnffic and the t r l i ~ j ~of o present d a y industry, i t is a~lvantngcuust o Fresh water streams discharging into the w e a n during tinies of low
he 111rated conveniently t o a n aiqlort if for no ot111~renron t h ~ nfur run-off can becoll~esalty due t o sea lvater 11;leli-up. Under these ~:miditions,
tllc convenience of company prrsontiel trtivrling ou plant hu.;ilicss. it may he necessary f(ir the plant to provide large stor:igc facilities for
Although ieiv process plants n-ill require eontir~uous air freight ship- fresh water t o be collected duriug the period of liigli run-off and useil
nwnt, it is I I O ~ uncommon to call for a n emergency air sliipliient o i during the season \illen the strcilm brco111es salty.
; > u t s for plnni cquipn~ent. Here again tlic eonvenimt location of a n I t i i necm-iuy to clri~rk:Ire 1listw.y of I.~TL.I.flon. ~ I YI i k l<.sel ~ for :I>
alr111)rt is :in adrantagc. i r i t ~ ~ iyears
y 11;1rlc us pwsil~lt:so that :i.surnncr oi :111 n d c ~ ~ u a t..11111ily e
14 Project Engineering of Process Plants
can :it 1ca.t hc l~redirtrrlirom historical data. Indubtries niuring into
relati\-el? n e x areas oiten fail to consider the posribility of other plants
fi~llo\vingsuit. The quantity of ~viltcrs1111ply sliould 110t only be ade-
quate for inture riecils of the prol111sed plant in question. hut alsu
:idequate for supplying the nnticil~aterlneeds i ~ iother industrie~that
uliglit n ~ o r einto the area. I t is also desirable to mnsider alternate
sonrces of supply that may be required as the preicrred water sources
become delctcd.
In addition to having t l ~ cproper quantity of m t e r arailablc. the
quality of xvater must also be stu~licrl. Clletnical and h:~cteriological
~xalninationuf the hvater d l indicate the extent of treatntent required
nnrl aid in the development of n-ater cost figurrs for comparison with
other 1oc;ltions. Possi1)ility of the (,ontamination of thc water source
I)? otlicr industries in the area should be anticipate~i. This c o n t a n -
illation may consist o i only raising the temperuture of the water t o
sue11 a lr?-el that its use as a cooling rnediutn rvill be itrq10sbi1)le.
l'lit~ cl~cmicalengineer is usually xell equipped t o tnakc cost c o n -
parism;. of various water supl~lics,hut he rarely ha': tlic background
ncccssary to m:lke intclligent conclusions concerning the extent and
relial~ility ui a particular supply. Such studies ilcscrvc tlic attention
of n competent water consultant trained in geology and meteorology.
Waste Disposal a n d Noise Abatement
Tlic iorivaril-loo* engineer ~villconsider v a s t e disposal and noise
al)ntenicnt just, as i m p ~ ~ r t a nint thinly populate~lareas as in a heavily
populattd rity having spevial ordinances related to these ~ ~ r o l ~ l c t n s .
Sothing is $11 in~principle~lor injudicious as duniping waste in tllc
atmosphere or in nrarby streariie. I n addition to the moral or ethical
c,insider:~ti~)ns, it is not el-m good economics. Eventually the com-
m ~ ~ n i t~vill
y rise in indignation and impose laws which may be so
burilrnsi,me t h t profitable operation ~ o u l r l bc impossible. It be-
Iioovt,~tliv engineer. tlit!reiore, t o study tlic miste dispoiial and noise
lruhlcms and to i.onsirlcr the ruethods and costs of a n effective control
program for each region being studied.
Plant Location 15
A detailed kno~vledgcof tlie quantity of power and steam required
for the operation of thv projrrted pliint must be (htuineil i~rfurctlir
study can proceed. Tlie c o d 01 :dl fuels avail;~hiein the area slii,ulrl
he carefully analyzcd S:rtural gar: l ~ i p e l i n r .are making ;I rlicap gas
available in many parts of the country. Industrial rates for natural ga.
appear attractive, h t they mnst 11e ex:~tninrd carefully. Imlltstrics
located remotely f r i ~ n tlw l natural g;is snpply will 11e tile first to suffer
slrould a n interruption in pipcline service occur (17 a n unduly c d < l
winter cause a taxing of the facilities. Further, c l ~ t qrates for indus-
tries in cities served by pipelines often only apply to sunlmer coniiitii~nz
ml~enthe demand is lo^. In such cases, alternate iuel supply tiinst be
available for the winter months.
Evaluation of power costs is greatly aided by the rr:tdy c o o p r a t i m
nf local utility companies. Most of these org:inizations maintain staffs
that specialize in industrial pmver. Tlic cost of produring power a t
the process plant n-liicll will include rriting-off the construction of a
p o w r plant, is prrhaps more diffirult to d~.termine. I t r i l l he l~aseil
on t,lie iuel :~vail:il)l~,in t11c arc:^, t l ~ cr m n p ~ n y ' sr x p e ~ i c ~ ~~vitli
c c other
poxver generating operations, and particu1:rrly tlic eqirrit,rrce of u ~ i ! ~ .
plants in the area.
It is n d r a n t a g e ~ ~ uifs a progressive utility cotrlpany servils tllc region
being considered. Even process plants generating tlieir o x n porver iirlrl
it necessary because o i rapid espan9ion to purclinw large anlriunts of
power from time to time. Only a dependable and mpidly g r ~ ~ a i n g
utility system can supply such demands.
Labor
A large portion of the costs of any manufactured item is repreaentr~l
11y l a l ~ o rcosts. Althuitgl~ 1:tbllr rates nrc inore nnll more 11rro11iinp
similar in n ~ o s tparts o i the country, iactors su(,li as skill. labor t.rl:l-
t i m s , and [lie gmcral wcliaw of tlir Inhoring forre affect I d ~ o rp r ~ ~ h , .
tivity and efficiency m:~tcri:tlly. Earli region being consid~red ior
plant 111eatiun nlust 11e surveyed to rlcterriiinc the nvaili~l~ility and the
skills o i tlie lallor market. Thc skills need not exactly c o n i ~ ) ; ~ wit11
re
those required by the process plant. This fact was tnost effectively
rletnonstrated during the speculator influx of industry on the Guli Coast,
rlf the United States. Chemical plant operating labor a n s recruited
from iormer refinery operating men and oil field workers, both groups
of ~ v l i i c lhad
~ experience which required the same degree of responsibility
as t h a t in the chetniral plant.
Maintenance tncn make u p a large portion of any process p l m t lnlmr
force, and i t is necessary t h a t the crimmunity have availabl,, a t least
16 Project Engineering of Process Plants
11 nucieui uf sue11 forces a> ell a; training facilities for proviilil~gn r n
men.
The wage rates existing in a given conununity are i~nportaiit,but it,
~vouldhe a tlcfinitc mistake t o plan on the continuation of lorcr rates
indefinitely. The t,rend in tlie United States has been toward a gradual
elimination of differences in wage rates betwrcn ~ a r i o u sparts of tile
country. Perhaps, a Inore important factor is tile stability of such
rates in a com~nut~ity.Some communitier; have beeu notorious for
xide fluctuations, a condition ~vhicb n~;tkc; c<nnpany planning ex-
tremely difficult.
A further cotisideration is the history of labor unrest in the region.
Some cities in tlie United States, particularly the older industrial areas,
have a history of lal~orunrest vhich began back in tlic days of earl?
union organization and apparently has continued periodically to the
present tinic. C'onfcrenccs ~ i t hother plant nianagers in the area and
local onion officials n-ill aid in evaluating the general labor picture. A
roufcrcnce >\-it11local union representatires will also serve to begin the
cstahlishn~ent of amiable relations. Talks with the managcmcnt of
existing plants \,-ill yield data on the imllortant problem of lahor turn-
over. A stable labor force is valuable in successful plant operation. A
look a t the liotnes of the laboring force in a c o u n n u ~ ~ i tand
y knowledge
of the percentage of home ownerships slrould give some clue t o the
contentment of the laboring group.
I n addition to federal labor laws ~ v h i r happly throughout the United
States, various state? and. rmnmunities h a r e enacted l a w affecting
labor relations and ivorkmen'.- cmnpen?ation. minimum age, and otllcr
la~v-:related t o lahor pmrtices. Tlrrsc l:~\v.ivary from rrgiou to region
nncl competent legal advice is necessary for the porposc of interpreta-
tion.
Weather
V'eatlier data for a numhcr of years sl~ouldbe assembled for each
con~munity heing studied Particular a t t r n t i m ,sI~ould be given t o
severe eouditioni of ~vcathcr snch as hurricanes, eartl~quakcs, and
floo~ls. These catastrophic events. 1vliic11 must be assumed as prob-
able, increase construction cost. Extremely cold \yeather often Iiam-
per;; lirocess plant operation and requires special construction features
to protect iquiliment frotn freezing. Predominantly warm weather
permits che;lpcr con?truction, but clas~ically it is said to reduce the
dlicieney of a labor force. Suclr a conclusion must bc v i e w d wit11
r c q ~ t i c i s n~vheu
~ the production rceords of process plants on the hot
and h~nnidTexas nnd Louisiana Gulf Coast are con~pnreilwith those
in o t i w part? of the country.
C0.t. i ~ Ii r r n t i ~ yor air conditioning may be estimated using m a t h e r
Plant Location 17
data frotn former years and experiences of existing plants. Air con-
ditioning in hot sections of t l ~ ccountry can no longer be ciinsidered a
u s u . Indeed, companies endeavoring t o opcratc their office: nnil
i control rooms vithout air conditioning \\-ill find it difficult t o obtain or
I keep employees.
II
Community Factors
I One of the most important aspects of plant location is oitr.11 orer-
looked or only regarded ligl~tly. l'l~is aslicct is the effect of t l ~ cc l ~ i ~ r -
acter and facilitiw of tlic conmninity Ilcing sturlieil. I t is most diffi-
cult to obtain objective infornmtinn on a community bec:iure the u ~ u d
sources of information, such as Chambers of Commrrce or Inilustrial
C o ~ n m i s s i o ~tend
~ s t o prcscnt eou~owllatbiauerl i ~ l ~ i n i ohcr:lusc n of t l ~ r i r
natural entl~usiaimfor t h ~ i Or T T - ~home to\\-11.
h study of the cu~nnlunityshould hcgin \\-it11a I O I into ~ its hibtoricxl
dcvclo]nncnt. Froni such a study! tlrc charnctcr o f a city ill emerge
i including its general :rttitude toward industrial cievelo~iments.
Asswning that the historical study yield- a sati>factory report, tlir
gencral facilitirr offered by the coniuiuniry should bc rrriexr-ed. .i m n -
tented group of p ~ o p l ertyrriro a ccrtain mini~numuunlbcr of facilities
for satisfactory living. I f these do not exist, it often becomes a burden
for tlie plant t c ~rubsidize such facilities.
Bank8 must bc reliable and staffed wit11 competent r~&cialsand of
surb a size that. t h y \\-ill be r:ilial~le of l~anillingplant :IS n-ell :IS e n -
pluycc accounts. Tlre v a l w of ;dcquate sl~oppingfacilities, cqicciai~y
for the fetnale melnl~ersoi fa~nilyunits, cnrmot, I)? ovcrempliasizwl.
Larger cities iifTcr thc advantage of factory \\-arcl~ousefacilities
that replacement parts for plant equipu~cntcan be tcnilily olilainrcl.
.irlequatc and gracious lrotcl facilities a1.e alvays \wlcome, esl~wially
T V ~ C I Iit beromcs the job of plant iifiicials to entertain ri.siting dignitar-
ies. At least one or nlorc hospitals fully accrcditctl by tire hmeric;m
Hospital Association sl~ouldhe located in tlic area. 111 larger cities,
transjlortntir~~~ brcrnll?~a p r ~ ~ i l ~ c m ~ .I n n y~ ~ - o l k ejlrefcr rr to use public
transportation becnux (if t l ~ edifficulty oi parking in certain areas.
Such pu11lic tranq1ort3tion must 11c cfficicnt and c:e~~nomical.
Thc cultural facilities of the community are in~port:int t o sound
growtlr. Churclres, lil~r:~riw, scl~ools,civic t111~1ters.uincc~!t awlcia-
t i n : I I n i i l r g r i p , if nctivc imd I y n m i c , I 11111(:11 to
make a comniunity prwgessivc. Fornmcl-looking plant n1:magern will
realize tlmt tlte yuung people in a community will 1w the crnployees oi
tomorron.. and a good school ~ ~ P ~ P i1nd I I I advqunlc cultural opportuni-
ties d l in the fin:tl analysis makr ilettcr rmploycrs. 1lecau.c thv
j)r,~cessi~xlu.~tri(y ~ k ] i c n ~011I ~ , T ~ I I I ~ I , : II I~: ~ I I I ] I ~ I K ~ ! I ! ,il 1.2 $lt+ir:~L,lv111;it :i
unirersity of the first rl:ws lie 111carriliu thc st:ite umlrr con~i,l~:ratiun.
18 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
I t s engineering and science departments should be accredited by the
appropriate agencies (Engineering Council for Professional Derelop-
uient. hmcrican Chemical Society. etc. !.
h study of the population trends in a community is often revealing
sincc it indicates the gron-th and trnor o i a conn~innity. .ihrcakdorm
of population statistics into age groups is liell~ful in l~rcdicting the
,.
poesiblc vitality of a region.
llic problem uf recreation deserres special consideration. Recrea-
tion nil1 inclurlc, of course, the cultural entertainment already men-
tioned: and. in ailrlition, outdoor activities and otlrer events ranging
from country club dances t o sulall gatherings in homes. The disaiiran-
tage of the extremely small communities or company tinms is t h a t the
couipnny n ~ u s t*ul~si~lize the constructicln of parks, golf courses, and
cluhs. Furtherl the so-called company torvn is predominantly occupied
I)? e~ilployresand their fanlilies. M a n y people find such a situation
ni~rron-ing sincc most of their friends arp other t,ml~loyeesand their
fn~nilir.san11 all too often a f t e r - l ~ ~ i u rconvcrsatione
s ric~elopinto "shop
t : k Tliis geiicraliaatiou, l ~ ~ ~ n e ri*c rdangerous
, since it depmds so
uiuclr ion the individuals i n ~ o l r e d . I t ~ u i g l ~bet said. nrvt,rtheless, t,l~at
it requirc,s people ~ v i t hIxtter than average imagination tn avuid thcsc
pitfilll~.
Extremely small couiniunit~icsmay fail to offer the opportunities for
rrcreatiorr required by yonng prople and discontent often develops.
Plants located near large rities i ~ a wavoided ew11 situations, rvhile some
remotely icicatcd plant;? have overcome thcsc difficultica by the est,ab
lialnuenf oi active recreation ~ i e p a r t n i e ~ ~and t s clubs. These hunian
factors :ire all rather netn~luue, t n ~ tnone tile less important. They
dionld not be overlooked in any analysis of plant sites.
The efficiency, clmracter. an11 history of both state and local govern-
tuent shonld he evaluated Ilocalitiee 1vhic11 liare snffcred long yrary
nf corrupt 111. inefficient porern~ucnt are pour risks. State and local
Iarw and repulatii~nsnliicli will affect plant operation and living con-
ditions require the interprrtat,ion of a co~npetent attorney. These
include d l tax ordinancesl especially those applying directly t ~ r the
industrial ~,oniniunit,y. The existcncc of lorv taxes in not in itself a
favorahlc situation unless the commnnity iy already well devrl~~peil
a r ~ dis not in great deht. It is certain t h a t a e ~ r n m u n i t yhaving un-
<I?\-eloped srwer systc~ns,roads and other similar facilities iliust soon
increase taxes.
FINAL SITE SELECTION
Alter an area or regio~i ha.; h e m s~,lccted for plant location, the
next i o l ~is the selectiut~of a sl~ecificsite. A c~~,nrirlcrable
mlonnt of
Plant Location 19
the data necesbary for t l ~ cinforliintion disrwrst~dalmvt. can he ol~tilineil
u-itliont actually visiting tlir are:1.. The final site wlecriim. Iro\\.cver.
require- careful x r u t i n y hy a c o ~ p sof mperts. I t is preferable t o
avoid pul~licizing snch risits since real estate vnlnes invnriat~ly rise
upon rnuior of nexr- pI:rnt construction. This necc~;;nry secretiveness
is often hest accomplislied hy dealing 17-ith only one rcliahle real estate
firm. Topngraphy and soil condition of each site must he evaluated
Foundation c o ~ t sare greatly increased on site* liaring soil of Iorv hear-
i t i a i t Good natural dr:iin:~gc is another ~leeir;iblrfeature; a n d
if tlie iitc is lorated near a streani or other 11ody of \r-ater, f l ~ ~ ohistory
d
should t ~ e carefully cl~eckcd. O f t r n seemingly excellent sites have
soffercd from pcriodic flouding that nonld never he predicted on in-
spection of tlrc nrca during noruial conditions. I n :1dditio11 to tlie
advice 11i competent soil experts and constructim engineers regarding
the feasibility of the site. officials of the neighboring plants can give
helpful hints concerning the nature of r a r i o w locations in the area.
FINDING INFORMATION
Tile forcgoirig brief sulunxrry of factor;: that ninst lie ~ I ~ t c r m i n cind
a. plant lucation study indicates the need for a vast amount of i n f o r n ~ a -
t i m both quantitative (statistiral) and qualitative. Rerause of thc
large nmul~er of agencies, puhlic and private, rvllicli u l l i useful
inforn~ationof this type little actual original gathering of data must
bc done. All sources of printed information rliould be cxliauded t~eforc
tniiking a private survey on a given phase of the study. T o ;lid in the
search for printed information, a euggeytcll list of sources tugc,ther ~ v i t h
~ ~
types of iniorm:ltion offered is giren in outlinc form belun.. The n.i~rkso i
ltigglenian and Frisbeelo and Cornan" aided greatly in prcpuiiig
this wtlinc.
I. Inriirrs and Aids to Scnrrhing
.i.US. Gowrnmcnt Pablirntions*
1. Hi~.slihr~.~. H. S.. and hlelinnt. ?. H.. Suhjrct Guide t o 1'nili.d S l o / ~ sGo,.-
crnrrrrnt Puhlientior~s,.Imcl.icnn T.ihrarr .isuoci;~lion.Chicago. Ill. (19471.-Dr.
ser.ihrs gorrrnlnmt, publirationr and p i r ~ csmmw [or n numhw of s c l e ~ r ~rq)iv-i. d
2. Srlinreckehcir, I,. F., Gu~.r,-ti,iientPublicalions nrid ?'iir.ii- 1 s t . The Brook-
i n g ~Institution, FTashington, D.C. (1936).-Anollicl. drscl.iptiw guide to g~vern-
nirnt publications, although sonwwlint imldnted.
3 . . I l o v / h i ~ Cntnlog o / thc 7.niicd S l o l c a Goswi-nmrnt Pzihlic,i/ions-lliijor
indrx oi gmwnment publicniions. .A ypal.-pnd issue contains annual suhjert index.
Lists prtietirally all pnl,liiations h t h rongrcsaioniil :md rl~p.i~~t~nml:rl. tinil rtnrtinp
In 1936 has included many proceeaed (mimcogloplird, rtc.) puhlirarioni iirmwd
oi intrwst to the puhlic. Most large universities and puhlic lihl;iries serve as
i,rrclt Scxirr,, o j Cortg,i,~.~-C;i~Ulr t o Cong~wsion;tll i t w ~ t m c .
7 . C<,~<gs.c.~,<i<,rt<~lD i r v c / , u ~ - I . i s t ~ ofrici:~l ~ 1 : ~ f fr. ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ ;and
- i l :wl~vitics
~iliti~~s
u i r ; d l dcl~;~clorvni, Inncan, and n g m v of ir,ll.ld g o r r ~ ~ n r n m l G . ovi~~.nmml
o~.g:inizittioneli;cnps from 3-r:u to ycm. m111t h D ~ i ~ w l o ~ . (is- l j r I ~ ) h lin tlw I ~ T O P C I
1,uuting of Ipttwa of inquiry.
8. I'.S Gon m m r r i l .lluriiinl-Di~scril~~s oi.y:inizntion and dutirs o i goi.ci.nmcnt
n g m r i m Hrlpfrtl in locating sen-iccs formrvly li:mllnl b y :rlmlish~dngrnrics.
9. O!!iriol R r y i s t r , . of t i t c I I (yearly)-1,iit.i pcwuns occupying
:~,lniinist~.:~tivt~. ,inilicial :and Icgiilntiv~pwitiun; in t l F~ P ~ W I( I: o ~ m m i r n I
10. l>,y;,rI,,>?,,l;,l m d B,,W.,,I l,,,liw-.\ ,I,,,,, I r r "ig,>,?rn,,,,~,lt < l c ~ l ~ : ~ ~ t ! l ~ ~ n t ~
:dI,nrc~noslxll,li.ll inlliccr oi tllris u v n ~ n ~ l , l i ~ . : ~ t i o'nl- l. w ~inclwk tlw f ~ ~ l l o v i n g
-~unmorirc:
,,. 1,i.d ,,/ l x ' lj,,,.,<,,, ,,I Y i , , , , < i ' ~ , l , I i ~ " l i , , i , ~ .191I~-l!i;9.
b , l n d c z 1 0 I ' ~ t l d i w l i ~uf~ ~I / ,~<s, C-.,S. l k ) , f . 01 A y ~ ~ i ~ ! t l t v tI W
! !, . G l W
c , ( ' , t l d , ~ g 01 l . . S ( ' < ~ m m
i!ttwo,8 P ~ t l i l i w l i o m ,1?!1~1--1'?~.?.
I S I . i,J Co,,i,,iric<~ P i i l ~ l i c o l i o n s (,'iifolog f1%?)-3lr,ntlrIy l i s t of
22 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Cl~iriigo,Ill.
6. Ofici,ri Sterrms1,ip r r , d A i i l u w G u i d e , Trmipu~.tntionCuiilea. Inc., S c w Ycrk.
U. Lahor
1. Bnrrwu oi I.ahor Statistics. U.S.
a. Monthly cn~ploymcntreport hy
b. Cost of Living Indices.
e. Handbook 01 Labor Stotis!ics.
cast of living, f t e .
d. Jfnntidy Labor Ret,i~zu-Wagc
Dept, of L:nhol., IV;rshinglan. D.C.
etalrs.
Puhlisl~ed irregularly since 1926-Wages.
surreys. statistical dnta, hihliug~.apIr? oi
Plant Location 23
3. The Conference Board Management Record, Sational Industrial Canierenrp
Board. Sev York, S . Y . (monthly).-Discusses labor trends and presents statistics.
4. Labor Union Publications.
o. Economic Oittlook-CIO, Dept. o i Education and Research, Kashington.
D.C.
6. 11-ho'. TVtio i r i Lichor, 1)vrlen P~.css,Serv York, X.Y.
i . Prrntic~-HnllT.;ihor Puhlic;rtions. Pwntive-Hall. S ~Ywk, T S.Y.
o. L,ihi,, Rcp<irl--Kr&ly rqmrt in lahrx relntianr.
h . Lnhnr Gitirie-Intr~.p~.~tsexisting Inrrs.
r . L,iho,. S~vri'icc-llirkly supi)lw~cnts.ron~jilc[ctpxti or digcsts of nil nsa
labor laws.
8 . 1 h i 1 . r : ~of Sation:il AHnirs. IVaihiiigton. D c . , and the C o m m ~ w eC1r;mng
Huoir. Cliiwgo. Ill.-Poblisii ronwleralllc 1:hur mformwtion.
$1. Loml union irprr;enti~ti\w :and l8ho1. 1:ryycri.
10. Stntt ~ ~ n t ~ l o ? m roflicrs-heal
nt offir.rs cnn s1111plyinfol.m:ition on :II.P:L
ecrll>lo>uwni i.i,nililion.s.
11. I i t d i ~11, I,,rbiri Arlicica. Rnnd School 01 Sar.i:il Scicnrr, S e w Yo&, X I - .
1 . T l i ~ l - w uo f Census.
ci. Digrsts of s I : ~ t e l a w rrlulinc: to t:<xrs ((:or. Div.).
h . City fin:ini.w :md rmpluyrnent (Go\-. D i r . ) .
r.. Census of pqulntion.
2 . h!iili.~lirs o/ l r i c o m ' , RIIIP>LLI of Intetnal R ~ v m u r ,ITS. T ~ . ~ a s n t .Dek~t..
y
IVasliingtrm, 1j.C.
3. . I l i i t ~ i c i p r i l I , 1 1 t I City l i n g .hw,.i;ttion. ('liii.;~go.
Ill-I.irts offici:~lsand f o m ~oi m y gui-ernment.
4. .11~8u~u~?vze?t! A ~ ~ ~ ~Satin~xtl
L o c , I n d w t r u l C o n i c v ~ nBmrd,
~~ SW Y w k ,
S.Y-Givrs c o n m n r r a prire indicrs in GO cities.
'5, Ai<to,ttobiic FCC/* ri. F i g u r n , .Aolomohilr hlmnif;ir.t~~srri' .ii;wi:~tion. Dr-
troit. \.livh.-(;iyrj rcgistlxtion dnta.
*6. Anwrican Twtisit .Assw., SPX Y d , K.Y.-ITntc i m i n i w w > t i m on lural
trnniporlntiun svstrms.
* i .h~nrriuanT:ixicat, .Association, Clrirago. Ill.-\l~.itc i w d;ili> on t;ixi srt~tictlc-.
* X . i n ~ w i w nT~'lrpImnc& Telegraph Co.. S e ~ yYmk. S.T.-Conrart iol. itatis-
tir:il ~ I onR pllones.
"9. I T S . Post Oflicc Thpt., ITaahington. D(:-Contart iol. ~wwiptsfor inrli7-~hal
{post utliws.
10. Drj,al.trnrnt of Commerce--Statistiral data on bucmra* onrvatmns n i all
kinds.
11. Ranker's 1)iwi.turier.
N . Rand-hlrSdIy. Chicago, Ill.
h. R. I,. Polk Cunipany, K : i ~ l ~ v i lTl ~m. n .
* Valunhl~in vulnp:t~ing comulrurili~~,.
24 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Plant Location 25
2. T r : ~ ~ ~ s ~ x ~ r t : r t i u ~ ~ - ~ i c [if ~ ~ti yj iltm
~ r .:ill i r ~:init
r i II:IIIIW.
3. R a w ~Iaterir~ls-i~ualitativeinforn~:~tion.
14. Stalisiiwl Scwims. 4. Fuel, IY:itcr: and Pmv\.t*r-rntes and adrlrcss~si ) i ' r~tility~iffirials.
,I. Dun & Rsarlrt~~rct 5, Labor-typical tvage rates, consnmer price index.
b. 5t:lndard & Pools 6 . Taxes-rates, Addresses i ~ fcity awl state officials to cor1t:ict for
15. Fcdrwl RPSCIT-rl h n k . ~rdditionnlinforn~ation-ICs1)lanation of tax drurtnrc.
16. Prderol K m ~ w c.%l!r.iin Ronrd oi Go\e~.nor.; F r d r m l Re-srnr Syitern. 7. \Yeather-charts.
II~urliingron.I1.C. (yr~.iudic;tl)-Gi~c,sdqrnrfmrnt iiurr ielrr a d rons~in7rrwedit
'lillil.
8. Industries in Area-oil and gas, clren~icals,and n1ct;lls-l)escril~tioli
17. 1,or:tl I x ~ k ~ . oi existing facilities. l~rodurtionand list uf all plants on Gulf C ' ~ I : Irr-it11 ~
I . C I i Comme~.ci.: VI~J-. county. CAI I t I l t l 1)rirlol~1i1rmt Ilamcs of genernl managers, lists of prodi~ct.~, m i l qu:rntities nv:rilnhl(,.
l~o:trds:stat? t ~ n i w r ~ i t i e s . 3 lliscellnneous Statistics over Pt:riod of Ycars-
19. Bimnio! Suj.w!g 01 , ? ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~F&n~l
~ ! i u ~S~citciLy
z, .lgmv>-.Kasl~iugton,D.<-.- n. Population.
b. Retail Sales.
c. New Construction.
d. B a n k Accoonti.
e. E n i p l o p i m t .
23. Statc and city 1ir;~Illrdi.partmm-.. f . Post Office Receipts.
24. Sntion;tl Oilirr of Vital Stnrictiir. T.S. T ) ~ I I I .of I'ohli,, Hi.:dlh Knsliington.
1)C.-Birth? and deaths in ritii,~. g. C h a n ~ b e rof C o n r ~ n c ~Statiitieal
w Sinn~nary( i w ~ e dmontl~lyi-
25, Olficiiil IIolcl Rcrlhuok & Diricli~ii,. 11wxic;ln Hutrl .liioriatian 1)ii.wlol.y includes .stati.~tirson Port o i Houston tonn:lges. d q w t n ~ c n store,
t
sales, telephones in service, and t~r-enty-twco t i ~ c r1)uints \I-hick
indicate city vitality.
When i t is rcalized t h a t all this lielpful iniormation is available from
one orgnnization a t no coat. the value of p r i m t e and pnl~licindustrial
drvelopmant ilcprirtnm~tsbccon~esm ~ r cnpparcnt.

Tlw above listing is I1y no ulcons coluplete. H?nv)- c m ~ ; l ~ a s iIirr- s

been p1:icetl on tire nontei~lrni(~a1 dntn sources since it is assumetl t h a t
onc trained in engineering will 11e\.e a n-orking knorvlecige of the sourccs
of scientific and technical literature.
T h e factual infonnatii~nnx-nilablc flrim industrial divisions of ~ I I ~ I I I -
bcrs of commerce, utilit:- con~panie.s:mid milrorids deserve special em-
~ i l ~ n sI~erc.
is Altl~ough,us ;ill.enrly ~uenriunril.tlie iutevpret:~tionby tlresc
organizations tvill l~rol~:iblyhe filled tvitli tile same enthusiasm fur alr
area as that held by any a ~ e booster,
a the faotunl data is usually reliable.
It is ;irrangcd in a \-cry u d u l nianner and represents tire most rapid
meiins o i obtnining n co~npil;rtion of ilat:~,p:irticularly f ~ i r:i prcliniinan.
surmy. Certainly for ilct:iile~l surveys nil<litional facts n-liiv11 r r ~ y11nr.e
t~cen~nnitted~ u u s tbe, obtained :~nd:ill other data cllt'cked
As a n example of the type of ~ n a t e r i a lobtainable from a cl~arnber
of commerce: it is interesting to take a hricf look s t the brucliurc i w x d
by idle Charnbcr of Conunerce of Houst(in," 21 rapidly grutving industrial
;rre:k, p~rticul;irlyin t l ~ c11row.s iu~lr~sirit.i.T<riefly>tl\c ini11r111~iii1111 :I?-

;.cnrl;lcrl incluilcs thc f~111,:nr-ing:

1 I ~ k c t l i ilt(.o~~ir i ~:i~~I)!. ( . o I I I I ~ ~ I ' - .
~ ~ iI,[ ~. - r i r i . u r ~ ~ r ~: il w
 CHAPTER 3 Preliminary Dato for Construction Projects
PRELIMINARY DATA
FOR
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
After a rlte has been selected for the construction of a process plant,
a large amount of infurmation must be acculnulated hefore design work
ran begin. Engineers, purchasing agents, and construction supcrrisors
must h a r e detailed information about the site and surrounding area.
Several experienced men \vitl~backgrounds in both engineering and con-
struction management ran obtain the nccdcd preliininary d:tta on a visit
to the construction site. The information they gather includes data on
engineering for use in design, procurerncnt pr:tctices in the area, and
informati~~n necessary for planning construction. Tllesc preliminary data
plus psocess requirements set tire hasis for design an11 constrnrt,ion of
the plant.
TYPICAL PRELIMINARY DATA
Preliminary data outlined below are typical of tllat gatllcred hy the
engineer on his survey visit t o the job site.
Engineering D a t a
Essential data necessary for the engineering of a ~wocess~ I a l l t1vIlicll
should be obtained by the survey include:
Weather Data
Fur domestic projects (U.S.) information on wcatlrer iuay he ohtsineil
from government agencies such as the U.S. N'eatllcr Bureau, G.S. Depart-
16
ulrnt of Agriculture. and the U S . (:east and Geodetic Snrrey. Tlic h n ~ r r -
icau Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers hare also cm~piled
considerable n-eatlicr data, vhich may be useful in preliminary n-ork.
27
PREVAILISG \YISD DIHECTIOS
'scful in initial plant armngcu~ent. .is an illustration assume that the
plant is t o be located in an area where the xind is predominantly fr,:,m
the Southeast. It wmld be nndesirablc t o locate a process ~ v l ~ i r fre- ll
quently discharges noxious funlcs on the Southeast side of the plant where
they ~ o u l dhe constantly blown through the plant. Again, asaurnc that a
process discharges particularly volatile and flannnable vapors that are
Ileavier than air. I t xould be unwise to locate an open fired heater in
the path that the f u n ~ c sw ~ u l dordinarily f o l l ~ ~ wGeneral
. xind direction
rnust bc considered in locating any process which is exiraor~linarilyh a -
xrdous or subject to fires. The efcct of wind direction m storage areas
for flalnn~al~le products should also be rtudied.
Cscd in setting proper design conditions ipounds per square foot) for
tvind loads on exposed rtructurcs, equipment. or hildings. Certain U. S.
Gulf Coast areas, for instance, use 40 pounds per square foot because of
~ x ~ s s i l ~ i lof
i t yhurricanes. The final value has considerable influence on
structural and foundation design.
TJsed in process design, in the selection of insulation, in determining
plant-building typcs f l ~ rilrocess equlpnlcnt prote~tion,in building design
for personnel ~ , u n ~ f o rilnd
t , in selecting inaintenancc procedures. The
design of the cooling vxter system and selection of equipnent are also
influenced by atnlwpl~eric tcn~pcrature rengrs. Tctnpcrature ranges
should he studied over a tvo-year period: or longer, to provide the best
estimates of arerage values.
REI.ATIVE H U M I ~ I T(range
T by day, month, and seasonal :iveragei
Required for design of cnoling towers, air driers for process air, and for
determining personnel cmifort requirements for buildings.
RAISFALL( I K I ~ X ~ ~yearly,
~ U I I I and
, seasonal avelagcJ
Required for plant drainage design, building design, and possibly in
process deslgn.
Ssow C ~ S D I T I ~ N S
Required for structure design, maintenance procedures, and buildlng
design.
28 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Doto for Construction Projects 29

Plant Terrain
11. Soils I I ~ I -l,c
t c q > l i ~ r c dfor fonndation or load-canying character-
is ti^,?. Elec:ric Power a n d Fuel Services
11. Chnror~rmnps sl~mvingground e1cv:itions ~\-llicIl:ire useful in plan-
ning 111nnt ~ i r n i ~ : ~and
g c plant roiid\\-ay ayitenls sl~onldbe prepared.
c. (I<~ncrnlslopr or I~crularitieiof the site, a r e also nccess:uy in pstimat- IYl~cnrlt,ctric pinver is to 11e p ~ r c l l n ~ c rthe l , 111c;ltionof incoming p w w r
Ing l,i.clir~~innrpar:~diug \\-hiclr in turn inriicales t h e type of construction f ( ~ ~ l i , r:tml
- . tlir plant sul~st:ltirn~ nrnst 11e rlctcrnrirrmi. Priuii~ryvoltages
gr:lcling c(l11ipment. I I I U ~l ~ e deterniined early, in orllcr ti1 start cnginrcring :ind p r o c u r c ~ n m t
11i t h r I I I : I ~ 1)lant
~ t r a n r f ~ r n ~ and
c r switcl~gcar. Tlic preliminary sllrvcy
s I ~ o l ~ ldctcnuinc
,l the (1ire1,tion from ~vhirllthe lilies ~villconic; ~vhether
~ i i ~ i v cSro~n
r tila llropcrty h i t to tlic substt~tion is to bc ove~11e:id
i ~ n ~ l c r g r o u n\vlretlirr
d. a zinglc fccder systrm \~-illhe pr,>vi(iril,or \\-l~etllcr
a . Promas n.atrr (n.atcr used in the 1n'occss).
t w or liiore sources i11.c to he conncctrd. h singlr sopply fccder system
I,. I ' n m s cooling rvatcr. is 1 - 1 1 1 I I t i l l be I - i l l . I n r w t a i l ~arcas snl~jtwtt o ievcrc
c. Sirnit:~rywater (tl~iai l l l h t he 11otiih1~ \ \ R I ~ c ~ I.
:~tinr,>plioricclwtril,ul disturlxinccs. Ilowevcr. p n . i , r fnilr~rofr<qui.r~cyis
d . Gtility water (n-ntcr 11wd for general clr;uiing and n~iseclluneous :I s r ~ r i ~pr~il>lwil.
~w 'IYic ~ I O T T s- ~~ ~~ p p l i m
c ra y he :t11Ic to reduce f r q n e n ~ y
scrvirw I . r ~ r~ ~ r o l ~ d ~ iofl i E:lilure
ty by ridding one or nlorc n(lditiuni11 frciicrs pro-
e , S ~ V X IgIrIn w : ~ t i o ~IIII:L~XYI~I
l \\-:it~rfor l x ~ i l e r . ~ ) vi~linypo~~-\-rr i r i ~ ~nnd i f f w n t dirrction. Pa>t I~istrlryof p o ~ fr; i i I ~ r e z
f. Fire protect,ion x u t e r . !l!:r)- 111. !I?tcr~nini'd1'1.~1111tlw s ~ ~ p l ~ l i r~r ~ ' st w r or
~ lfro111
s 11t11wli1(.:11IIWS.
g . \Vnter f o r constvnetii~nu j i Iqu:intitic:: of conbtru~.tionn-ntrr dcpcIId 'I'hr . q i l l l i r r I I I U ~:?Is0 Iw givrm, 11s c w l y :IS l ~ r ~ s s i l ~t l eh, ,late I V I I ~ I L
on type of l ~ r o j r o t nu11111cr
, of construotii~nc~i~ploy(,cs, :mil the lcligtll 01 t l ~ c111:1nt xill start opcr;~tionI I ~\vl~enl m w r will be required. Ii tclu-
the cor~structiouperiod). porary power is t o 11c provi~leilfor construction uses. i l ~ cnecessary nr-
JTater f o r process cooling, sanitary nse, and steam generation must be r m g e m r n t s for inrtnllation ~ l ~ o u l be r l made early. Poor electric utility
che~iiicallypure or trcatcd t o thc extr.nt rrquircd for the pror.ct:s. T h c - . m i c e or n rrrord of high frequency of porwr failures ninst be considered
source of r a t e r supply m a y be fro111 *trennr he& or other natural Water n.l~enparts of the process becon~ehaanrdous under power inilurc condi-
provided turbidity and scdiulcntation is not excessive. Brackizl~ tions. I n certain processes many prime movers must be provided ~ v i t l ~
or ~ 3 1 t\\-ater is oftt.n I I S ~ ,f~o r vmiling, l x ~ tc:rrefnl selection of the 1u:ltc- spare steam rlrivrrr for safety reasons. I n a major installation t l ~ c
rials uf construction is necessary in order t o 11revent corrosion and ilrq~licatimof drivers inay he rostly.
de~m?its. Small paclc:~gr-typcstennl .rcenerntors are nsnally nmrr i ' r o n n n ~ i r ~t hl : ~ n
30 Project Engineering of Process Plants
FTELSOI.HCK.:H
T h e selection of the ty11c of fuel d r p m ~ l son heating value and scllinp
price aud i~ elusely rrlatc,,I to tile rconomics of purcliaml 11o~r-1.r.S m i e of
tlte sources are: ( 1 I Kntural gns; ( 2 ) fuel oils and liquefier1 petrolcum
gas; (3) c o d 11s (1t11er si liil fuels; (41 plant n-astes.
Snturirl gas is often user1 as a raw material in certain proceiscs. \T-hcn
tllc process requires naturai gas as a raw material, gas is also used as [llallt
fuel. S m i e oi the plant uses oi gas arc as fucl for priule mol-ers such
as large internal cmnbuation engine-driven compressors or gas turbinrs.
fucl for steam gmer;rtiou, engine iuel for el~,ctriralgcnernturs, ;md for
produrtim of inert gases fur purging or blanketing srrvices. \\-hen
natural gab il to 11e porcl~asedit is important to ohtaiti d ; ~ t aon tllc snpl~ly
pressure and an :inalysis i1f the g,zs as 17-rll as a guarantee of its coniposi-
tion or the liluits of v a r i a t i ~ ~ n .Xatural gas in solnc areas is \vet or
carries a certain nui,)unt of condmsatc. If such is the case. n trill> sl10111d
be provided near its entrance to the property. I t uiust he decided and
clearly pointed out in thc mntract for supply. rvl~icliparty shall furnisll
the t r a p and ~vliercthe responsibility for drainage of the t r a p d l lie, i.c..
~ v i t htlir rupplicr or. tlie ~ I I I T C ~ I ~ S \Vhilc
P~, rrrtain of the liquid tuatcrials
n-ill immediately ev;rporatc upon dischargr, other coti~poncnts~ u n yre111aiu
iu a liquid state producing ;r l~azard. I n conge-tcd iudustrial a r e w the
ilrninagc o i trapped r,indcnsate from natural gas can hecome a i,onsirler-
able prohlem. LTnless there r ~ d he l some process use of these liquids it is
hrttcr to insist on a dry gas, furnislicd at a certain prrssurc a t the user';
meter.
T l ~ cpurcliaser lnr~st also ascertain precisely where tllc natural gas
pipeline ~ i i m l t r r t h r property and decide which party shall supply the
turter, the primary device, thc meter house, valving arrangetnent, and tlie
pipiug acwssories. The a h u w suggestions are for supply services in the
order oi niillions of c u l ~ i rfeet. They are not of itnlmrtnnce for wuall
installations ~ v i t hservice connections perhaps of 3"-pipe aim or less.
Ho~T-ever,it sliould always be clearly understood which party supplier
and installs the equipn~cnt.
\Then the final c i ~ n t r a r tis entered into with the supplier a drawing
should be prepared locating the cmnccting point of tile owner's piping
and showing the type flange, valve, joint, etc. to which plant piping will
he connected. Tlicre data should be given the l~urchaserby the supplier.
Natural gas supplicd by pipeline ~villnot ordinarily require auy aux-
Preliminary Dato for Construction Projects 31
iliary pressure vessel or capacity t a n k since the system ~ h o u l dprovide
tlie required capacity. Pressures above 30 t o 40 psig for plant fuel syp-
tenis are unnecessary. Csually gas supply pipeline prrssurcs arc much
ahol-e this rang?. Ordinarily the prohlcui is more one of reduring pipeline
prc.;.ttres ti] range.; suitable for plant services. For this reason thi, clue.-
tion of supply pressure should he dieruseed as early as possible. If the
gas is to he used primarily ior fuel, a slipply line pressure range frmu
50 to 75 psig should be sufficient ti1 allow for plant surges ~ v i t hadequate
i~pstrcaltipressure for satisf:rctory control and capacity in tlw l ~ l a n tfuel
systeni, Pressures a t thc point of usage are ordinarily in tlic range of
20 to 30 psig, and ;ire l o ~ ~ - for e r hurncr headers.
Fiiel oils arc usunlly drlirered by railroad tank car or uiotor tank
trurk. Facilities for storage of the liquid fuel niurt be providctl. l:su>rIl>-
heating iurtst he provided for unloading. Tliis is more fully disrlissctl in
Chapter 21. I n the preliminary survey, thought should be givcn to proper
location of railroad or truck unli~a~ling p i n t so t h a t tlie initial p l m t
arraugrnicnt stluli(.s vill inrhldc this facility.
IiqlieJied petvoieii~~i yrrses or gases held in a liquid stnte arc t ~ c ~ o m i n g
a n iml~ortantsourrc of foe1 for donic.stic llcating in some arras, Iioi\cv~.r.
tlicir. usc as indu.;trial furls is still souicwl~atlimited. If the p1;tnt is
small, this type fucl may he used to an arlwntage for i.datctl huililing
hating.
Coal is not ordinarily used as a plant fuel fur t l ~ cprocess plant : h o w
r r e r , coal may 11e used ns a powr-generating fuel if the projcct is located
in a r.oal producing area 01. if other iucls pr11vc uncconoulical. Neressary
facilities ~vould)Jc require<l f(1r unloading. storage, and l ~ a t ~ l l i n g .h
nuuilwr oi solid fuels other tlian coal exist; liowever, t l ~ r i ruse ~vuuld
proh:il~ly rcquirc f i i d i t i ~ ssiiuilar to that for coal handling.
Plnnt imstes are oftell an ilnpi1rtaut s w r c r of fnrl. Their availnhiliiy.
of cuursc, dcpcn~lsupon the 1,rocess. If plant wa.stc? ~ u a yhe h r n e d as
iuel, the prohlmm of waste disposal may he airnplified. Plant wnstc.; tl~itt
arc to t ~ eintcrtuittent,ly ~ l s e das fuel lllay 1)r0dwc a storirgc proI)1?1u.
Product a n d R a w M a t e r i a l Transportalion a n d Sforage
T h r p r ~ ~ l i ~ u i n adata
r y roncerning plant terrain iuay 1r:rvr ronsiclcral~lc
eff'ect on tllc 111c;ltionof w(,h iacilitiw ns ailr road unloa(ling and loading
points, and packaging and storage facilities. C:rrtain plant. l o c n t ~ don
sIq>iug s i t e h a w the liquid pr~lrluetsturagc :~rriingc~l so that ;ill lilading
is hy gravity. T h e location of st,,ragr puints for hazarrlous prwlurtr tilust,
Ile rarefully (,ousi(lrred since in order Lu m c ~ ts;tfct:- r~y~tirrtnerrts :tdd-
tional :rrre;lgi, nray be rerluircd
It i s vcry import;lnt to dcterniiuc the dcgrw oi intcrpl:mt tran?lwrt:i-
tion : ~ n dthe storage ~cquireulentsbeeituse uf their effect on plant nower
rc(lr~ireliietits.
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 33
32
Ran. r ~ ~ n t e r i a so~iietinies
ls enter plant;. and prodncts Icavc the ~rl:irit lierioil of crcrtiulr. Tlw iollon.iug il;ltn I U I I \ ~ I E IICCUIIIIII:I~(YI :IS I Y L I . I ~
hy pipeline. TVherever any piping enters or learrs the plant the cxact possible.
p i n t s should he determined a;. early as possible si1 that interference ~r-itll Labor
{plant f:~ciliticscan be ax-aided.
o. Awn I\-RP(, rates, trade union rontrarts in forw and ~spirntirm
Procurement D a t a ,I:~tw.:IIUI:~v:iilxl~iliry o f lo1,:11~killml~ , r : ~ f t w r e n

Prelilninary data :~ffectlngprorurcnlrnt arc:
1. Earlicat date xlren inaterials rliay hc rrwivcil a t jdliite.
2. R w i c nl;1terials r ~ fmn.4ruction :rv;~iI;il~lcin a r c > .
3. Connecting r;lilru;i~isand nearwt sn-itch pi,int, councrting i n scrvi11n
motor truck lines.
4. Slain iligil\r-ny locatime.
5 . 1,ocatioil of ncnr<,fr rnt:lrol111litan :irc:~
6. Types of industrial equipnlent u-.e;~hlein l ~ l a n tcrr~,tion:~ruilahlc
in tile imnlediate nrca.
7. Types of industrial drops in the immediate area suitable for repair
ur maintenance or 1,arts snl~plyf , ~ construction
r ~~pipuient.
8. Storage space and itorage area fur plant e q r i i p c n t and c o n ~ t r w -
timi material.
9, is intimately related to jirojcct
Pr~~cureluent, as diicussed in
xlleduliug and planning (Chapter 7 ) . Tllc procurement org:illiaation
will be rrlort concerned with plant equipn~cntand construction material
transportation. The nietllotls of tmnapurtation, t i n ~ erequired, ireiglii
rates, constru~tionlunterinl, storage facilities ( a t the jobsite), field fub-
rir;rtioii r ~ f certain parts of the equipmtmt, and delirery data all affect
~ x w u r e m e n t . Transportation and jol~site storage l m s t seriously affect
prelinlinary procurcmerrt planning or sclleduling.
Tlir most vital question in procurenlcnt is a h - n y s iklirery or deliver?
dates. A 11rojcot a t a reiuote locntion with a possible tmnsportation tinic
of mie ulor~tli\,-ill require all scheduling t o iuclude t11k t r a w l tiluc. Arnil-
nhility of con11non materials in the :rrr3;t uf construction tlrgethcr wit11
11rice data rnust he ascertxinetl. Price differentials may ~ v a r r a n ttlrc pro-
curing 11f a large pcrrmtage of materials locxlly and thus jlistify a lo(':ll
procurenlcut ol~emtion. Certain materials such as ready-illisid cr~ncrctv
or t l ~ enratcrinls required for concretc art. aln-ays l,urelln-id locally on
~louicsti~. ~wojcctr. Sourws of supply ;tnd )".ices for t l ~ e a r~lr;itrri:ll- illllit,
lw :iscc~~~t:ri~~wl :ls :I 11:~rtof l,rrlin~ir~::ry~ u ] , v v y<liit:~. 1.uvtil .-:~ler t : ~ s m
uluy atiect price and, tl~ereiurr,nlust be cunsidered ill t11v s u r v ~ ~ y .
Construction D a t a
All collt;trur.tion pllase> are rtfferttd lly locill wm,litii,w sil~cctlw con-
struction orgn~iisationulrrst beco~ne:L liiirt of the locale for the x11ole
11. Tr:~ilcu~iionrr,lm,wltnlii~n:nanlr-.. ;i~idrc.ss~s of all 111c:il or arcn
~lriiolibrwinc.s :tgmts.
r . Otliw project.: planned in area nrld times of peak erup1<1ymrnt.
(1. I-niou permit.-if ~,onstructionpersnnncl arc t o be lnmugl~t into
r l tllcil. work 11y ngrce1111wt I 'I~I(...,.
:trr:\. ~ruiiln) r e m i t s rll~litI)? ~ h t a i ~ l efor
::re usunlly n w r r ~ : ~ ~ m p l e tsatisfied
ely but sliould be a t t e m p t c d ~
c. .lr:<ilability of personnel hou,qing-this will he rr.?olscd if joh is
near a large n w t r ~ ~ p o l i t narea.
n
f . Food and recreation facilities available.
g. .tIcilical facilities and special cliniat~csondition~11-llich n1:ly affrct
persnnnc,l (most illqjul.tant on foreign project ~ o r k )
It. ;\rca practices-these qur.stim; may nevrr he r o l n p l r t ~ l y:~nsxcred
since lal~urpractices vary c o n d c r a h l y . See Cliapter 25.
i. Transportation rrquircd by certain liersonnel-some crafts requirc
t h a t transportation be furnisllcd or require a n allnwinee inr trarel time
~ o n l e ~ ~ lsimilar
lat to portal-to-portal lmy.
j. Ci~nstructionpcrs(1nnc1 parking facilities-if erection is to take place
n-ithin an ol~cratingplant nud constructi~~n employers muat l c a w their
o w transpilrtation at the plant gat?, it is someti~nrsnecessary to rea,,li
;in :tgrcmunt 1%-it11ihc ovncr on p r k i n g facilities. T h e rpwtion nray
souictirr:es be r e s d r c d by pn~vidinga parking area for construction per-
sonutal witl~inthe plant. These points must be completely underito~l,l
~ r c v i o i l rto start of work.
k . ('haugc aud sanitary f:rcilitics for construction prrsonncl-it is he-
mining colnmon 1mcticc for r m i t r u c t i m pers,mnr.l to h a w sllecific spnc~,
:~llotti.~l for tllcm to change elotlling. This may require constructiorl of ;l
t t w l ~ u r a r ybuilding. F::nitary faci1itit.s of course innst 11c proviile~lcnrly
in I r c t If plant farilitit.~exist, the offlier sliould nralie imilities
av:iilable.
1. C,~ustructionpersonnel identification-on rertain work, pliotogrnpili
rind finger-l~rilltsmay be re([uired. Badges arc usually required. JVllen
work i. to he ilow in all existing pl;tnt, a11 ovner'a requirements must, i ~ c
detennine~l.
nl. Location of construction material and plant material and equip-
r w n t storage areil-the location often seriously afi'rcts jurisdictional
~jroblemsill unloading. transporting, and the handling of materials. Tlic
d t , c t i o n uf the storage area, tlleref~~ri,, aside fro111the best location for
34 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 35

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREIGN PROJECTS

Tlie data ili<cussed ahovc are r e ( ~ u i r c ~asl essential preliniinar>- data
for any proiert. ('on~idcrahlcadditional preliminary data aud decisions
;ire rcquircri for foreign jobs.

Construction Interference
Tlirse questions arc not usually as iniport:rnt for a complete p r l ~ j e r tas
for \ \ - , I I ' ~ \vitiiin a n ol~erntingplant.
C)~KHIIE.ID OR VSDER(:HOISDELECTRICAL ~'OS'ER LISES. Location, height
ahovt! ground, depth lielow ground, voltages, source of power, area sup-
plied, uwier or o p w a t ~ ~nearest r, srrit~,lipointfor q~cnirigcircuit ~ i u he
deternlineii. If guy derrick is used, ~villguys clear cal~les? Location of
dea~l~nen.
O V E H H EOH . ~ L~SIIERGROGTD P I P I X ASII SEVERS. i)cterlnine location.
size, e t ~ , . Existing 11iping in tlie operating plant is often a sourre of con-
sillerablc extra cost to tlie cmstructor of the nen- facilities. ~ ~ ~ 1 11hllt.~ 11y
( l u not I I R V ~ ,exact or reliallle rerurdt; of the locntious of underground lines.
Tlie resl~onsibilityfor removal of such lines should he establialied.
PLAST HAZARDS.I n many operating plants nliere work is being per-
f ~ ~ n n obnoxiousc~l or llazardous vapors or funies may be relrased I n
smne cases work may I I con~pletcly ~ stopped until the condition is cleared.
Tlie r1~s11onsihilit,~ for costs of unprc~ductivelabor during such periods
shoul(l be understood. Often serious restrictions exist on f l a ~ n ccutting
or n-elding or the use of any open fire on tile premises. I t niust t ~ edeter-
niined if any s u ~ , rrstrictionsl~ trill be in force. I n many h y ~ l r m a r l ~ c ~ ~ i
psoceljuing pl:ints and other plants processing hazardous n~aterialsall
niatcl~csand pocket lighters must 11e left a t tlie plnut gate. Smoking
arras niay 11e ~lesignatetlor snoking may h r permittril in runstrurtior~
~ ~ e r s m n i cliangc
cl liouses.
K ~ c m v r r .ANII ~ ; H . ~ D L I S OF
G P I A EQUIPMENT.
~ If the \ w r k is ill a n
ol~erntirigplant, tlic owner niay require rert,airl periuita or receiving pro-
cedures for material or e q u i p l e n t delivered L I rail ~ or truck. Permits
niay be required for trucks or cars leaving tlie plant. If all materials
are received by the owner, the responsibility for the diipnient, proper
accounting, Iiandling, and delivery a t the construction site 111ust he deter-
mined and clearly understood.
K A I L ~ A ASD Y H I , ; H ~ A YCONSECTIOSS. Exact loeati~lls shouki be
determined for p ~ ~ s s i h lpersonnel e transportation use. T h e handling of
plant and construction materials is greatly simplified by laying a spur
railroad track directly into the plant frum the ncarest railroad.
Permits
T l ~ rcrrction of plantu in foreign countrirs. d i e r e most of the equip-
ment ur ni:rterial n-ill 1x2 r n n n u f i ~ ~ ~ t u rine dthe Irnited State?. require?
certain overall per~liitsor licenses in order to export the various i t e m from
tlw T~-niteiilit:it?s zn(l wuiilly import perniits or licenses in nrrler to move
the equipment inti^ tlie rountry ~vlierethe plant is to be erected If tlic
d countr?. is l:rnriln~~kccl; ~ n dsl~ipnimt; riiurt move through an adjacent,
rountr)-, crrtain ]lcrniits for i n - t r a n ~ i tsliipn~entswill he requirrd
A nunil~cr of niatcrials have heen classified by I1.S. (:ovcmnient;d
;~gcmcie~ as critical to the national economy. Explicit permits niust be
ubtaincd to move these n~atcrialsout of the U.S..4. Tlie destination and
uzr of s ~ i c ln~atcrials
~ nffcct the granting of exl~ortpcruiit;. (:11n111lctt!
lists of all critical materials: tlie applicable rcstrictims on destinatiou
and explanations of the ncecssary procctiurcs are available from the U.S.
Government Printing Ofice.
An :~pl~lieationt o the 1J.S. Government for a n expmt license niust
~ ~ l j u a l be
l y accompanied hy a complete listing uf all materials aud equip-
~rleritc , , ~ n p o n m tusrd
s in such equil~mcnt,together ~ ~ i t w 1 1i g h t or v1111uue
( a s required] and dollar valuc for each item. A numericnl and alpha-
hetical designation has been rleveloped fur mrious items. ~vliichdesigna-
tion must he u w l in l ~ r e p ~ r i ntheg lists. The d ~ i p p i n gdates by yearly
quarters must also be included. I,ater, as shipnicuts proceed tlie specific
items must again be listed for each shipment anti checked off the rn:ister
list.
The preparation of the detailed lists is ro~newliatsimplified hy the in-
tent of the governmental control, which is more con~wmedr7-it11 runxinunns
than ~ i t preciseh or exact evaluations. Care must he taken, ho\wver, to
account accurately for items as they are sl~ippcd. Since export license
restrictiom change frequently, i t is mandatory that each issue of all ap-
plicahle govcrnmcntal publications offered by the various agencies be
c:lrefully slutlied.
The data necessary to meet the cxpurt license requirements 1\41 only
t,ent:itirely permit sl~ipnient. All itenis shipped niust be arcomp:rnic(l
in dctnil by the standard export documentation to meet 1 - 3 custonis ant!
sllipping rerpiretuents. l\Iwemcnt of shipments: t o dr~ckside. Ti-arr-
housing, lighterage, and handling and preparation of h i p p i n g documents
36 Project Engineering of Process Planrs
arc ea~.lrspecialized fuiictiuns requiring ronridcrabl(: expcricnu!. 'rllc5c
are lxst I~an,llt.<lby firills knor~-nas freight for\\-:irder~ or for\!-nrclin::
ngrurs. Such firms 11-ill un~lertakctlic coinplcte handling of all h i l ~ i ~ i c n t - ,
i~icludingshipping notifications t o vendors. c o n ~ ~ ~ l e t iof o ntraffic agrcc-
1111.nt~\-itllil~~mesticr:irricrs. and the p r c p a l ~ i t i mof stand;iril ilocu~iit~iits
for a very small fee. This fcc may be as little as ?b of IT;, of tlic rleclnrcd
cxp'rt value of tlic sliil~inent. -1s :I iiii~tter01 fact. in inany of tlrr large
L.S. llort. it is prilcti~.allyiillljossil~lcor a t lcart complctcl?- ilnl1r:lctic:ll.
to lianrlle export slripuients in any other way. Furtlierinore, the rlu:lri-
tities of iiiatcriais or tlic number of s h i ~ ~ m c nxliirh
ts n.oulrl he uccesm'y
for ;i project xill rcquin: ;I fairly large orgniiizatirin of cslierienr~rlPer-
.onncl to lian~llethe innlunerable shipping problems. T l ~ u .it, ~ i. ~~-il:tlly
justifinblr to retain a fir111cxpcrimccd in tliis ivork.
Planning Export Shipping
The n:;ij~~rcost. in cxlxlrt diipping is orean frcigllt, n-l~iclris mted by
the ton or hy cubic uieasurement. usually 40 cu ft. ~vliicliewris greater.
The ti111uscel ilia>- be tlie short ton (2000 111'1, the long ton. 2240 lb or tire
metric ton 12204.6 l l ~ j . \\-eights may Ilc based on gross. l~ackagedTI-cigllt,
or net n-eight, drpmtling upon destination. .\kn>urrii parkaged din~cn-
sions arc o v r a l l ~ncawrcmentstaken a t right angles m l y . Requirements
for ~ w i g l i t sand nieasurement vary x i t h tlie intc.mati~~nal nrc:i served.
uild luiiy also r a r y rvitli the carrier, tlie coii~iiiodity,or t l ~ ccs111irt agree-
u~ent.
The forwarding agcnt cnn usually save tlie shipper his fcc many tilncs
overl hy tiluely adricc on tlic pcculiaritics of the a s s t ~ s ~ m e noft ocean
frcight rliargcs. JTllilc oceiui freight rates for all areas li:%vchecn set in
certain international agreements, tlie area into ~ ~ l i i cshipment il
:nnrlc should 11c investigated thoroughly. The standard rate?, roinmodity
is t o ilc
limits, tlic stcamsllip linei serving the xrca, awl partirnlar rer~uirt~ll1ents
of the nwa ~ I i ~ ~hci lconsidcrcd.
d tinic must he adrlcd to tlic deliwry tiine prinuiscil tiy vendors or fahrica-
Alarinc sclicdulrs arc subject, to seasonal riiangcs ]~roriliceliby cargir
requirc~ncnts. Tlic mariue sailing datc, exccpt for ecrtain Iiasscngcr
liners, is usually a t c n t a t i x one. Hcrc :~l,sotlic forn-nrding agent can
save tlie siiip~ierexpense hy holding h i c k heavy piwcx I I cquipii~ent ~ and
aroiding e x t r a ~ ~ n l i n a rdock
y or liglrtrrngc clmrgcs caused by early reccillt
of tlir equipment.
As a simple illustration of possible occan freight chzrgcs, a s s ~ i n ct h t
a section of 24-in. pipe 30 it in length, weighing 3000 lb is to ile sliil~ped.
Rates are t o he a s s e ~ s e ~on l weight or cubic mcasurc~nerlt,11.1iicli~v1~ is
greater. Assmuc the base rate for this coinii~odityto IIC 530.00 I I C ~toll
12000 1111 per 40 r n f t (r~liiclicvcris g r c : ~ t ~ r l .TI:? irc~iglit will 111,
11.! X $30.00 or $45.00 1111 a weight basis. The cubagv xill 11t. 2 X 2 X 30
Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 37
or 120 ?u i t , Iim\-n'<>r,:11i<I011 ~ I I I ,cul)i~,11:isis tlit, ircight vill lw l12~1/401
x $30.00 or $90.00. SIialw also usually affects the freight a-scszrntnt.
.\ssunie that the above pill^ is fabricated as a n ~ I ~ J I I \ 11-itI1I - t\vo 15-ft icy..
( ' ~ i l ~ imeasurenient
c ~I-illthen he 15 X 1,5 X 2 or 450 IYI i t n-it11 freight
;i~scsscda t $337.50. Thi. is admittedly a n cxtreiric condition. C'lwc
:tttcntion nwuld have to bc given t o sliapcs and ~ ~ c i g l i t ifs . this rntiirg
i tinsis Iiappciic(I to Ile in effect.
It is oftrn lii~szil~lc tu n w t materials. or paclingr ~linteri;ll~ to nlaxiuiizi
I the x~wiglitper unit voluiiic v h c n cubic meaiuretnmt governs r.o.>t. 'i'lic
above 24-in. pipe, for inst:~ncc: could he made to carry considcrablr 1111-
ditional ~\-cigllthy plnl.ing s~nallcrcliametcr pip? inside ti113 large j~ipc.
! If uiaterials arc to 11e crated or lmckageri, by packing rclatiwly light
~n;itcrial-. slrcli as in>olation. together x i t h h(,avy ~iiatcri;rl-. >11cl1:Is
luosc pilw filtingh, the ruliage can be made to appro:xh its freight n-eight
r ~ t i n g . (:oniinudity Cln.4fication R a t r s 111ust Ire r;ircfully studied il:
iuclr t.arc,s. Ccl,taiii co~niiioditiesrequire a Iiiglicr rate hecamc of 11ccu-
liaritics of s t w l g e or liandling. h llnckage or cr:itc containing a iiighcr
rate coiiiiliodiiy m:1y cause a n i n c r r n ~ cin basil. i r c i ~ l i tr;:t(, r v m t l r ~ ~ i g l i
the iiiajor 11ortion of tlie contents n.oulil ~irilin:iri\ytr:ivel :it a l i n w rntr.
h,lditional dock and lighterage diarges called licavy hit cli;u'ge. nrv
1
:iplllied to single sliipments if the xcight cxccerlr a errtain liniit. These
clinrgcs c:ui beconic a considerable portion of t l ~ ccr~strequired for ccjuill-
~ n c n ttr~11qiol.ta t'lon.
All charges d r ~ ~ u lhe d carefully ascertaineri hut11 for the priirii~ryU.S.
llort (or docki and for the receiving dock a t the dcstiniition. h funotioii
of the for\\--arclingagcnt is t o warn thc sliil~perof tliest, costs and 11rohlcrn~
:ind wl~erc~ ~ o s s i b ltoe effect savings. T h e forn-arcling agent. Iio~\-c\-cr,
iI cnu do little wit11 a piece of cquilnnent after it is fal~ricatcri. Thus these
limitations should he considered in planning initial design.
T~.:iveltilue is a i i ~ i s tiniport,ant factor in foreigi i q x s n t i ~ ~ nsin(%'
s , this
tors so t h a t cquip~nrnt\\-ill arrive on schc~lulc. A roulplcte study sl11111ld
I,? niacle of marint, freight carriers serl:ing the entry-port, and averagc
travel tiuic. devclo~~rcl.It will oniinarily he n~lvantagcoust o utilize :I
siiigle stcamship line. Frciglit agrccuients iiiay bc rearlie11 and rnore
i pref~~rciitial liandliiig may be ohtaincd.
Marine fwight carrirrr usually do not follow a definite iisrd echedule
throughout the year. The schedule may vary from 11ort to port according
to cargo and loading. If a singlc carrier is rclccted it inn? be possible to
~ o r kout definite srlicrlules so t h a t narchousing end storage costs arc
rcduced. Forewarning of the shipment of pieres ni equijr~rrcntwith es-
tr;iur<li~~ary ~ ~ ~ Ix givm to tl>,>c:irrit,r it$ 1,:kriy
1vciKIlt or d i u i e i i s i , ~sliuul,~
;la Ij~issibleso tlint sli:ivc can l ~ cp~,ovirlc,lfur the diipnirnt.
38 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Export Packing
Prrrautions should he taken to protect equipn~ent being s11ipl)ed to
trol~icalrwuntries against exposure in sbiptnent, or during its dorage
~wiilrto prcction. .1nunit~erof plastic (non-honding) materials d i i c h are
easily reinored arc a n i l a b l e for coating rt~ccl~anical
working parts, or
inacliined surfaces during shipwmt.
There i> considerable argument for and against extensive export prep-
:iratim or packaging. If tlie shipment is to be unloadcd essentially a t thc
jobsite nnil ~5-ouldthus 11e transferred itntnediately fro111 tlie original
rarricr (sliil~lto the oxyner or erector, there would be little nced for any
prep:rratii~n otlier than the nurlnal shipping precautions. If, however,
tlir j h i t c or erertion point is inland and subject to arl~litionnlcarriers,
lay-mers in foreign freight yards, or open sidings, the matter of pilferage
may beconic serious. This is particularly trur in some of tlie Inore prinli-
ti\-(, countries. It \~oulilappear iinpractical to assume that dolnestir.
lirepiration. which is usually tlic absolute minimuni, can suffice in all
~,;t-cs. Crrt;iinly s~liallloose pasts sliould always be consolidated into
larger crates or packages. For this reason it is often desirable to retain
a ~varchousingor export packaging cotnpany a t a cnnsoliriation ylint.
Tllese firnis also should assist the owner in avoiding heavy lift charges
m i l nlultiplc consolidations of cori~~nodities where a higher tariff due t o
one of the coil~nir~dities will alrply.
Planning Freight Movement within Foreign Country
I n osdcr to develop litnitations in equipn~cntsize or wiglit, this 1"''-
liniinwry sun-ey d ~ o u l dinclude an investigation of a11 tlie foreign railroad
and seaport facilities. The installations a t the initial port-of-entry of
first foreign destination should be thoroughly inspected tu deterinirle
(locking capacity. tlie eapacitics of cranes or lifting equipmmt, storage
or n-arrl~ousespare, and the degree of protection afforded. Dock, storage,
and handling charges sl~oulclbc ascertained. I t is often necessary t o
liroviilc l~ersnnnelat the port-of-entry to process documentation and t o
insure that the shipn~entswill be properly llandled and expedited to tlic
jnilsite.
Direct rail connections a t the entry-port will utiually eliminate addi-
tional handling nnd storage costs since heavy shipments can be unloaded
by ship's tackle dirrctly onto railroad cars. Railroad freight rates, routes,
schedules, and frciglit travel-time should be obtained from the serving
carrirra. If sl~ip~nents :arc 1111ndledby several carriers or irtuvrrl tbrough
points. or cross tlir l~orrlersof otlier countries it may be
~listriin~tiori
necessary to provi,lc p t ~ s o n i ~ c!it! these u,>i.ntstr, ewwdite their movement.
i Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 39
T h e capacities of the serving rail systenis, incluilirig tlw type of rnllirig
stork and operating srlirvlules s l ~ o u l ~bel inwstig:ite~i. In soiur of t l ~ c
w n l l e r countries, sliip~ncnts of heavy industrial e r u i ~ n i e ~may t be
.ser.i,111,~1ycielapd due tn the 1a1.k of propel. r.ar.- t o 1i;inillr p n r t i r ~ ~ l a r
l<la<ls.
Man!: foreign railroad s y s t c m are n:irrnn.-gage. Hail car sizes. and all
liinitations on size or w i g h t orer the particular route ninst he ol~tainetl.
If the service is orer a narnlwgage carrier, dimmsii~n;illimitations wili
seri(lusly affect the size of fabricated equipt~ient. This inforination niuit
be available early in the project so that manufacturers and fnhricat~~rs
can be instructed by specification and rlra1~-ingr. Size limitations often
require partial fabricatio11 of major equipli~clitwith final fabrieatioii at
the johsite by the construction forces. \VIien this proccdurc iv required,
the necessary tools and the particular type of skilled personnel will h a r e
to be provided.
I h c h tilnc a picre of heavy equipment is loarlcrl or unlowderl labor and
lifting equipment time is expended. Rail connections dirwtly into the
project site providc the least expensive method of transportation. The
I
I preliminary survey sliould determine rail connections nearest the jobsite
and obtain necessary permits for extension of a spur track into tile plant.
Obtaining pcr~nitsto connect t o a railroad in a foreign country can br-
come a time-consunling operation. Negotiations shwild he started as
early as possible. Track equipment in the more primitive countries is
often scarce. The erector will probably save timc and costs by furnisli-
ing the necessary switch, frog rail, and other appurtenances for the con-
! nectinn (mil past the sx~itchor turn-out may be second-hand). Turn-out
specifications and rail u.eights must be ~ ~ b t a i n esince
tl the frog, lea&rail:
and switch-block are often eloscly specified. Railroad specifications and
!
corirtruction rnethods are more fully discussed in Chapters 21 and 25.
If rail facilities do not exist, tlie erector m d l have tu pruvide tlic iiccca-
i sary trucking and lifting equipment and j~erbaprprepare roadvays out-
side tile plant. The so-called low-boy, a ~nuItiple-~~lieele(~ loir--b~~dicd
1
I
dray. nlay be obtained for alu~ostunliniited caparities; I~owever.studies of
t,he heavier pieces of perinanent plant equipment a h ~ ~ u be l d made. Rcduc-
t i m in fnbrirated sizes will enable r e d ~ i r t i min transportation rqnipmmt,
i size
Large Equipment Planning
All large or beavy itenis of equipment should be listed ~ w l yin tl11:
project so tlmt limitations in shipping may be discovered and the proper
steps taken to avoid high costs in liandling or transportation.
Heavy machinery well as large internal conihustion rriginci or coin-
40 Project Engineering of Process Plants
pr~'%sr~r-, wciglling :IS tiiurl~ :is 100 tons. 3rc r:i~,ely-1iilqie11 ~.o~~ipIctcIy
assenibled. I n foreign operations, shipping h i t a t i o n s may further
reduce the amount of assembly possible. Personnel n i t h special skills may
be required to ron~pleteasscmhly in the ficlcl. The manufacturer must be
notified of any particular limitations in size or weight,. preferably ~ h ~ r i n g
thc initial inquiry so that rztra clrnrgcs vill not hr a$srssr,l for dib-
uumtling or a d d i t i ~ ~ n aexlmrt
l packaging.
llanufacturers of large meclranical equipmmt sometimes require an
inspectim of their equipment fjy tlreir own scrrirt, engineers, usually juqt
hcforc the ~nacliineis grootrd 011 its foundation. T h r y may nlso requirc
that their cnginccr he l~rescnt,n-hen e q u i l ~ n ~ e is
n t h i n p initially operated.
in order to meet tlreir gu;rrantee. If equipment, is being erected in foreign
countrit,::, such requirement;, shonld he fully understood and agreed upon,
or ~vaircd.in the purcl~ascrontrart, so that guarantee clnwrs are not
affected.
Large pressure vessels; ilia~netersin excess of 12 07 14 f t . or r e ~ s e l sof
extraordinary length: more than 60 to 80 ft, are often only partially fah-
rirntcil due t<, railroad clcarancr requirenrents. On foreign project$ the
dimensiiinr- or veiglrts may be even furthcr reduced. Thus the prelimi-
nary surrey information on size limitations must bc arailable for the
fabricators of this type of equipment a s well as fur mechanical equip~ucnt.
I n addition all the necessary tools or equiptuent and qualified personnrl
~iiustbe provided for i-onipletion of largr vessels hy the constructic~ti
forces.
Transmitting Correspondence a n d Drawings l o Jobsite
Airmail should he used for translnitting specifications, and correspond-
m r c for tlre foreign p r ~ ~ j c e t Drawings
. arc scnt by air express or air
parcel-post since tlrcy do not fall into the classification of correspondmcc.
The preliminary survey should include a n investigfitiou uf the custu~ri*
requircmtmts a t the ilestinatiun. I n certain countries all such package-
are opened for inspection, and it is desirable to be familiar with the in-
spection procedure and facilities. I n a number of the smaller countries
packages containing nothing but ordinary papers and drawing prints may
be held by the local a u t l ~ ~ ~ r i triiet hs o u t notice to either party. \r-Irethcr
dutiable or not.
I t is sometimes advantageous to provide a direct printing rcproiluction
machine a t the erection site. D a t a can then be mailed in sollie rcproduc-
ible form, and prints made a s required. The printing process should hc
clieckeil for operation in the cli~nate,and the effect of the climate on tlie
sensitized paper drtcnuined. l l n n y such pnpers quickly fail under higl1
temperature or humidity. The cost of dripping rrplncement papr3r coulil
easily e x c e ~ dthe costs of shipping prints.
Preliminary Data far Construction Projects 41
Construction Personnel
C:onstructii,n operations in foreign cormtries hy U.S. contractors ill
11w111yrequire a nuunher of experienced key U.S. personnel in the labor
rrnftsman categories. The percentage of U.S. expatriates t o uationals
ustd on the project vill vary ~ r i t hthe degree of industrialization of tlre
fmeigu c o u n t r ~ . I n certain European countries lahor in the skilled emits
i. c;uily obtainable. Tlrc amilobility of skilled lahor sliuuld bc irrvcsti-
g:ttcd since savings may he effected I>?- :I reduction of V.S. cxpltrixtes.
Labur regulations, l a ~ ~ -:ml s . incor~letascs or otlicr labor taxes slrould
I E inve;tigated and fully underat~~od.I n certain countries lnhor rcguln-
tions may also affect expatriate pcrwnnel. Any such l a m or regulations
nrurt be explained to expatriate personnel a t the time of hiring. On large
~wojectsit is often conunon practice t o institute training prugranis so that
the nalirmnls can become skilled in the varioui crafts.
Courtrurticm personnel hiring for foreign operations is usually an in-
vulved process. All pcrsmnrl so hired sl~ould be employed under a
rrontract for :I certain number of n~ontlri. A bonus is frequently offercd
:ISan incentiw to cou~pletethe projevt. All personnel sliould be subjected
to a physical examination and all licccssary vaccinations taken to mect
the rcquire~ilentsof the particular area.
If the project is remote from a metropolitan area, medical facilities
.lrould he provided. I t is sometimes possible tu erect so~ticof t,he perma-
I I V I I ~ tmilding* enrly in the project. I n such instanres facilities for a cer-
tain amount of lro~pitalizatinncan be prorided during the construction
~wriod. In t l ~ ~? ~ r i u i i ( i countrie?
ve medii~als~rppliesare 11ftc11 uriol~tai~iable.
Provisions niust he made to provide adequate ~rrcdicalsupplics for all em-
11loyrrl perso~nel,both nationals as well as cxpatriatc:: since many of the
muntries require that an cniployer (particularly foreign) nus st proride
iiicclical attention for all eml~loyeesregar~llcssof their nntional origin.
Furtl~ertnore,tlic costs are lregligible cunlpared t o the possible ill-will
gmcratrii if 111edica1care is not supplied.
T.S. cxpatriatw tnnst ol~tnina passport and the proper vim ~ I I the I
I . . r q r w m t a t i r e r . of t l ~ ecountry t o bc vikiteil. T o obtain :i F.S. lxiss-
I I I " . ~ tlic. person I I I I I S ~ p r o ~ ehis U.S. citizcnal~ipby I~irtllcertifiwtt, or
:~fii<l:tvit:he nit14 h a r e a h e a l police release and usually a letter from
the e ~ ~ q i l o y stating
cr the reason for the r i d .
('r.rt;~in couuirirs restrict alrd liluit t l ~ vi ~ ~ u i ~ uof t r t p e w o ~ ~ aeffw1s
l
\\-Irirl~ may be carriwl by personnel. 3I;rny cmuitries rrquire payment of
duties on pcrsontxl effects sueh a s shoes and clothing if they are nrm ; ~ n d
I - d Thew requirenrcnta should he ascertained and put inti1 :L
[irintcd form so that they can be untlerstooil rompletely.
\1:11iy 1~111111~1y~~1.s 1111yt~.:~vel or ( C ~ I I Ii t ~ s ~ t t ~ of
i ~ ~OIIC
r wI~imII I :tnot11c1,
~
42 Project Engineering of Process Plants
\vithout i w t to the employee. payahle t o the ~mploycc'shcnefiriary in I.;IW
cli ( l t x t l ~or injury. This procedure is a good niorale huilclcr and is not
CHAPTER 4
an inqxxtant rust item.
I t is important that personnel housing he adequate. All iurnishings
~ l ~ o o l bc
c l of n good d ~ ~ r a hqriality
lc and food sl~ouldmeet U.S. s t a n d a r t k
(:ood housing and food is an important asset to any iorcign project.
S i ~ t h i n gcan affect n~orwlc,so seriously as uncomfortal~lcliving conditic~ns
c x poor food. Savings in follcl coats cannot possibly approach personnel
transl~ortationcosts caused by a high lahor turnover.
A ircqucnt prohlcm with expatriate personnel on extended foreign
proje<,ts is the qucstion of single-status r s . family-status. If housing
~ n m tbe provided, tlic n u ~ u b e r of employees pennitteil to t a k e their
fw~niliesmay hecon~ca n important cost item. It is the practice a t times
on foreign projccts to allon key c o ~ ~ r t r u c t i opersonnel
n
fa~nilicrto tllc locality. At times i t is also c o m ~ n c ~practice
n
t o more their
to permit
PROCESS
rn~ploynicr~t only 1111 a single-status Lasir. These proccdurcs and prac-
tires yary wnriclcrably ~ r i t hovners and construction firnis and are also
g~lvcl.neil11y tlrc local conditions. A11 such points inust 11c dcrelope(l and
ENGINEERING
iliould bc ir~clr~,led in the printed form or t l ~ ccoz~tractwith the employee.

REFERENCE Process engineering is concerned n i t h the devclopn~cnt.craluation, and

1. I.rcming, J., Jjoiicin Espo,-t Pocking, TI& Prornntional Swirn So. 207. Bureau
71 Furrign and Domustie Cammcl.ce, D ~ p t oi . Cu~nmc~.ee,IVashinpton. D.C., 1940.
design of cl~eniicalprocesses. Pcrliaps in no other phase of rlien~iral
mginrcring can t l ~ cengineer better npply the technical knowledge anll
skill gained in his formal college education. A l t l ~ l ~ u gml ~m y operating
conq~ar~iea may departmentalize proccss cnginccring into development.
w o n m ~ i eanalysis, and design, i t is not uncommon for a single 1 1 r o i ~ ~ i :
engineer to originate a new process and f o l l m ~it tliruugh the dc5ipr1
stages t o a con~plctedjilant. Indeed. many prore?s engineers ~ i t huln-
sidcrable cxpcricnce arc called upon t o direct t l ~ cdesign of a n c pl:mt ~
ns project engineers on the Iiasis of their intimate knolvlcdge of t h r
Inwcess.
Thc complete discussion of process engineering and particularly of
Ilrocess design n-onlrl rcqrrirr a book i ~ fe o n d r r a b l e length. C r r t a i ~ ~
l~ricf conmicnts, however, concerning the r a r i w s phase.; of proccss en-
gineering \vill aid in integrating it into t t ~ coverall plant design pirtnre.

FUNDAMENTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH

Fundamental research in chemistry and cl~erriicnl cnginccring is per-
fornied to a large degree in the laboratories of universities and privately
cndoaeil rescarch institutes. M a n y of the procc?r industries, Iio~r-ever.
and a number of design firms have found i t necessary to conduct certain
types of funclamental researcll. I t is the indnetrinl-typc fundanientnl re-
search that pertains t o this discussim
43
44 Project Engineering of Process Plants
XI,\\ ],~.o,lucl-;iri, ol'tc~lI N I ~ I I ill t l ~ el ~ i : : ~ k , :~~r ns ( Ic-t
i t1111c'. of 1.11w11i-t?
111 irullt-trial lalmratiries v h e n stnil?-ing certain types o i rcv.?tiuni tn gmn
iunrl;~n~cntal 1inon.lcdge in n ~ u c l ithe same manner as the clicniist~a t a
nniv~,rbity or r~.,e;rrch institote. T h e difiermce is tl1:11 the inilrlstrial
clrr.ni~dc l i ~ ~ o wreactions
s t1i;lt. if sl~cce.:ful. havp w m e i ~ n ~ : ~ c d i aeoln- te
~ w r r i a lsiprifir.;~nvc.
..
1111,c l ~ f . i ~ ~ iCIIRIIII,CI!
c;~l ;ilro i- ~ , n g i ~ g cill ( I I!IW:II!I,~I f ~ ~ n ( I i ~ n ~ to~ ' nhis
t:~l
I I ~ I l eIn y emnl~:lnicscarry out r ~ , n t i n l ~ o u t,xpcri1nent21l
s programs
1111 unit olwralions, rc.:irti,in killrtiri. ;inii t ~ l e r l ~ l o ~ i y o n l l l i T c ~h .e lIllr110s~'
oi m 4 1 C ~ ~ I ~ > ~ ~ I I I ~ ! IiqI ~to: I gxi11
~ ~ I I IaI g ~ . r ; ~ tkw1 1 0 ~ 1 c d gof~ ~these operation..
so t11;lt <lcsignl ~ r o c e ~ l i ~anll r r s p h n t 11pcratinl1r;ln he inl~lruvcl~.
('l~eniiralin~lrritryvannot priigres v i t l ~ o u ta continr~uus,supl~lyof nen-
Fl~n~la~iicntnl kn,ir\-ledge and iniornlation. T h e twrly An~czricanchemical
inrlustry r~htained1nur.11f ~ ~ n ~ l : i ~ n clino~i'ledge ntal from Earope, particularly
in the field ui pnrc eircn~istry. I l o r r and m i m . ho\vewr, hnlericnn
univ?rsitie, research institutes, and in~lustriall a h r a t o r i e i arc inrnishirlg
fundamental research nrccisary ior the growtli of the proress industries.
Congre.s 1,-tahli.hecI Tiic Satio11:ti Frienw 1:onndation to enmurape the
~ l c v c l ~ , p n e n,,it fund:rmmtal resc;tr,.ll activities in tlte Lnitcil S t n t w
A roni]~etentpruccss enpinecr must ~ u a i n t a i ninti~ili~tc, c11nt:ict ~i'itlr
rlerelopr~~entr o f f u n d n n ~ r ~ n t knowledge
al in his l~;irticularfield. H e docs
this b y periwlical review of the literature and b y close asbociation x i t h
rrorlc progressing in his ,Inn orgnnizatim.
Process Development
S e n ' ~lesign princil~lc.s,novel re:lction; and nen' cornpinul~lsui.uZIll?.
suggest applications oi industrial importanre t o alert tr~,llnicalnmnwgr-
m m t . Snch applications may he a new proccsr; or the i~n[~rovclucnt IIE an
existing OM,. hot11 of rvhich r q n i r c tht! design an11 cun~tructionc ~ fncn-
facilities an11 nlay involve ~,xpcndituresof several niillion ilollnrs. S i n w
so 111r1cl1of engineering design is of a n empirical nature. it is seldom 110s-
sil,lc to j ~ n n p irom the heaker to the finished plant. h considcrablc
amount ui what might h r called applied derclopmentnl research m n ~ he t dcxlolxnent of the process inrlustries, a wntinuous cffurt i n r ~ s tIIC, 1na11c
ilonc. Tlic intormiltion obtained p e n u i t ~the design of [lrocess equip~nent
with n rcasimahlc ~ r n o ~ i noit assurance. T h e process engineer \rho xill
be concerned n.it11 the design and p r l l a l j s the ultimate o p e r a t i ~ ~of n a
~ x o c c shccinnes
~ intimately associated nit11 t h e study a t this point. H e
~ l i o i ~ lhe
d supplied ~7-itl1ail data nnd interpretations o l data obtaincd in
the l a h ~ a t r .His i~ackgroundof plant design and operation n ~ n k ehi?
counsel extren~elyvaluable to the devrloplicntal groups. T h e p r n c e s
er~zincercan he nssureil of haring all p o s i h l ~r h~t e necessary ior design
n s i f IIC. 111:iintnins a clo>c Ii;li-uo n-it11 ~ h pr o e w s 11rvelop-
r i ~ l ~ w l i ~ t i oonly
~ n i n dt t > l ~ : ~ ~ ' t n ~ ~ ~ t .
Process Engineering 45
Procc.>- d e r - e l o l ~ n ~ m
often
t hegins x i t h a b e n d - s c a l e 1aI1or:itory stud>-.
Sn~nll-ccaleyi:ia, or ~ n c t a l~ ~ r ~ u i i ~ is n ~ce~nl lt p l ~ ~ yti,c dollt:~in rlatn i l f 2111
~ x p l o r a t o r ynature. hell cxpcri~l~cntation is ~ - a I u a h l e;incc it is oiten an
iilcxlm~sivemeans of proving the fwsil)ility of a process and of ilirccti~~::
the n-:iy tu f l ~ r t h c rrcsmrrh efforts. T h e extent of chemical cnginecri~rg
kno~r-ledgea t the llresrnt time scl,lom p e r ~ n i tthe ~ design of a lien- plant
from bench scale lahorntory d a t a alone. Tllrro are yo many unk11on.n-
;lnd intaugihles n.liich h a r e defied tllc.orrtiral annlysi? tila1 it i- new:w'y
tu e m l u a t e these iactors cnlpirically on larger x a l c c ~ ~ r ~ i ~ ~ r~~l- ~c ncl nl ct~. l
pilot plant or semi-plant equipment. I n pilot plant and semi-plant o11rr;l-
tiun n procedure a s nearly like that. d l i e l ~n.iU hc e111~10yedin t h ~ caul- .
nlercial plant is follon.cd so t h a t the d ; ~ t ; l~ ~ l l t a i n c can i i he used n-it11
cu~~fiilence in the araling up of the l ~ i l o tplant to ~,o~nnierci:il six
Pilot plants are costly to bnild and operate. I t is not ilnciitnnvm fur
:I single. pilot ljlant to cost clusc to a inillion dollars. I t is. tl~erciorc.
inil~erativc that all tl~corctical knou.lcdge ; ~ r a i l a b l ct a the clhc~nic;:l
engincer he used to rednre t h e anlount of pilot plant ~ o r requirerl k and.
if l ~ ~ s i b l climin:rtc
c, it entirely. It is p u ~ s i l ~ l vfor . instance, to o l ~ t a i n
rcaction rate (latn for a new reactilln on s i l l l ~ ~hk~ m ~ ~ l l - scqllijllllt~llt. ~ak
I-sing the principles of applied kinetirs, rate e r j ~ ~ a t i o ncan s then be ilr-
reloped ~ v h i c hd l ])ennit the calculation of reactor size for a nlnnher oi
<lifferent conditions of ol~eratiouenahling t h e choicc o i the iilost c r w
11m1ie:11design ix-ith t h e niininluni a ~ : ~ o u noi t e x p ~ r i t ~ ~ c ndiitil.
t a l I t III:I!.
itill he cmsidcrcd x!-isc in sn1.11 a casc to oper;rte :I pilut p1:tnt f o r tllc
p~irposc uf ohtaining corrosion d a t a , heat transfer inior~natiun, and
general operating charaeteristics oi the prirccss. T h e k n o ~ l c i l g c oi
kinetics gained in the brnrli-scale operation ~ ~ u aid l d g e n t l y in tilt,
<lr.signof the 11ilot plant and x-ould indicate very definitely the luinimu~n
aniount of d a t a required. T h e al~plicationof thcoretiral knowledge in
t,lrii fashion saves a, great deal of time and expense and is f a r superior t o
the c~~mplctel?- cnlpirical approach of "let's try this t o ~ l : ~ y . "
.%lthongh the empirical n~etliudof r c ~ c m c hhas been ;uccc>sful in the
to strengthen the thcnretical h a r k g r o ~ m dof the various unit uper:ition-
>o t h a t more and nrorc resnlts may lw cnlculated, t h o e b y reilucing or
clin~inatingcompletely niuch of t h e pilot plant and semi-plant rrork n o ~ v
required.
PROCESS EVALUATION
Process evaluation consists of both a n engineering and cconomic
analysis of a process and in thc broadest sense is a rontinoing oper;ttion.
It ,sho111(1Ile s t a ~ , t , ,,.vr.11 t ~ ~ IISI>
~ y 1wc.11 11011r. A
~ l I~efor,,:iny l : i h u ~ ~ : ~\!~!c~rl<
c;~rciulannlvsis oi co:t nt :in early st:~gc \!'ill incli~,atc,if the l)rol,esc pro-

46 Project Engineering of Process Plants
posed has protiii?e and m a y :rlso suggest the direction of experimentation.
Process er;rluation slluuld c,~ntinuca t regulilr iutervals a s significant and
nclv d a t a are uncovered.
This continuous recraluation of the c n g i u e c r i ~ ~and g cconouiic factors
s ~ d aids in the overall pianniug III I;cuch-scale and
in the ~ ~ r u l ~ oprocess
~ ~ i l plant
ot 11-ork T l ~ e r rnre ift ten nlnny !\-a>-. of a r ~ c ~ r m ~ ~ l i s ah i given
ng
unit operation, Ililt thrse pwsihilities r a n be rcstrirtcd to only a l e v n-hen
economics is considcrcd. Dybdal? has presented t h e relation of project
evaluation to veil-planned experin~ental11-ork, particularly tlrr planning
that occurs I~ctrveenlaburntory and 11ilot 11l:mt lvork. One of the ICSS
tangillle factors in favor oi procrss eraluation a t t h i ~stngr is t h a t making
:I c w t estimate requires knoll-ledge of tilt, cqui~iuicntto 11c cniployrtl and,
t,l~erefore:automatically forces the chemical engineer to think objcctirely.
Such thinking inevitably suggrsts nxmy itelus of inforumtion t h a t sl~oulcl
be obtained from the pilot p1:iut ol~eriition.
COST ESTIMATES AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
Tlic type of , , I I .cstinuite
~ requirrli for tilt! studit+ thus Ear ~nentioncdis
termed the predcsign cost r s t i u ~ ~ since tc it is 1 1 a d only 011 information
that is available prior to the actual design 11f plant equipment. T h e pre-
design estiniate is not only \ d u a h l c in t h a t it rlirccts research projects
into the rnwt profitable paths, but it is also ;I very real aid in design
cnlculations. .Is the p ~ o r ~ drsign?s of a plant procccils, alternate Ineans
of oprratirm for portions of the 11lnnt often l ~ w o m eaplxu'cnt. Various
;irrangcul~ntsof heat excl~nr~gcr;;, prrsrure or teulllcraturr of reactllrs,
a d operating pressure:: uf ni)sorhors are typical of t l ~ efactors to be con-
sidered in alternate designs.
Cost estiniating does not cnd xlien the drririon to build a plant is ruade.
Itquirics arc sent t o various contr:~cturs,and they must make preliminary
design calculations and obtain quotations on thosc i t e m of equipment
for lvliicl~they have little or nil recent cost d a t a . From this information
contractors develo11 prelimi~iarycost cstirnates upon x h i c l ~t h r i r bids are
based. If t l ~ rconlrncti~rn ~ a l i e s:I fir111q ~ ~ ~ ~ t a tI ~ i oi snrust
. an:llysis uiust
he exceedingly ~ n e t i c u l o u arid c ~ n t i n ~ r n c i emust
s he k r p t a s lor%. a s
pi~ssibleto insure the lvinniug of the contract. $wcalled cost plus con-
tracts, d i i c h are usually pupular during nccelcrwtcd building programs
t y l ~ i c a lof var-time periods. 11rotcct the contrnctor from t h e many incnl-
culable vr~ntiugencirs ~vliich ;~lw;tys aribe, in rush projects t h a t ent:iil
considerablr risks. As the design ;in11 construrtim rv11r1~on p r ~ j c c t s
p r o r r c d ~ .thc custoli~eruru:illy r t q i ~ c s t snc5v rr-tin~atvsof the ultimate
cost enrh montll ur for suuic othcr mu\.cnii~nliutrrvni. Ear11 suiwssive
estimate brcciulcs 11~1re:i~,curatesiuce 11101.~i u i ~ r n i a t i (is~ av;iilabk ~ 11s
Process Engineering 47
the job approacl~c?co~rililvtio~i.TIIM\<Iat>i:~Ilvays11wr11i1c of gre:it r.:1111t.
to the cuotra<,tor lor w i t duilit,- uf his (111-11 o l x , r : i t i o ~ ~ . ~ .
O f t m the "running-owr" I I ~lirt.lin~inaryr - t i m i t t , ~van IN. tracecl to
additions or to improvrnicnts in t l i v iwiginal ~lcsigir, Design <Iran-ing*
are usually eirculattd tlm~uglltile 1-ariow i l c ~ x i r t ~ n c rof i t ~t l ~ cc ~ t s t o n ~ t ~ r ' c
orgnnizatiun and idrns for ;idditiuns to the p l m t oftcli cree1) in iluri~lg
this proce*. Tlic customer's project enginerr can hetter control ro-t.
therefore, by requesting frequent reestiulates of the f i n d plant cost.
Econon~iee v a l ~ ~ a t i oof n l~roccs-re?houl~lr o n t i t n ~ eeven a f t e r a plant
goes into ioperation. Plans fur inrrea..ing protlurtiun ur fur obtainilly lon.er
iroduction r o d s n m t all he evaluated on a d~ollnrbasis. Procesb evalua-
tion and its p r i n ~ a r ytool cost estimation permeate every phase of the
d e r e l o p n ~ e n t design,
. construction, and ojwration of :i plaut.
Both operating e m i ~ p a n i c and . constructil~nfirni.; tnaiutuin cou~petent
estimating departlncnts. 'Tliesr groups arc ili~isionsof the cimtral en-
gineering orgnniz:ltion nnr! arc u.u:dly d a f f e d I)>- nien of c o n ~ i i l e r a i ~ l r
experience in estili~atingrvork. l l o a t frequcntl>- ccncl~111;tn sprcializes in
our p l m r of estimating, m r h n? piping or vessels. T h e 11rimary 11uty of
cstitnating departments is to tic\-?lop ac(,nratc c m s t r u c t i ~ ~cobt n cstitnates
based on reasonably firm design inforlnation a r ~ lthe latest cquil~rnent
costs available. Such estimates a r c time c o n ~ u m i n gaud c ~ t l y l, ) ~ are t
necessary in t h e d n . c l o p w n t of quotations b y contractors or appropria-
tion estinlatrs b y operating companies, n-hich are presented t o manage-
ment prior t11 the alloration of funds fur a project.
Chemical engineers acting as procc?s engineers or project engineers
ioftcnl I~owex-er,require n ~ o r rrapiil and less costly estiuratcs tlc nil1 in
design decisions :ind in the ilirection of research and development. T h e
process or project engineer r a n a l r w y s rcqurst dctailrd estimates from
the estituating d c p r t n l c n t of his firm. I t sl~oulilbe realized, tliuugh, tlint
such estimates a r e rostly. and for marly purposes are not nercss;try.
Xichols"an.. given a n excellent cunnnentary on mcthi~ds of capital
covt eatiniati!ig varying fro111the vcry wp]~roxiulatctuethod to a detailed
estimate. Fig. 4-1. 1vl1icl1n.as l~resentcdby Kicl~ols,gives r ~ i u cdifferent
estimate t y l ~ r sv i t h varying degrees of 11reci~imb a d on the infonu:ition
available. From this figure t h e approxi~netccust required t o prepare an
rsti~iiatcof e:icll type c:in be delerulined. T h e preci-ion of this estimate
and n reeotnnlmded imtinguni.y for m c h type of estimnte is given. This
1.1lnrt wIiir11 is bi~serlon crrtain artuwl ihsrrvations of one large firm is an
illustration of the type of c11:lrt thnt proves 11c~Ipf111 in d c c t i n p tlir type
of estiluate most suitnlile f i ~ ra givcn purl~iise.' K i c h d s iilu>tr;itrs its
* Evyy grour, ni+ing to u s ? r i ~ r . l l:a vlhtt sllotzl~lcun..ti.nct o t l ~ilf i t n otvn l,:isr.<l
cin ilr ',,V" e\-p?,il.lll.e.
50 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 51

:~liplii.atiim h y assuming :I ii\.c-million-ilolliir [irojrct and c o q x m n g a

t>-pe A e t i l n a t e , the 111wt i i c c n r a t ~d. l 1 a ICV nccnratc type J estimate.
T h e cost of t h r t>-g~; d t,.>ti~natt,noillil I K :ipl".urimately $25,000 Tvhilc
t h a t for the type J n.onlrl lie $9.000. T h e best type J e t i u l a t r rwuld give
a sprc;id tlptrrwn ~ l r i n i n n ~nnd n ~ mnrimnm ::ctii:il c w t of ahont 30%.
~vhilcthe type ; Ispread n-ould 11r a ~ ~ ~ i r o x i ~ n 20';.
n t e l ~ -TI-ill tlrr iucrcase
in iirecisirm from 30r; to 20" sprcnci justify tlw acliliti~~nal cost of $16.000
rcqaircd [or the tylle -1 e i t i ~ n n t e ? I n many instancrs. 11nrticularl:- design
stndies, surh addcil cost n-i~ulilcprtainly not t ~ cjwtifiahlr. .%I1 too Ere-
qnently tillre and money are wasted in attet~illtingto estimate proiects
ivitli greater precision than is pwsible vitli the terhniral d a t a availahlc.
2 " r l o i s d Equipment C v r l
Estimates for Economic Evaluation
lrnere
O ~ ~ O u~odu t y i rae
Jsr r con
. ro on
E c m o ~ n i ccr-alu;itir~nis an inilispensable g n i ~ l et o proccss decisions. i v r v s r ai Cnlton I I 1
There include decisions required t h e guidance of rescwrcl~,process
ilrsigii, ciipital e r ~ w n d i t l i r r ~i r i i r i n t i u ~ ir e i p e d s t o ~ u n u a g e m m t i ,
and iq~tirnnni plant qicratirig conditions, % . C O I I I I J ~ P ~ cvalnatior~
C of a
nelr- prqjcd requires tlic cstim;ition of the ncn- fixed capit:il required to-
gether n.itll r~-orkingr;iliit;rl. Assuming an ann~riill ) r o ( l u c t i ~ ~rate n and a
rrlling price of tlie product, the annnal s:iler can bc calculated Friini the
total vnlne of annual zalcs. the cost of uinuufacturing, selling. udministra-
tion, and taxes r a n he d r ~ l u c t e dto yield the incouic after taxes t o bc
cxl~ectrdfrom the prilject. This i n r , ~ i n ~l ~e a nthen hc cxprrssrii :IS a pcr-
centage of t h e ~,aliitali n v r l t l n t ~ ~ivliicl~
t is a nscful fignre for stndy hy
~uanagement. M a n y studies, of course. ( l i ~not require coiriplete e~wnomic
evaluation. I n selecting alternate dcsigrs iir arrangrmerrts of equipment.
for instance, only a r o n ~ l i n r i ~ oI nI the ~ cquilnncnt cobt in the sereral cascs
need bc made.
Sliort-cut p - ~ ~ c e d for
u ~ ~s ~ t i u i a t i ntheg fixed rapital, t l ~ cnianufarturing
rosts, and the armual return are most Irelliful v h c n uacd v.ith t h e proper
judgu~cnt. M a n y metlrods have bee11 published. F o r cuuvcnicncc several
of those currently regarded v i t h favor tiy practicing engineers will be
prcscntcd below.

Fixed Capital Cost Estimating

\$'hen the design of nnv facilities has progressed to t,lic niecl~anical
design stage, the inost :rccnrate IU~:IIIS of cstiuiatiug tlie final c~isteof the
pl:int is 11y a dctaile(l ellst wtimate typicxl of tlrnt produced by im esti-
Fig. 4-2. Estinmrion oi total phnt costs.
~ u a t i n gd r l ~ n r t m e n tstaffed n-itli lrietr TT-1111ilcvote full time to cost estilua-
tion. T h e estimate;. reqnirrd 11-: p r ~ c e sc ~ ~ g i u r e rho~~-t:vc:r,s, invariably
muat 11c inade heforc ;L 1;irgr amunnt uf iufor~uationis available. I n znch Cliilton's m e t l ~ o d l presents a more derailed estimate nud permits the
variation of ini]mrtant portions of plant cust in awordance ~ v i t ht h e
rases, a. detailed estimate is s r l d u ~m~r r~a u t c d 11r ~ ~ c c o r : i t r .
Fig. 4-2 iirescnts tivo short-ent inf~tl~ods, ~vlii(.li11;ir.c proved ]~npular. estimatur's judgnncnt arid knon-ledge of the prticulwr sitnatiou Cl~ilton
52 Project Engineering of Process Plontr Process Engineering
~ I K W I I ~:I ~icri~,s givi~lgtilt, inst:illcrl co-t of :I in1111l11,r
n l CIII~VKU of iliffercut
cquipmcnt itcnis haseti on an Engineering n n d .\'em Hecord index of 400.
Tlie final plant cost is then corrected to rurrent cost by ~nultiplyingby
ratio of the cunent Engineering S c w s Record index to the base index
of 400.
t
3T:tny ~lrnrticingcnginrrri 11arc clrrcli~l~crl simil;ir pn~ccrluresfor tlicir
o~rii11-e from information arailel~lein a rompany purc1i:rsing department.
Ciist curre; ior cquilinicnt itcnis nmst irequcntly used in a particular
in~lustr>-c:in he devclolied readily. To nriii~lrontinuonz revision of t11r;c
~ h t : ~rui.rcmt
. cost.; can iic cstin~:~tcil by inultiplying the original cod by
tlw rntiil ~ , >If currcnt ralue of soruc ~~ul)li.ilird rost index to the value of
tlir index upon u-hie11 the c l ~ a r t sarc I~nseil. Screral sue11 in~lcxcsare
a i l h T h a i compiled by Engineering X e t r , . ~Record is based largely on
cwt oi steel, lunilier, foundation ~naterials,and labor. The firm of
31nrsl1all and Stercns of Cllirago, Illinois~ilauesquarterly index numl~ers
ior cq~~ililiicnt costs covering a n ~ u n l ~ tof
> r difi'crcnt i~irlustries. Eight of
these are for proccss industries: and linvc b c m found very useful by n i m y
prowis eugiucera.
I n Fig. 4-2 tlie term buil~ling and structurc inr1111lps supports and
foundation .Tudginent rnnat be used in sclccting the proper percentages
for itenis 3 tlirough 11 to insure the maxi~uulnaccuracy. Some plants
require special alloy piping which may greatly increase the portion of
plant cost due t o piping. Similarly foundation conditions must also he
carefully eraluatecl. If piling is required, the foundation cost may bc
increased by as n~uclias 25%. It is important, therefore, t o realize that,
reasonable accuracy in plant coat estimating of the type outlined a b ~ ~ r c
rcquires tlie derelopnient of considerable amount of sound engineering
judgment, based on experience with many prcrious projects. Tlic sug-
gested pcrcrntagcs given by Chilton arc to be used as guides and corrected
!vllcre\-er necessary for the special situation being evaluated.
In approximating either thc cost of single equipnicnt items or entire
plants, \Villian~sVias suggestcil that the linon-n cost of a siniilar but
rliflcrent hize unit he nlnltiplicd by tli? ratio of .sizes t o the 0.6 p o ~ e r .
For ~ x a m p l e consider
. a 1200 sq ft cxrliangcr selling for $4000. Estiuiate
tlic rost of n 2000 sq f t exchanger of si~nil:ir ~wnstruction. This cost
\!-odd he $1000 X (2000i1200) '1" $5440.

Manufacluring Cost
The total mnnufacturing cost can be estimnted ns suggested liy Dybclal'
and as outlined in Fig. 4-3. I t is the sum of labor: orerhcad, fixed cliarges
and maintenance, raw lnaterials, utilities, laboratory expenses, and royal-
tics. JIultipliers for obt,aining the annual fixed chnrgcs plus maintenance
:lnd tlie general orerliead arc given in Fig. 4-3. Where nossible liowever,
56 Project Engineering of Process Plants
rwnomic evaluation should supply tlie ini'ormation esrential for choosing
the unit operations required. Experimental ~ v o r ki i nut a l ~ a con~~)lcte.
~ s
and tlie process design engineer must recognize any deficiencies V-Iiicli
exist so that additional data can be requested. Plants have been designed
and built bawd on experimental data for production of a new product,
but without data for t!ie purification of this product. T h r pnrification
operations ~ l i i r l in-ere designed TI-ithout the benefit of lahorntory data
proved inadequate and caused the entire operation to fail economically.
Assuming there is ;rdequate inforn~ationtllc procer? engineer s1111ulil
construct a schematic diagram in~lirating;ill the operation- required for
the production of the dc~.&d ilnnntity and quality of finished prot1u1.t.
Each of the unit opcrntions necessary may offer e r e r a l alteru:itcs fro111
an economic st:rndpoint. l\Iaterial an11 energy halances around each unit
should then IIP ina~le:in11 the results recorded in an orderly fashion s r ~
that they may he used for the many ~lesigncalculations of individual
equipment itenis and fur the n-riting of specifications. Orderliness and
neatness are raluable x-irtucs in this T\-ork. Hnl-ing an easily understood
flow diagram and an accurate material energy bnlnncc early in the proc-
ess dcsign of a p1:int eliminate+ error and pcrmitr a numher of people t(,
work efficiently on vnriuus phases of tlie design.
Design Procedures
The usual process design proreih~rrmight be srparated into tivo major
diri~ions. The first inr-olres the actual design of equilment to be built
to order. The se~.onrIc ~ l n ~ i sof
t s specifying the ollernting i:onclitions for
st:indard manufactured cquipn~ent. I n tile first catcgury, there is e q u i p
mcnt, such ns distillation t o ~ c r s absurl~ti<~n
, tolvrrs, adsorption and cx-
traction units an11 reactors. Thoac items inrolviug niass transfer are
designed by calculating the iileal numhrr of stages or the nun~bcrof
equilibrium stages (in distillation this \vonld be tlic number of t r a y s ) .
The actual number of stages is then detern~incdby the application of
appropriate empirically d e t e r m i n ~ efficiencies.
~l
I n some cases it has been fuund illore desirable to e~nploya (IifYercntial
stage instead of an equilibrium stage and deterininc tile nun~l)crof trnns-
fcr units by an integration. The hright of a. triinsfer unit can he r s t i n ~ a t e ~ l
by certain grneralieed correlations. The design of packed colunnls is done
in this manner.
Reactors are designed by the apl~licationof clic~nicalkinctics as dcs-
cribed by Hougcn and Watson:l Rate equations art, determined from
experimental data, and empirical cunstants for the equations are rvalu-
ated. If the effect of temperature on these constants has been establislie~i,
it is possible to calculate reactor sizes for a nmnber of assulned operating
~ n ~ l i t i ~ This
t ~ s tccl~~iic~uc
. cn:ll)les con~pI~,ti, w ~ ~ n i ~ l:tnalysis
nic of till. rr-
Process Engineering 57
artor 11c*.ig11 n-ithout cxcwsive experin~entati,m I n ~ n a n yri~scc:I I ~ T ~ - ~ ~ c L . ,
the reactions are so complex that rational analysis hy the principles of
applied kinetics is too diffildt a t onr present state of knon.ledge. I n this
case. the empirical pilot plant procedure must be used, in \vhich the
optimum operating conditions are determined by a planned experimmta-
tion program requiring many hundrrds of runs; and. tl~crcfore,consirier-
able expense. The application of kinetics and ma.ss transfer theory in
pilot plant x~-orlisl~o~llil he a t t n n p t i ~ lwl~crercr possihle since it d l
grc;ttly aid in limiting tlir n~nonntof E~lismian-typeinrestig:ition r r -
quired.
.I large portion of the other unit operations equipment comn~only
eniployrd in process plants is in thr: second category. I t is not actually
designed hy the 11rucess ~wginccraltl~oughkno\vledge of the theory rr-
lated t o each item of equipment is extrcn~elyhelpi~rl. Itrnrs such as
screens, crusllers and grinders, classifiers. settler? and thickeners, pumps.
romllressors, licat exchangel.s, filters. centrifuges, rr)-.4allizcrs, agitators
and evaporators are a11 purchased from conipanies that, specialize in one
or morr of t l ~ c r citems. Theory for the design of niost of this equipmmt
is vcry sparse and empiricism is the only guide. The proper selection of
an agit,ator, for instance: must he entrusted to a rnanufacturcr who has
specialized in the building of agitators and has a considerable backlog of
experimental and actual operating data. The manufacturer can, hy ap-
plication uf the princ,iples of dimensional similitude, specify a large
agitator installation on the basis of tests n~arleon su~nlllaboratory equip-
~ n e n t . Similar procedures are follo~vedby the manufacturers of filters.
ilryers, centrifugals and other equipn~entof this type.
The process engineer must be familiar with the n~etlmdsof selcctior~
used by tlie manufacturer so t l ~ a tthe operating specifications required
for each item of equipment ran be intelligently conil~ile~i.Then it will
uot be necessary for tlie manufacturer t o carry on voluminous corrc-
spondcncc in order t o obtain additional facts required for the selection of
the desired item. I n subsequent chapters information is giren t h a t d l
aid in the selection of different types of cquipmcnt.
I n specifying operating conditions for equipment or in the original
design of process equipment: it is essential that the design engineer select
the niaterials of construction. h-o one is more fa~niliarwith tlie process
rhan the process engineer; and he, therefore, is in a farornblc positim t o
aid the mechanical designer in the intelligent specification of materials
wliicli will resist corrusion and erosiun. There are many handy tables
~ ~ l i i ch ha r e been printed to aid in selection of a material of construction
that d l resist the corrosion of a given substance. There tables arc in-
tended only as preliminary guidcs and extreme caution niust be eniployeil
in their use. Often a sligl~tchange in tcn~perntureconditions can cause
58 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 59
a inctnl to corrode ~vhich~vouldordinarily withstand the attack of tlie :~ccumulatingoperating data. Such data siioi~ldnot just he placed in the
Hoi~lin question. Tlie study of corrosion is still largely elnpirical, and i t company files, hut it slionld he analyzed n.Ilile still "fresl?" a11d made a
is nut porsihlc for the average cngineer to k n o x the latest d e v c l ~ ~ p m e n t s definite part of tlir organization's operating experience.
since the wmhinatiorl of material:: and corroding agents is ahnost limit-
I This .suggests
~ - that for a11 bnt the zi~nplestcases a conipctent corro- SOURCES OF BASIC DATA
.ion cngineer should t ~ consulted.
r The excellent periodicals in the field
I n addition to the experiniental rlata in operating data nhirh arc uscil
\ d l also pro\-e liclpful.
in the design of equil~nient,a large amount of hitsic pliysiral an11 clieniical
.Is the design and selection of the prucess equip~nentis cninpleteil,
data are also reqnircrl. M a n y cnmpanies niaintain very cscellent rlata
specifications for each item should be sumlnarized in a n orderly fashion.
hooks in u41icli such data are accumul:ited and periodically rrviscd. A
U a n y organizations h a w developed f o r m for the various equipment
single ~lepartnlentis often charged u-it11 the full-time d u t y of maintaining
items. There insure neatness and also prevent tile engineer from over-
the data book. Tliuse engineer:: who do not h a r e such information avail-
looking somc important item of information. T h e con~pletedforms can
able ran aecuniulate data hy requesting reprints of basic infiirmatiim
be reproduced and distributed to other departments in the engineering
appenring in the literature and hy obtaining comldations of data that
organization for integration into the complete plant design. I n addition
have appeared through the years. Tllc following list 1.rpl.r.icnt.i soink'
t o these specifications, i t is desirable t o produce a final process flow
rec~~nnncnded conipilations of rlata which have proved useful and 11oplllnr
dingrani. This diagram slion-s all major items of equipment, gives ten>-
with practicing engineers. S o atteinpt has heen made to list the vast
p c r a t u r c , pressures, and H o i ~rates t~hroughoutall parts of the process.
anionnt of data t h a t has a l q ~ r a r c din the periodioal literature i:ir the rx-
Tlie diagram then bcco~iiesan invaluable aid t o specialists \vho murt
ccllcnt data that is pihlished I I ~n~nnufarturersof r a r i n w rllenlicnl
15-ork on the ~nechariicaldesign of tlic plant.
~voilucts. T h e list of referenres is not to be considrreii coniplcte, :in11the
T h e proress engineer should prepare a brief hut complete written de-
omission of certain material dues not necessarily indicate tllat it is not
scription of the operation of the plant. Such a description aids both man-
recomniended. Certain of these rcfercnces arc desirable as part of a
agement and all othcr engineers and draftsmen who must contribute t o
p c r s ~ ~ n alihrnry
l and are so indicated by a n asterisk, hut inany arc ex-
the finnl design. Distribution of this information, I I I I ~should ~ ~ ,be
pcnsir? and are best ~ i i a d ea p a r t of a company library fur general
made ~ v i t hcaution. IVorkers ~vitli incomplete background for under-
tedmical use.
standing of terhnical process data may misinterpret the information with
possihlc disastrous results.

THE PROCESS ENGINEER AND THE PROJECT ENGINEER

Although the project engineer is in complete chargc of the plant design hlii.1~.1946.
arid construction, it is necessary t h a t the process engineer he ready t o 2. Itollrfson. C:. I<..and R. E. Powell. 87m. R c a . I'hus. Chcaz.. Annotrl Hriir.as.
asrist the project cngineer a t any time. Normally, once the process design
is completed the process cngineer will move on to other assignments, but,
q ~ ~ e s t i o ninvolving
s the process cmtinne to arise a s mechanical design
proceeds. T h e project cngineer, eTren though having a background of
1nmcc~sdesign,should always refer these questions t o the process engineer
v h o directed the original design. Only he will know tlie background of the
design ralcu1:rtions. B. Handbooks 8 General References
I t is of great value for the process engineer to accunipany the project 1. Beil~teins H a n d b u c h dci. Orgmischcn Ckumie, Spl.inger-Vcl.lag. Bcrl~n. ( 4 t h
cnginew <illring visits tu the plant site a s construction proceeds so t h a t edition hrgnn in 1914, supplements currently appearing). L~ctest cdltiuns eovw
he niiglit he Bctter able to make decisions regarding changes in the design literature u p to 1929 on w~I1-pstablishcdorganic ~compoundr;nmi reactions; h o a c v c r ,
or nrrangcnicnt of cquiptnent. Companies interested in developing their it is drill primary source of information.
ilcsigi l~n~~ri.-I~:,n- s l ~ m ~ lpermit
d process engineers t o follow the startup 2. Rennett. H., T h e Chcmicol Formiilniy. Chernicnl Put~li~hine CO.. Rrnoklyn.
operarions of new plants, and the process engineer should spend his time S.Y.( 1 9 4 3 ) Formulas of many industrial plmducts.
3. Chrvziciil Econon~zcs H o n d h o o k , Stanford Rcsmrrh I n i t ~ i n t e ,C;tI.(. (loose-
60 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 61

" .
C. (!.. H o g c r s .lloriuol of Inriusfrinl CIw,,,i.i,y. 6th Xd.. T~iuSohtmnd
'li. F u r n : ~ ~
Co., 1-en l u r k (1042). Good de6~1'l/1lireidormiition on well-rsti~hli~l~d III.OI,PI*C-.
'18. Sax, X I . , Huridbor,i: of Dongei-our JIalei-inis, Keinlmld P ~ h l i r l i i n gCo., X C W
I-ork (196l).

C. Compilations of Thermodynamic, Physical a n d Chemical Data

:iwl P V T
1 . . h w 1 r q l ~ c ,1 ) i s l i l l ~ i l ~ ~P~,~uilil~ri,~xn.
~n.
C h , J u (:IUI,, K . J . ( ; ~ i t y .I.. 1'. I{rrnnw!w ;d It. h l l , ~ i . s ! i l l n f i r mEqliiIibiii!7n
Duta, K r i n l d d k'\hlishing Cu.. SCW Yolk (1050).
I)~.eishilrh, R. R., Prcs~u~~c-l'~,li~,t~~~-l'e~~,lprrntii,i. Kdolior~sliips uf O r g u i i i c
Cornvmnrls, 3rd Ed., Handbook Publishers I n e , Smalnsky, Ohio (1952).
Horsley, L. H., Ateolropic Data, American Chcmical Society, Washington, D.C.
(1952).
2. Fuels
P m - F b i c Goses, Amwican Gas Association, S e w Yo& (1941).
Gnwoira FacLv, American Gas .issoi:i;~tion X\:m- Yark (1918) 7. Solvcnls
S p i w s H . X , T d m i c d l l r ~ l o,,i F,trl, 5118 Pil., B r A 4 S ~ 1 i m : dColnn.. I V d d >li.llnn. I.. Inr/~i!rinlS o l ~ x n f sRcinhald
. Puhlishine Ca.. New Yark (19501.
I'oivvr ( ! o n i ~ w n ~ w .
London (1930). C!;hrifi,. v ; d i ~ z .Ir:inily i.li;~rlcand ld,lcs (01.
,,,:,,,y l?],,'< ,us [,,,,I>,
62 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Process Engineering 63
I,iotiiila. Eng. l?xp St;ttion Rullctin S o . 34. Louisiana Sttltc Univ.. I h t m Koog~.
,I!
3. Hnrrir. .I. \lr.;\.. J I - . Cltr.,,~.Eng. Prow,-., 4 $ , 333 (1848).
La. 119521.
4. Houg~n.0. :mil Ii. Xf. Watson. C l i i ~ n i c n lProcevs Pn'nciplrr, Vol. 111, ~ o h n
Striniioidi o! tiir l'zihalal. Ezehongcrs .lirn,ufuelureli. .4ssocinIion, 3rd Ed..
Kiev K- S m j . SPIT- I-ork.1947.
5. Long. If. J.. ('hrnt. Ertg.. G ,KO.6. 112 (1948).
6 . Sirliols, W.T., Inri. Eng. Chem., $3. 2295 (l!El).
7 "P~.oce?sEquipnlmt Estinrnlion," R ~ p o r tCIi<m. E o g , jj. S o . 5 , 103 (1947).
8. Sleveni. R. Q., C h r m Elrg., i;,KO. 10. 121 11947).
l i m n a n . J . 11.. mil J . Iiayc, T h r ~ m o d l , , m m i c P ~ m p c r t i wo j Air, John Wiles &
9, Killianrs. R.. Jr.. Chem. Eng., 64,KO.12. 124 (194;).
Sons. Inc.. S r w Yolk 11915)
10. Zirn~tiw~n:m. 0. T.. :mi I. Lnvinc, (~hemicr,l Enwin<v,.ing Erpip,n<rtL Cost,s,
*limnan. J . H . I . . Kryrs. ?'h<,i,nr~riii,in,,iic Piopeiliea of S i ~ n r n ,Jolm Lndustrial Kcsoarcb Scn-ice, Dover. N c w H:inrpsInrc, 1950.
Kilcy 6 Sons. In?.. Scm York (1936).
Properties of ('mnmonly L'aed Rejrigc~orita,.Ail. Comlitioning and Refrigcrating
M.lnc1iiner.y issociation. ll~;isl~ingtun, D.C. (1946)
Zirnnwirn;m I). T.. :mil 1. Lavine. P ~ y d ~ ~ - o n , c l iTable.* .ic & CIiarLs, Industrial
Rwrarh S ~ r ~ D i ~ c r S. c w Hnrnpi-liirr 11945).
i w

D. Materials
1. E ~ w h a r t J.
. I,.. rt nl., Jlr~clwriicid Prr,pv,-tiis of J l c l o l s it Alloys, Burrnu of
S t m d a i d s Ciw C417, I~a4unjirun.U.C. (1943).
2. D u l l o n d . T. C.. E,iginwiiriy Ilrilcrinla JIoniml, Reinhold Pnl,lishing Co..
Sm 1.d (19511 (;mr~xliai.ilmil in simpk terms.
3. Hn1,;ilil. E.. (',,iriirion Giiiilc; Elsevic~.Puhlisliing Co.. Hrnwton (19.51). Handy
tnhlri ui co~.roiionrwisiant milierial rrcommcnrlationa.
4. Sinmnds. H. K.. A . J. Kcitll, and XI. H. Rigclowl IInrdbook of P b s l i r s , 2nd
Ed., Van Swlrand. S r w Yolk (19491.
5 Tecit~iicidD o h on Plmlics, hlnnufavtwing Chemists A w x . , Washington, D.C.
(1952) Pwpexties and M;inr~fnrturrrs.

T h e possession of t h e best tcclinicnl d a t e a n d tl~eoreticalknowledge for

design of all type.; of pruccss equipment represents only a portion of t h e
requirements for s u c ~ ~ ~ s . sprocess
ful engineering. T h e process engineer
must also h a r e a ~ v o r k i n gknowleclge of equipment operation a n d n m h a n -
ical design gained hy actual operating experience or at least b y observing
operatinn. An engineer without this l ~ a c k g r o u n dwill often size equip-
iller~tin such a {say t h a t i t is impractical t o build and operate. Those
engaged in mechanical design of cquipmcnt are reluctant t o question or
alter t h e 11rorcss design since i t is not uncommon fur unusual arrange-
ments or designs t o be required due t o r~eculiaritiesof the r ~ r o c e scon- ~
ditions. An impractical design, t l ~ e r c f o r e , initiated b y t h e process
engineer might be used in t h e final plant design without question. So it
is ilreessary for t h e pniject engineer to be on t h c 1o11k-out f u r all imprnc-
tical process designs. H i s experience i n both merhanical and process
phases of design makes him unusually qualified f o r such work, a n d as
director of tlir project it most certainly ir his duty.

REFERENCES
1. Cldton, C. 1 1 , ('lictn. El~g..i i i . T o . 6. 97 (1949).
2 I l l . . J . Eng. f'rog,.. $fi. 57 (19501.
 CHAPTER 5 -
CHARGE

75% Propone
25% P r o p y e n e
Flow Diagrams

98% Pure Ethylene Product

START

Section 500
FRACTIONATION
- Go5 to Fuel .
*
-
Secton 100
(95%Ethylene Recovery]
Butones and
Heouter to
CRACKING FURNACES
AND QUENCH
Conversion: 65%
Inlet Furnace Temp.: 110F
t
Section 400
Storage

Outlet Furnoce Temp,: 1470F DRYING

Outlet Quench Temp.: 1 8 0 F
FLOW I 4

DIAGRAMS Section ZOO

CONTAMINATE R E M O V A L
lC02,Sufur Corn~ounds
__f
Section 300
COMPRESSION
350 psig
and Acetylene)

I t is important for the clieiiiicnl engineer t o he able to use the nintcrinl

and cnrrgy balancc and tlie f l o diagra111
~ in solving problems in desigir
and operatinn Just as thc halancc slipct and incoiuc account enable the Thrrc arc tltrw type* of sclieniatic d i ~ g r a u ~ins general use:
nccountant t o solre coniplcx financial jrrobltwi, the m:itcrial and e n t w y 1. Block ~liagram.
b;~l:inct~, togctli~rwith the f l o ~cliagram of a pri~ccss.aid the cl~cinir:ll 2. Process flow diagmm.
cnginccr to risualiac and solve his prol~lcmsin a rapirl and straig1itfor1~-:ud 3. Grnpltic flow rliagra~n
nlannrr.
Skctclring a flow diagram is almost an instinctirc ~nanipulntionfor the Block Diagram
cxl~eriencedclieniical engineer. It is part of liis thinking process as \\.dl
The bluck diagram is the simplest but least dewriptire of the scliematic
as liis cxplanntory technique. I n this for111 it is usually :I rougli skrtr,li or
diagraius. As the naulc iniplies, it consists of rectangular blocks vhich
schematic flow diagmni. I n thc design mrl ronstruction of ;I l r l ~ n t:I more
usually represent a single unit operation in a plant or an entire section of
~ ~ o n ~ p l tion'
e t c diagram callcd thc enginccling flou. diagralll tleclllllcs tllc
the plant. These blocks are conncctcd by a r r o w indicating the flov
vital rag in tlie transmission of l~roccsainforniation t o all drllurtlllcnt~
sequence. One such diagram is sllovn in Fig. 5-1.
of an cngincering design group.
The b l w k diagram is cxtreniely useful in the early stages of n proreis
SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAMS study and is particularly raluable in presenting tlic r ~ w i l t sof econoiuir
or operating studies sincc the significant data can be placed within the
I t seems desiral,lr to suggest tlic least nuniber of rules to f o l l o ~
in eon-
blocks.
rtnicting sclieuiatic di;lgraius. By their very nature they slioul~l lw
indiridualictic, aince tliey are used for varied 11urpoier. IVl~cnused 111
Process Flow Diagram
explain a process or mode o f operation t o a colleague, superior, or
customer, originality often prorides the needed emphasis. Clarity. I ~ I I K - Tlic process flow diagram a s illustrated in Fig. 5-2 is used most frr-
P Y C ~ ,inwt nerer lie sncrificed, and, t o nisure t l ~ i srlnrity, the ~lldi?llW quently by tlie process engineer in design work and in process studies. I t
nulst IJC c ~ i ~ s i d e r ~ ~ l . must bc dr:nvn so that the proccss flow and iq~r.rations:we innn(diatcly
4
68 Project Engineering of Process Plants

Process Equipment
1
'11 i t ~ m sof l w i ~ w sc q u i i ~ ~ c nnrc t slion-11. inrlu<ling i11nr~s. TI11
Oiapraurmntir cketcllca ;we ~ i i a d ct u r c s r n ~ l ~ tl hc r c q ~ l i [ ~ ~ n:I-.c n nrnrly
t :I:
pos.~il~lc. thus aiding in risn;ilization of the items I J ~d l users i ~ f t111
diagraul. Siluple clrration r i r w a r r grnel.ally uscd. but t h r y arc altvrcc
iuclr a ~ - a yt h a t all ronncctioni appear on th<, plant of the diapr:rl:i
.inIllis
,
~ ~ ~ o c e t l makes
urc for s i n ~ l ~ l i c i t yS. o z z l ( ~arc loc:it~il in tile prolx:
rclatirc p,isition; i.?.. at the ] ) r ~ ] p ctrqy r in 8 fr:~ctionatingci~lumn. I t i:
i n q ~ r n r t i r n to
l nrnkc tllcsc diagrams ti1 scale; since smallcr items TWJUIII b~
u1i<l111y . is desirahl(!. hon-r\-w. t o 11rcscrve a supgc>tion nf t111
r c ~ l u c c ~ l It
rvl;itix-c iiac diflrrcucw: ;iurl tltis ~ : I I I s o ~ n c t i ~ nl vx : ~ c ~ ~ o t t ~ p l 11: isI
u.il~p :I diffwcnt rcalc for tlrc l ~ o r i z u n t ; ~tl~iui l for tl11. r(.t.tici~l.
S i n w equipuirnt rarir; cmsirlcml~ly.it is not jmc.il~lr, t o li;irc -t;ind:il.~
. k c t c l ~ ( ~fors caeli itcni. T h c re]~rc.?t!ntatiousof ~ U I I ~ ~in(tors: I S . a l ~ ( tur.
l
biues. lic~wcrcr.can t ~ citi~ndardizetln> in Fig. 3-5.

Notations
Certain cssenti;~linf~~rnxrtion must 11r provirlc(l n~ljaccntto e:wh itcn
of equipnrent. Tliesc notations must suplily in a concise nianncr tlie dat:
required liy ear11 user of the d i a g r a n ~ . Expcricnce has dictntcd t h r infor-
~ u n t i o nrrquired for tlic eilnnnon items such a s p u ~ n p sand r c s s c l ~ . Fol
spcci:rl cqiril~~ncnt. the irrer;rll rlimensions and ~ i g n i f i c m toperating c h ;
iwtcristics :IK often givcn. Tlrc following notations arc suggrstrd:

TABLE 5-1. Typical Equipment Designations

I t e m Numbers
All pieces of equipment s l ~ o u l dbe given a n item number which s h o u l ~
appear on or next to the equipment. If t l ~ citcnl numbering s y s t c ~ ui!
planncd with c a w , i t aids inimeasurahly in t h e use of t h e flow dingrau
n :ill 1d1:1wiOT 11111 (lesigl~::nd ronstn~ctinnx n r k . A
:11111 ill tlit. e x ~ c ~ l t i oof
typical s y - t c n ~TT-hichhas been used nit11 suwcss, in casc? wlrcrc the l l r w
 -
Fig. 5-4. Engineering flow dinpram: ~olvmerisationunit reactor section. (Courtesv of Foster Wheeler Cornnmtion l
- p~ --- ~ ~ p~~ ~- ~~

Fig. 5 5 . Engineering flow diagram: gas treating plant. (Courtesy of Fluor Corporation.) Thia diagram is typicel of n flow
diaaram in the d e v d o ~ m e n tstare. Line numbers h a r e not vet been assiened.
 Flow Diagrams 69
1111it is
e-. divi<lcd intu area,< or xctioi1.s. r~npli,y$a numl~er sucl~;IS
P-101. Tiic letter indicate- the type of equipment, in this case a pump:
the 101 in<lic;~tr.:that the pump is the nunll~crone pump in area 100. If
this pump has a n identical sparc, it, can he labeled P-101A. Common
letter designations for equipment are giren in Table 5-1.

Process Information
Important process information sirould also be listed. Thc folloning
:ire .suggestions for sevcral cullnllon iten~s.

Service
1)innrctcr; height, thickness
Special feature^ (lining, etc.)
llesign conditions
Operating conditions
Hent Exchangers
Service
Diffewntial pwssurr. across sh?11 and t , u h
Heat transfer arca
D u t y in Btu/hr
Design conditions
Temperature and pressure a t inlet and outlet
P1i"lps
(This information may he given on the flow diagram or on accompany-
ing attaclin~cnts.)
Sewice
Size and type
Fluid
Puuip t e i i ~ p c ~ a t u r e
Density a t pump terl~perature
Design GPhI a t pump tcinpcrature
Design differential
SPSII ( S e t positive suction liead)
C'o~~ipressors
(This infortnation may be given on the floiv di~igliunor on accompany-
ing attaclllncnts.)
Service
Stages
Suction conditions
First stage suction
Seeond stage nuctinn
Serond stag[, ~lisrll:~rge
70 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Flow Diagrams 71
BHP (Brake liorsepowcr) first stage
B H P second stage each line cxtending from one piece of equipment t o another is given a
Capacity SCFN separate number.
These numbers can be recorded on forms together xvith the flon- rate.
Piping and Valves
pressure, temperature, and fluid floving in the line. T h r linc number
changes ~vlienercrthe linc size or linc specificatiiin cl~anges. T o avoill
.%I1 process lines and utility lines serving process equipnicnt are slro~vn confusion, a linc number is eliminated when a line is rlclctrd. Thc line
on engineering flow diagranis. Often the main pruccss lines arc ~lra\\m number can inrludc tlic arca designation. One typical system employs a
heavy so that tlic primary flow sequence will be more apparent. IJtility number such as 3"06403E (Fig. 5-4).
3" 0 6 403 I<
TABLE 5-2. Typical Valve and Pipe Symbols for Flow Diagrams
Line size Fluid class Area number Line number Piping spec.
ITEM SYMBOL
Since, as explained in Chapter 18, piping specifications are writtcn in
Valves B F l f t t n g Line Oer,gnof!ons detail for each class of service, thc piping designer can obtain all the
Angle V o l v e
F Main Process information required t,o layout and design tlic ~iipingf r m i the f l c ~ ~
diagram, the line list, and the piping spccification. These line numbrra
furtlrcr serve in the marking and identifying of shop-f:hricated pipe. A
poorly numbered flow diagram, thcrefure, can rausc considerable con.

-
Figure B F l a n g e -8- Condenrote fusion tllroughout the project.

-
Valves are identified on thc flow dingram, lioth hy n u m l m and hg
symbol. The numbers refer t o detailcd valve specifirat,ions and are
Gote V o l v e Steom
very helpful t o both designers and material procurement men. .\lthougl~
Globe Valve S t e m Troced -- - - - -- some organizations do not number the valves on the flow diagram, alni~ist
H O I ~Connection --C Woier -.. ..- all use numbers on the piping drarings.
P l u g Coch Nose: Uruollv no otternot is made todirtinouirh
Instrumentation
Reducer - All instrumentation for the controlling, rccording, and indicating of
plant operation must be shown on the flow diagram. Fsunlly. the process
engineer indicates in a schematic fashion the essential instrumentation on
the prricess flow diagram. This is further enginccred and added to the
lines are ilra~vnusing various synibols (Table 5-21 to pcrmit ready diffrr-
engineering flow iliagram x i t h all other required instrumentation.
entiatim of the several scrviccs. Arrows are used wherever neressary to
The Instrument Society of America has prcpared a set of standard in-
aid in following tlic flow. All required valves and check valves are
strrnncnt ~ynrbols~vlrirhshould lie followc~lt o avoid confusion. These
indicated, but flanges and fittings are not shown except a t equipnrcnt.
are reproduced in Tablc 5-3. The instrunrcnt number is generally in-
Common synibols for the valves in general use are given in Table 5-2.
cluded in tlie syml~ol,as shown in the tabulation. Control valve and
Sizes of valves for those other than line size are shown adjacent to the
relief valve sizes should be shown adjacent to these items to aid in piping
valve.
design.
Since the piping designer uses the flow diagram as his main source of
information, much data must be supplied on the diagram. Temperatures Arrangement of Diagram
and prensnres, flow rates: and a description of the fluid flowing must be
.4 well-planned arrangement of the engineering flow diagram can do
provided. I n addition, the specifications for t,he lines must be given so
much t o assure efficient and high quality norknianship tliroughout all
that the size, material, and thickness of pipe, class of flanges, and rating
stages of the job. If some idea of tlie actual plot plan is known ~vhentlie
i r f fittings and valves u-ill be known for each line. This information can
flow diagram is drawn, it is very helpful t o have the diagram arranged
be 2onveniently provided by means of a linc numbering system in which
in a similar manner insofar as it is practical. Such an arrangement aids
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams

TABLE 5-3 ( I ) . Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols. Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tenfotive Recommended Practice) Tentofive Recommended Proctice)
BASIC INSTRUMENTATION SYhiBOLS TYPICAL IiViTRUMENTATION
SYMBOLS FOR FLOW

DISPLACWIENT-
TlPE FLOW METER

BASIC SYMBOLS FOR B A S K SYMBOLS FOR BASIC SYMBOLS TOR

INSTRUMENT WITH COMBINATION INSTRUMENT TRANSMITTER
SINGLE S ~ V I C E AND OR DEVZCEw m r w o
TUNCTlON SERVICES OR SUNCTIONS n o w RECORD^
or ROTIMETLII
OR 0TWm
IN-THZLRn TlsI

now RECORDEA.
PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION.
TRANSMITTER LOCAL.
RECEIVER MOUNTW ON BOARD

BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL TOR BASIC SYMBOL >.WAY BASIC SYMBOL
TOR FLECTRICALLY TOR PISTON. BODY FOR SAFETY
DIAPHRAGM OPLRATLD VALVE OPEIATW VALVE FOR ANY I R P I P 1 VALVE
MOTOR V A L E SOLENOID OR IHYDRAULIC OR VILVE
MOTOR1 PNEUMATICI

r L o w RECORDING
COMROLLLR.
PHFUMATIC
TRlNIMiSSlON
WITH RECEIVER
BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL SHOWING BASIC S Y ~ O L MOUNTW ON BOARD
TOR sur. FOR MANUALLY PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION SHOWING PNEUMATIC AND LOCAL
ACTUAFD OPERATED INSTRUMENT tnCCTRlC CONNECTION FROM TRANSMITTLR
IIPmGRALI CONTROL VALVE TRANSMISSION SAME INSTRUMMT TO
REGULATING EXCEPT FOR TYPE OF DIAPHRAGM MOTOR
VNVE CONNLCTlONl VALVE
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams

tBLE 5-3 (3). lnstrumentation Flaw Plan Symbols. TABLE 5-3 (4). lnstrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.

(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice) Tentotive Recommended Practice)

TYPICkL 11: 1 AU: .INTATION SYMBOLS TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION

FOR TEMPERATURE SYMBOLS FOR LEVEL

BLIMI LNP CONTROUU. CAGE CLASS L EVn RCCOIIDUI. PNEUMATIC

INTDNAL TYPE TMNSMIISION. WITH BOARD
MOUNTED IItCCIYLR
t X T U l N TYPE IRANSMITTEII

TFMPUIATURL WDICATLNC. TlMPDATURF m l C A T R l G

--
TlMPERArURC RFCORDRla
POIN? CONNECIED TO AND RECORDING POINT CON?ROUUI. BOARD
MLRTIPOIN? WDICATOR CONNECTED TO MULTIPOINT MOUNTED (ELECTRIC
ON BOhRD INSTRUMENTS ON BOARD MEISURFMEMl

mn RTCORDIWG CON TROLL^.

u ? t n N A L TYIC
PNEUMATIC TIIAWIMISSIOII

L T Y U ALARM.
INTLMAL TIPC
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams

TABLE 5-3 (5). Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols. TABLE 5-3 (6). lnstrumentation Flow Plan Symb~
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice) Tentative Recommended Practice)

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION

SYMBOLS FOR PllESSUM SYMBOLS (MISCELLANEOUS)
--..-

PRLSJURE INDICATOR, P D S U M .CCOU)ER 1IM PNSJURE RLCORDD.

LOCILLY MOUNTm WARD MOU)IIID M A R D MOUNTED I-?EN
PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION

<tONMYO(I BELT)
n

SPED RFCORDLOOI. WEIGHT RECORDER.

LOCALLY n o u r n LOCALLY MOUNITD

1 P M R MACHINE >
0

MOISTURE RECORDEL
LOCALLY H O U M m
PRESSURI COHIROLLFR. PRCSSURE RECORDING CONTROUL11 WIPrUCNTIALI.
BLIND TYPE PMUMATIC TRANSMISSION: wnn PRESSURL wcomn
Ishow con,roll.r COWINCD INSTMUMINT BOARD naumm
dmcoy...ha &+rap
il 0
' rn0""l.dl
 Project Engineering of Process Plants
TABLE 5-3 (7). Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice)
TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS
FOR COMBINED INSTRUMENTS
Flow Diagrams 79
the layout men and pil~ingdesigners t o visualize tlie plant more readily
and prevents thc ovcrenrphasis of a line that is artnally w r y short hut,
appears long hccxuse of the arrangement of thc flow diagran~.
There arc many methods of accomplishing good arrangement. Pumps
can he placed helow other equipment as shoxn in Fig. .5-5 or all equip-
ment may he arrangcd above n common hase line. Process lines ran he
shown on onc dra~vingand utility lines on another. Or. 110th utility and
process lines can be slro~rnon the same drawing. The lattcr is done so
that the full picture ran he seen on one drarving. Oftcn, liovewr, this
results in o v c r c r o ~ d i n gespecially if utility connections hecorne eucessirc,
such as on large compressor installatione.
Thc flow diagram, t o he read and understood easily, must not appear
crowded. Oftcn a numher of scpnrate dra~\-ingsarc needed tn rcl~rcsent
a process. l i n e s passing f r o ~ nequipment on one sheet t o that on n r ~ ~ t h e r
are nlaintnined a t a constant elevation so that tllc continuation of the
line on the next ihcet can he found ~ r i t hease.
CONFIDENTIAL I N F O R M A T I O N
Because of their coml~lctcncss,process flow diagrams, engineering flow
diagrams, and a t times hlock diagrams, contain confidcntinl information.
They should never bc distributed indiscrirninatcly or alloyed t o he rc-
produced by unauthorized persons. If unscrupulous individuals are per-
mitted t o copy a flow diagram, they arc ahle t o ohtain unfair advantage
by avoiding the time, effort, and cxpcnse requircd to originate a colnplete
flow diagram. Such practice violates all known codes of ethics.
 Plot Plans

I z
&

PLOT
PLANS
After the engineering flow diagrams are completcd and before detailed
piping, struct,ural, and electrical design can begin, the layout of process
units in a plant and the cquipment within these process units must be
planned. This planning is done by a group of cxperts including the
project engineer, i~ipingand structural designers, and the process engineer.
The results of their work arc plot plans: the lnartcr plot plan and the
unit plot plans. The master plot plan (Fig. G - l i shows the location of
each process unit, road\ray, and building. The unit plot plan (Fig. 6-2)
shows the location in plan view of each piece of equipment ~vithina single
process unit.
The preparation of a plot plan is the mrist important function in the
design of a process plant. Onc key to good operation, economical con-
struction, and eficicnt maintenance is \wll-planned, functional ;mange-
mcnt of equipment and building$. A key to employee satisfaction and
good public relations is a neat and esthetically pleasing plan.
Each plant differs in many ways and no tnw plant sites are exactly
alike; hence, there is no one ideal plot plan. I t is possible, i~o~vever,to
describe some of the more important rules wfiicli insure a satisfactory
arrangement.

MASTER PLOT PLAN

Figure 6-1 is a skctrh of a typical master plot plan. Dimensions have
been omitted for clarity. Generally the plant is divldcd lnto blocks
80
82 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plot Plans

~vIiic11are most conveniently separated by roadways. Kumerous factors

infllirr11.etlie location of roadxiys and the arrangclncnt of blocks. Sonie
of tlieac arc:
PLANT TERRAIN.The drainage system can be planned from a contour
map of the site. S e x t r ~ ~ a d w a yands the general areas t o be used for
process units and buildings can be chosen. Portions of the site requiring
the least amount of fill and having the best soil-bearing characteristics
are selected for tllcse areas. The highest area on tlic site may be used
advantageously for storage of priducts so that gravity loading of tank
cars will be possible. Adequate dikes must be built around these tanks
to prevent rapid spread of fire if tanks o v e r f l o ~ . (See Chapter 24.)
ESISTIXGH I G H ~ .LSD Y RAILROAD FACILITIES.Offices and warehouses
niust be readily accessible from thc main l~igli\vay, and warehouses,
storage yards, and product loading areas nlust be convenient t o the near-
est railroad. If the plant is to have harbor facilities, product storage
should be in the vicinity of the docks, tlioug11 far enough t o rnininiize the
danger of duck fire.
TYPESOF P a o c ~ s sITSITS. If the product from one process unit is fed
directly t o another, the units sl~ouldbe adjacent t o reduce piping and
purnping costs. Operation, maintenance, and utility distribution are often
simplified by locating similar units in one section of the plant.
S a r z r ~ . Safety rules are fully discussed in Chapter 24.
P L A N T SERVICES. The power plant, shops, warehouse, cafeteria, and
change house should be located not only for maximum efficiency and con-
venience hut also for minimurn interference with the process operations.
One simple starting point for grneral planning is to make rectangula~
cardhoard cutouts scaled to each proress unit, p m e r plant, machine shop,
tankage area, and office building. These cutouts may be moved uver a.
dra\ving of tlie total plant site. Each arrangement can be furtller studied
by preparing schematic block diagrams on which each area is shown as a
recbangle and all interconnrcbing piping is indicated. Utility piping
should also he included on this diagram. These block diagrams arc
helpful in deternlining the space required for interunit piping and are
thus a great aid in developing the final rnaster plant plot plan. The
econoniica of ronstruction, operation, and future expansion for each
proposed arrangement will determine the most acceptable plan.

UNIT PLOT PLANS

Unit plot plans (Fig. 6-2) are prepared in niucli the same lvay as tlip
master plot plan: except that tlie detail is much greater due to thr larg~v
number of elements making up the process unit. Scale niodcls begun
:it this stage and developed as design progresses are most helpful.
Briefly, the steps in preparing unit plot plans arc:
84 Project Engineering o f Process Plonts
1 . T.ist all m:ijor itcnrs ( r f e ~ ~ n i p ~ nmcli
t v t :IS \-~wxls.heat rschangers,
liamps, and coniprcssors. Indicate the size and xeight of each.
CHAPTER 7
2. Decide vhicli equipment should be elevated. Csually the elevation
of equipment is dictated by pump suction reqnirctnents or other proces
requirements. Elevation of equipment is alvays costly and should h r
done only if necessary for satisfactory operation of the proccss.
3. Study the process flom and operating procedures. Thc flow sequence
and function of each piece of equipment should he thoroughly underutooil
su that its arrangement in the plot can be functimal.
4. Determine maintenance methods for each item of equipment ~o that
equiplncnt requiring frequent maintcnunce ill he easily :~ercssiblc.
5 . Stully all iipc~rating11azards so that the snfeut arrangement of equi11-
Iilent can be dcviscd (See Chapter 24.1
6. Plan tlw spacing of equip~nent in :tccor~l:~ncc:with the following
rules:
SCHEDULING
a . D o not spnce pumps closcr than three fect. Closer sparing
hampcrs maintenancc.
h. I~quilnieut~ i t hr m ~ o v a h lparts ~ must he :~rrnngcdso that the
THE
parts can he rcmoved witlli~ut di~msntlinglong lcngths of pipe or
moving other equipment. Free access by hoisting apparatus is necee-
sary.
PROJECT
c. Remember that foundations snch as sprcad footings oftcn exceed
t,hc din~ensionsof the equipment they support. Hence both equipment
and foundation sizes should be c o n d c r c d . Careful planning and scheduling are vital t o any project as complex
7. Study the crcction p r ~ ~ b l e nfor
~ s a11 equipment. I T l ~ r npmsible, its as thc design and constructi~nof a procc; plant. After t h co~upletion
~
[~lnciment~ho11li1facilitate wcction. of prelin~inary11rocess dwign \xwrk, f l o ~diagranls, and plot plans, a
project sche~lulccan he developc~l. This project schedulc d l then hc-
Goo~lplot p h n i n g is more a matter of experienced judgment than of co~iiea guide for lilanning and rec~mlingprogress tl~ronghontt,he job.
follon.ing :I set list oi rules, hecausc tlicrc~:Ire so many 7-dues to he met.
A gruup of cxprricnccd c~~gineers car] ~levelrql:UI acccptahle plot 11lan in ;I PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT SCHEDULE
relatively short time. Using models to represent equipment, these ex- The srhe(ln1c sI10u1d i ~ i ~ l i r a tthe
< , stxrt anil c~~rnl~lctinn ~Iatesfor cngi-
lierts can gather around a conference table and propose numerous possible licering, drafting, and l i r ~ ~ e u r e ~ n e;I-n tn-~,ll
. as ~~onstruction ol~crationsfor
:lrrangelncnts vi\ridly and quickly. From the combined experience oi each major item of cquilimrnt. If properly jire~~itrcd and i i ~ l l o ~ ~ c oi l~, n -
cnrh of tlie men participating, the merits and dcnlerits of each arrangc- pletion of t,he project on time \ d l he asrure<l.
~lrtwtcan be readily iletermine~l. Plot plarming is d e f i ~ ~ i t r the
l y jub for I n addition t o assuring rcasonalilp pronillt conq~lcrionof n construction
the most experienced and capable engirlccrs in a plant design group. job and effieient coor~lit~ation of er~ginrcrit~g, bc11eilul1,sprovide the only
method for contracting firms or design groups of operating companies t o
anticipate nmnpo\vcr r e ~ ~ u i r c ~ n e n tContr:irting
s. urg:rnizations, in pnr-
ticular, requirc careful planning in order t u niaintain reasonably con-
tinuous employment for their personnel. The 111o~teconomical utilization
of personnel can be realized \\.lien a n~ininlunlof three and preferably
four projerts arc being handled consecutivrly. A single project usually
results in slnck or idle pwio~ls for spl2ci~~iz1~d 1~ersonne~.T ~ same C
85
86 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Scheduling the Project
p r d ~ l e n iarises w i t l ~parallel project ollerations ( t v o or more projccts
being engineered siniultaneously) ~ i n c ethe f u n d a ~ n m t a i steps occur
simultaneously.
The ideal vork xliednle for any type of mginrrring organization r h i e h
contracts services in proce.;~plant design ~ 1 n 1 he d obtained hy spacing
ronsecutive eontracts t o permit a 30- to 45-day interval Iwt~~-ecn them
Ideal conditions rarely exist in practice since the contractor is usually
confronted ~ i t ah proniise t o "start v o r k i~nnietliatcly"regardless of his
internal w r k program. The contractor's engineering scl~edules,however,
aid him in planning the beat conditions possible.
Once the preliminary scl~edulcis made, organization of personnel and
planning for the job are greatly expeditrd. Tlic job schedule, lio\~ever,
must be a vital inatrumt.nt. Aa xi-ork proceeds, more arcurntr inforn~ation
bccon~csavailable and hcncc more realistic and n ~ o r edetailed scheduling
i$ pc~ssihle.

THE SCHEDULE SHEET

A srlledulc preparcd in grapliiral fomm as s11olvn for a rrndr riistillution
unit in Fig. 7-1 has been found nioat convenient. Thc syml~olsarc used to
indicate start and completion dates. Opposite each item two horizontal
graphs arc sketched. The top graph sllo~vsthe planned scheilnlc. The
hottom graph indicates time actual progres* of work up t o the time of issue
(April 8j. Tlic second graph for each item simws t l ~ cprogrrss up to that
time. If required, the time scale can be enlarged t o indicate tlic progress
by weeks inatcad of months.
Schedules such as these can he preparcd on printed forms and rcpro-
duccd for distril~ution t o cxecutire personnel of thc contractor and
customer. This graphical presentation pcrmits key personnel t o dctcr-
mine rapidly the progress of the job as vell as plan future work in
accordance with the proposed schedule.

H O W SCHEDULES ARE MADE

The key equipment and material items that are knolr-n to control job
progress are listed a s in Fig. 7-1. The flow diagram and plot plan are
most convenient sources of information for preparing this list. The plot
plan provides a logical basis for division of the project into sections. The
example in Fig. 7-1 is for one duch section or unit.

Equipment Delivery Times Control Completion

The next step in preparation of a schedule is determining the earliest
completion date. This date is usually controlled by tlie item of equip-
ment having the longest delivery time.
Once tlic probable completior~date is selected, engineering, drafting,
 88 Project Engineering of Process Plants
and construrtion are wlirdulccl in ,letail so t l ~ the i 111aitr.r ech~dule]nay
IIc complctcd.
The entire effort of the de.ip nud ronstruction organization must bc
~cl~etlulcd so that all work ~villhc cuorriinatecl. Information, equipment,
and materi:~lsmu-t flo\\- 50 that no group Till be delayed. This goal will
bc rcalizetl only if the p e o p l ~doing tlip sclieduling h a r e full k n o ~ l c t l g eof
the scquenre of 11litnt design, procurement and construction operations,
21s n-ell a s the time ron~umcdby each.
Sequence of Operations in Plant Design a n d Conslruction
3 9
Tile following srqucnw (11 design and corictruction operation is typical
J.;
for nlost prnccss plant projects.
: I . Process (lerign and prorcss flow diagram preliarat,ion.
2. Preparation of engineering flow diagrams and preliminary plot
plans.
3. Partial vessel design. JIajor vesscls are usually long-dclivcry items
and they inay be partidly procured as s m n as process information is c o n -
plcte. 1-esscl iutern:tl such as mixcrs, stirrers, and other equipment
related to vessels should lie specified a t this time.
4. Specification of mechanical equipment including electrical and
steaui drivers, pumps, c~~mpreesors, material handling equipment, and
other equipnicnt n-hich may ljc procurcd \vithout the preparation of corn-
plcte dra11-ing~.
5. S1iecifil.ation of iustrunicnts. Control valves arc usually postponed
until preliu~iuar:- 11iliingnrrangenlents have been completed.
6 . Design of major clcctrical switel~gcar~ main plant an(l substatio~r
transforlllerp. and mlallrr elertrical gear such as motor starters. a s soon
as item 4 i- co~nplete. Siuglc-liue plant electrical distribution diagrams
m u d he ~ , i ~ n i ~ ~ l csufficiently
tecl to perlnit a study oi plaut loads. This
work is uften dorie u11 a preliminary bu.%isfroni various process puwcr
studirs.
i . l k i g n and sl~ecifientionof heat cxclmngcrs, dircct fircd heaters,
niiswllaneous Iientrr appurtenances, nn(l steal11 generating equipment.
8. Prel~aratiunof {~illiugspecifirations. including valrc spccifications
and r ; ~ l v eitcni nulnber lists. This permits a ralvc take-off directly
from tlic engineering flm diagram.
9. Fit~:llizingg~mer:~l 11101 [rl:m and a r m plot lilans.
10. Pluiiuing piping urr.:~ngeuicntsand listing' of materials for under-
ground piping.
11. Fouridntiou dcsign for vcsrels and ot,hcr equipn~entfor wliich pre-
liminary veudur datc ilavc, been ruxivcd. Prcliiniiiary foundation lull-
Scheduling t h e Pro~ect 89
terial listing. 1.isting of all in;ijw c q ~ l i p n r n tnnchor-lmlts. W h w r piling
is to be used it is prohahle that piling arranpwients may he romplete at
this time and pile driving could start. Preliminary construction opera-
tions are sometimes started a t this point.
12. Structural steel design or design of other structures rrquired for
process operations. .4rrliitcrt~ralstu~licsof lilant hnildings.
13. Electrical conduit arrangements, underground electrical material
listing.
14. Foundation drsign for independent electrical equip~llrnt undcr
item 6.
15. Hcccipt of certified dimmsion ilran.ingr on items 3 tllrougl~7.
16. Completion of piping arrangements sufficiently t o determine and
fix vessel nozzle orientations.
17. Release of vesscls for fahrication. Vesscl fabricators d l h a r e
liecn selectcd by means of 3 above.
18. Release of founrlatiim dri~\vingsto construction forccs for erection.
19. Release of structural steel dra~ving;for llrocurcment and fahriratiol~
(of structural dcel: rclease of all niateriala for construction of clev:ited
~ e i n i o r r r ~conrrctc
l rtr~lcturesI I tile
~ constrl~ctiouf ~ r c ~ s .
20. Construction stnrt: clenr site, preli1nin:lry grading and foundation
excavatims.
21. Completion of preliminary piping material listing including valves
and n~iscellaneouspiping appurtmnllces for procurement.
22. Complcti~inof ~nisceilancourmnior eiructural steel for pipe support
and listing of all iniscellnneous items for field construction use in pipe
u p l ~ i ~ manufaeturc.
rt
23. St,art of instrument instali:i:ion ilm\vings: listing of all materials
required for instrument inst:tllation.
24. Cmnpletion of piping design nnd rrlcaie of piping for fabrication.
25. Completion of architertural ilesign arid ulaterial listing for build-
ings. This phase may lie roulpleted inurh enrlier for buildings not used
for process operations.
26. Completion of elcctrir;~l<Ira\\-ings:lull iiu~trriallisting.
27. Completioil of procure~nentof all major equi~~nient.The procure-
uicnt of miecellancons materials \\-ill continue.
28. Delivery of ccrtain itcms under 4 ilirougll 8 to jol~sitei~cgins.
29. Completion of underground instdl a t'Ions.
30. Con~pletionof foundations.
31. Delivery of major itelw, structural ~ t e e lnnd , start of al~oveground
wrction.
32. Installation of piping.
33. Installation of clectricals.
34. Installation ili instrummt:lr~rm.
90 Project Engineering of Process Plants
3.5. Testing.
36. Insukrtion installation.
37. Clean-up.
38. (lprration start-up procetlurcs.
39. .-\eceptancc of plant hy custi,nwr.
A hricf study of this list \ d l indicate the depcndencc of each operation
upon one or more of the previous operation*. A ro~uplcxinterdeprndencc
exists in n-hich design gr<~ups depmd on infiirniatiun from other design
groups. fabricators depend on infmnation i r o ~ tlic~ riesigncrs
~ (dclivcry
can be delayed if this information is Intci ; and finally, tile construction
crews depend on information from designers and material from fabrica-
tors.
Example of Schedule Preparation
As in cxnniple of schedulc prcpnration ronsidcr the items in Fig. 7-1.
The piping layouts in uiost proress plants require thc major portion of
drafting manhuurs. Piping dcsignrrs and draftsu~cn,therefore, ]nust bc
supplied as early as possible with vcndor's draving? of equipulmt and
resscl sketches.
Vessel sketches hased on design calculations and npplicahle codes arc
prcpared by the vcssel dcsign griinp. These eketchcs are then released
to thc procurement department accompanied hy a requisition or other
document describing pertinent design requirements and guarantee desired.
The release of the requisition to procurement for the purpose of obtaining
bids is designated by tlie synlbol R on Fig. 7-1. (Rcfcrring t o the bottom
portion of iteln 1 it is seen that, t11c timc of requi3itioning f m column C-1
was behind schedule.) Since the fractionating eoluulns (items 1 and 31
are more iml~ortantin piping layout, the time for requisitioning these is
scheduled two weeks bcfme the less critical accuululators (item 7 ) .
Vendor's drawings of equipment must he received hy the piping design
group a t about the snmc time as vesscl sketches. Early sdicitation of
bids (indicated by R ) aud pleccment of an order ( 0 )xvill assure on-tirnc
reccipt (ED) of vendor's drawings. These i l a t e ~dcpcnd, therefore, on
tile rapid finalization of proccss design specifications and cfficicnt pro-
curemcnt operations.
Vendor's dravings and vcssel sketches, along with flow diagrams and
plot plans, are transmitted to the piping design group for use in preparing
piping l a y o u t ~ f o major
r lines. The completion date (Li of this layout is
esti~nated f m n the numher of drawings requircd and the ~lunlber uE
layout men assigned to the job.
The piping layout contains inforumtion sufficient for the preliminary
design of main steel structurcs and for orientation on ressel nozzles w t ~ i c l ~
in turn permit requisitioning of fabricated steel, R (itcm 5 ) , design of
Scheduling the Project 91
foundations, UC (item 1 1 ) . and design of the electric rlistrihution systenl.
Piping design continues during this period and reacl~csa stage of c o u -
pletion such that checking i ~ fdrawings can bcgin. Vessel rlra~vingsa1.r
checked ( C D ) and sent ti1 the fabricator so he can prepare shop dra~vings.
After approval of these shop drawings the fabricator is "released" to
fabricate the vessel (FKI.
Equipn~entdravings are also checked and returned t o the vendor with
or ~vitliout comments. Then, checking ui structural steel, foundation,
piping. and electrical drax~ingsf o l l o \ ~in~ the ordcr named. I n schedul-
ing this ~ v o r kit must be remembered that vendor's and ressel drawings
are necded for structural steel checking. For foundation drawings,
structural steel, vendor's and vessel drawings are needed, and for piping
and electrical drawings all previously checked draxvings are rcquired.
This example serves t o illustrate the principles of schedule preparation.
Detailed suggestions arc given helo~vfor esti~natingdelivery times and
~nanhourrequirements needed in thc preparation of a w r k a b l c schedule.
INFORMATION FOR SCHEDULE PREPARATION
Manufacturing a n d Delivery Times
Thc delivery date of equipment should influence all work thronghout
the design organization, including process design. Major equipnlcnt, the
basic design oi which ~villnot he greatly affceted by Iatcr computation,
should he designed in detail as carly as possible sincc usually such itcms
d l h a w the longest delivery. If extraordinarily large machines or
Ilcary-walled vcsscls are required, these items should l ~ cspecified or
sketchcd as early as possiblc and relcascd in a preliminary form so that
procurenlent operatiuns may procced.
I n order to determine probable lnaxiuium delivery tinlcs the equipment
to be procured nmst be stndied and n list of d l major itclns prepared
Tlic iollorx-ing list indicates probable delivery times for various types of
equipment. Current quotations are tlie most reliable sourcc oi delivery
timcs, bnt the filllowing list indicates probable values for various types
oi equipnlent and can bc used for estimates.
TYPICALD E L I ~ RORY ~\~ASUI~.LCTURINC
TIME FOR
VARIOUSTYPES O F EQUIPZI~:NT
(1955)
VESSELS
n . Forged or heary wall chanlber~.greater than 3"
thick 12-14 months
b. Lnrge heavy plate vr*sclr. greater thnn 1" thick 10-12 month*
c . I)rums or othcr liglrtwall vessel* ti-8 inrintllb
d . Sulall vessels 6 6 months
94 Project Engineering of Process Plants Scheduling the Project 95
accunrulated by the project cngineer, so that their work may hcgin before estimat,ed hy experienced conztruction firms. Alattozi' has given n con-
all process cngineering has becn cumpleted. struction sclredulc chart (Fig. 7-2) hascd on an analysis of a number of
Manhour requirements for process engineering drpend upon the type projects that ~r-illpermit estimation of the ronstruction time when thc
of process, the availability of fundamental data, the availability of total manhours oi labor is known. This manhour requirement is usually
process engineering personnel, and thc policies oi the firm performing tlrc
~vork. Owner-operating firms develop and aocumulatc process data hy
experimentation and expericnrc with operating units, IThen the decisim
is made to install a plant or process, tlic data are given to an cngineering-
rontracting firm for resolution intu the various steps of unit-operatiun?
and finally into forrrrs xliich may he used for detailed design. For such
cares and for the process design of known processes, time required for
pri~ressengineering 11y the contractor is often very small. I i the con-
tractor is asked to pcriorni research and dr~eloprnentwork and complete
proce::s design, the time required may be considerable.
I t ~ o u l dhe unlvise to attempt a list oi suggested time requirements for
proress design. Each j ~ i:: h usually unique anil the chief process enginrer
ali~~uld be consulted when the schedule is being prepared. I t is rvrll to
remcmbcr that time requirements for projects \vhich require conaidernblc
rrsenrch and devcl~~pincnt arc the most difficult t o estimate. Difficult
Thousands of manhours
problems often do not conform readily t o schedules. A conservative
estimatc is preicrable fur such problems. Fig. 7-2. Constmvtiun schedule. LKrprinted by petmission, M. Mtitiazi, Oil A! Gas
DESIGN-DRAFTING. Requirements are described below in greater detail. , XU.48, 100 (1983).1
J ~ u m u l 51,
This work encompasses all functions aitcr the prucess and specialty
engineering phases. The design-drafting for the plant illudratcd starts given in the original job estimate or proposal, either as an artual man-
the second month after the contract is signed, and will reach a peak in hour figurc or an estinrated labor cost. hIanliuurs can bc calculated from
tlic fifth to the eighth month. the lal)or i m t by ~liridingby the ax-cragc hourly wage ratc. If such in-
PROCPREMENT. Procurement must, proceed with each design stage or formatirm i.: not available .\Iatt(~zi'suggests as a gucss 18,000 manhours
vendor prints will be received late causing a dclay in detailed design. The for caclr $100,000 worth of materials and cquiprircnt.*
lack of vendor prints can as effectively stop work as lack uf equipment,.
Procurenlent thus must place all orders with dispatch, in order to receive Planning Personnel Distribution
vendor prints as early as possiblc and secure early delivery of equipment. Taljle 7-1 gives tllc l~ersonncldistribution for tlic cxanrl~leproject by
Procurement usually starts in the first rnontli and may or may not con- 111011tl1
tinue through construction. Certain procurement a t the jobsitc must The incrcase in cngineering and draiting labor during tllti pcak part
continue as long a s the job is in progress. of tlrc job is uhuut 5007; above that a t the start. Operating on the hasis
C~NSTRIJCTION LABOR.I n the illustration. construction starts on the oi 40 hours per ~vcck,the engineering l~ayrollmay amount t o some
fifth month aiter the contract signing. The delay allows time for a cou- $14.000.00 per \veek for tlic Gth and 7th montl~. Firmi contracting en-
siderable amount of material and equipmcnt t o arrive soon after ground- gineering must, tllerciorc., be prcpnrcd to accept considcrahle expmsc if
breaking. a Iargc staff is to he maintained.
I t is extremely important that construction work does not begin too Scliedules ior the rarious enginerring phasrs are rarely precise. Prob-
soon. If bcgun early, idlc periods will be encountered in which it will be ably the most efficient or pra~.tiral ol)cration for firms cngagcd in
necessary t o await delivery of equipment and materials. Such conditions engineering services is t o understaft' and wurk ~ m r t i r n eduring peak ~ o r k
naturally increase cost. loads. h n o t l ~ e raltern;~tivcis stn8 vrrr;~tilitywit11 movement of l~crsonnel
The time required for construct,ion of a given projeot usually can be
96 Project Engineering of Process Plants Scheduling the Project 97
into the u r i o u s operations as required. M a n y snialler firms oper:ite Percrt~tsgcof Total Po.-sil~le
very effectively on the latter principle. Dwign Category Engineering Manhouro Variation f
A. Found at'tons 7 2.0
B. Structures and rtructur:ll steel 15 3.0
TABLE 7-1. Typical Personnel Distribution C, Llrrhanical rq~lilirn~nt* 3 1.O
Time Enpinemng Procurement 7 2.0
,

No of KO.of
Month h1m hIanhourh
* Incl~,dpip u m ~ s ,compressors, hpnt exchnngms, and :my t y p ~m ~ c h : m i r n l eWil,-
m m t not ~ I W W L .

A preliminary or overall cstiuialr of ilesign-drafting time 11i:iy some-

times be madc by a perrentage method working backward irom tlie
particular process unit rost. For instance, materials for a certain unit
have been estimated t o cost $4!000,000.00. For this particular type unit
as based on similar past contracts two manhours of combined enginwring.
design drafting, and material listing operations will be required for each
$100 of iiiatcrial cost. Thusl a n estimatcd budget of 80,000 manliours
could he ret.
R y using tlic above pcrcentagcs the tentative distribution of v o r k
might be as follom:
Category hlanliours
A 5,600
B 12,000
134,900 c 2,400
Total nrnnhoura t1io~vi.n D 5,600
Otlicr engineering services E 44,000
F 5,600
This appears t o be a simple and straiglitforxard analysis, but such
estimates are not reliable unless the initial inanhour edilnate is accurate.
Calculating Drafting M a n h o u r Requirements
I n order t o actually prepare a manhour budget a list of equipment must
A n u t ~ i l ~ eof
r nietliods have been deviwd by various engineering- be prepared. From it a detailed list of d r a ~ i n g smay be prepared B y
contracting firms I detcrminirig ilciiyn-draititig nianlim~r budgets. applying values of required manhours per dralving according tu category
hIost of tliesc methods are bascd on experiencc in tlie particular firm the total manhour budget and detailed budget: by category, can bc deter-
and are not ordinarily useful d ~ e applied n to other firms that 11ave differ- mined.
ent methods. Tlic distrihution of work by percentage sliomn belolx- 4 s an illustration of tlie method used in estimating the number of
h o m r e r is applicable t o nearly any type of unit processing fluids. I n drawings required, assume t h a t the following items of equipment are a
general iiicrlimical cquipnwnt, vessels, rind piping drafting consume from partial list of tlic items required for a process plant. The list is separated
53 t o 65 per crrlt of tltc trrt,itl t l t i ~ r i l ~ ~ for
~ u rm unit. It can
s y t y l ~ o]JI.<I~C..+ into ta.0 parts, I>, Tcseels aud C, Mechanical Equipment.
usually be assullled that, for t l ~ o s eprocesses in \vlrirl~piping rc~luirrtilcnls
are reduced, corresponding increases will be reflected in mcclianicnl equip- Item Knmber
ment or vessels or both. It must be understood that tlie following per- D. Verrels
T-101 10' diam X 60' long vertical vessel
centages apply t o single units. If a project ronsisting oi se~reralunits is T-102 S diam X 45' long vertie:iI vessel
tu hc cstimatcd c:rcb unit ur eleliimt iiiunt bc coiisi(1erd sc11amtely. T-103 9'diam X 5S' long vertical vrsel
98 Project Engineering of Process Hants Scheduling the Prolect 99
T! IK Dr,~nnig hfanhour./Dran ~ n g
<4 200
B 15P200
C 15&250
D 15&200
E 3W400
F r o n ~t h ~ item;
v a tentative draning 11st can he made n n m e d ~ a t e l y

I)~.awingsfor Teaseli
Category No. Drawings Total Manhours
D. Teistds 3 Vessel dr:iwings (;ill details are nx~allyon a single 1 ,tj00
A . Foundations 8
druiring for each vessel) B. Structural 7 1,100
A. Fmmd:itions 1 Far above, T-101, 102, 103 C. Merhanical -
B. Structural 3 Ladders & platforms for T-101, 102, 103 D . Teasels 9
F. Electrical 3 Electric:ll 6 instnnnent conduit & lighting E. Piping 9
G. Inctrrnncnt 1 Schenintic riraxrings of instrumrnt installation F . Electrical 6
Insulation 1 Indntion dctnils fur T-101, 102, 103. Insulation G . Instrumentation 2
is not shown on the pererntap. list since it is (Insulation) 1
gener;~llyneeligible with respect tcl total deiign- -
drafting. Total 42
-
Subtotal 12 Dmn-ings for D. This example is very incomplete since no piping was inclu<led in the
first list for tlic three vesscls. Other drafting which \vould be included
For machines snrh as C-101, 102, 103 a shdtcr of some kind would he in a complete list is process and utility piping for the vessels, utility
mnnilatory. piping for heating and plurnbing in t h e compressor building a n d mcchan-
ical details for vessel appurtenances and for 1111isting apparatus in the
Drawings for Mechanical Equipment
building.
A . Foundabions 3 Compressor building, phn, section, details
Foundations 4 Compressurs C-101, 102, 103, fnumlntions T h e reliability of a n y d a t a sucli a s t h e percentages of r o r k distribution
B. Compressor bnilding 1 .krr:~ngemmt plan or manhours per d r a ~ v i n gdepends greatly upon operational methods and
Comlirehsor b ~ d i l i ~ i g 1 Structural steel extent of statistical data. Such d a t a is subject to many variables even
Comprrsmr huildinp 1 Hoof pl:w & rlcv:~tii~ns within a n organization and cannot be applied with confidence unless
Comprt~sorbuilding 1 irchitwt~~r;rldetails
continuously tested. Statistical d a t a on labor should be acculmulateu

.
ll. Miscellaner~nsv e s d ?
for compressor regularly and regularly revised.
auxiliaries 6 Comprrssor buttles, starting air battles, water I n scheduling drafiiirg nlanhours one must realize t h a t the total m a n -
bottles, x i t e r syitm,, f i d , lrtbrication -rstrxm hours required for each operation cannot always be continuous. I t might
E. Piping 6 Process piping he assumed for instance, t h a t t h e 1800 manhours estimated for vessels
Piping 2 Cooling watrr & Iubricutim tystcms
Piping in the previous illustration could be completed in one month by 10 men.
1 Starting air system
F. Electrical 3 PInn.s, seetiuns. details power & lighting Such thinking cannot be applied since certain vcesels will require t h e
G. Instn~mrntations 1 Inrtallariim details maxinium inanhours while others will probably be under the minimum.
- Furthermore vesscl design usually proceeds to near a 60% point when i t
Subtotal 30 Drawings for C must be stopped to await finalization of piping. .4 further 10-20 per cent,
-
Total for D and C 42 Dmwings may then be uscd completing urientation of nozzles or supports to suit
piping. After this, another period of waiting nus st ensue while thc vessel
Frotn the original list of 6 items, T-101.102,103 and C-101,102,103, 42 fabricator cmnpletcs his shop drawings. Vessel designers then must
drawings have been listed. B y applying a tnanhour value per drawing, check the fabricator's drawings for strength and accuracy b&rc original
total manhours can be estiniated a s follows: drawings m a y be completely released since t h e fabricator's design prac-
100 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ticei :onictinirs affect the original design. Screral months may i l a l ~ i c .
therefore, h e t ~ r c minitial design effort and completion, most of i~hicliis
consumed in awaiting data either from the originating orgnnizatiiin iJr
the fahricntor. For this reason sewral jobs in varions stages of corn-
letio ion n-ill serve to maintain a relatirely cou;txnt v o r k Inad.
I t is necessary in ~cliedulingwork for an organization to attempt thc.
masinrum use of all personnel. One aid in accoiuplisliing this is the
preparation of a bar graph or monthly time chart sllorriug the various
pro/ccts in an organization. t11r4r starting times, and the anticipated tinrc
for ear11 ph:w of lvork. Then a dra\ving -1irct coiint can hc utilized t(l
detrrn~inctlie possible m a r i ~ n u m or
i ~niniu~unrsof iuanpowr. X e ~ vjobs
should be srheduleil to start during anticipate~iniiuimum vurk li~nila.
Regardless of the nunlher of men available only one p r r o n can 11c
em[iloyed on one drawing a t an:- particular time. I t ip; thereforr, not'
good practice to use large draxi-ing sliects. Uettcr use of inanpower ran
ENGINEERING
he realized by rcduction in dra~l-ingsize. This will i n e r e a s the numher
of drarings and thus increase the possible use of manpover. There is,
of course. a practical limit in size rrducti(,n: but the use of larger scales
DESIGN AND
serves t o increase the number of drawings required.

SCHEDULING DEPARTMENTS
Contractors as well a s operating companies that do a consiiler:~hlc
amount of their olvn engineering design and drafting hoth find it desirable
to establish a permanent scheduling dejlartlncnt. This ilcp,zrtment must
be staffed with men having adequate bac,kground in all phases of thc
design and construction of a process plaiit. The sclicduling of ir nlulti-
million dollar project is hardly the job of a 10~7-paidclerk. It requirea a
man of broad experience ~ h iso thoroughly familiar with four stages of
process plant construction: namely, process design, mechaiiical design
and drafting, procurement, and erection.
Contracting firins have found the use of a scheclu1ing department
advantwgeous since such firms are ordinarily engaged in the execution of
tilore than one jol~. I t is preferable under such situations t o have tlic
scheduling done by a group of men who have an overall vieir-point and
are not interested in only one particular job. If a project engineer
schedules his own job, there is a tendency to favor t , l ~ a tjob. It is
essential, however, that the pmjcct engineer assist the scheduling group
in the preparation of the pruject schedule.
REFERENCE
1. Mattori, M . Oil and Gas Journal, 61, No. 46, 304; No. 47. 180: No 48, 100:
KO.49, 102 (1953).
DRAFTING
After the project engineer has received proc,ess specifications and
general mccl~anicalsl~erific:itions:x preliminary plot plxns, and prilject
schedules, the urork of tlie specialty engineers and design draft,smen may
bcgin. It is the job of thesc men to conrert the calr:ulations and decisions
of process and project engineers into dran-iuga and specifications which
are indispensable in the procurement, fabrication, and erection of process
plant facilities.
Engineering design and drafting efforts :ire usually rliriiled anlong
groups CIE specialists in thc various phaws of t h r ilcaign. The work of
these specialists may bc divided intu tn.u n~njorcnteguries: equilin~cnl
specialty engineering and dcsign drafting.
EQUIPMENT SPECIALTY ENGINEERING
Equipment specialty engineers in cooperation with process engineers
develop the detailed mechanical specific~tionsfor process equipment. I n
* A p u r t ~ uui llir gmel'hl n~rel~uuical
specificatiuna air uilru m p v l i d by !lie
campany for whom the plant is being built (see Chapter 11). These a1.e incorporated
with the usual specifications of the design organization and become, upon approval
I,? the rustonlrr, llie gmerul guide f u r 111 ~nech;mival design inrlu~liog piping,
structural, elecirirnl, and equipment design.
101
ENGINEERING
DESIGN AND
DRAFTING
After the project engineer has received process specificntions nnd
gcnvral n~cclr:iiiical specificntions,* preliminary plot plans, and project
xhedules, the v o r k of the specialty engineers and design iiraftw~enlnny
begin. It is the job of these nlen to convert the calculations and dcei s ~ o n s
of process and project engineers into drawings and specifications d ~ i i : l i
are indispensable in the procurement, fabrication, and erection of process
plant facilities.
Engineering dcsign and drafting efforts : ~ r cn ~ n : ~ l l ydi~iilcd alllong
groups of specialists in the various p l ~ a a w( ~ ft l ~ c'lciign. The v o r k of
these specialists nxty be divided into tn.u 1n:rjor categories: equip~uent
specialty cnginccring and dcsign drafting.

EQUIPMENT SPECIALTY ENGINEERING

Equipment specialty engineers in cooperation with process engin~ers
develop the detailed mechanical specifications for process equipment. I n
* A portlun of the general nrrel~auieul sprcificnliuu a r t d ~ r uaopplird by the
company for whom t h e plant is being built (see Chapter 11). These w e incorporated
with the usual specifications of the dcsign organization and become, upon appmvnl
I,? t h e customer, the gcncrul guide for all inrelmnic.;d design indudlug piping,
strneturnl, clwtrirnl, and vquiprnent design.
101
102 Project Engineering of Process Plants
addition they aid the procurement divieion in selecting the equiplnent
I\-hich n i o ~accurately fulfills the process specifications. The follo\~ing
sliecinlty grmps arc ~naintained:
PI-MPSASD COXPRESSORI;. Engineers who specialize in pump and con-
pressor selection are included in this group. They maintain close rontart
with pump and colnprcsior manufacturers and not only select the best
cquipniertt for a given job but also advise process and project engineers
on appliratim and in&llation problems.
HEAT EXCHISGERS. This group is staffed tiy experts on heat exchanger
design ~ I l ocan check quotations and specifications on all heat exchange
equipment by making deyign calculations for comparison. Some con-
tracting firms manufacture their own heat exchangers. In such cases this
group does the design calculations.
VESSELI)ESIGN. V ~ E S Emust
~ S be built to conform t o the requirements
of the process, and any plant drsign organization must have a group of
expert vesscl designers. These men design all pressure ressels, tanks,
stacks, and ducts in accordance with customer specification and applicable
codes. \-essel designers also prepare or supervise the preparation of vessel
sketches and layouts of vessel internals.
ISSTRI:MES'I'S. ' h i s fast moving field requires engineers who devote
full time to instrumentation. They adrise the process and project
engineers on instrumentation during the development of flow diagrams
and also specify arid select all instruments for the project.
FCKN.~CES. Contracting firms that huild furnaces maintain a large
staff of furnace designers ~vhomake detailed process calculations neces-
sary for proper sizing of furnace and heater installations. They also
direct the design drafting on furnaces. Organizations which do not
manufacture furnaces have a small group of furnace experts who prepare
furnace specifications and select t,he best furnace for a given job.
PIPINGMATERIAI.~. Piping n1:itcrials experts aid in the preparation of
piping and insulation specifications for each job. They list all piping
materials and accessories shown on piping draxings and select the
materials in accordance \ ~ i t hthe specificat,ions and applicnhle codes.
~ ~ I ~ C E L L A N E EQGIPSIEST.
OU~ Each process plant project is unique in
some way and special cyuipment not handled hy other groups must also
be selected or designed. Equip~nent such as dryers, filters, materials
handling apparatus, autoclaves, centrifuges, evaporators, and mixers,
111:ly he required in many projects. Process engineers and the project
mgineer can often rollahorate in the development of specifications and in
the selection of such equilimcnt. Some companies, however, have found
it advantageous to maintain a gniup of experienced chemical and mechan-
ical euginecrs n.11~alx~cializein the wide variety of cheniical plant eqnip-
merit not cotrirnon to all installatiuns. I n addition to their more routine
Engineering Design and Dratting 103
xork thcsr, men frequently dcvelop the inecllanical rlcsign of equipment
that nus st be built to order bwause it is uot regola~lynianufactnred.
DESIGN DRAFTING
The ~levelolimentof a complete plant design after equipment selection
has been cr~l~~pletcdis so intiniatcly associated xith drafting t h t the term
~lesigndrafting is often used to describe the four major categories: piping
design, structural design, electrical design, and instrument installation
design. The design work in these categories is largely accomplished by
drafting techniques.
Piping Design
Piping design is important in pnicess plant engineering. I n the
engineering of nrarly any process plant, piping rlesign and drafting ~vill
usually c(insulnc from 40 to 60 per cent of tile total engineering ldesign-
drafting) n~anlrourbudget.
Piping itself is intimately wlatcd to pv~icesst~iiginecring. Drsigncrs
~ l i olay out the piping for a illant 111u.5t learn and uridersta~~il
the various
process requirculcnta better than personnel in otlwr pllnscs uf the ~vork.
For this rwson organizations providing enginrering xrvices fov the proc-
ess industries depend on their piping design personnel to lead the other
phases of the design work.
Piping designers do the folloving:
a . Layout, arrange, and design all piping in accordance with the speci-
fications and the applicable rodes.
b. Orjcnt pressure vessel nozzles.
c . Check drawings other than piping for clearanccs with structural
steel, foundations, and other types of equii~lnent.
d. Study all piping arrangements for strcss.
e. Prepare stress calculations.
f. List and specify all nlcchanical (manufacturedj expansion joints.
g. Show all thrust and other forces (In piping drawings and tentatively
locate all anchors and supports.
h. Complete all fornlal calculations in a reproducible form.
i. Design, select, and list all detailed pipe supports, hangers, etc.
Structural Design
Personnel in this group design all foundations, all structural steel,
a n U o r reinforced concrete structures, and all industrial-type buildings
in conjunction with architectural designers included in this group. Since
foundations are largely located below grountl, personnel in this group
must work closely with piping persomcl designing the underground in-
104 Project tngineering of Process Plants
stallation. I t is rommon practice with crrt:~inolyniz:~tions~ L sIio\v
I 2x11
undergrrrund ~ v o r ksuch as foundations, piping, and clcctrical conduit on
the samc dra71-ings. This procedure is extrcmcly advantageous both in
initial design and during erection. Designers in this group must, of
course. conforn~t o all applicable national codes and the particular sprci-
: t if I k The n-orli rrn~sists01:
n. Preparation of design sketches and formal calculations.
b. Preparation of all structural stccl d&il drawings.
c. Prcparation of building rlr:~n.ingi nnd rlmign of heating, vmtilation.
:nld plumbing.*
d. Listing nnrl specification of :ill mtitcriwls.
Electrical Design
Personnel in this group are responsil~lefor the complete electrical design
required for the project according tu the particular specifirations and tllc
various national codcs governing electrical installations. Sj)ecifically the
work consists of:
a. Prcparation of all electrical conduit layouts and final dra\~-ings.
b. Preparation of all other electricel dralvings for substations, switch-
gear arrangements, etc. (Sate: Where reinforced concrete work is required
for foundations, manholes, and supports of electrical equipment, electrical
rlesigners usually prepare outline drawings d y . Final concrete design is
donc 11y the structural designers. Usually the electrical dcsigners complete
whatever structural steel drawings are required for switchracks, substa-
tions, etc. I f the structure is involved or extensive, t,l~is~ o r kmay be
cou~pletcdor cllccked by structural designers. .\Ianhole designs for under-
ground electrical s y s t e m rnust he designed to provide adequate space and
suitable arrangement of electrical equipment by electrical d eslgners. ,'
Structural designers set wall t,hicknesses, specify, and locate reinforcing
stcc1.j
c. Preparation of all clcctrical cquipnlent specifications. For niajor
plant snitchgear and plant transformer substations, specifications arc
usually prepared in conjunction with the project mginrer.
d. Preparation of all instrurncnt electrical conduit drawings in eonjunc-
tion with instrument (system) design personnel.
e . Complcte listing of all elcctrical materials, cable, conduit, etc.
J. Thc horsepower, rotation, and other mecllanical requirements of
motors are often specified by personnel in the mechanical group. Com-
plete motor specifications, however, are prepared in conjunction with or
by electrical design or engineering personnel.
*Some organizations maintain a separate group of heating and v~ntilatingnir-
conditioning engineers, but often this work is suibrontractcd.
Engineering Design ond Drafting 105
Instrument Engineering
Inatrunicnt cnginecring for the process plant is more fully covered in
Chapter 20. The selwtion uf instrunrents and preparation of specifica-
tions fur instruments may he handled hy instrunicnt specialists before the
drafting q ~ c r a t i o n snn,l need not l ~ edirectly associated ~vitlithe engi-
neering requirrd for installation. The so-called instrumcnt drafting pcr-
sonnel liavc t l ~ cfollowing duties:
a . Make general arr:mgen~cnt draxr-iilgs for instrumcnt installation
sl~olx-ingthe location of all instrument. by aynibol and tlic mrinus run.
of instrument piping in general.
h. List all instruments shun-ing the 11ropr.r pilling r l m ~ ~ - i nnumi,rrg or
other dralx-ing number on which the primary instrumcnt is located, the
item nuinl~er.ant1 t>-pe of instrulnect (iudic:~tcd by sy111bol), type of
capillary. or other connecting piping, air or process fluid. or electrical con-
nection from primary instrument to controllcr and controlled elcuicnt.
c. Preparc detailed dra~x-ingsof thc installation of all instruments
locally nir~untcd,except control valvcy I\-l1ir11are shon-n by personnrl in
piping design. The hook-up of contrul valves nit11 speri;rl appurtenances
is usually detailed on the instrument installation draaings. (Sote: Thcse
(lr:~xingsarc all scliematic except for connection details to erjuipi11cnt.l
d. Prepare control pancl detail dr;rxings for fabrication and crcction
of t l ~ ccontrol panel and prepare back-of-board drawings for thr rontrol
roum installation. Prepare initial board-front layout xi-licn gmplric
panels are wed.
e . List all ruisccllirncous piping or o t l ~ e rmntcri:lls used cxccpt clcctrir:il
n-iring ~untrrinlsand electrical conduit. This may he done in conjunction
with or by the electrical groul~. Personnel from the electrical group v o r k
in conjunrtion with personnel from this g r ~ ~ utup avoid duplicating the
inatcrial take-oE.
f. C h w k :~dcquacyof vemlor's dran.iugs. Instrument vendor'? dr:in.-
ings suffiw for i n ~ t r u u ~ c nrli~nension
t detail. 1)1;1\\-in;s prcpareil by t l ~ c
instrunlcnt group ;tiow iinrtnuuents d r a r n rli:igra~n~~~atici~lIy or in outlinc.
1,~r:rlly111ount(>(l invtrunlcnts. wch as liqui~llevci dcriccs. n41ich ~.onnt,ct,
p l ~ y ~ i c d to
l y other cyuipment must be shown dimmsionally for in-talla-
tion.
(1. (:heck pipin:: ~lrnwing; for pruper l o ~ , : ~ t iof ~ ~irrificcs
n and ~nnnu:~l
au,l :~utonraticctnrtrol dcvic~~s, tl~rrmo-rvrlls.11ress11rcpr~ints,ctc. C l ~ w k
:tlI clrawingr for proper 1uc:rtion of utlier prin~aryde\.ices.
Types of Process Plant Drawings
Two ninjilr t y r . ; of rlra\vinas are rrquircrl for prorc;F plant projrcts:
r i g s r e ~ I rI i s I I I : ~ u i : c t ~ r rSe:irlv
.
106 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
all drawings that are prepared by the process plant designer are used in
procurenlent: either by direct release t o vendors ior price or for material
listing (take-off) and suhscquent procurement,
1. Dran-ings prcpared by tlie process plant designer.
(I. D r a ~ ~ i n g
prepared
s for the installation of cquipment, either fall-
rirated a t tlie site of construction or manuiactured or fabricated else-
wllere; also uscd for ccrtain matcrial listing.
b. l)r:lr~ings prepared for thc n~anufacturcof equipment by others
with initial or general design by purchacr.
c. Draxings prepared for the construction of facilities; also used for
material listing.
2. I\lanufacturer's dra~vingaand data."
n. Dra~vingsprepared hy the manufacturer for his own use in man-
ufacture or fabrication; sometimes called shop drawings;
b. Erection d r a ~ i n g sprcpared by tlre manufacturer for us? hy the
purchaser in erecting thc equipment purchascd;
c. Dimension dmrvings. data sheets, catalog tear shccts prepared by
the manufacturer for use by thc purclraser in design.
Installation Drawings
The peculiarity oi the process plant requires the prcparation of draw-
ings t o hc used primarily in locating equipnrcnt to a greater extcnt than
drawings shoving the details of manufacture, construction or erection. It
woul~lhc impossible. for instance, to construct a catalytic-cracking unit
vithout soruc grapliical illustration of the various pieces of eyuipmcnt in
p~~sition.For any such installation thc locations of equiprncnt must be
rarcfully planned and located by means of dmwings to determine space
rrquireurents. Thus, all parts of a major plant must hc dralvn in con-
siderable detail in position and t o scale. Conncctiun dimensions must
be s11o1r.n on the drarl-ings to permit ercction.
The importance of location or inatallation dran.ings becomes more
a p p a r m t alien it is realized t h a t structural steel, pumps, compressors,
wsscla, and other cquipment must propcrly fit anchor bolts set in thc
conrretc foundations. T l ~ c(limenaions of the cquipmmt and thc locations
must he h o v n before design drawings of the foundations and supports
can he ~wu~pleted.Tlic constructim forces must have these design d r a ~ v -
ings beiore construction starts.
Vendor-Prints
Proper handling of vendor-prints (manufacturer's data and drawings)
is \:ital to thc success of a project.. ' h e lack of suclr data or lnisuse hy
Engineering Design and Drafting 107
careless distribution m e t h d s often results in serious crrors. v.hich increase
the cost of engineering, procurement, and erection, TVhile it would be
un~terirahleto attempt to dercrihr the variety of mcthids and proccduree
used by the various engineeriug organizations, it is hcliewd that the
details of the use of vendor-prints and wnlc iliwu*sion of ilistribiitim
~ u e t l ~ o dwill
s be lrelpful.
The three types of prints suhmitte~lby vendor.< are sllop dral~ings:
erection drari-ings, and dirncusion drarvings an11 data sheets;..
Shop drawings are not ordinarily furnislrcd by the rendor except for
fabricated piping, pressure ressels and tanks, structural stccl, and 0 t h
items designed in accordance ~7-iththe purcl~arer'sspecial rctluirernmts.
Such drawings are not required by the purchaser for ure in plant design.
and with certain equipment they ~ ~ o u divulge
ld the vendor'.; "knorv-ho~~."
Shop d r a w i n g of mechanical eyuipurcnt usually ci~nsiatof a large nuuuher
of dram.ings s11~1rvingeach piece or part of the asembled item. Thcir
nrulrber alonc would prcserrt a prohlrm
Vendor-prints designated as erection dra\~ingsare use11 by the pnr-
cliaser t o identify manufactured equipment and in~licate ercction
scqucnce.
The third type of vendor-print, the dimension drawing and data
sheet, is used hy the purchaser as a source of data for plant desigr~. For
manufaet,ured mechanical equipment, the rendor does not ordinarily
furnish the purchaser with all the details used in actual manufacture hut
instead furnishes only the information necessary for installation. This
information consists of a singlc outline drav.ing showing in plan an11
elevation all piping or other conrlcction dimcnsi~ms,di-assembly dimen-
sions, anchor-bolt locations, total weight and veight of parts whicli may
he disassembled, and overall dimensions f o r clearance purpos~s. F I X
rertain reciprocating machines, dire~tion.frequency, and dcgree of oprrat-
ing forces mny hc included. Flow diagrams for lubrication and coding
systcrns and iring diagrams where required should be furnished.
Individual data sheets are furnished by the vendor for auxiliary equip-
ment supplied v i t h large machines. The purel~asershould carefully l k t
all such R U X ~ ~ ~equipment
R T ~ by suhitem numbers on llata vhicli is prr-
pared by and distributed in the purchaser's organization so t h a t the-c
data may he identified by tlrc engineering, procurement, and erertiim
groups.
hlnnufacturers of large machines do not ordinarily stock or warclrousc
these machines. Each macliinc is nranufacturctl on tlre basis of an
order. If the manuiactnrer has previously nxmuiaetured i d c u t i c ~ lor
similar equipment, prclirninary data may be supplied n-ith the pro-
posal. Proposal data, howevcrl is usually only approximate and canuot
bc used in design of the process plant. Often a month or nrorc ruay
108
Project Engineering of Process Plants
I : I~ctn-IWIorder plncmicnt ;in11 vrcrillt ,If I ~ I I I ~ I I : Ii l~: ~ t i ~1111.
major equipment.
Venilor-pints are required for all types of equipnimt except that n-hich
is rorn~r~only manufartnrrd in quantity and in standnrd fisrrl di~nrncint~s.
I t n-ould he unnecessary. for i n ~ t a n rt~o , r e q ~ ~ e vendor-prints
st on nrrli-
n : ~ r yf n r g ~ itcrl
~ l fla11:r~ sinrc tl~(wc;arc ~ ~ ~ i ~ n u f a r tto
u rilin~msini~s
ed :in11
s~~crifications fixed by various cndcs. Tlrr: s:me vould 11r true for
ordinary valves or any similar commonly manufactured equipment not
specially designed for the single apl~licatim.
Filing a n d Distribution of Vendor-Prints
The handling of venilor-print* in a design organization s l ~ ~ u lbe d and thus can be easily noted. After determination of status, tlic prints
rarcfully plannwi and an cxnct procedure h u l d 11e follu\vcrl. I ~ r d k -11ould be stamped, P r e l i ~ ~ r i n n For
proper idcntification is the most common source of errilr. Sncli errors
cause ~vastcdeffort and may delay the release of the manr~facturerto
prnceed v i t h fabricatinn.
The lnost important requirement in vendor-print liandling is idcntific:~.
tion r~-iththe proper equipn~entitem number. Sperific iustnwtions tliould
be issued to vcndor;, prefcrnbly starting wit11 the inquivy, reilucsting
the inclusion of the equipment item number on their drawings. \\'it11
large organizations it is possible to h a r e design and procurcnicnt prwecd-
ing parallel on similar work utilizing almost identical erluipnicnt. Casual
identification in such cases may be ~iiislcading. The u w of a purcl~ase
order number for identification hy the vendor is insufficient since more
tlian one item may be incloded on an order.
All drawings or other data received should he date stamped upon
arrival. tlwn clicrked by some single person or group, prcferably the same
group \\-hose function is distribution of internal as well as extcrnal data.
I n solnc organizations sn1.11group. are callrd production ~lel~artmcnts and
have the responsibility for receipt and recording of &,sign d a t a ; the
filing of all record or pernlaucnt. datn; the identification of data and the
proper distrihutim of data both internally and extcmally. I t is also
conunon practice to have all rcproductim serviccs such as blue-printing
under the s:me department. This makes the flow of all design data the
respi~nsihilityof one drpartment ~ v l ~ i cish imperative for the large organ-
ization. Clerical personnel when trained t o the routine can usually follow
tlic steps.
Tlic production department should have in its possession a card show-
ing the item number, vendor, and other descriptive data for each piece
of equipn~entrequiring a vendor-print. The card is originated by the
peraonnel originally specifying the equipnlent. The descriptive data are
added to the card as it progresses througli various groups concerned \\-it11
the articular equipment item. By the enforcement of simple rules such
Engineering Design and Drafting 109
as continuous display of cards by each temporary holder, the moven~ent
of prints through all dcpartnicnts can he follorved.
Vendor-prints should he checked for proper identification. If the
vendor has failed to include idcntification, the data and attachments
should be referred t o the originating department for identification.
Usually the data can he identified by inspection of the purchase order
or the original specific'I t'ton.
Vendor-prints may be submitted for l~rcli~niuary use: for purr~Ii;isrr'.:
approval, or as certified prints, After identification ;in inspection of tire
record card xi11 indicate if the prints are for preliminary use or. for
approval. Final certified prints must include the vendor's certificatior~
r ~ , ~ l p p ~ o v i ror
l : Certified .ill vendor
data should be so stamped rcgardlcss of thc degree of imjrnrt;mce. One?
the method is instituted design-drafting prsonnel vill a11vays look for
the stamp and misuse of data will be awidcd. This ~~rocerlure assures
that the correct item number and status will ahvays Rppear on the vendor-
prints. If niisscnt or lost they can be easily identified.
LXatriI~ution.names of recipients or dcpartnrcnti, and dates sliuuld all
he rccorded on the record card. Since all movement xi11 be tlirough the
production department the status and location of all data can be detcr-
mined a t any time.
Vendor-prints submitted for approval require special handling. Since
~nanufacturcrsare often instructed t o withhold fabrication until approvnl
is received such drawings or data must 11c handled with the utniost dis-
patch. The open enril system mentionrd above is very advnntagcous
-.ince it forces action. 1)rnrrings :mi data submitted for allproral can be
signed a colored card ti1 indicate urgency. Approval dra\vings or data
muy be checked 111 designers or specialid gruups. The final approvnl
stamp sliould only be affixed by t l ~ eproject engineer. After n11]1ruvnlall
copies should be rcturnctl to the Production Dcp:trtn~ent for recording,
internal distribution, and return to the Procurement l k p a r t m e n t and to
the rendor.
T l ~ creceipt of final certified vendor-prints rclcnsci the pur1.1i;iser's
design completely. Dates for r e l ~ a s eof construction arc uftm fixed as
a set interval after receipt of eertificd vcndor data. These data niust,
therefore, be rccorded and lutndled in a manner similar t o that already
discussed.
Another function of the Pro~luctimDeplrtrnent sl~ould11(, ti113p11yric:ll
removal of all superseded vcndor datn. This may be a diHicult procedure
a t times since design personnel often have what they consider good
reasons t o retain superseded data. If this prartire is permitted each
(lcsigncr \\-ill shortly he nraint:~ining liis o\vn acl~:irnte file, but \~itliout,
110 Project Engineering of Process Plants
control. D a t a n.1iicl1 is superseded shoulil always he destroyed. All files
of prints from first t o ]:id issue ~ h o u l dhe ~n:lintained hut only in the
Pri~dui.tion Dcpartuicnt and sliould nut bc released except by some
authority.
Drafting Practices
Each of the specialty groups and design drafting groups produces d r a x -
ings of ~ o m etyllc for 11sc in furtl~erdesign and in construction. I n addi-
tion proccss cngincers and project engineers require a crrtain :nnount of
drafting assistance in the i~reparationof f l m ~diagra~ns,sketvhes, and plot
plans.
Standard equipment purcliased from n~anufacturersrcquires no draft-
ing. The sllecialty vnginccr nccd only obtain certified endo or-prints
from thc manufacturcr for tranxnittal t o other design groups. Such
equipment includes pumps, coniprrssors, motors, instruments, and fur-
naces and heat excl~angcrs (if they are being purcl~ased direct frorn a
manufacturcr).
The design of piping, vrssels, structural ~ t e e l ,foundations, clcctrical
systems, and i n s t r i u n e n t ~ t i ~requires
n a nurnher of drawings to correctly
portray the design calculations and decisions. Some typical niethods used
for these drarvings and process plant drawings in general are given here.
Piping Design
Process piping is usually drawn single-line cxeept for the large sizes
(12 in, and above) which are drawn double-line, showing the width of the
pipe. Details and n ~ ~ t 11n
e s drawings and instructions in the pipe spccifica-
tions indicate where pipc i.; to be bent or fabricatcd frorn fittings. Fit-
tings are rart,ly slio~vnin M a i l on drawings, symbols being used through-
out. Tlie diameter of flanges is always drawn to scnlc so that clearances
may be readily determined. The conventional synlhols arc used for
indicating valves. Fare-to-facc diniensii~nsof valves may or may not be
shown on piping drawings depending upon practices followed.
Tlie proper scale for piping drawings varies. The use of a small scale
such as in. = 1 f t usually results in a s e r i ~ u s l ycongested dmxing)
particularly n-hm the piping is for inrolvrd processes. Wlim all piping
is extraordinarily large. 6 in. and above, ?& srale may be acceptable.
Details for srn:rller piping bhould be inrrrased in scale, however, and
sholr-n elscwlicrc. Many firms insist on :j/n in. scalc being thc minimum
for all piping drawings.
Piping may be shop fabricated or firld fnllriwtrd. All piping2'$2 in.
and bclow which is ordinarily screwed is fielll f:rl~ricated. All piping 3 in.
and ahove is usually xelded and tlanged and, thrrefore, shop fal~ricated.
Each piece of pipe t o be shop fabricated is given a consecutive serial
Engineering Design and Drotting 111
number on t,he erection drawing prepared 11y the 11urclmser. Thc piece
number usually includes the drawing numhcr on x h i c l ~the piece is sl~own.
9 1 1 aucli numbers uiay be liste<l in :i hill-of-matrri:il or o t l ~ r rrel~rodueible
form for issue to the ful~ricator(vendor). Receipt of the list of piece
numbers releases r11c fabricator t o 11roreed wit11 fnhricntinn.
Details and dinicnsions shmw on piping rll.:r~~ingsare ~wnsiderably
reduced vhen piping is shop fabricated since the fahicator must prepare
shop drawings called detail sheets for his own use. Thesc sheets are not
usually suh~nittctlfor approval or i,liecking by the purchaser except for
alloy or heat treated pipe. A con~plctecheck of all the detail sllcctt: would
constitute a rerheck of all piping drawings. Since the fabricator (vendor)
niust prepare his details t o fit the designer's (purchascr'si erection draw-
ings the burden of accuracy is x i t h the fabricator and he is mhjcct to
cash penalties for errors in fabrication requiring field changes.
Since the process plant designer must 1lrepnre piping drawings to shun-
location and arrangcnirnt, the fabricator docs not iurnisl? iiilditional
erection drawings, other than the det:lil sketches. These shop sketches
prepared by the fabricator may bc subu~itterlto the pnrcliaser as a check
on pipe fabrication invoices. Fabricated pil~ingis often purchased on a
tonnage basis, in which case cadi load of pipc delivered must he weighed
on public scales ~ v i t hccrtificd gross and tare n-eights. TYhen fabricated
on the basis of cost per piece, liowcvev, schedules of material and labor
costs are thc basis for invoicing together witli tlie shop sketches.
PIPING
STRESSAKALYSIS
No detailed drafting is required for this part of piping design except
simple sketches. The loration of anchors and supports and all forces are
usually marked on prints of the piping dravinga for usc of personnel
designing pipe supports. Tlic forces are not ordinarily added to the
dra~vingsfor reproduction. Anchor points ior pipe are shown by means
of a symbol placed a t tlie point of anchor.
A schedule of various types of meciianical expansion joints is sorne-
times prepared under tlie direction of pcrsunnel in this group. The
schedule lists tlic r a r i i ~ u stypes of joints t o be procured, giving dimensions
(not vendor data) and the required thrust and stress clinracteristics.
Manufacturer's shop dra~vingsor dimension sheets are usnally required
since only the manufacturer can supply certain necessary data. Upon
completion of pri~curcmcntand receipt of drawings, final data may be
added to the expansion joiut scheriule for use in erection.
PIPE SPPPORTS
The various types of pipe supports such as slmes and hangers (see
Chapter 18) are usually indieatcd by symbols or numbers on the piping
112 Project Engineer~ngof Process Plants
r l r ~ i ~ i g .There
. numbcrs refer to standard detail ~ l ~ e e l sIf
. ext.raordi-
nary forces arc involved thc design of both the attachment and the sup-
port may be checked hy structural designers. Usually all necessary
materials for the various attachments are listed on the standard detail
sheets.
9 certain amount of nketching is required by personnel listing piping
anrl fittings. The ~v,.orkronnists primarily of the preparation of lists, of
piping nrntcrials ~vhiclrnlust i n r l ~ ~ dall
e valves and other piping acces-
sories. s11c11ns bolting :mrl g a ~ k c tmaterials. Piping material listiug or
take-off is limited t o field-fabricated pipe when part. of tlre piping is shop
fabricated since the fahrirator lists his 015-n material. K h e n all pipe is
field fabricated, all materials must be listed, assuming the process plant
designer is also erecting the plant.
Vessel Design
Prea-ure versels, tanksl drums, fractionating columns, and other sep-
arating cquipnrent are usually designed and manufactured in acrordnnce
XT-ithcodes as described in Chapter 12. The code design of mc11 equip-
ment specifies materials, temperature stress, and manufacturing or con-
struction pmctieea.
The purchaser must prepare an outline drawing shoving the diameter
and length of shell, the location and type and size of all connections or
upenings, thickness and type of materials for shell and heads, all intcrnnl
and external appurtenances required for attachments, and rqjerating con-
ditions for design. Since vesscl design involves total slicll stresses includ-
ing those caused by wind forces on vertical towers, the diameter and
numbcr of anchor bolts lnuvt also be specified. Design-drafting require-
nlents for vessel procurement are satisfied upon the completion of the
T - e s d outline drawing.
Vessel internals such a s fractionating column trays, after process re-
quirements are spt.eified, are often structurally designed by other firms
specializing in tray manufacture. This is particularly true when stain-
less or alloy tray n~aterialsare used. Vessel designers, however, may be
required to prepare nominnl layouts of trays according to process requirc-
ments. Other internals such as mixing equipment are oft,en mechanically
designed for support and location by the vessel designers. Vessel design
personnel usually prepare schematic drawings showing vessel insulation
det,ails.
The vessel manufacturer is responsible for construction of the vesscl
in accordance ~ v i t hthe proper code requirement when the vesscl specifica-
tion requires code construction. H e must, in effect, guarantee that the
Engineering Design and Drafting 113
equipment mcets requircn~ent.sfor the allowable n-orkin,w 1xessures ; ~ n d
temperatures. R c must, therefore, clieck thc purchaser'z il~sign.
Since pressure vessel fabricators preparc shop drawings for manufaetur-
ing use. these dram-ings are also used for vendor-print purposes. Pur-
chasers of pressure vessels generally require the rendor t o submit prints
of shop dmm-ings for approval prior t o rclcase for fabrication.' A con-
siderable period of time usually elapscs het71-een initial reisel inquiry
and releaec for fabrication since all piping layout :lnd connections must
be fixed before resscl nozzles can hc located or oricnted. For large rcsscls
this period of time is usunlly required in any case by the vessel f:thricator
for procurement of plate, heads and appurtcnanr.cs.
Structural Design
Tlrc location of process equipment m : ~ ?bc based on procc,ss. safety. or
nmintenanee requiren~ents. Structure>, supports) shelters. and founda-
tions are: therciore, of a secondary nature and il~eir~lcsigniuu-t depend
upon layout and arrangement of tlre various pieces of process equipnient.
Design oi strurturnl iyrtrnls i. usunlly h a d upon stand;rrdized re-
quiren~cntsof t h 111a11ual
~ of practice publisl~eilhy the .hrerienn Institute
of Stcel Construction (see Chaptcr 231. The process plant designer or
purcliascr must prepnrc out,lincs or single-line arrangement ilra~vings
sho~vingall structural members, their sizes and connection points. Con-
nection points are usually what arc knoxl-11 as ~vorkingpoints in industrial
practice.
Infornlation must br included such as t r ~ p - o f - ~ t ~~niniunun
el. clca~wms.
hnndrail dimensions, grating or fluor plate boundaries, l:~~ldcrs. ztnir? and
platform or other support connections.
Tlrc rrndor or structural steel fabricator uses purrhazer's ilraxing.: f ~ r
rreigl~testimates in prcparation of a price proposal, and for prcparation of
hie shop dra~vings. Ear11 piece of steel inurt be detailed for fahriration in
the sllop. This pmeticc is similar t o methods fnllo~vcdby thc piping
fabricator. Structural stecl is often sol11on a tonnage h;~si?. The total or
final l ~ r i c rih u s ~ ~ a l lbased
y on calculatril n-cights of material dripped.
\Then orders arc plnred on a l u m ~ ~ - s ubasis, ~ n all purchasers dr:~x~-iugr
must be complctc a t time of inquiry.
I n addition to structural rletails the stet31 fahrieator also p r e p a r c
(singlc-line) erection drawings, fi~llo~vinpstanrlar~lizcd picot-marking
procedures used by tlic industry. 'I'l~csc <lr:i~ringearc uscd hy the p ~ r -
chaser in erection. The vendor'* slio,, <lra~\-iug.: xrr not orrliuarily salt-
mitted to the purchaser for either approval or checking unless the vendor
* A f t e r drawings s1.e appro\.ed the nranuiiicto~.er is infutmed t o proeerd v i t h
tlrt, f;dn.i~*tiuuoi t h i t e m in q r s t i l l n T h i s n u t i l i c n t i o n ir wI'iwi.il t r , 8% n wlcrirr
fur i;J,r.ir:~tion.
 114 Project Engineering of Process Plants
requests a n approval from the purchaser for some change in structural
member size. Changes may be required in order t o provide clearance for
ladders or piping. Thc details are. Iri~n-ever.s ~ ~ p p l i efor d the purchaser's
use or record.
It is ~vellto point out that all g c n ~ r a lpractices ~ I I I I O T T - P in
~ ordinary
huilding conrtruction arc not acreptahle in process plant design. T o
i h s t r a t e it usually makes little diffrrence if structural member substi-
tution by a fabricator results in a liicr~lherharing strength equal to or
greater than the originai. Hut replacc~nents i ~ rchanges made hy the
\'endor for process plant structures slli~uldhave prior approval from the
purchaser.
I n addition t o the general outline drawings prepared by the purchaser,
notes on drawings arid sprrifications s l ~ i ~ u l11ed included to advise the
fabrication or rrcction n~ctllodto be used (riveted, bolted, or welded),
and the galvanizing or painting specifications. W i ~ e n galvanizing i~
required, purchaser's drnn-ings arc? affcctrd Lwausc nil ~niscellaneous
coonccti(~nsusually made in the field must be done in the ehop before
galvanizing. F i ~ l d~ c l r l i n gor other changes arc not ppriiiissilble since
the galvauizing ~ % - ( ~ uhcl d disturbed. If cllanges must he made, the
member must usually be renioved and regalvanized.
Electrical Design
Schematic single-line wiring or circuit diagmms must bc prepared
for the process plant .shorving all electrical equipment, Iond distribution,
t,ransformcrs. and sn.itcl~gear. F:lectrirnl (lesigners use these diagrams
to lay-out and shon- in detuil all conduit runs and accessory equipment.
A11 conduit, i.ircuits, a i d equipn1ent a l e assigned numbers or synibols.
In addition to the detail dra~vingssllolving conduit runs and connections,
sclicdules n u s t be prepared wliicll list by number :ill circuits and conduits,
tlie drawing on n-liicli tlie cnnduit is sllown, conduit length and size, and
cable length and size. Otlier tabulations are also prepared showing the
proper sequmce and setting for power control apparatus.
Drawings prepared for the clcctrical i~lstallationare extremely sche-
matic and 15-ithont dimensions except on details showing terminal points
of conduit rutis: the arrnngeuirnt of conduit in hanks, entrances of
conduit to buildings, or exact a r r a n g e ~ n m t r required for clearance.
For thrsc drawings area plot p1:tns are needed as well as vendor's cer-
tified diuierision prints for all proccss equipment requiring electrical
connections.
Usually clcctrical drawings prepared hy the process plant designer are
used only fur erection of the plant and for ~ x r t e r i n llisting. 1Iost elpc-
trical equipment is always procured by nwans uf ~vrittcudescriptions.
Engineering Design and Drafting 115
Instrument Engineering
Design-clraftiug opesations for indrumentation in-tallntion are very
similar to tlrose for the electrical install:~tionin that d r a ~ ~ - i n are
g s usually
s < , l ~ c ~ ~ i aand
t i c are used priluiiril>- for inaterial li.sting. Instdlatiull
details, again schematic, are u s ~ ~ a l lpreparedy for those instrun~erlts
ilirectly connected t o other equipment or for iustruulents located in a
control center. The latter drawings are dimensioned but not necessarily
draxl-n t o scale. Tahulntims situilar to tho>? 11reparid for tlie rlectrical
installation are prepared for all in;trument control rircuits I ~ o t electrical
l~
and pneumatic. Vendor data for indrnnlr~ntntion and area plot plans
are required for instrunient design drafting.
Drawing Scales
A frequent time waster in many organizations is the arbitrary assign-
ment of fixed srnlcs for wrtain y of r i g s r e a r 1 of the
variation in design or scope. S o ~ l o u b tso~lieof the fixed scalc thinking
is derived fro111 certain arcliit~cturalpractices in n.ilic11 one tracing may
be used as a so-called < ~ v r r l nto
y e11ci.k for ir~terfcrences. This procedure
is rarely practical for process plant drawings ~viicredrafting to a precise
scalc (measured) or in great detail is undesirable. A usual scale for
piping drawings is 3/8 in. = 1 i t . T h e next lowest readable scale is
in. = 1 f t . For congested dm!\-ings :!h in. may be too small. The best
scale is one which provides n clear picturr or vlricl~[ulfillr the intent of
drafting by providing a graphic illustration of data.
T h e actual scope of ~ v o r kcovered by a drawing has little t o do v i t h
economy except for some saving in printing costs. The highly congcstrd
dralving complctcly cmered in car11 square inch of spiicc, as is tllc usnal
result \,-hen l/i in. scale is used for process piping, is in reality a t r c m m -
dous time vaster. It is inefficient in the initial drafting, in rlmking. in
material listing, and in erection.
Process plant drafting does not usually require absolutc precision such
as would be found in machine design. I n nearly all depign work tlic
practicc of scaling draxings t o detrrrnine dinlcnsions is strictly limited
t o estimating. JIost drarvings for tlic process plant must bc made t o
some certain male in order to show relative sizes and locatii~nsof equip-
ment, but extreme prccision is not required nor justified unless tlic design
is purely a developnient of some mechanical ~levicc. The majority of
design drawings for the process plant are prepared for erection purposes
rather than for marruia~~turc.
In drafting practice the centerlines of cquipmcnt only are lorated as
precisely as posriljlc to scalel so tlmt discrepancies :Ire not, curnulatire.
All dimensions which arc necessary f11r crection, construction, or elear-
1 16 Project Engineering of Process Plants Engineering Design and Drafting 117
I r I I I I r i Sc:ili~~g,
~ cscellt~ i r ~ r~ I cctinuiting
E drawing x d l ravc r1r;tfting inanhours. lI,,rL of thcsc various printing
purpose, is unnecessary. I t d l probably he ohviour in any case that processes and reproduction methods are extensively used by the major
v i t h scales such as 3/$ in. = 1 it, accuracy closer than One or two incl1e.s manufacturing firms. Any dctail manually added t o a dra~i-ingmnst be
~~-onlcl he impractical. checked. Hence printed data should always be less costly.
..machine similar to the typewriter which pcrn~itstyping directly on
M o d e m Drafting Techniques ~ l r a ~ v i is
n ~extensively
s used for adding standard notes to clra1~-ingr. The
.iltliough many ailvanrcs liarc heen mndc, in all hrnnches of science. laborious dmdgery of hand lettering lengthy schednles and lists may
relatively f r ~ vimprox-cnients have bccn made in thc most basic of all thus l ~ eeliminnted. .iny capable typist can he trained to operate the
rngincering functii~ns,thc lxel~arntionof drax\-ings. S o methods have ~rr:icl~ine so that a further cost reduction in labor is porsihle. Such ma-
yct I m n rlrviscil to ron~plctcly rliminnte the pninstnking manual pro- r~kiine;usunlly repay their initial cost in a few nlonths hen l~ropcrlyllsed.
ccdurr of (11.:ifting. For the 111,ucw; 11l:urt: t l ~ crrwt of Ia11,r consumcd I~ncioul~tcdly niany of tilt, firlns cngnged in contracting cngincering
in ilr:ifting ol~crationsalunv o f t m reaclics 5 j ; of the total erected plant t o industry could profit by invcstignting drafting and rcprodu~:-
n ~ t . Thus it is extrcnlcly important to utilize time-saving proce~lnres tion lilethods used by some manufacturing firn~s. TYitli di.sign-drafting
in this pl~aseof engineering, pnrticularly for firms contracting engincer- t s the process plant approaching $0.07 per minutu per person it
c ~ ~ s for
ing xrvices t o industry. \vould appear that any method which offers labor saving possibilities
Since the d i w ~ v e r yof blue-printing thc only nlnjor change niadc in I sl~ouldbe d c o n l e d .
drafting p~~oceilure has lwcn the substitution of pencil teclmiques for
inkcii drmings. Several decades ago all dra\vings ti~adefor reproduction
1verc first prcl~arcdin pencil, then traced in ink. Impruvcnlcnts in dmft-
ing procedures. materials and reproduciion processes permit ]~rotlnction
of p i n t s from pencil dra~vingsequal to prints from inked draffings. Few
process pl;mt engineering fimms any longer use inked drawings except
at tinies for final flox diagrams or for certain standard draxvings.
Linen drawing sheets prove much more satisfactory under the severe
services found in process plant design-drafting and reproduct,ion than
the various tracing papers. The niucli better working surface of the
linen sheets n-ill save sufficient t,ime to warrant the slight additional cost.
A number of mcthods conimon to the printing industry are being used
to ndvantage in drafting operations by the nlore progressive finus. Many
titue-saving possibilities are offered by the offset printing process. Dr-
tails a ~ i dinst.ructions that. nus st appear on all drawings can bc reproduced
on the linen drawing sheet by this process instead of hcing hand draxvn.
1-: ~.' ~ ~ frequently
ous nscd dctails are sometimes printed on smnll sheet?
nnd distributed along xvith larger dran-ings as standards. Althougll
ilrafting labor is savecl, rcfcrenres to the sheets niust be made and the
printing and l~andlingof an additional drawing consumes time. Such
dvtails may be reduced in size by a simple photographic process and re-
produced directly cn the draving sheet by offset printing. Although
the size may be reduced, the reproductions produce sharp legihle prints.
The same process may he used for reproducing catalog pages, manufac-
t u r e r ' ~dimension drawings, or any descriptive data required for erection
of thc plant.
I n general any detail which can be printed directly on a n original
 PART 11
BUSINESS
AND
LEGAL PROCEDURES
 HE project engineer not only works with engineering
T p r o b l e m s but also deals wit,h procurement operations,
ofice procedures, and contract interpretations.
PROCUREMENT
OPERATIONS
To purchase the needed equipment and materials a t reasonable cost
and to have them delivered a t the proper time is one of the most important
phases of process plant. construction. The procurement department of an
engineering organization does this work, hut not without the help and
advice of the project engineer. Even though many purchasing agents in
the process field have engineering backgrounds it is impossible to expect
them to be well informed on all the phases of technology. It is, therrforc,
necessary for them to seek the advice of the project engineer nhcnever
engineering judgment is needed. In like manner the project engineer
must depend on the purchasing department f w up-to-datc procluct in-
formation and prices, contacts with vendors, and above all for the pro-
curing of materials on schedule. It is important, therefore, to be con-
versant r ~ i t hthe organization and operation of a purchasing department
for process plant construction procurement.
Pn~curementfor a process plant project is different from the purclias-
ing operations required for n nianufacturing plant, ~vlierethe buying
process corers only a relatively few standard commodities which arc
bought in quantity a t regular intervals. Personnel engagcd in purchasing
for a process plant project must have a n-ider experienc~,and must he
an-are of p o ~ ~ i beourrcs
le for inan? inore kinds of eqnipment.

ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF A PROCUREMENT DEPARTMENT

The SAPA (Rational Association of Purchasing -4gents) V ~ a recom-
s
mended a variety of organizations for procurement departments. One
typical of procurement for prnccss plant con4r11rtion inxy consist of
121
124 Project Engineering of Process Plants
turer, horrcver, ehou1,l not l ~ cmade f ~ , long
r p r r i ~ d hcvcn on a singlc
projcct. The procuremcilt operations on a major process plant ~vill
usually continue over a t least one ycar, and priccs may fluctuate during
that time. The procurement department must knuw price trends and
rescrve the right to take advantage of these changes for the sake of
economy.
Expediting a n d inspection
Expediting and inspecting are oitcn directed by the procurement dc-
partment. The primary funct,ion of project expediting, hoxever, is expe-
diting movement of materials to meet the construction scl~edule,and
nccd not be directcd by those engaged in the buying operation.
PROCUREMENT PROCEDURES
The lrrocuremcnt of materials for a process plant l~ruject can be
divided into several phases.
1. 1nquir:r-A formal request for a quotation of price.
2. Qnotation-The iormnl rcply to t h r rtquest for price.
3. Rid con~parison-Ol~jective study of all quotations received for a
particular item.
4. Purchase order-The formal order scnt t o the successful l~iddcr.
5. Inspection-The examination of materials during fabrication and
upon completion t o insure highest quality.
6. Expediting-The acceleration of progress on manufactured equip-
ment by the purchaser.
The Inquiry
Actual detailcd opcrations of the inquiry phase are: ( a ) accurnuletion
of data in the form of epecificatir~nsor dmxvings, (b) sclcction of r m d o r s
to mhonl inquiry is to be directed, and ( c ) typing and mailing. Item ( a )
is a responsibility of engineering, ( b ) evolves from past experience or
engincering development, and (c) is a clcrical operat,ion.
Many companies have standard inquiry fr~rms. The iorm invariably
has this is not a n Order printed plainly on the sheet t o avoid conful;inn.
Drawings and specifications where applicable arc attachcd to the inquiry.
The method of quoting is outlined and rcquests for delivery date promise,
terms oi payment, and a price breakdown arc made. The date on which
the quotation is required is given, and !nitten quotations are requested.
The number of inquirics solicited for a given item depends on coni-
pany policies. If procuremcnt is being done by a contracting firm for a
customer, the customer's desires will be followed. I n fact many process
firms furnish contractors with a list of acceptable vendors and specify
the minimum number of inquiries to be solicited. Three inquiries is the
Procurement Operations 125
usual minimum uinw t h r c ~quutittimli !\ill in*ure r~~lcction
of it vendor
on the basis of price, dclivery, and quality of product.
The Quotation
Tlie wllw lvrnilori ~ u h m i t shis qllotstion on a special iorm upon which
i n ~ l e f r g c n c r ~ lo n i t i ~ I ~ . d f i n i t i n a n t c 'Tl~csr :ire
luintr,l in ~ n l a l ltype, but s11011lilnot he disregarded since they are a legal
p u t of the c l o c ~ ~ ~ r t e ~ ~ t .
The epccific information pertinent t o the cquipn~entbcing quoted is
i y p c ~ on
l the qnotation form and should inelude tire follm~-ing:
Q~uintit!/ and Description of Jlnterinl Being (Jiwteil. T h r dcscril~tion
mxy 11c brief 1y1vci:illy if it is ~.cfcn.edt o a specification n-hich givw a
rolnplctc ~lchcription. h~lditi,maldeseriptivr literature anll i l r n ~ v i n gare ~
nlso ;~ttachcdif thcsc aid in hetter dcscrihing tlic item.
Price. The price should l ~ cgiven as both a unit price (pricc per itcuii
2nd R total price (price for total number of items and also l~riccf m lliv
total order) .
Estimated TPeights. This information is nwcssnry in planning hrst
slliiiping neth hods and in comp:iring bids.
T ~ j p eof Quotiition. (a) Firm price-Price quot?d is binding on tlw
scllcr if acecpted n-ithin a givcn time limit (usually 30 days) ; ( h i Esc;l-
lation cl;ruse--1\Iany quotntions during the days of initial material
shortages and inrlctcrminablc costs of Wurld TVar I1 cont:tincrl c s r a l'I t 1011 '
rlausca ~vhichpt~rnittedthe u p ~ a n adjustment
i of priccs due t o incrcaicu
in labor, material, and transportation betwcen the date of placing of thc
irrdcr and shipment.
Trode and Qrluntity Discounts. Certain qnantity discounts and clis-
ci~untsapplicable t o ljuycrs v h o will rcrell (such as contractorsi are reg-
nlarly givcn. The nniount of the discount s1111uldbe givcn on tlic quota-
tiuo. Any cliscount that is treated hy the rrnilor n-it11 the grentert of
-errecy s1111uldbe looked upon ~ v i t hs u q j i c i ~ ~ n .
The usc of trade iliec~~unts on metcrinls listed in c a t a l o g i.; ~~:rrtienlarIy
:,ilrantagcous for both \-endor nntl lmyer. .k catalog m:iy Ile printcil m c c
n year or less v i t h complete ileecriptions and yo-callr~llirt prires i\vhicli
:Ire priccs aborc the actual anticipated sclling price) given for carh item.
The actual price c:ln thcn 11evaried to allon. for changing ci~stsby re\-iring
the discount shect and not the entire ccdalog.
Uiseounts are oitcn quoted as a series of percentage discounts sue11 as
20. 10 and 5. To calculate the actual price the list price is multiplied hy
(100 - Discount)/100 in this care, by 0.80, 0.90, 0.95. A series of dis-
rounta is used because one discount may not apply to every situation, bnt
various combinations of discounts can he devised which ill hc applirnhlc.
Terms. Thc terms of payment including the amount of cash discount

128 Project Engineering of Process Plants
tabulation of bids. All such tabulatioris I\-liicli require engineeri~igjudg-
ment zliould be subtnittcd to the project enginecr for approval. The pur-
chasing department should be particularly careful t o indicate all terms
and transportation factors and should point out the difference in these
items. Copies of the quotations should be supplicd with the tabulation
to aid in the cnginccr's study. The contract~~r's project, enginecr vill
oitcn submit tlicse tabulations to the customer's project enginccr for his
approval.
The Purchase Order
After selection of the vendor, a p u r ~ h i s corder based on the successful
~ ~ u o t a t i oisn issued. Purchaie order forms arc ubed for this purpose.*
Tllc inforniation on these i ~ ~ r n liiay i s bc divided into three catcg~~rics-
lieading, main portion, and standard printcd notes. The location of each
of these on tlie purchase order has bccn specified by the American hsso-
ciatirm of Purchaxing hgents.5
HEADISG. Gives company name and address and spaces for ven~lor's
name and address, shipping address, and instructions. F.O.B. point, ternl.,
date of order, p n ~ h a s e - o r d e rserial nun~bcr,and date iilaterial is w n t c d .
31~1sPORTION.The main portion of the form, usually precedcd by a
reference t o tlic vendor's quotation, lists the quantity, dcscription, am1
pricc for each item. The total price of the ordcr is also given. If the
order can be referred to specifications and drawings, the dcscriptio~ican
I I brief
~ and the specification and drawings transmitted as a part of tlic
order. Whcn available the approximntc weight of cach item is listed
sincc this information oitcn proves useful t o recipients of purch:~scorder
col~ies,such as the engineering dcpartn~ent.
PRISTEDNOTES. A number of standard notes; terms and conditions of
tlie order arc also printcd on the purchase urder. Thesc include instruc-
tions for mailing the bill of lading (carrier's receipt): packing list (list
of contents, dimensions, and \\.eight of each shipping package or cratc),
and invoice (list of items shipped or on order showing prices and other
cliargcs).t Instructions for identifying all shipments, letters, and d w u -
n ~ c n t sv i t h thc purcbascr'a order number and equil~rncntitem uu~nbcrarc
:~lsogiven. It is very important that, thc wnrlor follow these rcquerts;
other\~iseconsiderable dclay and confusion is causcd in identifying tht.
111ateria1s.
* Furms i w tu the origiu:d ordcr (rhangc o~.d?r)UI.C :dso in i%-idcIIW.
'l'lw wording Churlye O d r i is printed pron~iuentlynn thr Cure to cull :rttcntiou to
the changes and differentintcit from thc original order..
i 0rde1.l~transaction of business dcpends on the prompt reccipt of i m x r a t e
eoples of all these items. The construction departnlent materials men use llie
parking lists to check inruming material. Tlic accounting dcpnrtmcnt must check
the invoices against t h o older and cerliiv them to the eamutiollcv's office ior
pym~nL.
I
I Procurement Uperarions 129
I
The purrhaw orrlrr form sliould also includc all the purchaser's rtan~lnrd
I notes on policy printed (not typed) directly on the original document;
!
otherwise, loose addendums or attachments will be required. Each loose
I piece of paper represents an added cost in handling and can easily bc
lost in transmittal. The folloving notes are standard with moet prorure-
~ ~ w orgxniz
nt nt ions.
Gzraranfee. Some type of guarantee clause should be included for all
equipment and material purchased. Extensive and elwhorate, guaranter
clauses usually requirc additional correspondence, with subsequent
waivers or amendments. The best guarantee is always the integrity of
thc vmdor. 'l'he following is typical. "All equipment or material*
furnished on this order shall be guaranteed, for a period of not more than
twelve (12) months from date of delivery (or date of operation or usel
against operational failurc, due t o rnanufacturcr's design; or mechanical
failure, due t o manufacturer's workmanship, when the equipnlent or
material is being operated or used in accordance !\-it11 the original q~ecifi-
cations. All parts or materials found to be defective wit,hin the specified
time interral shall be replaced without cost to the purchaser, F.O.B.
nianufacturer's plant."
A primary vendor (one who receives order) does not guarantee man-
ufactured parts of equipment furnished t o him by another manufacturer,
beyond that other manufacturer's guarantce. The primary vendor n-ill
usually acknowledge the guarantce clause by stating that the overall
guarantee is limited to the gnarantees of the subvendors. hlanufacturcri,
however, accept a certain moral responsibility for any equipment sold
since their reputation is a t stake. B u t no manufacturcr will ordinarily
acccpt any responsibility for loss of profit in production caused by failure
of his equipment, and practically all guarantccs are limitcd t o rcplacc-
nient of tlie item d i i c h fails.
Inspection. A paragraph should bc included stating, in effect, that.
"all equipment and material furnished shall he subject t o shop and field
inspection by the purchaser or his delegated agents, and the vendor shall
notify the purchaser a t least-days in advance of its readiness for
shop inspection. If the purchaser does not wish to inspect certain eqni11-
lnent the vendor will bc so notified, but shall undcrstand that any sncli
- inspection rclcase does not in any way relicve him of tlic responsibilitirs
sct forth in the guarantee clause." Another clause frequently used is that
"purchascr's inspectors, or representatives shall havc access a t all times
to n~anufacturer'splants or shops for the purpose of inspecting equipment,
during the process of ~nanuiacture."
Quality. A statement is included on the quality of materials. "All
materials i'urnishcd or used in the manufacture of purchased itcnis shall
..
be new and of first quality and in exact accordance with tlic annlicable
specificntions."
130 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Labor Clauses. A typical labor clausc might be: "The vendor agrees
t l ~ aall
t labor used in the manulnrture of the specified itenis furnished shall
be employed and paid uuder the applicable regulations of the Fair 1.al10r
Standards -4ct of 1938, and its subsequent or future amendments. The
vendur further agrees that all invoices submitted to the purchasrr shall
bear a written certification of his compliance n-it11 the abovc regulations."
A number of laws cxist regarding discriminatory practices. The par-
ticular area in which the work is to be done and the type of labor used all
should be investigated previous to order placenlent with unknown firms.
Serious difficulties may bc caused hy the use of an open-shop firm if
closed-shop workers are erecting the equipment. Shop fabricated pipe
may be a source of many labor entanglements, particularly if the pipe is
not fabricated in the area where it is to be erccted. The piping specifica-
tions should include a requirement for a stamp ccrtificati~inon cach piece
of pipe giving the manufacturcr'a association with the applicablc labor
union.
Subcontractor Clmrses. Thc purchase order ia frequently used as an
instrnmcnt in placing sulicontracts. The standard niltes in the purchase
order need not repeat the phrases in the subcontract. I t is suficicnt to
state: "When equipment, materials, or services are bcing furnished under
a subcontract, the executed subcontract, form shall apply and become a
part of t,his order." The subcontract form itself is legally an addendum
or attachment to the order.
Shipping Imtructions. The point of origin and tiic tlcstination of
material corcred by thc purchase order must bc listed for use by both
vendor and purchaser. The mcthod of transportation is sclectcd early
in the negotiations if possible and should bc indicated on the purchase
order. When t,ime is limited the purchaser may request truck shipment,
, air cxpress. If shipping methods cannot be decided
railway e x p ~ s s or
a t time of order placement, the statement, "Shipping instructions will be
issued later," should be included on the order. The vendor must bc in-
formed of shippit~gmcthods for large equipment so that assembly of the
equipment for shipment can he planned.
Patent Protection. Since the patent law holds the user of a patented
item just as liable for suit by the patentee as the sellcr who has knovingly
or unknowingly infringed, the patent protection clause is inserted in pur-
chase orders to protect the purchaser. It requires that the vendor com-
pensate the purchaser and/or ultimate user of the material for all custs
vhicli may develop due to suits filed by the party claiming infringelnent."
Many other special terms and conditions peculiar to the particular
transaction may bc included as part of the purchase order. All such
notes shuuld be clearly pliraped and above all sbould be kept to the
minimum. I t would secm that clauses protecting t h e buyer should be
Procurement Operations 131
limited to those protecting against fraud and cont,ingenries beyond tile
control of the buycr. Certainly man r i l l never devise clauses so cleverly
n-ordcd that they will protect against practices which are legal hut never-
theless unethical and damaging. Tlic bcst protection is a reputable man-
ufacturer.
"Acceptance" Order
Lcgally, the purclinse order hccomes a contract only after arceptancc
hy the seller. I t is, therefore, conlmon practice to send an "acceptance"
copy of the purchase order to the scller .so that he may sign and return it.
The signcc for t,he vendor must be an authorized agent of the manufacturer.
INSPECTION
.In important phase of procurement for procesa plants is the inspertion
(JI equipnent during and upon completion of manufacture. The advan-
tages gained through careful devclol)mmt of specifications and drnvings
hy the purcllasing conipany can bc h a t by careless ~vorkniilnrhip and
errors made in the manufacturer's shops. Particularly on major items
[ i f equipmcnt, therefore, it is ~vorthwliilefor the purchascr to send his
inspcctor to the vendor's plant. The pririlegc to inspect equipmcnt a t
the plant is usually agreed u p m prior to the placement of tbe order and
is included in the purchase order. No reputable manufacturer vill d e ~ i y
inspection privileges and many wclcome a competent inspector's sugges-
tions.
I t is the inspector's job to witness tests on merhanicnl equipment such
as pumps and emupressore, to observe and approve fabrication nicthods
of vesscls, pipe and structural steel, and to encourage the bcst worknian-
ship on equipment bcing manufactured for his cmployer. He should be
a person of considerablc practical kn~~~v-lioru xvith an ability to spot
mistakes and also an ability t o get along wcll with p e ~ ~ p l e A . large
portion of a competent inspector's work consists in preventing mistakes
before they occur.
Thc inspector's reports are made directly to the purchasing department.
The projcct engineer should be notificd about rejeetcrl equipment. t ~ u i
:tiljustments on rejected items are handled by the purrhasing drpar'
ment. If inspection is madc a t thc sitc of construction, arrangements
are made for replacement of rejected material and for returning it to the
vendor. I t is sometimes possible, in the case of equipment surh as pumps
and filters for the vendor to correct faults in the field. For this work a
technical representative of the vendor is sent to thc jubsite at the vendor's
ixxpenre.
Beranse of the high cost of inapcction, only ~nnjorequipment items ran
132 Project Engineering ct Process Plants
I I ~inspcctcil prior to .;hipment Stwl; it1.m- such as T X I ~ E S and instru-
ments must 11e cliccked upon delivery a t the construction site.
EXPEDITING
The ]iri~n:wyfunction of expediting is t o assure dclircry of purchacd
n~:itrrialsa t the jobsite in acc~~rdancc n-it11 the project schctlule I\I:~tt,rial
such as valves and fittings arc- ava~lablcfrom supplier's n-arehouses anrl
ran he dclivcrcrl a t ally ti~nt,. The 11rogrc.s of specially h i g n e i l equi11-
~ncnt:Iiu~vcvcr,such as 11rcsurr ve-..cis or large wmlwessurc, must l ~ r
fullo~\-cdcontinuously by employees of the purcliaser cnllcd expediters.
llanufacturers estir~xttcprohal~ledelivery dates for equipnrnt to be fall-
ricated in their shops, but tlicsc e.stimatcs depmd on proiiipt dclivcry IJE
~n:~terialsfroin tlieir supplirri; efficicnt srlicill~lin:, ( i f s l i ~ ~~vork,
p mil
early receipt of draxings from the purchaser. The l~urcllaser'seuprditer
can do nlucli to :Issure that c~tiniatedddi\-ery dates will be ~ n c tlly
vorliing with botli the manui:icturcr and his 011-n organization.
His ~ v o r kcan be explained more clearly by describing tlie progress of
a large steel presmre vcsscl from the inquiry stage t o delivery.
.In inquiry is sent t o three or niurc inbricators and it includes s p c c h
wtions and a preliminary sketcli of thc vessel. The vessel diameter,
plate thickness, type of liead.; and number and sizc of nozzles arc given.
From this infornlation the vendors are able t o develop tlieir quotations
wliich give costs and estimated delivery time.
During tlic inquiry pcriod ( t ~ too tlircc m e k s ) enginecring w ) r k
proceeds in the purchaser's offices and by the time tlic or11c.r is plaretl
the nictal specifications and vearel sizc and tlrickncs.; h a r e been cr~nfirnie~l.
If changes have been made, a rcvisc,d sketcli is attached to tlie purcliax
order. The fabricator is informed by a note on the order t l ~ he t is
"relcased t o purcliasc all materials on the basis of tile preliminary
sketches." The expediter reccives a cupy uf llic purchase ortlcr a t the
same time it is sent to t l ~ cvendor and it then becomes thc responsibility
of the expediter to re? that delivcry is mule on tinic.
After tlie f a l ~ r i w t i r11as heen told to prucccd xith thc ~ ~ u r c l i : ~111
se
materials, tlie purcliascr's expeditrr visits the fahricatoi.'~ ~11011 autl
obtains copies of all material orders. H e then cIle14<s hy telcplionc or
personal visit with the steel mill t o be certaiu tliat a definite rolling
schedule for the steel plate has been arranged. H e also confirms tlic
delivcry dates for all otlier equipment ordered by the ninnufacturer.
When tlie materi:lls nrr delivered to the fahriratnr. riillin~of pl:itr to
f u r n ~the alldl can begill; but lab~.icatursu w relurtit~ll1 1 1 (10 lu1,tlicr
work until final desigu drawings are reccived from the purciiaser. I t is
difficult. anrl costly t o start n o r k on n Iargr vessel and then he forced t o
iiiseontinuc for a short period until some d~xigncli:mgc is made. Tllc next
iniportant ]oh of tlie expediter, tl~ewforc,is u-itliir~his ow11 o~.ganiz:ition.
Procurement Operations 133
IIc must IIC certain tliat the vcsiel design groulj coml~lrtrsthe final dc-
rilcd dran-ings on schedule so tlie fabricator d l not he delayed
.liter t l ~ cmanufacturer receives final dravings and fabrication begins,
the progress of the ~vorkcan be reported by the purchaser's inspector n-bo
IIILI.;~ observe the shop operations daily. The expediter need only visit
tlic shop occasionally, but he continues to follow the progress of the vessel
until it is delivered. JTlien the inspector'r report indicates that x o r k i*
Ilcing delayed, the expediter will visit tlie shop, determine thc causc of
tlie delay, and help tlic fabricator overcome it. If the falxicator has :I
ilumbcr of orders from other companies, the expediter niust make more
frequent, \-isits to he certain illat liis job is not unduly delayfd bccansc of
~\-orkon other orders.
I n sununary an expediter's duties may bc briefly 1iut1inc.d as f o l l ~ t ~ s :
1. Accumulate data wbicli may affect delivery.
2 . Anticipate delays and bottlenecks and resolve tllcse directly with
the vendor.
3. Assist vendor in obtaining priorities.
4. Assist vendor in resolving his procurmlent problems.
5 . Change delivery schedules when necessary.
6 . Correspondencc with the subvendors and suppliers of the primary
wndor.
7. Be a x ; m of changes of engineering schedules in his 0x1-n orgnniza-
tion, and to relay this informntion to the vendor or ial1ric:ltor d l e n
nccessary.
8. Expedite his own organization to complete vital dra\\.ingi ori
Although delivery on time is essential, early delivery nlny bc a (lip-
advantage. llaterials obtainable from stock should not bc ilclivereil
until needed or extensive warehousing facilities u-ill hc necessary. Spc-
cially built equipment buch as a vessel must be lifted twice if delivered
before foundations arc ready. The cxl~editcr,therefore, must aid iu
: i u d i n g surli early deliveries.
AII expeclitcr must have a ~vurliingkno~vlcdgcof fabricating l~roccdurcs,
1muxnnnent methods, sources of supply, and slripping practict,s. I n
:&lition lie must he able t o work effectively ~ v i t hpci~plcin his o ~ and
n
the fabricator's organizations. Since liis priniary duty is to encourage
people t o finish a job on time, his actions must be diplomatic in order to
void resrntincnt,.
GENERAL PURCHASER-VENDOR PRACTICES
134 Project Engineering of Process Plontr
1. I n general all transactions between purchaser and vendor should be
kept on a formal basis, i.e.>in writing.
2. Instructions t o vendors shall always be sent in the form of a changed
purchase order or addendum to original order. This should be a docnnient
similar to the purchase order, carrying the signature of the purchasing
agent, and identified with the original purchase order hy some similar
nunierical designation.
3. It is good policy for only procurement personnel t o discuss prices.
materials, or equipment with vendors during the inquiry stage. Since it,
is uncil~ical to disclwe a n y vendor's proposal t o another vendor, the
fewer persms having this inforination, the l e ~ schance there is for acci-
dental disclosur?.
4. Price re-negutiation may or may not he permitted after a. formal
prnlmal is rcceircd. This is usually a matter of policy ~ i t hthe pur-
chaser. If one vendor discovers an error in the purchaser's inquiry or for
some reasim is allo~vedto revise his quotntii~n,all othcr vendors pnrtic-
ipating should hc allo~x-edthe s:une privilege.
5. Suffivient timc should he allowed for receipt of proposals before
deriding the successful bidder.
6. A good policy is to require that all changes, additions, or deletions
be handled by the procurement department only. Under certain con-
ditions this policy may require additional time, but i t avoids confusion.
It should be the complete responsibility of the procurement department
t o negotiate the con~mercialpart of an order (pricc, terms, and delivery),
regardless of the technical requircments.
If equipment is being manufactured in accordance with the purchaser's
dcsign, the fabricator may ask a nnmbcr of technical questions which can
only be answered by the engineering department. These questions should
always be addressed t o the procurement department and then relayed
t o the engineering department. h iurmal reply is then forwarded b y
engineering t o procurement for transmittal to the vendor. I n this manner
thc procurement department can retain full responsibility for all changes
in price caused by design alterations.
7. Order cancellations of fabricated equipment or materials of special
design may be required because of changes in design or scope of work
which are the fault of the purchaser. Cancellations may also be madc
because of failure on the part of the vendor to manufacture the equip-
ment properly. Cancellation clauses are written into the purchase order,
by stating simply, "This order may be cancelled within 30 days after
placcnient without r w t ~ I tlic
I purchaser." This statement is used when
the intent of the purchaser is to limit the vendor's action until the pur-
chaser is ready to prureed with the work. \Vhcn work has been started
by the vendor and it is decided t o cancel the equipment because of
Procurement Operations 135
changes in scope of the project, tlre vendor must be formally notified t o
"immediately stop work and incur no further costs t o the account of the
purchaser." The vendor is then a ~ k e r lt o submit. cancellation elrargc.
accompanied by proof of his costs up t o tlie tinie IIE cancellation. Thi;
purchaser may accel~tdelivery of materials purchased by the rendur for
use in co~upletingthc order, or the materials may bc retainc~lin the
vendor's warehouse and their value deducted froni tlrc c:inrell a t ion '
charges.
Even if equipment is cancelled because of tlie rmtlor's failure to per-
form satisfactorily, cancellation charges are incurred by tlre purcllaser.
I t is the purchaser's responsibility to have some kno~vledgeof tlrc vendor's
capal~ilities.
Cancellalion slrodd never he undertaken \ ~ i t h o u tcunrplete iinodcdgt.
of the costs involved. These include the vendm's labor rosts, inaterial
costs, loss of profit, and the purchaser's loss of time and engineering
manilours.
PROJECT ENGINEERING AND PROCUREMENT COOPERATION
The many duties and responsibilities of the procurement department
can be met only through cooperation bctveen procurement and project
engineering groups. Mutual understanding of the duties and problems
of each and an atvareness of their interdependence are needed.
Projcct enginecrs should remember that changes in dcsign produce
delays in fabrication. A change that may actually be rather simple can
become quite complex when large organizations are in~rolved. Drawings,
orders, and suborders must bc altered before the actual e l r a n ~ ereaches
the manufacturer's shop. Only alterations whirlr are absolutely ncces-
sary should be made during the fabrication stage.
REFERENCES
1. Hnrl.iman, Norman F., Principles of Srirnlific Puichnsing, MiGraw-Hill Book
Co., X r w 1-ork,1928.
2. Hcinritz, Stua1.t F., Purchasing, Prenti<:e-Hall. I n e , Kerr Yo&, 1947.
3. Johnson, E. R., G. C. Huehncr, and G. L. Kilson, Transportalion Economic
Principles and Pmctices, D. Appleton-Ccntory Co., Scrv I-urk, 1940.
4. Lewis, Howard T , Pmczrrrrntnt Pi.inciplcs and Cnscs, Richa1.d D. Irwin, Ine.,
Chicago, 1949.
5. National Association of Purchasing Agents Handbook of Purchasing Policies
and Procedures, Volumes I and 11, Piational Association of Purchasing Agents, Xcw
York, 1939 and 1942.
6 . Revised Amencan Foreign Trade Definitions, National Forcign Trade Council,
111 Broadway, Yew I'ork, 1941.
7. Rindsfass, C. E., Puichnsing, McCrnw-H111 Book Co., Xcn Vork, 1915.
8. Stuffleb~am,G. T., The Trofic Dictiurrory, Simmons-Brondrnan Puhlidling Ca.,
Kew York, 1950.
 CHAPTER 10
OFFICE
PROCEDURE
Enaineerine
- - is only one of the functions r~f the project
. . engineer. I n
addition to technical duties, he must manage his officc. The stalt' of this
office usually consists of assistant projcct engineers, a secretary, and a
file clerk. It is, of course; only a small part of a large engineering office
vhich includes other project engineers or project managers and tlieir
staffs as well as departments such as accounting, purchasing, drafting,
and engineering specialties.
There is a constant interchange of ideas and instructions between the
project engineer's office and the other dcpartments, as well a s direct con-
tacts and correspondence ir-ith people outside the company. Therefore.
he also must develop facility in holding conferences, correspondence, and
filing. A discussion of each of these functions i d be of vnlnc since poor
crccution of any of thcsc will produce mistakes and faulty design no
matter how competent the engineering.
CONFERENCES
Thc project engineer must exchange ideas with many people during
a working day not only by means of formal policy-making conferences,
but also by informal conferences or get-togethers ~ v i t hmen fro111 other
departments, customers' representatives and sales engineers.
As is always the case in dealing with people the intangible, and for the
most part unteachable, qualities such as humility, open-niindcdncss, : ~ n d
courtesy are important.
136
Office Procedure
TIlimility is one of the most essential personal trait; in any field
xicncc. Any true scientist is aware of the many assumptions and gaps
137
11f kno~rledgein his field and never prceumes knoving everything. Being
Iiumhle, howcver, does not mean being obsequious. Tcntativc l~ositions
i,sn he held vithout reticence.
Open-mindedness is important in dealings hoth individuals and
groups If two ideas of equal technical merit are proposed. one by you
nnd mother by a pcrson ~ v h omust executc the idea, it n-ill 11c ailranta-
peous to use the otller pcrson's idea. I t is logical to :~ssutnctlinl lie will
do R I ~ t t c job
r using his own method.
I n large confcrmces, too: open-niindr~lnesspays iliridcnds. I n thwc
-ituations it becomes tlic ability t o listen to utht,rs. Often in conicrenc~.~
:in ;rtiuusl~licreis created ml~icliseems to com]~cleach particillant to
p r f o r n i . B y resisting this tcmptation and rcrnaining open-minded, onc
can ci~ntrihute imnieasurably a s the confcrcncc procccds by offering
carefully conaidered conclusions based oil au analysis of t l ~ cprublcn:
and the ideas presented by tlic othcr mcn.
11ost pcople have had the merits of court,esy drillcd into t h c ~ usince
cliildliond. Thew lessons are often forgotten when antliorized visitors
arrive during busy moments. Sales engineers, in particular, arc giwn
iinproper treatinent a t times ~rlicnthcir arrival is inopportune. Com-
pctent ?ales engineers have considerable k n o ~ ~ l e d gabout
c tlieir particular
fielils, and aid the cngineer in keeping infonned on nexv developments.
Timc spent ~ r i t hthem is not ivastcd cvcn thougli no purclmse of thcir
1)rotlucts is anticipated a t the time.
Formal Conferences
r.
1IIC f o r u ~ a~onferencc
l has bccomc an important tool in m o d e r ~indus-
try. For the proccs.; plant project it l~erniits:r sllnring of ideas hetvccn
kc? personnel and specialists rvhich ~vould tnkc wccks if handled l g
correspondcncc.
T o be successful, liowvcr, a fornud confcrcncc must h a w a c:ipal~li~
ltxder :lnd a defillitc pllr]lu6~!Idlirh should ile knon-11 serrr:ll day:. beforc
tlic niccting. TIE 11urposc must be a specific o ~ i cif niucl~is to Lc ac-
coinplished. C d c r e n c c s on gcncral subjects require too ni;n~yl~eoplr,
accomplisli nutliing, and often creatc misunderstandings.
V-hcn need r~rircsfur the discussion of n specific phasc of work. only
1 1I K V~ J ~n-110
~ I ~ can
~ contribu(c inost to tlic ~lixussiunsliould l,e rrqrlwtt,il
t o attend. Thc conference leader should then outline the course oi dis-
cussion and see that the original plan is folluwcd but refrain from strong
d:~t~w~rm of t shis oivn ideas.
('otril~lctenotes of tlic vonfert~ncc.sl~uuldhe itii~rl~'.F P I nietiiories
~ are
inl':illibl~~,;ind it is desirable tu liave ~.ccorclsui ;ig~.cr.tlrcntsi m ~ l,lcci~iui~s
138 Project Engineering of Process Plants
so that responsibilities are clearly outlined and xvork assignments com-
pletely understood. Thc conference room should be well lighted, com-
fortable, quiet, and furnished in good tastc. A blackhoard is alxrays
useful in group discussions and should be part of the permanent equip-
mcnt of the room.
The conference technique is often misused in modern business. Too
many unnecessary conferences are convened. Some organizations have
so many that there is little time for work. If one man can make a
decision, i t i t senseless to take the time of other persc~nncl. Conferences
shi~uld t ~ rcalled only when a decision must be made requiring the
knorrledge represented by many backgrounds.
TECHNICAL WRITING
Tlic engineering graduatc is often criticized for his lack of ability
in expressing his ideas. Gcnerallp the undergraciu~teengineer takes one
or two courses in report I\-riting and these pro\-ide his only gui~lancein
rwitten expression.
Tllc?e courses are invaluable, hut good self-expressinn in any form
can nevrr he developed snlely through courses that teach tlie tecl~niques
of the art. Good self-expression, rather, is a by-product of thoughts
and experience beyond the limits of the individual's specific field.
I t is unfortunate that the rigorous curriculum of a formal engineering
education leaves little time for reading and study in other fields. Many
practicing engineers realize this lack and use some of their free time for
rcading nonscientific literature.
n i i t i n g done by the project enginccr must bc suited for rvi~iclyrarying
audienres. Such writing includes:
TECIINICAL REPORTS. ( a ) Contract proposals; ( b ) descriptions of
plants visited and their operations; ( c ) detailed conference notcs; ( d )
technical instructions such as operating instructions.
TECHSICAL ARTICLES(written for publication in trade or professional
journalsi.
CORRESPOSDENCE. ( a ) Interoffice; ( b ) design instructions; (c) various
types of letters outside the company.
Technical Reports
The preparation of a technical rcport as such has been described in
many forms"&"." and is usually a part of the engineer's training. Each
firni has its own niethod of composition. Generally the first page is a
letter to a superior often called a letter of transmittal. This is followed
by u title page, an index, a summary, and then the main body of the
repcrt. Tlie engineer-contractor's propusel is one type of report.
The form of report used by a given firm must bc followed by its
Office Procedure 139
employees. There is no one perfect form. Usually the one used by a
firm has evolred as the company developed, and it p8rticularly suits that
organization. Management and other personnel become accustomed to
the for111 and much tinle is saved because of this familiarity.
\Vitllin thr <.onfines r ~ f the form the engineer is free 111 rxcrcise llis
ingenuity anrl vriting talent.
The most import:int consideration in report xwiting is the audience.
In writing a report for the president of a largc cllemical company. for
instance. an engineer should realize that niost of this man's tiuic is
spcnt in management. He no longer practices his technical skills and
its intricacies are no longer part of his thinking. If it is necessary to
discuss theory in tlic report, background should he sul~plicrl anti. if
possible, it should he described in terms understandable to the laylnan.
Technical Articles
Periodical technical journals are distrihution centers fur n w theories
and ideas. Technical men must read articles nr abstracts of nrticles in
thew journals in order to be familiar r i t h tlic latest dcvelopuents, and.
when possible, sliould contribute n c a ideas and experimental data to
the general knowledge by submitting papers for publication.
The quality of such contribution reflects on both the author and his
employer, and great care should be exercised in their preparation. As;1' 1111-
ing the information presented in tlie article is reliable, tlic nest ~ n n s t
important aspect is the mode of presentation.
Technical writing should be free froni long, ponderous sentences and
slioultl be as clearly w i t t e n as possible. Since the suhjrct luatter is
often difficult to ~,ompreliend,tlie least a writer can do is make tlic
individual sentences easy to understand.
Correspondence
Correspondence makes up the major portion of a project engineer's
writing. If correspondence is excessive, the projrct engineer is little
more than a "paper shuffler."
Nearly all large business firiiis are confronted \ ~ i t h a tremendous
volume of paper. Althougli in thesc modern tinier, conirnunic;rtion~have
been greatly simplified, the written word is still thc only legally aeceptuhle
neth hod of indicating respmsibility. Recording reasons for actions by
one party as instructed by anotl~erin many organizations is practiced
largely because of a lack of individual trust, initiative, and usuallp self
confidence. The phrase "get it in writing!" is a common stateuient in
industry. From this idea lnucli of the needless correspondence evolves.
External correspondence is necessary but can bc reduced by careful
planning. Internal or inter-office correspondence is used for issuing
140 Project Engineering of Process Plants
itistr~~ctionsor ili>filiing rc;l~ou:ildity. TT'lic~i rrrl):~li ~ ~ s t r ~ ~ c t \\-ill
inns
snffice,Lion-crer, it is ~rastefulto insist on )nitten n~eniorand:~.Of coursr,
iudg~nentninst he nsed in dcciding whcn rcrhal instructions arc ailcquntc.
Certainly romlilcx instructions invoking nrlniprical 1 1 t ~11<n11d he
n.ritten. but a simple request or order seldom need he witten.
;\notiler rn:~,ior sourcc of useless corrcsponricnrc in lt~isinrss rnn he
traced ti1 exrcssirc restriction of authority. TYitliout autliarity or n.itliont
clear-cut instructions the inilividual m u d seek to "corer himself" at 1~cr:-
step lty vrittcn proof of his actions.
All husincw organizations can profit hy an objertirc :~nalysiso f their
correspondmce procrilures. I\Iucli intcr-office correq~ondcnrc i,xn IX
elitniniltcd altogether and that d i i r l i is necessary ran i ~ cliniit?(l to an
original and onc ropy for the joh file. Forms ~~-liirll ran iw fillcil in It!.
11:~nilor I I a~ fi.w simplr typewriter mnnipulntionn sar(, 1)iitli tiriic and
,~slx~nsc.TIICFC:lrc discusscd l~rlow.
lnlerofice Correspondence
The interoffice lettrr, not?, or nlcnlorandi~nlis usually i r l r ~ n t ~ hh).l
n printtd lieailing on some type of fornl. Intcritfficr or Intcr,lirisiiill
correspondenre in cnginrcring scrvicc i)rgnriizations is oitrn also 111:rdl~
rcadily irlcntifiahlc hy use of colored stationer?;. Some typical forms
arc s h m n here.
Office Procedure 141
The example is a transniittnl letter common to larger firms. It proridcs
a reronl for icreral files and nlro in this case s h o ~ sthc status of a
I r i n g . .ill numbereil itenis cxcept 9: 10, 11, 12 are printed on the letter.
Item 6 identifies the firm and is necessary since copies of such lettcrs
arc sometimes attached to formal external correspondence. Initials of
recipients of copies. (Itcnt 4 1 , are often used on interoffice communica-
tions. Files (Item 8) refer to the particular record files for the depart-
nlcnt or project and aid tlie file clerks in filing tlie letter. Second sheets
(~vhcnthe Ictter is longer than one page) omit all printed hcadinga
except, 6. Tltr ilatc and project nunihcr is addcd hy typing. Copy
sliccts are simil:~rto second shccts showing item 6 only.
lortns are soii~rtimcsurcd for interoffire comnn~nir:I t '1011.
3lcni~trao~li1ni
They arc generally lettcrsizc (8% s 5 ? 4 ) . The firm niunr a p p w r on
thesc forms, and itcniu 1 and 2, 6 and 7 arc usually includcil an the
Ileading. Such nien~orantiamay bc llandvritten notcs.
General instructions to personnel are usu:illy issued on sonic type of
r e ] ~ o ~ l u c i forin
l ~ ~ c so that distribution to several people can hc made.
The follon-ing fornl is sonletinics used.

Exclmple of Interoffice Letter Example of a General Instruction

SYZ C'lwn~iralCn.
(1) Date: J a n u a r v 2 . 1955 (0) SYZ Chemiral Co. l h g . Ikpt.
i2j TO: R . D . Plow ( 2 ) Interofire Letter So. 2 8 3 2
(3) From: S . S . S h e a r (7) -1pprq1. S o . 2 2 4 6
(4) Copies: E . D . , M . N . , R . J . (8) File 4 , 15, 6 Date: J a n u a r y 2 , 1955
(5) Subject: Dwg . 2246-02-El, Revisions Subject. Use o f V a r i a b l e - t y p e M a c h i n e s
(9) Drawing 2246-02-El is t c b e r e v i s e d a c c o r d i n g t o To: Chief Draftsman, A l l P r o j e c t Engineers, Design
t h e a t t a c h e d marked p r i n t . When r e v i s i o n is S e c t i o n L e a d e r s , E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n Department
c o m p l e t e a n d c h e c k e d , k i n d l y r e t u r n two ( 2 ) p r i n t s Heads, P l a n t Maintenance D e p ' t .
t o the writer prior t o general distribution.
Four (4) v a r i a b l e - t y p e machines have been i n s t a l l e d
.-- i n room 3 0 8 ( t h i r d f l o o r n o r t h - e n d o f E n g i n e e r i n g
(10) S. S. Shear Proj . Engr. B u i l d i n g ) and have b e e n i n u s e f o r s e v e r a l weeks
(11) A t t a c h m e n t 1 during operator training. W e are e n c l o s i n g c o p i e s o f
(12) SSS/ef a s h e e t s h o w i n g t h e v a r i o u s s i z e s of t y p e f o r m ,
n u m e r a l s , a n d s y m b o l s w h i c h are a v a i l a b l e . You may
r .
Ilie nuinhers are used here for purposes of diseussii~n,but do not appear c a l l E x t . 3 2 5 f o r extra c o p i e s .
on tlic actual lctter. One peculiarity of the interoffice lctter is thc omis- The m a c h i n e s h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d t o r e d u c e h a n d
sion of the salutation, such as Dear Sir, or G e n t l e ~ ~ ~and
e n the closing, l e t t e r i n g o n d r a w i n g s a n d , b y means o f t h e smaller
sucli as you1.s truly. Thcrc is, ho~\-crcr,identification n1ateri:rl in itcus type, t o reduce size o f p r i n t e d forms. Supervisory
5 , 6, 7, and 8. p e r s o n n e l are e x p e c t e d t o become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e
142 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure 143
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e machines s o t h a t t h e y can b e used other types 11f correspondence so tlmt they will receive special handling.
t o the fullest extent. The follon.ing is a typical design letter.
G e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s are b e i n g p r e p a r e d a n d w i l l
be i s s u e d s h o r t l y . Example of a Design Instruction

A . D. Hochstad, c h i e f Engineer (1) ABC EXGISEERISG CORP., PRIKCIpIA, P;. J

(2) Customer XYZ CHEM. CO .
This general letter includes a letter nuvnbcr wlich simplifies filing and (3) Date 1 1 / 2 1 / 4 2 (4) Contract 6-25316-2 (5) ~~~i~~lnst. yo. E-22
(6) DES. SECT. E (7) Sheet 1 Of 1
identification when rcvisinns are ncccsiary, Such lctterl; are often issued (8) Dwg. (9) Vendor X (10) Mat'l B;JI
on special forms .;o that they can he identificrl easily. Thc use of difierent- (11) Spec. X
colored stationery is probably the sirnplest method of identification for
the large firm. It h a s b e e n a g r e e d i n a c o n f e r e n c e o n
11/21/57 t h a t a l l e l e c t r i c m o t o r s s h a l l
be as m a n u f a c t u r e d b y G y r e E l e c t r i c Co.
TRANSMITTAL LETTERS(INTEROFFICE) The a p p l i c a b l e c a t a l o g numbers a r e :
A large anlount oT data nnlst bc tranrferrcd through an organization.
Tranzmittd lettcrs or formi snvc typing time. Th? follo~vingform only H.P. Volt. C a t . No.
requires filling in or chccking the applicahlc pllrases. Up To 5 h p 220/110 E-A-1222
6 t o 3 0 hp 440 E-B-2136
Exclmple of Transmittal Letter
31 t o 5 0 h p 440 E-C-3145
Date: 51 a n d a b o v e 2300 D-4460
To:
A . L. G e r u n d , P r o j . E n g .
From:
\Ve are attaching c o p i e s of:

Drarving KO.
Projert KO.

(12) 1I 1 1 1 1
G F S P V
------ H h l E I / Proc. EF 1 CF C Total
(~-i-lT~-lT-~TITITIT~

n/nI Ko.
Items 1, 2, 3 are self-explanatory. Itcm 4 s h o ~ thc
s contract number
Vendor Print Vendor as assigned by the contractor, "ABC Eng. Corp." Thij tylle of nu~nerieal
Approved Kindly revise as noted designation is finding \vide use in industry where autolnatie accounting
Return to Vendor systems are used. In this instancc the first number refers to tlic type
Approved as n o t e d .
of general work such as design and erection of a cllernical plant. The
Release for fabricntion - Release for construetiun first digit of the second numbcr refers to the type of contract, the
For your use in design For your use and record next four digits are the consecutire contract number. Thc last number
indicates the part of the project.
For preliminary use only
Item 5 givcs the subject and numbcr of the instruction. The subject
When revised, please return prints to writer. in this case is E (electrical dcsign) ; 6 sho~vsthe basic design section
or group to which the instructions are directed primarily; 7 is a sheet
~ E S I G X~SSTRTTC!TIOS ~,F.TTERS numbering metilod designed to prevent misplacing of sheets.
I n addition to the gencral instruction letter it is desirablc to provide a Items 8, 9, 10, and 11 provide a means of designating the type of
npecial fonn for engineering and dcsign c l ~ ~ n g e 1;ngincering-contracting
x information in general. In this case! 9, vendor, and 11, specification,
firms use different names for this correspondence such as "Design Instruc- are checked because the information concerns a vendor and is a specifi-
tion," "Engineering Memo," or sometimes "Design Letter." The most cation. If a drawing or bill of material ncre involved, items 8 " 1 . 10
important requirement for such memoranda is a visible difference from would be checked.
 Office Procedure 145
144 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
Gentlemen:
Itrm 12 pro\.ides a simplified rnctl~odfor in,licating t l ~ c(Ii.;tril~utim
and nuu~bersof copies of thc Design Instruction. The lcttcrs refer to I n order t o effect a possible saving i n driver
~lcsignsections or departments as follorva: c o s t s i t h a s been decided t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r
motors above 5 H . P . w i l l i n c l u d e t h e words " o r equal"
G Grnernl B Buildings a f t e r t h e Gyro E l e c t r i c Co. c a t a l o g number.
F Foundations P Piping
S Struet~~ral,
s t d or concrete H Went apparatus For o t h e r acceptable motor manufacturers p l e a s e
V Trseels E Electrical r e f e r t o o u r Approved Vendor L i s t t r a n s m i t t e d i n o u r
M Mrchanienl equipment Proc. Procurrment, l e t t e r No. 55, November 16, 1 9 5 5 . It i s s u g g e s t e d
I 1n.ztrumentation (IF' Contract file t h a t o n l y two ( 2 ) b i d s b e r e q u e s t e d i n a d d i t i o n t o
EF Engineering file p r o p o s a l s from G y r o .
C Customrr
Yours t r u l y ,
I n this vase copies are checked for E, Elcrtrical; Proc.. Prorurement; XYZ C h e m i c a l Co.
EF, Engineering Filc; CF, Contract File; and C, Customer. E. G. M a r t i n , C h i e f E n g i n e e r
Commercial Correspondence
The types of lettprs written to outside firms may he ( n ) correepondcnci.
between an ovner and contr;~ctor; ( b ) l w t w r n purchaser and vcn~lor;
(c) various engineering or procurement instructiuns to subcontrxtors,
vendors, and consulting firms.
Example of a Letter from Contractor to Owner
OWNER-CONTRACTOR CORRESPOKDENCE
AUC Engineering Corp.
Operating firms usually carefully restrict cxtcrnal correspondence to 1223 Eighth St.
executive officers or kcy personncl. Corrcspondcnce between an owner Principia, PIT. J,
and contractor originating witli the owner usually will all be signed
( 1 ) C o n t r a c t 6-25316-2
by an executive or in the name of the cxecutive by the originator (see
example). ( 2 ) L e t t e r No. 85
Contracting firms to the contrary cannot restrict thc I!-riting of corrc- ( 3 ) F i l e s 5 , 7, 15.
spondence since Inany functions must occur eiinultaneo~~rly and any such F e b r u a r y 6, 1956
restriction ~ o u l dbe impractical. Tlic project manager, l~oaever,should ( 4 ) Mr. E . G. M a r t i n , C h i e f E n g i n e e r
see copies of all correspondence as it passes into the general contract file. XYZ C h e m i c a l Co.
All correspondence betnccn thc owner and contractor will ordinarily Dinwiddie, F l a .
be directed to 'the contractor's projcct enginecr regardless of subject. ( 5 ) A t t n . Mr. S. S . S h e a r , P r o j . Eng.
Some examples iollow: ( 6 ) S u b j e c t : L e t t e r 168 a n d D e s i g n I n s t r u c t i o n
E-22. Telephone C o n v e r s a t i o n
Example of o Letter from Owner to Contractor 2/2/1956,
XYZ Chemical Co. Gentlemen:
Dinwiddie, Florida
E. G. Martin, Chief Engiueer L e t t e r Number 168 This w i l l confirm our telephone conversation
F e b r u a r y 2 , 1956 i n w h i c h we a d v i s e d you t h a t y o u r l e t t e r No. 168
ABC E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p . ( F e b r u a r y 2 , 1956) w o u l d n o t a f f e c t t h e o r i g i n a l
1223 8 t h S t . s p e c i f i c a t i o n of o n e m a n u f a c t u r e r , Gyro E l e c t r i c
Principia, N. J. Co., f o r motor d r i v e r s .
A t t n . Mr. A . L . Gerund
Following our u s u a l p r a c t i c e t h e procurement
S u b j e c t : App'n No. &2324. ABC C o n t r . 6-25316-2 d e p a r t m e n t o b t a i n e d t h r e e b i d s f o r motors b a s e d on
D e s . I n s t . E-22.
146 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
preliminary data. This was unnecessary since your
original specifications had indicated only a
single manufacturer. Proposals received were
analyzed, as is our practice for all equipment.
Gyro was found to have an acceptable delivery, and
the prices were lower than other bidders on all
items. The analysis in this case was not
transmitted to you because the low bid was
received from the manufacturer that you had
originally specified.
A letter of intent was issued to the vendor
January 2, 1956 in order to place the equipment on
an early schedule. Our confirming purchase order,
based on final specifications, has now been issued
to the Gyro Electric Company. If our priority is
not changed, delivery can be expected in early
June.
Yours truly,
ABC Engineering Corp.
Office Procedure
Gyro Electric Company
2286 Enoch Ave.
Portland 6, Pa.
Subject: Proposal 3427, October 23, 1942
Gentlemen:
Please accept this communication as a letter of our
intent to purchase equipment essentially as described
in your proposal 3427, provided:
a. Prices quoted are firm.
b. Delivery promise of six (6)months or
better as based on our priority rating will
be maintained.
c . You agree to proceed with engineering,
design and manufacture immediately by
placing this equipment in your schedule.
Please acknowledge receipt of this letter immediately.
Our formal purchase order will be issued together with
complete specifications at an early date.

A. L. Gerund, project Engineer Yours very truly,

ABC ENGINEERING CORPORATION
Correspondence between an owner and contractor is usually numbered N. A. Mayberry, Jr.,
a s shown in item 2. The letter is addressed t o the chief engineer and Purchasing Agent
t o the attuntion of the project engineer, items 4 and 5 . Item 6, the sub-
ject, is described in detail. %h' en tlic contract number is not placed
e l s e ~ ~ h e r it
e , should be included in tlic suhjcct. Example of o Letter to Vendor on Design Dota

AM! Engineeling Corp.

1223 Eighth St.
Letters to vendors concern changes in design and materials, extra fiinc~piu,K. J.
charges, delivery dates, and statcnients of intent. Contract 6-25316-2
Ordinarily vendors are notified of ordcr placement by receipt of a Files 7, 15.
purchase order. Preparation and diatribut,ion of a purchase order is February 16, 1956
time consuming, and when it may delay delivery, a letter of intent, as Robertson Tubing Co.
897 Field St.
in the accompanying example, is written in order to place equipment Portland 6, Pa.
on order beforc the issuance of a formal purchase order.
Subject: Our P.O. 5316-87,
your letter of February 12, 1956
Example of a Letter of Intent Gentlemen:
ABC Engineering Corp,
1223 Eighth St. The stainless steel material substitutions
Principia, N. J.
requested in your letter of February 12 have been
submitted to our engineering department and approval
(1) Contract 6-25316-2 has been granted. Type 309 is acceptable where
(2) Files 7, 15. Type 316 has been specified.
January 2, 1943
Our original specification will be revised and
148 Project Engineering of Process Plants Office Procedure 149
t r a n s m i t t e d ; however, p l e a s e p r o c e e d immediately on gr:u~rs arc trunsuiitted ovcv \Vestcrn Uniuii lincs nnrl tclctype nre-mgc+
the basis of this letter. over telepllone coulpany lines.
Both Western Union (telegram) and tlre local telephone system (tcle-
Yours v e r y t r u l y ,
ABC ENGINEERING CORP. type) will install telcprintrrs or ninrhines over n-hirli nlexlgcs may be
sent or rcceired in any office.
N. A . Mayberry, J r . ,
P u r c h a s i n g Agent TELEGRAMS
Xo chargc is made for installation or u ~ of c the TTestern Vnion tele-
printer, hut a firm must he n-ell knmm or must ha^ sonrr i~:ickgroi~~iil
h transniitt:d letter form is sonicti~ncsu x d for transmittal to outside 1,-liich would inrlicntc its nac. Unless tllcrc is an existing al~urtagcui
firms. machines in the particular area, there is not much difficulty in haring
a t~lcprintrrinstalled.
The keyboard of the machine is almost identirnl v i t h a standard
Example of an External Transmittal Letter typewriter. TIIVoperator sign& thc loi'al i~ffict,,and ~rlicn acknovl-
cilgcd, the message is typed on a continuous (1.11111dlct't. The ~l:l[lcr i5
814 incllcs rvidc, siniil:~r to stant1:trd stntionci.)-. T l i ~ ,nle.2sag<,nl:ty I K
rrlxodurril in ser~,rulcopics. Tllc lilcnl officc wccircs tho mess:lge ani1
Date: C o n t r a c t No. relays it tu :I local officc in tlic rity of dt,stiirntion. If tlic recipient 1 1 : ~
To: L e t t e r No ~
n telcprinter, it is rcprotlnced on l ~ i smnclrine. I f tlre recipient ]la- 1111
File_--_ -- - .-.-- nrachinc, the nrcssagc is usually telephoned and then a copy is muilt~~l.
Gentlemen: \\:lien the rccipient is in a mctropolitan nrca the message may be iidir-
rrcd by incssenger.
We are e n c l o s i n g - . - c o p i e s of p r e l i m i n a r y f i n a l The telegram mrrsagc charge is based on the number of ~vords:mil
r e v i s e d Drawing No. B/M No. type of message. The str:tigllt xirc ~vliieliis ~uostexpcnsivc is trans~nitt<d
immediately regardless of tirnc of day. Other types arc the d:iy I c t t ~ r
F o r approval--
For your u s e and record xviiich is dclircred in sequellee during vorking hours and tlrc night letter
which is transmitted at night and dclirered the follo~vingmorning.
K i n d l y r e t u r n c o p i e s w i t h y o u r a p p r o v a l o r comments
a s s o o n as p o s s i b l e .
Example of o Business Telegram
Yours t r u l y , ABC ENGINEERING CORP. WUX
ABC E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p .
PRINCIPIA, N . J .

Kindly r e t u r n one copy (1) (2)

of t h i s transmittal f o r 2324-832 RELET EIGHT THREE SEND MORE INFORMATION ON
o u r r e c o r d upon r e c e i p t PRICE AND DELIVERY. PREFER ORIGINAL SPECIFICATION
of e n c l o s u r e s . TWO ZERO SIX DASH ONE. LETTER FOLLOWS.
( 3 ) XYZ CHEMICAL MARTIN
Telegrams, Cables, Teletype
The abbrc~iation\YVX a f t r r the company nanre indicates that tlrr
The telegram (domestic), cable (foreign), and teletype are used for
cunil~anylias a teleprinter. Item 1 is a nwnbcring systeni a ~ ~ n e t i n l w
important written communication requiring immediate action. Tele- used for cost accounting purposes. The numbcr 2324 is the aplx'ol~riation
*This letter mas prepared by someone clse but was issued over the purchas~ng nunlbcr as is used by tllc accounting department in charging costs against
agent's signature. tlrc ; ~ l ~ l ~ r o p r i a t i iTlir
~ n . second numbcr, 832, is a c~~nseeutivc
trlegriurr
150 Project Engineering of Process Plants
number and has notliing to do xvith cl~argesbut may I I uscd~ for filing
and reference.
Item 2, "Relet," is a word condensation meaning "reference to letter."
"Retel" is used to refer to a telegr~m,"Rephone" is o ~ n e t i m e sused for
rcferencc to phone messages. Such condensations are conntcd a> m t ,
~ ~ o r dThe
. local telegraph office will supply cost data and acceptablr
abbreviations and condcnsatione. Nunihers after tlic telegram are spelled
out since transmitted nurnbcrs may be changed or mixed in sending and
spelling numbers eliminates the possibility of such error.
Cables are similar to telegrams, but more attention sliould be paid to
phraseology of cables because of the h i g h cost per word. Regardless
uf cost. however, the niesmge of a tclegrani or cable should be clear.
Saving the cost of a vord and sacrificing clarity may mean sending another
wire or cable.
TELE~PE
The t ~ l e t ~ y pteleprinter
e is similar to tlie W c ~ t e r nUnion teleprinter
except the prorednrc is different. The operator signals tlic local teletype
office giving call letters and number of distant party desired. The oper-
ator then must wait until a connection is made with the distant office
hefore a message can be transmitted. Teletype messages can be trans-
mitted only to another ~nacliine. These machines opcrate ~lluclithe same
as telepl~onic communications. No relaying or transfer of messages
occurs. Keys struck on sender's macliine type tlie message on sender's
and recipient's machines simultaneously. T y l ~ e dconversation may be
carried on since transmission is instantane~~ur.
Chargcs for messages are on a time basis similar to long distance toll
calls. A nominal monthly charge is made for teletype macliincs regardless
of service.
Teletype form may be varicd to suit the ~ c n d e r . The number of vords
affects price only as it affects tlie sending time. A message can only be
transmitted after connection is n ~ a d cwith recipient's receiver, thus thc
addrcss or salutation can be simplified. If n firm has several branch
offices the teletype is extremely useful in transmitting identical messages
-1
to all connected receivers sirnultaneously.
Either teletype or telegram systems offer continuous or instantaneous
service by means of leased wires between points. If a leased wire is ob-
tained, the machine instantaneously operates connerted machines. The
cost is high, since this amounts to continuously holding a line. The leased
wire may prove economical, lion-ever, when the number of messages per
day to a given office is very large.
1
Office Procedure 151
LOSGDISTASCETELEPHOSE VERSUS TELETYPE A N D TELEGRAM
The typed com~illinicationprovided 11y tpletypr and telegram is in
many instance- tiiorc satisfactory for l~usinessuse than telephonic com-
munication. S o recurd of a telephone conversation is ohtained unless
recorded by a third party or a machine.
There are times when a long distance call, though more expensive, is
preferable. If a pcrsonal or conreraatimal touch is needed to settle some
problem the teleplionc is superior. Hcaring a person's voice often gives
better insight into the particular situation. Unfortunately some em-
ployees abusc this privilege and carry on rcunions and personal conver-
~ a t i o n sx i t h distant employees before getting to tlie business of the call.
Style of Written Correspondence
Corrcspondcnce functions as a inlxtitute for conversation and should
be as natural as the dignity of tlrc subject permits. Ponipous and liack-
neyed phrases should bc avoided, and letters should be eliort and to the
point.
11ost people compose lcttcrs that arc rclnscd and easily understood
when they dictate sur.11 letters ~ I :aI scretary, or better, to a dictating
macliine. Aftcr an cr~gincerpractice$ the art of dictating, his dictated
icttcr sounds ni~uchless stereotyped and more eon\-ersational tban a letter
he composcs on papcr.
The use of a dictating machine has many ndvantagcs. Tl~ouglltscan
he recorded as they occur ami the secretary need not be interrupted.
The transcription of dictated uiaterial, liowcrer. requires an above average
I
! secretary; one who can spcll, punctuate, and paragraph accurately.
1
Secretcrrial H e l p
A cmipetent secretary is a necessity for the smooth operation of a
project engineer's officc. 4 n intclligcnt pcrsm prcfcrably with some
background in science or related fields as ell as a good knowlcdgc of
English usage is required.
The quality of correspondence is largely governed by her ability to
! transcribe dictated matcrial ~vitlineatness aml accuracy. This must he
done with minimum rlisturhance of other staff mcmbers. h secretary
with initiative will prove inralual~lein catching errors. In addition to
all these qualities tlic sccrctary sl~ouldbc pleasant and neat in appear-
! ance since she ri~ustalso serve as receptionist for the project engineer
and his staff.
i FILING SYSTEMS
h filing systeni for :my typc of lnwinese operation can hecome extrenicly
1 cuuil~erso~nc unlcss it is kept in a consistent and logical manner. Thc
I
152 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure 153
funilm~entalpurpwc in keeping files is to p~.ovi<leu rwo1.11; thc inlpor-
2.0104 P u m p . PI!-iti~cIliq~luccnicnt.
tancc of records varies, of course, ~ ~ i tthe
l r type uf business.
2.0105 Turbines, etc.

General File Thc only information which should hc filed in the General File is that
Any engineering organization should maintain some type of general which may be useful in establishing general policies. .is an illustration
file x-here policy and other general matters applicable to all operations assume that a certain type of pipe or plate mxtrrial specification is heing
may be reconled. The folloxx-ing is a typical filing system used for a discontinued becnusc of n~anufacturer'spolicy I t should be of imme-
proccss plant project general file. The numerical dcsignutions arc used t o diate interest t o all persons concerned that the partirular specification
has hecome obsolctc. A general letter 77-odd be eirculatcd to thc intcr-
indicate filc categories mi :dl c o n i n ~ ~ ~ n i r a t i oson sthat filc clerks nced
not be rcquiscd to decide on the proper file. ested department heads; a copy of this information n.ould he filed in
2.04. T h e actual filing of data in some ,single l m a t i m sue11 as a general
1.00 Ihginecring, l)cpartmental Policies. file enables anyone intcrestrrl in the l~istoryoi tlrc various policies t o
1.01 Process Ihgineering. find wanted information aithont disturbing a particular depart~nent.
1.02 i\Icchanieal Engineering. Hcnce, thc gcnernl file has some features of a library.
1.03 General.
2.00 Design Data. Project File
2.01 ;\lechanical Equipment. Any firm engaged in contracting services should establish some single
2.02 Electrical. t,ype of filing system xs-hich shoilld be used lox all projects. Such systems
2.03 Instrumentation. have the dccided advantage ol being familiar t o all pcreonnel, and the
2.04 Vessels. training of clerical personnel in filing hecoulcs a minor task. If each indi-
2.05 Piping. vidual establishes his oxvn private system of filing, there x~-illresult as
2.06 Structural Steel. many systems as there are individuals, cnch of which xill be completely
2.07 Foundations. foreign t o all other persons cxccpt those directly involved.
2.08 Architectural. The following project filing system is simple and easily learned.
3.00 Specifications.
3.01 l\Ieclranical Equipment. 1.0 Contract.
3.02 Elcetrical. 1.01 Estimate.
3.03 And utllcrs. 1.02 Contract Extras.
2.0 Design Instructions ( M a y he in loose leaf hinders).
Tliesc files can be extendcil as much as desired. Additional sections 2.01, 2.02, 2.03 (Divide the sanle as for general file).
might be, 4.00 Material Listing; 5.00 Construction Operations; 6.00 l'ro- 3.0 Correspondcncc t o and from Custonier ( E x r c l ~ t1.0 and 6.0).
curement; 7.00 Contract Pdicics. The n(lvnntng? of thc clecin~alsyst,eln 4.0 Correspondence t o and from construction Department.
is apparent. As an illustration, 2.04 could bc subdivided: 5.0 Progress and Cornmitnrent Reports.
5.1 Engineering, 5.2 Procurement, 5.3 Conutruction.
2.04 Tcsscls.
6.0 Accounting Correspondence.
2.0401 Forged Chan~bcrs.
7.0 Procurement.
2.0402 Plate Vesscls.
7.1 Shipping, Traffic, I':xpediting, 7.201 (Divide same as General
2.040'3 T l ~ i nP l a k Tanks.
File 2.00).
2.0404 Bins.
8.0 Conference Xotes.
2.0405 Elevated Storage Tanks, Water; etc.
9.0 Daily File (copies of all outg<~ing correspondence filed according
or, 2.01 l\leclranicnl Equipuient, cxtmded:
t o date).
2.0101 Pumps, l<cri))rocilting.
2.0102 Pu~r~lrs, C(t,!ltrif~~gill. The last file, 9.0 is important since it ])rovides a pmitivc means of locat-
2.0103 P u ~ i q ~Rotary.
s, ing a letter when only the approximate date of vriting is linox~n.
 Office Procedure 155
154 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2. H o ~ d l ,A . C..I l n ~ r l h o o k of English in E , t g b w r i n g I!soyr. 2nd Ed.. Johu
IVi1e.v 6- Suns. S c , w 1-ork. 1940.
HUMAN RELATIONS AND PERSONNEL MORALE
3. brrvkes. F.. and R , IT-infrry, K,poi.l PI-epncolion,Iona S t a t e C a l l ~ pPress.~ 2nd
The office functions that 11avr 11ern di~cuascil:rnd most of the technical Ed., .4rnes, Iowa, 1851.
phases of thc project engineer's duties all inrolvc contact v i t h other 4. Kobc. I<. A , . C h c n ~ i c a lEngineering Reporls, 3rd Ed., Hernplrills Rook Store,
.instin. Tpxai. 1950.
people. High personnel morale, and skillful human relations niake the
5. Mills, G., and d . Walter, Technical Il.,.ifing, Rinellart Broa.. S p w York, 1954.
many personal contacts in an ofice pleasant and profitablc. 6. 5Yci1, B. H., The 2'ech,~ical I<ryol-I, Keinhold, S e w T o k , 1954.
Few individuals can ignore the fact that nearly every function in life
is based on relations with others. An cnginccr may be extraordinarily
capable in lris field and yet be completely unsuccessful or limited in his
usefulness because of his inability to work x i t h others. There are doubt-
less as many approaches to the problem of human relations its there are
personalities, and tlierc is no sirnplc solution for all situations since no
t v o persons nor groups of people react in the same pattcrn. It is certain,
hori-eyer, that few people are callous to a ronsistcntly pleasant personality
or to thouglltiulness on the part of another inriiridual.
Organization moralt? is affected by many iactura. I t may be produced
by salary inequities, poor working conditions, incompetent executire per-
sonnel, or a lack of inccntire for advancement. Salary problcnls arc
always difficult ior thc engincer who sometimes ieels that bargaining is
unethical.
Altllough working conditions are often not as important to the engineer
as to other types of personnel, any environment wliiclr is pleasing to the
individual sliould improve his general attitude and thus his production.
The usual complaint of the young engineer is the feeling of being
"buried" in a large organization. The group leader who consistently
takes over all details or iails to distrihutc responsibility is only creating
a bad mmale problem 1vhic11 oftcn results in higll labor turn-over. Many
times the intcrest o i younger personnel can be held by added responsi-
bility. Bottle-necks in engineering organizations can often be traced
directly t o a single individual, who fails to undcratand the advantage
both to himself and the organization, of maximum work dist,ribution.
The engineer's admirable faculty of becoming absurbed in a particular
prohlcm oftcn results in misunderstandings. Thus engineers sometimes
gain the unfortunate reputation of being oblivious to everything but their
work. They become accustomed to rcducing everything to somc factual
or logical basis. Huulan relations, holvevrr, arc seldom factual or logical.
Cnless the engineer makes an effort t o ~ w r dunderstanding the require-
ments of compatibility hc may find liimsclf isolated by his personality
regardless of his technical ability.

REFERENCES
1. Crouch, W. G.,and R. I,. Zrtter, A Guide Lo l'ech,iicnl li7riling, 2nd Ed., Ronald
Press Co., N e w York, 1954.
 CHAPTER 11
CONTRACTS
AND
CONTRACTORS
I n simple terms a contract is a n agrccnicnt bctrreen t ~ or o more
pnrties hy ~ ~ d i i cthey
l i legally tlind tl~eniselvest o do certain things. The
forin of contrnct used varies v i t h different firms and with the type or
r ~ v q ~ofe scrvi(.c rcipired Cnntr:~cts can be made for engineering services
only or for cunq~lctccngineering and construction including the 1111rchasc
and creetim of materials. A contract may he a sirnple instrument i r ~ e l ~
:IS a purcliasc order or it may he a lengthy and extensive doculnent. I n
all cases tlic documents become effective when fornially signed by officers
of each firin.
T h e purpose of a contract is t o protect both parties and to assure tlint
crrtain duties x i l l be performed in a prescribed n a y . It is a corntnon
crror on the part of the l a y n ~ a nt o assume t h a t construction contracts
re prilnarily for tlie orner's protectim a p i n s t tlic cuntractor. Contracts
niny be w i t t e n to favor either party. An agrecrnent of any kind, 1 1 0 ~ -
ever, is binding on all parties to the ttgreemcnt.
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION FIRMS (CONTRACTORS1
The construction indoitry i? :r niost irnport:mt :ind nrcesmry part of
tlir natiunal uconuniy, :ind renders a uniq~reservice to induslry 2s a
\\-hole by maintaining staffs uf higlily developed specialists in every
field of engineering.
' ~ majority
1 ~ of process firms have found it advant:igeous t o cngngc
IS6
the wrx-icv- of :in ~mginec~ring
Contracts and Contractors
:ln,l c ~ n ~ s t r n r t i ofir111
31.e reqnir~(1. An e x p c r i ~ i i ~c ~~ n~tlr n ~ t i norgnni~:~tiong
157
~ i K I I , ~ ne~x-f:irilities
V : I ~ :iln-:i?- (lo n
better and nlore rspcditious jilh of cnpinerririg nnd ~ . ~ ~ n < t r n r t ithan on
engineering an11 cimst~.~ir.tion f < w r c s of t l l v oprvatinc I~olll)~:lny i!llil+ lllllst
usually be ha-tily cxll:~niled for :I nvw lilant pro.iert.
l y 11y Y O I I I I ~~ I I T I ~ I P is t l I~elirf
E r r o n ~ ~ ~ n sIrclcl ~ tl::~t rontrn<Ting firrn.?
re often i ~ n s ~ ~ r r ~ ~1\I:ij,lr~ ~ l o ~r ~r ~n p. i ~ i ~ ~ c r i n g - c o ~ i sfirnis.
t r ~ ~ ~Iiiwerer,
~tiiln
operate much tllc sinic as any 11t11erlarge hosiness orgnnizntion. Con-
tinucil fnililrcs. nixgligrncr, l n d ci~stonicrrel:~tions.or poor pcrfimlli~nce
in gcncr;11 \\-oul,l >l~urtlynrin any rontr:~ctnr'sI~ui.incs~
is his n i ~ ~ iml~ort:mt
st :~sst.t.
since hi* rrl~utntion
310-t r,riticisnis of cmitr:retors a r r directed t o ~ n r dtlieir c r v i c e rh:~rgr.s.
so(.~ilillic~.ci:~l
0rga11i~:itionr : ~ n O I I C ~ R ~ ~I -v i t l i ~ nprofit.
oi rontr:~ctor's fcrs n-it11 rcqlwt to tli~.productii~nv:~hlr of a n erwti,il
I ~ l a l l trrill iilnnlly sl~on-tlr;~t instvacl of l~cingcsorl,it:mt they :lri, in
t (~'c~~i~icl~,r:~tiu~i
~.~,:iiity Inore likrly to 11c ~ i i o ~ i ~ . s:It . large percentagc~of prorFss 111:lllt.-
arc, ,i~,.ignt~ilto pay-out their totnl cost in from three to five years, inrlrl~l-
rig n r ~ r e: : i c e i n t i r i i n t n : ~ n e e . Hon-ever, fen. plants art, curr-
t t ~ n c t ~nliic11
d (lo ]rot c~~iitinlrc to olwrntr with niinor ~nodification- i o ~ .
tv11 to t ~ w n t yyears. It xronl~lw ~ n 111oi.c i cquitnblc to consider tlrc con-
tractor's fee over tlic life of the lllant rather thnn ns a lump sum e:ll~n~d
i r i 18 or 24 months. JVliru S ~ , Y I W I ov1.r t h r n ~ a n yy ~ : i r sof nornial o111,r:i-
rion the f i seenis ~ s ~ n ~inilcrd.
ll
SELECTING THE CONTRACTOR
.i nunihcr of statutt,s :ire in effect in rach state gnverning the method.;
of letting contracts when pul>lic or govcrnmrntal funds arc involved.
These methods arc not nsually f ~ ~ l l o w eind lrrivate industry, but tlie prac-
tice of receiving hiils 11s prul~osnlrin the f o r ~ nof estinmtes for work or
services is follu~vedby l~racticnllyall firms. l ' l i t ~ sclcction of a contractor
~111)uld be based on an analysis of propnsed prices ol~taincdI I issuing ~
inqnirics and on tlic contr:irtor's 1 . ~ ~ 1 ~ u t n tor i~m
o r - I in certain
types i ~ f~ r o r k .
Tlrc preparation of rlntn to he w e d in ol~t:~iningp r , ~ l r o ~ a from
ls con-
tractors is usu:~llyn rostly i~ndcrtakingfor the owncr since the i n f ~ ~ r n l a t i o n
n-ill beco~uethe h r i s f ( ~thc r ~.ontmctor'sproposnl, an11 tlicreforc must he
:I.? complete as possillle t o avoid misunderstandings. T h e best ~ a t oy
:rssure colnpletcness is for expcriencril design engineers to prepare thc
ilata. Enough i n f ~ ~ r n i a t i oniust
n he g i r m the contractor ti1 design the
type of plant desired in tile nlanner preferred hy the osvner.
l l n n y process f i r ~ n sh a r e extensive nieclianical and process specifica-
tiinis ~\-liicI~ liavr heen compiled to provide a, ccrtain uniformity in pur-
cliwing :ind cngineering dcsign of eolnnionly used equipruent. In i u c l ~
158 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
cases copies of tlicsc s110uld be given t o the contractor prcparing a proposal
so that they may be incorporated into his preliminary design and estimate.
I n addition romplete descriptions of tlie o~vner'sand cimtractor's dutir.~.
the proposed plant site, transportation facilities. utilities, al-ailahle ratv
~natcri:rli, and processes t o he used should bc provided
The extent of process information required will m r y ~ i t the h project.
In some cases the contractor will act as a licensor and provide n cornl~lete
process design. Often. lio~verer,the process firm has developed its own
process. I n that, casc the process firm ~ i i u s teither supply tlie runtractor
nit11 a coniplete process dcsign or furnish enough process data so t h r
rantractor can make a preliminary design.
Contractors must prepare a preliminary design in ordcr to make an
estinlatc of the r o d for use in their proposals. Tliis proposal should
contain the following information:
a. General description of tlic project.
b. Scope of the contractor's ~ i ~ r k .
c. T)cscription of each portion uf the plant with nccompunying f l o r
iliagranls and plot plans.
d . Estimated utilities.
e . Auxiliary equipment t o be constructed (warehouses, shops, etc.).
f. List and brief description of major equipment (punips, vessels, heat
exchangers).
g. Ilechanical specifications to bc follo~ved.
h. Statement of product quality and production rate.
i. Propseii cost and fees.
Tlicse are some of thc major items. All information necessary to
describe tlic proposed design and thc contractor's intcnt sliould he in-
cluded. Clear, uncomplicated illustrations, charts, and schrmatic flow
diagrams arc invaluable. Executives who must examine proposals are
busy and greatly appreciate such aids t o rapid comprehension.
Contrerts shuuld never be awarded on the basis of prire alone. Price
proi~osalsfrnrn the larger process plant constructors are usually ~vitliin
n few pcrcmtagc points of each other for a given installation. The owner
sliould use extreme care in accepting a luw proposal from a n unknown
firm. Although the contractor may be sincerc in his offer, inexperience
can cause errors which later may result in an untenable situation.
In~rpericncedowners so~netinicsmake the error of assuming that any
contractor is qualified t o construct any plant, if he has had construction
erpricnce. Contractors are also sometimes guilty of the same t,liinking.
Before selecting an unkno~vn contractor, tlic owner should he certain
of the contractor's ability. Hc should obtain from the contractor names
and qunlificati(~nsof personnel who will be assigned t o the contract, and
Contracts and Contractors 159
investigate by visual inspection similar installations built hy the con-
tractor. I)iseussi(~nsn-ith otlipr owners are also advantageous. For the
major projrtt the owner should make every effort to deternine tlie con-
trartor':: lin~itations.his financial hackground, the condition of his equip-
ment, and his general busincss and labor relations. Financial status
sliould also be ci~nsideredin the selection of c o n t r a h r s for major projects
since the contractor m w t usually make fixtensive expenditures before
reimbursement is forthcoming.
Althongli contracts niay be relatively simple or extrc~nelylengthy,
it is doul~tfulif the length or rcstrictivc terms of a contract h a r c much
cffect on the general type of work a contractor p e r f o r m The hest insur-
ance for the oxner is tlie intcnt and integrity of the contractor, a s proven
hy past performance. It can probably be shonn that most of the prob-
lems bct~veenoTvners and contractors are the result of ineptitude on the
part 11f either tlic owner's personnel or tlie contractor's pcrsonnel which
lead to unresolved misunderstandings and finally become iilajor issues.
Thc contracting organization, just as any other group, is sullject to the
couuiiun frailties and human errors. Reliable firnis, liowever, will alri-ays
make every effort ~vithinrcasun t o satisfy their cnstmicrs since their
rej~utationis a t stake. Furthermore, unless tlic contractor is completely
incapable, basic design and construction will always be within the limits
of tlie various national codcs of practice.
1 THE A S O F A CONTRACT
Contracts may be entercd into for the development, cnginccring. pro-
i curcmcnt. and construction of a process plant or for only one of these
pllases. Contracts n~;lyhe h e h e e n an owner and a contractor or bctrvecn
a primc contractor acting as an agcnt for an ulvner and many subcon-
tractors. The bases for contractual agreements are practically uliliniitcd.
The following dcscriptiuns of various services arc those gencrally used
for process plant design and erection. All are assunied t o be betu-ccn
an operator or owner and contracting firm or contractor.
1. Contractor as a consultant; contractor performs consulting or super-
visory services only with cnginccring prncurement and construction 11y
others.
2. Owner t o perform all engineering and procurcment, rontractor to
p e r f o m erection serviccs only; this may bc varicil to 11xvc erection per-
foruled 11y several contractors.
3. Owner to pcrform it11 pri~ressdesign furnishing data t o contractor;
contrnctur t o perform all detailed engineering, procurement, and ereotion.
4. Contractor to perform primary researrh and devclopmcnt, engincer-
ing, ~~rocuremcnt, erevtion, and initial operation: this is s(~nietiniescalled
it "tom-key" contract.
160 Project Engineering of Process Plants
TYPES OF REIMBURSEMENT (Contract Classification)
Tlrc rlassification of contract2 in accordance ~vitllthe mode of reim-
I~ursementis tlrc most familiar method and tlic most important from a
legal and business point of rien.. Cmtracts are. in fact, uiunlly named
according to the reimburmnent policy. A hrief description of tlie rriilre
important of these contract forms is given below Reference to Fonle
detailcd works in this field2,3,"" will prove valuablc to those reqni~ing
more informatiun, but thc nced for legal advice on all such n~atter::s l i ~ ~ n l ~ l
bc obvious.
Cost-Plus Conlract
Tlie term cost-plus simply m e m s that tile contractor is to he reimbursed
for all costs al~l~licable t o the contract plus a perccntagc of thcsc costs
for his overhead and profit. Usually the pcrcentagc varies m-ith each
type of contract and service. Tlrc reimbursed costs for cnginccring
services may bc 21s nnlch as 215-2207~,or more, of the cost of engincering
lahor. Other costs suclr as travel, communications, reproductions, clerical
labor, arc gcncrally in the order of 105 t o 1151: of thc actual cost. The
higher percentage on engineering labor is based on the sale of contractor's
knom-11or~-and thc cost of thc contractor's kcy pcrsonncl.
Construction cmts include skilled and common labor m g e s at 110 to
125C/o, construction supervision charges on a siinilar basis as for cngineer-
ing, and heavy construction tool charges hazed on fixed rental rntcs for
m:%ohinc.~. Actual cost plus a small llercentage is usually charged for
s n ~ a l ltools and otlrer expendnhle equipment.
If the contractor prucrrw all plant inatcrials and cquip~nent Ire
charges a t a pcrcentagc bctwcen I05 and 115% of tllc actual purc1l:i~c
pi-ice to cowr purchasing costs. If the onmcr pays for a11 l~crsonnclcosts
in procarcmcnt, the percentage based on tllc cost of materials or cquil~.
nlent may he much lower.
The usual criticism of the cost-plus contract is that sincc the con-
trectur's l~rofitsincrpase directly ~ i t l rhis costs, tllc 071-ncr I I W no r m t ~ o l
over the costs and thc contractor accordingly incrcascs his rusts ns 11111rir
as possible. This idea is erroneous. Under tllc cost-plus contract tlrc
owner's auditors and engineers have continuous access to all the ron-
tractor's rccords. I n addition t l ~ cm n c r cstwisri :~nthorityover all tlw
curlll.:lr~t~w's pcr~onnrl:~nd111r i~ctivitivbr ~ l a t dto Lht. runtr:%ct. 111 i:~(,t
the cuntractor acts alrriost as a division of tire customer's cu~npany.
For these reasons nnlcss the oxner's personnel arc cumpletcly incxl~cri-
enced thcrc is littlc possibility f t ~ rextmordinary curt euccires. The on-rrcr
usually also retains full control of nll coniuiitn~mtsor dishursemmts, t l ~ u s
the owner nctually is nlure responsible for coats llian tlrc contr:rctor. If
Contracts and Contractors 161
tllc owner is cxprrit~ncertin cngincering and constrnrtion operations, there
is littlc possibility f i ~ rcxccssire costs because of the cost-plus feature.
11tiny of thc: larger proccss firms prefer the cost-plus contract t o other
t,ypes since it gives them m u r l ~more freedom and control over the con-
tractor. T l m c is c o n d e r a b l e advantage t o thc owner in tlic cost-plus
rontract d l r n proccss drzign is incolnplctc or many rhanpes art. to hr
nr:irlc, in the origina! design. I n reality, tlle cost-plus contract, if prup-
crly cxecutcd and if placed with a reliable contractor, can he as effective
:ind 3s econon~icalas the lump-sum, or guamntecd maximum (ir other
ty11c- of fiscd price contracts.
Experienced c ~ ~ n t r a r t o rho~vcvcr,
z, generally prefer a fixed-pricc :ur:ln:e-
mcnt, sincc this form of contract, after rpccifications arc accepted. permits
tlic contractor more irccdom. I n the case of a cost-plus operation a nrrlcll
stricter accounting of costs is necessary and thc contractor's pcrsonnt.1
arc in some respects only in the employ of thc owner. Thc cost-plus
contr:ict, ho~icvcr,is gcncrally the only satisfactory mcthod of operation
v.Ircn the work cannot be specifically anticipated or l i ~ a n yconstructim
px111len1s exist which are difficult or inipoesihle to estimate at, the start
of thc job.
Cost-plus with Fixed-Fee Contracts
Thc cost-plus contract with a fixed fee is similar t o the regular cost-
plus form except that the contractor can only earn a spccificd fee. All
othcr payments arc reimbursement for direct costs only. There arc many
possible variations of the two cost-plus type contracts.
Lump-Sum or Fixed-Price Contracts
The lump-sum contract allows nothing over or under a fixed singlc sum.
Thc contractor agrces t o perform certain services which are sperifitxl in
detail by the owner in an inquiry or by blre contractor in a proposal. I f
any changes arc made by tlie owner after the contract is in effect, an
adjustnient may or may not be made, depending upon contract tcrms.
If costs are increasd, however, the contractor usually can demand an
extra payment. Such contracts often cause bad relations between tlic
partics because of conflicting interpretations of original specifications
or drawings.
Tlie fixed-price contract for the process plant requires the preparation
uf a detailed estimate. Prelinrinary data uiay be furnished hy the owner
or contractor. Owners sonletimcs rcqnest contractors t o accu~~iulate
their own data for the proposal, or t o employ other firms t o prepare data
for inquiry purposes.
Thc contractor's proposal or the owner's inquiry for the lump-sum or
162 Project Engineering of Process Plants
fixed-price job must be in much greater det:d than for other typcs of
contracts ~vllichhave ~ ~ r u v i s i o nfor
s contingencies.
I.ikc other f o r ~ n i the
, lump-sum contract is suhjert to criticimr. S i n w
the contractor is limited to a fixed price, all p s c i h l e savings increase
his profit. Thus the contractor m a y be acc~isrdof cfferting savings a t
the expense of quality. Generally, lio\i-ever, sperifications for the various
parts of the process plant are very complete, and there is little possibility
for extensive change from t h e original proposal.
Guaranteed Maximum Contracts
T h e guaranteed maximurn cost cr~ntractis similar t o the lump-sum
contract exccpt t h a t the guaranteed price m a y apply to inaterial (and
cquiprnent) only, or iahor only. Escalation on either material o r labor
m a y he permitted or the contract m a y he ~ v r i t t e nt o exclude all escalation."
Guaranteed maximum contracts are oftcn x r i t t e n to alloff t h e con-
tractor a bonus d e p ~ n d i n gon the amount of cl~nryerunder thc niaxi~nnm.
T h e owner participates t o a considerable extent mith t h e guaranteed-
maxinium c m t r a c t since hc must hc continuously alvare I I all ~ costs.
T h e contract types t h a t h a v c been discussed represrnt t h e most c m m o n
types used for process plant projects. M a n y others which incorporate
features from several of the common types a r e used.
THE CONTRACT FORM
T h c most conventional type of contract consists of two parts. T h c
first part is called the agreement. I t includes a n outline of the general
scopc of work. usually by references to a proposal or specifications and
dranings, the contract price or terms of paymcnt, and the rieccssary
formal signatures \vitncs& and notarized. T h e signatures m a y some-
times be on the last page of t h e document,. T h e second part consists of
general conditions. Such items as completion date, cancellatinn, sub-
contracts, insurance, and m a n y other terms are discussed. A third part
m a y also he added t o include exhibits, certifications, and special deacrip-
tions of rfrtain items included in t h e second part.
Rather than attempt a detailcd discussion of contract fcatures, more
can be learned b y actually studying typical contracts. T w o contracts
typical of thosc used for cost-plus process plant projects are given belom.
Contrary to popular belief, engineering contracts'are not difficult t o
understand. They must necessarily be wordy so t h a t no misunderstand-
ing is possible. M a n y years of legal experience and court decisions have
*Escalation is a clause in a contract that pernlits s change in unit price for
material, equipmmt, ot. labor after a specified fixed period of time. .I cuntrart signed
in January, for instame, may allow incrcnses in costs niter that datc up to a c e h i n
percentage of the original quoted price.
Contracts and Contractors 163
produced ccrtain standard pllrases ~ h i c h]la\-e p.oved immune to inisin-
terprctation and, Iicncc, are strong protection to both parties.
Typical Cost-Plus Contract for Engineering Services Only
This Bgreement entered into this day of
by and bctrvcen XYZ Company, licensed to operate in , her+
inafter designated COSTR.ACTOR and PIX) Chemical Corporation, a Drl:~~r-are
Corporation, with its principal ofices in Chicago, Illinois, herrinafter designated
CUSTOMER.
WITXESSETH: That it is agreed by and between the parties hereto as
follows:
Article 1 . Scope of Work
The CONTRACTOR shall perfor111 all the nccessary engineeri~igand drsign
as requirrd in the preparation of dl clrawinza: the listing of all niateri;ila:, the
~ ~
~~
preparation of all specifications; i i ~accordance with the COKTR.iCTOR'G
proposal, nttachcd hrreto as Exhibit I.
Article !. Timp of ( ' o ~ ~ ~ p l e t i u n
The COSTR.4CTOR agrees t,o proreed ~r-it11thc ~ o r kimmediately and T O
diligently esecute and pr,rform the vork witli the utmost disp;rtcli. Unless prr-
vimted b!- circrirnstancrs hcyond his control as described hrlow, .Article 13b of
1':irt 11, Gcneml Conditions, tlic CONTR.4CTOR proposes to complete tlic ~vork
wthin t~vclve(12) months after start.
Article 9. CONTRACTOR'S Compensation
The CUSTOMER will reimburse the CONTRACTOR for all dirrct costs as
shown below under Direct Costs, Articles 1, 2, 3, and 4, of Part 11, General
Conditions.
11. GENERAL CONDITIONS
Article 1. Direct Costs, Labor, and Laboratory Services
a. Salaries and xvagcs of ail personnel engaged in the ~vork,inclnding, b11t not
limited to, engineers, designers, checkers, draftsmen, tracers, m:~teriol listers.
vari-type operators, requisition typists, reproduction machine operators, strnog-
raphers and otlms of thc COXTRACTOR'S personnel ~vhoengage in xork on
this specific contract.
6. Sdnrics and wages of CONTRACTOR'S Laboratory Trclrnicians and direct
costs, as spproved by CUSTOAMEIl for use of CONTRACTOR'S laboratory
equipment and/or laboratory services.
Article 2 . Direct Costs. .Ifaterials
a. Materials used in reproduction operations.
b. Rental costs for spr,cial equipment.
Article 9. Direct Costs, Miscdlnneous
a. Comrnuniration costs including trlelrhrnir, teletplx, teh-grnph, rnhle, postage.
b. Traveling and living espemr.5 of COXTRACTOR'S pmsoimrl diem travel
is requested and authorized by CUSTOMER.
164 Project Engineering of Process Plants
c. Ilixella~ieous insur:mce cust. incurred by COSTRACTOR d e l y nr :fi
rrsrdt CIS this contract.
d. Conrultin: service costs, \\-hen authorized b>- CCSTOhlER.; as costs for
labor, nlnterinl or equipnlnit rental.
Articlr, 4. Direct Costs. Pius Percentage
The co.qts hilled thc CUSTOMER bv COXTRACTOR for salnrics and n:iac-
shall be inere:~sedlry fixed percentagrs aceonling to the schedule of ri~ct-I I I I , ~ ~ , ~
Ikhibit IT, rscept for overtime hours as discussed under .irticlc 10e. h r t 11.
.ill other cost- slin11 br increasrd by a pcrccntage according to the Schedule US
Coats nnder Eshibit 111.
Article 7 . CO.\-TRACTOR'S Billing Proccrlrue
a. .ill invo~eessubniitted to the CUSTOMER by the COSTR.kCTOI1 shall
be d a t : ~ n t i : ~ t e dby reference to rprrific pa>-rolls for labor costs; and by refer-
ence to rrnilor in\-oiees for m:rteri:ils.
b. D~lplic:~tcs of insurance certificates shall be submitted for C O S T R A W O R ' S
r c i ~ ~ ~ b u r s c mofr n tinrliranee premiums.
c. Expense nccounts for ernployecs shall be suhctnntiatrd by hotel statementi,
nwiprs, travel ticket stobs, or other tmnsport:~tion recripti as proof of csprnir.
d . On or before the 5th day of each month, COSTR-iCTOR nil1 fl~nii.sh
CL7SSOhlF.R nn estimate (in q ~ ~ a d r n p l i r a t rof) totnl c r p e n m on hlmr nnrl
nl:itrri:il (liitrd scpnrtltely) for the nrxt t ~ follnrring o months. One of thesc
n~rinthsshall be for the month in which the estimate is tendered. The estim:itr
shall inclr~demanhours in the categorips, engineering, drafting, and clcricd ~ i t h
estimated totnl dollar cost itemized with manhours.
e. On or before the 5th day of each month, CONTRACTOR ihnll in\-oiw
CUSTOLIER for costs incurred in the previous month. Inroiecs sh:~ll Lir ,3111)-
mittetl in qundruplicate :lnd separately for each category of cost: lal~or,n~:~tcri:~l,
co~iununirations,t r a w l mpmsc, and insurance. .ill such costs s l d l bc computed
:icwrdiug to the Schrdule of Costs undcr Exhibits I1 and 111.
A~ficle6. CUSTOMER Paywzents
a. When found t o br: in accordance with the terms of this agreement CES-
by the COSTRBCTOR.
~ ~
-~
TOMER shnll reimburse the CONTRBCTOR for a11 billed costs, un or beforu
the 5th dav uf the month follomine the month in r7-hich invoices lire submittiid
~
~~. .
b. The CUSTOMER. if he elects to do so. mav withhold from . nxvnients
"
COSTR.~CTOR 5% oi billed lnbor costa u p t o completion of contr:ictetl iiorl;
to
:in11full neccptnncc by CUSTOMER of CONTR.ACTOR'S ~ o r k . If the CCTS-
TOMER elccts to pay CONTR-4CTOR in full 3;. inroicrtl, within the i n t c r ~ n l
for payment specified above, CUSTOMER shall he allowed a reduction iu hillell
lnbor costs of onr-half (%) of one per cent (1%) on labor charges. All monirs
rritlrheld h r the CCSTOMER shall be due and ~ a v a b l ethirtv 1301 d a r s aftcr
recell~t of -final regular bllhng from C O N T R ~ ~ C T Oand
by CUSTOMER.
R ac"ceptnnce narkof
Article '7 L'O'V7'RACI'OR'S Labor and Cust Accoanli~igI'roced~ire
CONTRACTOH h l l i ~ ~ a ~ ~ ldiiily t : i i ~records
~ of time rxpendrd by COX-
'I'KACTOK'S huwly rated pcrsonnel and weekly records of time expended by
monthly salaried personnel. CONTRACTOR shall maintain sepnratrly records uf
:dl rwts ap111iwblr to t l i ~cvntr:~ct including ~xryrolla,n1ntrri;il invoicri, eslrw-~.
nccuiinte, cunmli~nicatiunrecords, :lud any other records n.hich iir:ry bc ruqiiirtrl
Contracts and Contractors I65
for snhstantiation of costs. All such recorrls shnll be kept in acronlanrc ~vitli
~ n r t l ~ o :~ccq>t:~ble
il~ to CUSTOMER'S auditors, and he nmrle avniln1,lr to tllr
CI,.STO1\IEK for noditin: us required. COSTRACTOR sh:~llnot hr rcimbursrd
for eusts i n c u r r ~ din the 1ircp:~rationor ~uaintcnanceof such revorili.
Artirle 3. CO,\-TRACTOR'S Estimatps
Estimntvs prclxlred by C O S T K C T O R for CUSTOMER nrr r~ndrrqoodto
hr COSTlt.iCTO1t'S beat analysis of iwrk ro bc clone or completc~iduring t h ~ i
nest trr-o 12) cunrtwtire monrhs as based on his nornul xhedul,. of the work.
The COSTR.iCTOK does not rcprcscnt that such e;timatcs are to be con.:iderrd
exact n-ith respect to amounts billrd to the CUSTOMER.
Article 0. C'O.\'TRACl'OI1'S Persoimel
a. The COSTR.iCTOR -1inll nislgn a project engineer or project n~gincer-
to the nark :~ceepti~ble to and as :igrt:eri upon n-ith thr C'CSTOAIKR. Pcr-ounrl
so :wi:ned sl1:1Il not be rmmwed from the work nor ;rs;i:nrd utlicr ihitie- by till
COXTRACTOR ir-ithmit :ipprovnl from the CUSTOMER.
b. The COSTR.4CTOR chall provide the CUSTOlIEK rvith :Llist of a11 key
]lrr-<mnrl to h,iiseil on CUSTOMER'S ~vurk, The list sl~allincluila the qruli-
iic:~tionsrif c:lch pwmn nan~ed.
c. The CIS'SO1lEIL nlay a t any titnc llpnn writtrn rrqwst to thr COX-
TH\(:TOR nwlmi. an!. : : I COSTILiCTOR'S r r e from CITY-
TOhIER'S ivorh.
d. The CI'STOMER re-rrrcs the right to control COSTKA(IT0R'S :wign-
ment of personnri, below thc lcvrl of key ilwign personnel nit11 r e q r e t to the
of permns used in CUSTOMER'S w r k a t any time. The COXTR.AC-
111111ibrr
TOR chdl redrice his per~omielas requcstcd within one 11-orking <la)-nltrr rcccipt
of notice f n m CTSTOMElt for pcrsonnel employed in CON'I'R.iCTOIL'S hrmc
I . Salnrirs or wages rrf CONTR.4CTOlt'S prrsonncl on asi:n~nent for
CL-SWMEIt awry from COSTR.~CTOIt'S lio~nr oflice .ilinll be to CUS-
l'O\lt:R'S :~rccnlntu p to time of return to COSTIt.iCTOR'S ho~nculliec
Article 10. 7'i.oz.d Explmses, Ilolida~s, Vucation I'eriods, COS1'12ACT011'S
1'ei swt,iel
Thc CCBTOM3f. n-ill reinibi~rrcthe COSTR.iCTOK for out-of-puckrt es-
pcnx: of prrsonnel living away fnun homr, trn~eling,or nthe~n-ise~ni~lrrgnin:
espewe st the requwt of the CIISTOMEK, u p to thr :lnlorint; ileccriliid in
Scht,dule of (losk, Eshibit 111. The travel timr for suclr COXTRACTOR'S
percunncl shall be fro111 tinic of departure from COXTRACTOR'S home <dice
cil)- l o linw of r r l u r ~ lto point of ilcpnrliire.
Articlr 11. Iloiirlays. T'acutio,~ I'eriuds-C'O.\~TRAC1'011'S 1'er.sonuel
a. The COSTHICTOH n-ill :il~iUhall enst; ill c o n n ~ d o nxith paid holid:~>-s,
rlr \:w:ition p e r i d s nonn:~llyn l l a i d CO?;TK.\CTOR'S per-onncl rmployeil r n
CISSO\IKIt'S work nhrn such periods frill rrithin the dnratirin of tbis contract.
b. The CUSTOME:R may reqwat of the COXTR.iCTOK that ccrtain per.
so111d be wurked o w r neek-ends or on hulida:-s. When n ~ n t ~ ~ sngreed lly with
tlic COYTK.iCTO11 the CUSTOMER shall rcimbursr the COXTRACTOR for
such costs according to the personnel polieirs of the COYTRACTOR, and such
pxynlrnts shall be handled according to overtime or premiuni paymentc.
c . The CUSTOMER may request the COSTR.ICTOR to postpone vacation
pr4o<lsfor rrrtain 1,ersontirl: lio\revrr, the CUSTOMER will not br rc?pon?ible
for vnc:~tion pel.ioil 11:1y111lnuto COX'I'lLACTUll'S personnel in the evelit all
166 Project Engineering of Process Plants
rmplo!-rc's vacation is postponed, unless and escept mutual agrrrmmt is reached
for s ~ m i f i cimplo?-rrs between COXTRACTOR and CUSTOXIER.
Article 12. Empimyrnent of A'l'pir Personnel. Severance, and Twmination Pay-
ments, COKTRACTOR'S Personnel
a. -411 COSTR.iCTOR'S prrsonnel shall be consirlrrrd to be in the employ
of the COSTRSCTOR and the CUSTOMER accepts no wspunsibility for pay-
~ n e n t ito iuch prrsmind :~ccorrlingto COSTRSCTOK'S policies if terminated
by the COSTR-iCTOR.
b. Khere COSTRACTOR rmplo5-i personnel according to COSTRACTOR'S
estimate of rrqnirrd u~ork,CUSTOUKR a?sumes no rcapr~nsibilityfor duration
of such work nor in any TT-ayacrepts an). obligation to COSTR.iCTOR or prr-
sonnel 3s 10 length of n.ork or m~ploymrnt.
c. COSTR.ICTOR hall have complete freedom as to employment of persr~nnel
according to his past policirs, excrpt CUSTOMER d l not aceept incwnses in
~ w s o n n d131m1. r:itrs orer average rates shown for various cat~eoriw
" of ner-
&m.l in schrdulr of costs, Exhihi 11.
d. Chanpes in ratrs of COSTKACTOR'S kev nrrsonnel. if mut~rallvanreed
rlpon bet& CIETOMER and COKTRACTOR, may be acrepted by CCS-
TOlIER; l ~ o i r v r ~ tlii
~ , CUSTOMER r i w r w s the right to rcjcct any and ;a11
re-classification.., rate ch:mges, or any changes in rate structure, which would
tend to increase custs.
Article 13. Completion of 1rol.k. O r c h m e
a. COKTRACTOR shall make every effort to complete work as early as pos-
sihlc. CTXTOMER shall not hold COXTRACTOR responsihlr for work hold-up
clue to lack of data to be supplied by or through efforts of CUSTOMER. CON-
TR-iCTOR accepts all responsibility for nccnmulation of data or the rspeditiug
of data from manufncturers for eqnipn~mtlisted in proposal under Exhibit I,
as ile~-elope~l and/or designed b?- COYTRACTOR.
b. In the event actions beyolid the COSTlLICTOR'S control, strikes, firm, or
an?- other occilrrmcea not thr result of COXTRACTOR'S actions 81ffert CON-
TRhCTOR'S work to surioudy delay completion of the work, thit. ;xgrrcment
may be r:mrrlled I1y mut1~11 cmsent of both parties.
c . CONTK.iCTOK may ~ w r kcertain personnel overtime hours if it is mutn-
ally agrerd iipon by both parties that such rvork is necessJry. COXTRACTOR
r i l l nnt lw rt%nhurird for excess manhours nor overtime pay to personnel whew
prior conseht is not obtained from CUSTOMER; ho\vrvrr, COSTRACTOR
may, if he so desiri.d, n-ork personnel overtime hours up to n rnnximmn of 10%
of normal vorking hours, with such excess hours and preluinm costs charged
to his own account.
d. COYTRACTOR agrees to work prrsonnrl ovrrtirne hours as requested by
CUSTOMER ,lp to :r ~nasimumof 20% in exmrs of normal hours per week prr
employee. Thc COKTRACTOR shall be rcimburied by CUSTOMER for all
rrs~iltingrosts far overtime work.
e . Plus-pe;rcentages s h o ~ min Schedule of Costs, Exhibit 11, for salaries and
rrages ~11nllnot be npplic,l to premium payments to CONTRACTOR'S personnel
for overtime hours.
Arlirle 14. Cancellation of Contract
a. ('USTOMER may canr1.1 this agreement a t any time upon giving the CON-
TRACTOR written norir~!t m (10) working h y s in ndvimce of such :iction.
b. In the evrnt of cancellation, the CUSTO.\IER will allow thr CON-
TRACTOR a reasunable period of time to prepare records or any of the data
Contracts and Contractors 167
involved for transfer to CGSTOXIER. T l ~ cperiod of time requirrd for turning
l X P T m r l ~r c ~ o r & I I ~data shall in no c:w escrrd thirt!. i30l h\-iirnln dnte
such as may be espccted for n~atcrialsor labor in connrcrion iiith the tninsier
of data to CUSTOMER.
e. Plus-percentages shorrn in Schedulr of Costs, Eshibit 11, for s11:iries and
wages shall not be applied to labor costs for manhours espmdeil :xftcr COX-
TRACTOR givrs or receives notice of cancellation.
f . COXTRBCTOR may cancel contra(.t by ( 1 ) giving CUSTORIER initten
notirr of such action thirty (30) days in advance and ( 2 ) iu the t:\,.n1 only of
failurr on the Elart of CUSTOMER to f~dfillhis part of this agreement. Such
failme may be considered to be in effect if the CUSTOMER refum to r e i m h ~ r i e
thr CONTRACTOR promptly, or fails to n h h m r s e the COXTR.iCTOR aitcr
receipt uf COXTRACTOR'S invuices wilhiu tlii ugrci.,l perincl of tinli,.
g. Tn the event of rancellation by t h i COSTRACTOR, d l fonni s h l l apply
as written imd(,r this Brticle I1 as applicable for cancrllntinn b y thi! CVSTOlIER,
escept that t 1 1 ~im~cellationnotice shall he given to thr, CCSTOlIER by the
COY-TR-\CTOK thirty (30) <la?-sin advance of such nitinn
Article 16. COIfTRACTOR'S Drawings. Calc~rlatio~~ Shrcts, Dnta
a. All drawings, sketches, tracings, rrpmductions of any Orawing or tracing
used in the work urr the propert.y of the CUSTOhlER nu11 i11:ill be turned orer
to the CUSTOMKR a t any time upon receipt of mitten demand by the CUS-
TOMER.
b . .411 calculatione, copies of calculations, rough drafts, or other data ~ w r din
the iwrk prepared by the CUSTOMER for use of the COSTR-\CTOK or pre-
pared by the CONTRACTOR are the prolirrty of the CUSTOXIElt : ~ n dsliall
be turned o w r to the CUSTOMER a t any time upon receipt of n r i t t m demand
by the CUSTOMER.
c. All material list?, hills of material, or othrr rr4:itive data are the proprrty
of the CUSTOMER and bh;ill br tunled over to the CCSTOLIER upon rwi,i~>t
of written dcmanrl by the CUSTOMER.
d. Crmcellation of the contract by the CUSTOMER or thr COSTILICTOR
shall constitute a request for the return of all data covrwd in the :ibove parn-
grapla a, b, and c of this Article 15, of Part 11, of this agrerment and the CON-
TRACTOR shall proceed irnn~eiliatdyactwrdingly f.xrrjrt as follo\vs under e.
e. In the event the CUSTOMER fails to reimburse the COSTR:\(:TOR
\~-ithinsixty (GO) da>-s zfter prrsmtation and receipt of CONTKCTOK'S in-
voices COSTRACTOR may withhold all data, drawings, and othw pertinent
parts of the work drscribed in this Article 15 up to such timi, as CCSTOlIER
meets his obligations or some mutnal agreement is reached by br~thparties.
Article 16. Insurance
The CONTRACTOR shall provide insurance coverage in acconlmce with
instructions from the CUSTOMER: (a) for all records or data, or an?- of the
CUSTOMER'S property located on the CONTR.4CTOR'S premises or in his
possession; ( b ) for any automobile used in CLTSTO\IEIt'S n-ork; i c ) f i r any
employee of the CONTRACTOR traveling a t the request of the CUSTOhIER.
168 Project Engineering of Process t'lontr
The CYSTOAIER sgrccs tu reimburse the COSTHACTOK for all such insurance
premiums.
Article 1 7 . Patents. Royalties
a. The COSTRACTOR agrr- to save the CUSTOMER harmless from all or
nn!- costs ariein~from patrnt infringements in any desipn ntilized by tllc COY-
TRICTOR except for proerss design initiated b?- the CUSTOMER or (leii~n
in aceordance vith CVSTOhtER'S explicit, instrnctions.
b . The. COSTRACTOR will irnmcdiately bring to the CUSTOMER'S a t t i w
tion drsigns req~~ested by CrSTOMER xhirh in COKTR-4CTOR'S opinirm
wor~ld constitute infringement.
c. The CUSTOMER ~villnegotiate for and be responsible for the payment of
all royalties, fec?, nssewments, or other costs arising out of use of licensed proc-
esses or ~nrthodsor materials the use of which require lirensing.
Article 18. CONTRACTOR'S Qualification, Engineering Design
a. Thr COYTRACTOR represents that he is a qualified designer of the equip-
melrt and processes for which he accepts responsibility in Exhibit I, Proposal.
h. Thr CONTR4CTOR accepts full responeibility for all basic mcclianic:il,
strnrtuml, end elrctrical design rnrthods used in engineering vork performed
bv him.
c. The COXTRACTOR accepts full reqmnsibility for process designs inclndcd
in Exhibit I.
Article ID. Guarantee. CONTRACTOR'S Liability
a . Thc CONTRACTOR guarantees all equipment basically designed by him
against failure from fault.? design for a period not to exceed one (1) year from
datr of first use in operation, rvhen such equipment is erected and usnl in the
service for which it was designed and intended mechanically or proccss-rr-i:e. In
the event equipment is not put into operation the CONTRACTOR'S time goar-
antee is limited to eighteen (18) months from date of completion of work or
from receipt of equipment a t point of erection, n-hichever may first, occur.
b. The CONTRACTOR'S guarantee is limited to equipment designed by him-
self. Equipment designed or manufactured by others is limited by the gnarantee
of the designer and/or manufacturer, except that the CONTR.4CTOR will pre-
pure specifications for such equipment to obtain the best possible guarantee in
every respect for the CUSTOMER'S best interest.
c. The COSTRBCTOR'S liability in the event of mechanical failure of equip-
ment designed by himself shall be limited to replacement or repair of any such
equipment vithout cost to CUSTOMER.
d. The COXTRACTOR'S liability as to process production shall be limited to
proposal attachcd hereto as Exhibit I.
e. The CONTRACTOR d l not he held liable for CUSTOMER'S loss-of-profit
or for cost of raw material, operating labor, and other production costs in thr
event of process failure.
i. The maximum liability with respect to costs absorbed by CONTRACTOR
under the above paragraph d of this Brticle 19 shall not exceed fift>- (50) per
eelit of the total of sums paid the CONTRACTOR as fees and/or profit o w r
2nd above direct costs according to the schedules of costs under Exhibits I1
and 111.
Contracts ond Contractors 169
h t i c l c 20, Assig~inie~it
of Co~itract
Irirlwr p;lrry rhnll aizign this Agreement in rrhole or in part \I-ithont the con-
sent of the other.
T h e above paragraphs include most of the terms ordinarily ft!und in
contracts for engineering services. Tlic policies of the organizations
in\.ulved a n d scope of the contract affect the t e r m and conditions.
One of the i ~ a s e sfor a n y agreement must be some statement of intent
on tlie part of both parities. If either p a r t y can show t h a t the intent of the
otlicr was fraudulent a n agreement can usually hc dissolved. .Inother
rcquirenicnt of a n y contract or agreenient nlurt b e a n understanding
or "meeting of the ininds," a s i t is sonietinles called, ~vliichis essentially
undcretmding bet~vccnt h e parties of t l ~ c i robligations.
Generally most contracts include statements, sucli a s tbc follon.ing,
to indicate the general understanding and intent.
Article 31. Intent
The COKTR.4CTOR and the CUSTOMER mutrlall:- agree that these docu-
m r n t s form tlie b:~.+ of a wurking agrrmrnt vhereb)- the COSTK.iCTOR is
t o perform ecrtain aerricrs diligently and as ccnnoniicnlly SI: possible and the
CUSTOMER is to reimburse the CONTRACTOR for a11 normal and rmsonablc
costs plua a percentage xvhirh constitutes the CONTRACTOR'S overhead and
profit. It is further agreed that neither COXTRACTOK nor CUSTOMER shall
prolit from errors in nor omissions from these documents resulting in interpre-
tations <lifferent from the basic intent.
8rticIe 92. General C7~derstanding
C04TRACTOR
- ~- ~~ - - and CTTSTOPVIER.
~ - , bv
. execution of these documrnts,. reure-
.
a r n t , ~ n c hthat thry h:~w rxamined tlie contents iir detail and undrrstnnil f111ly
the seopc of tlie obhg:itionr hcrrin and are in eoml~lctcagreement vith ;(I1 the
ternis nnd r:onditions.
Exhibits
Refermcc \\.as made in the contract t o several exhibits. T h e follo~ring
rill serve t o illustrate o r outline t h e more important requireulcnts.
Exhibil i-Proposal
A proposal for a n engineering contract such a s this is usually divided
into t ~ r uparts consisting o l (0)Process and ( h ) .\lccl~anicalq ~ r r i f i c a t i m i .
k'rocers sperifications ~lescribe t h e pruccss in detail including r:t~v
material and finished product specifications, lieat a n d rl~aterialbalances,
and necessary flow diugmms t o describe the prucess graplrically. If parts
tlit: prucers nrc dcsigned b y others, t h e proposal should clearly s t a t c
the responsibilities.
T h e ~neclianicalsperifications list and describe all equipment b y means
i l f rkctclics ; ~ n d1vrittt.11 deacri~~tions.General specifications for purely
170 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 171
n~crli;mical q u i p m c n t , such a s pumps or compressors, a r c inrluded in
sufficient detail Lo enable nlanufacturers to estimate prices. If possihlc
n~anufncturcr'snamcs and catalog numllers a r e included so t h a t identifi-
cation is fised altliougll the specificiations m a y not he coniplete in all
I t a i l Prclinlinary plot plans showing the scope o i r o r k , skctchcs of
pressure vrsseli., and specification sheets for heat-exchange equip~ncnt,
a s ~vellas specifications for various parts of the work such a s t h e struc-
tural, piping, electrical, and instrumentation phases a r e included.
1Io.st of tlie specifications included in a proposal are not complete
since n considcrable part of cnginecring which mill follow upon signing Overtime Payments
of the contract cimsists of t h e development of specifications. It is n o t Salaried employes, or employees not paid on an hourly hasis may reciive
uncommon f o r a C U S T O M E R t o prepare complete detailed specifications overtime payment for hours w-arkcd up to a m:~simr~m of 30% of normal
or 1l:rvc tliem prrparrd h y a11 engineering firm for tlic CUSTOAIER'S use monthly sular?-. Such owrtinlc is ralc~ilntnl on the ixlsis of Irours o w r 8 per
in obtaining bids from other firms. day or 40 per veek. The rate per hour for monthly salaried persnnncl is e m -
T h c degree of completeness uf specifications usually depends upon the puted by multiplying the fixed monthly salary by a fi~ctor,0.006. This is
e;;;rnti:illy equal to the nominnl hm1r1~-rata the COSTRACTOII shidl br rrinl-
trrlns of thp contract or types of bids or propos:ils t o be obtained. F o r burard for such overtime pay on the. basis of rat1.5 noted ;iborr n-ith r c p w t to
l ~ c t - p l u smntracts, such a s thc one described above, mecllanical i;pecifica- the culnilation of plus percentages. Hourly ratrd, nrrkly paid rmplo~-~,cs are
tioris niay be brief ~vliile fixed-price contracts ~ e q u i r edetailed speci- paid for :dl honrs worked over X per day or 40 prr ~ w e k :it
, :i r:rtr rrf 1% times
fications. If coiupletc specifications are supplicd b y the custonicr, the their fixed hourly rate. COSTRACTOR shall be rrinrburml for :ill premium
plrrascology in the bcginning o i the contract is somewhat different. I n t h e wages paid snrh miployees; hin~wrcr,the ;ihorr plus percentages qh;~l!he applied
a l ~ o v econtract, for instance, Article 1 of P a r t I would he changed, where only to hours worked at the fired homly r n t w As an illustr:~tion,niwme a per-
son in category 8 earning $2.50/hour \\-urkrd 44 hours. COKTR.\CTOR'S
t h e wordu "CONTRACTOR'S proposal" appear, to read "Specifications." billing to CUSTOMER would bc 46 x 2.50 or 66115.00 plus (44 x 2.50 X 1.10)
or 8236.00.
Exhibit 11-Schedule of Costs, Labor
Prrsomnel Sal:ir!- or \Tage Range Exhibit Ill-Schedule of Costs Material o r Services
Billed Plus Percentage
1. Project mun;lgcr 600-700/month Paid wages plus 150% 1. Comrnu,cications. c t u a l costs of telegrams, eablrs, teletype, local (n.here
2 . l'ruject e11ginet.r 50&600/1nonth Paid vages plus 150% chargeable) and longdistnnce telephone calls, plus 10%. Equipment 11-1. or
3. Spci:ilt?- engiurer 5W00/month Paid wages plus 150% rental rosts shall not be included in costs tn CIJSTOILIER. COSTKACTOR
4. lIe?ign engiucer 50&600/'month Paid rr-ages plus 125% shdl maintain accuratc records of 311 such costs in acconhnce 11-ith CfiS-
5. %tion iradrr 3.l.'+3.45/11our Pnid wagrs plus 12576 TOlfER'S requirements
6. T)c.;ignrr & l n y u t 3.0&:1.?5/hrn1r Paid r\-ages plus 1257& " , Parcel Post. Air Alazl. Alr Pared Post. Actual costs of all uleh
2 Puataoe.
7. Srnior draftimm 2.85-3.1.i/honr Paid wages plus 110% charges plus 10%. Records shall bc kept as above for 1.
8. I)r:~ftsmnn 2.50-2.85/hour Paid wages plus 110% 3. Telephone SFIU~CP. Where CUSTOMER requests telephone 5rrrice or instal-
9. Tracer, B. P.rnachine lation of tclrphones or other communication cquipment, COSTHXCTOR shall
opemior 1.50-175/hour Paid wages plus 50% be reimburird for all such costs plus 10%.
10. Sperifieation writers 2.8Kll5/11our P a ~ dwages plus 110% 4. Ofice Space and Equipment. COXTRBCTOR agrees to furnish ofice space
11. llntcrial lister 2.6%!2.85/hour Paid mges plw 100% together ~vithall necessary office furniture rrithout churge, for t ~ 12) o of the
12. Variable-typewriter CUSTOMER'S engineers. Secretarial or strnographic assistance labor shall be
operator 1.25-1.50/hour Paid wages plus 100% reimb~~rsablc in accordance xith item 14 in Exhibit 11. Snch perionm'l assigned
13. Ty~,iit-s~~et.ificatio~~s to CUSTOMER shall be understood to be in thr employ of the CONTRACTOR
r ~ hills
r of material 1.15-1 .?5/hour Paid wages plus 50% and shall observe all common rules and practices as required by COXTR-ACTOR.
14. Strnogmphic-clerical 1.1&1..50/ha11r Pnid wges phis 50% 5. Siqplies. 411 necessary supplies, except as included belo\\- under A, rr.ilriireil
15. I'rocnrcll~wt personnel, Paid wage. plus 50% for the work shall be furnish~dbv the CONTRACTOR and no costs for such
buyers, clerical 1.3&1.05/hour shall be billed to the CUSTOMER.
16. Isboratory technicians 2.85-3.15/hour Paid wages plus 125% .
6. R~oroduction Services. CONTRACTOR shall be reimbursed for :dl eoits
incurred in preparing or printing, blueprints, blur-line prints, photocopir, ditto.
For all orlm prrsrn~nelin ellginerring rntegories rewiving monthly salarim mimrograph, either vhen performed by himself or by an outside firm for CTS-
reimbursement sl~allnut be lras than paid salary plus 110%. For all other per- TOMER'S requirements. Such costs shall be in accordance ~vithstan~lanlloc:rl
172 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts ond Contractors
com~nerclalpractice- ~ ~ 556. l u Labor cubts for blueprint or other ~n;iehinrnper- IXDEX
stors shall hc reimbursed in accordance \\-ith item 9 of Exhibit 11, whm snch
Genrral .4crecment.
prnonnel are workrd overtime a t CUSTOMER'.i: reqneit. When CUSTOMER Ilefinitions.
e l r ~ t ihr
, mny nrrrjit charges for all matpriali u.wl in rrprodiirtion and reimhi~ri-r
COSTlt.\CTOR for lnhor w n l in t h e operarioni nc notrd ahorc in item 9 of r t I. Scope of Work.
Exhihit TI. COSTK.ACTOR shall br rrimhur?cd for costs of all mntrrinls wril Srtirlc IT. Contractor's Costs and Terms of 1'a)ment.
,,I,,* Artielr, 111. Dirrct Costs.
?..-.~ - ,,,. Articlc IY. Cons,~ni:~ble Cunstruction Supplies, Fidd Pureh:~-in:.
7. Cu~rsultationService. COSTR.iCTOR rhdl be reimbursed for an>-srrvices
Article V. Construction hhterials and Tool:, Field Purchasing.
rtquirrd of ontsidc firms as 3:rred upon with CTSTOMER. Si~cbro51s sh:111
I,,. Idlnl to Cl-STOMER liluq 5%. Article VI. Construction Labor.
Article VII. Transportation.
S . Lnborntory S w z ' i c p . Kherc COXTRACTOR provi<les inbor.rtmy servicr..,
Article VIII. Completion of Work.
w i t s for such s~rvicei~ h n l lbr agrerrl upon prior to start of work. Such cost. Article IX. C:~nccllationof Contract.
,sIr:ill include all charprs and no plus percentnpes d l be added to the agreal X . P r o t r h o n of Xetcrials and l'roperty.
Article
lipon cost. Kherr CCSSOMER requests special lnbor:~tory s r r ~ i e r hilled , r:~t~-.
lor personnel shnll hr computcd according to item 1G of Exhihit IT. .\rtirlr XI. Insurance.
!). T r a w l ('osts. CUSTOhlER n.ill reimburse CO?;TR.\CTOR for out-of- . \ r t i h X I . Guar:~otccs.
Srticlr XTII. .iisiqnmrnt of Contmct.
pocket t r : ! d costs of COXTRACTOR'S prrsonnel tmrcllin: a t Cl~STOXIER'S
Article XIT'. Siirplns h-laterials.
rrquest np to a n~aximumof 512.00 per day for employees who rcrnoin iu o -in:lc~
location for 30 dnl-a or morc contin,mn4y. For personnel mnking oi-r,rnidit or .
short trips the rates shill1 br rrnsonably greater; hoiwrer, in no ewe ~h:111li\-inq Exhibit 11. E-timite.
r q e n i c s billed to CUSTOMER exccd 815.00 prr day.
Exhibit 111. Enginrering and Other Labor.
.illovcd rxpenx items sh:rll inclod<-paymmts for first c l : railroad
~ farrz plrrz
Exhibit IV. Cmztruction 2lateri11l and Labor.
~~ullrr~;rn, nir travel, bus, or taxi or any public carrirr fares, laundr>-, and other
nurm:!l living expenses. Receipts for cxpenFe items, hotel bills, tickr,t stubs, nnil GESERAI, AGREEMEST
any other subetmtiation of pnyment shall he obtained as far as powible and held
on filr by COSTRACTOR for CIJSTOMER'S inspection mhm req~icstnl. Fisrd This Agreement m;dc and entered into tlrL-ila>~ of
rate? .specified above shall apply to t r w e l within the continrntal lilnits of tht. by and betweerr ARC Chen~iealCo., (arldrrss), hereinafter referred to ns ARC
U. 9. For foreign tmvel per diem rates shall be adjustrd to m w t local ronditiims. and XYZ Encinccring and Construction Co., (:~ildresi),brrrinnfter rcfrrred to
Telephone or other communication costs shall be r~~imhursnblr; h o w n r thr as COXTRACTOR, &tnecseth that:
ernployre shnll use collect calls if possible so that records m:~? be kept of thrse Whereas ABC desires CONTRACTOR to i,rrform rrrt:iin servicci; more coi11-
costs. pletcly described in the hercto attxhctl, listed, or referrnrwl ilrnn-irxc :iml sprci-
.Automobilr tmvel costs hen insurance requirements are met shall hr reim- fications undrr the Scopr of Work Article 1 ;
hursable a t 80.10 per mile. 411 costs incurred by CONTRACTOR for travelling Now therefore, for and in consideratiml of the paymcnt,s 11rwin;lftc.rrjwified
expense shall be reirnbursnble according to the above plus 5%. to be made to thc COXTRACTOR by ABC, :inJ in consideration of tlie terms
lierei~li~icludedthe parties hereto do agree as follui~s:
Typical Engineering a n d Construction Contract DEFIKITIONS
T h e complete engineering a n d construction contract is usually similar 1. Contract Documents. 811 papcrs, dmwings, documenk altncllrrl hereto
t o t h e form of contract for engineering serviccs exccpt t h a t it includes or includcd here\\-it11 by rrfrrenee constitute the contract documents an(\, if ;irp:i-
additional clauses undcr P a r t 11. rate liereto, arc to be con-iclrred :IS part or 1l:irtj of tbis ugrrnuent th? -:1111l, :I-
if ntt:~checl h r x t o
T h e following contract is similar t o those prepared for cost-plus with 2. Contjactor. P:irly to :~gr,:rn~ctir, XTZ Engiurrring Coml~:tny,its eseou-
fixed-fee contracts. T h e first page of t h e documcnt consists of a title: i tive ofiicers, enginrrr, constn~ctioniupcrintendnit.
3. ABC. P ; ~ r t yto agreeniant, S13C Chemicnl Co., its executivr officers,
Agreemont between project engineer, inspectors, field cowtruction enginerrs.
ABC Chemical Company and XYZ Engineering Company 4. Place of Worlc, Construction. The expressions "jobsite," or "field" are
Including Engineering, Procurement, and nnderstood to mean the placc of crretim of incilitiea. Albrrt County, Statr of
Const,ruction Services Colorado, .4BC Chcmicnl Co., Colorado Pl;mt. (\I:d :iddress .shuulrl be included.)
At The Colorado Plant 5 . Place of Work, Engineerirly. Coatrxtor's lmne or hraneh ofierr. (%hi1
addres or addresses should be included.)
T h e second page, or pages, consists of a n index similar t o illat Eollo~ving. 6. Wori:. The tern) work shall hr underitowl to incln<le labor or mntcri:il
Inrlcxes a r e most belpful for t h e longer contracts. or both.
174 Project Engineering of Process Plants
7. L o r d Laws. Tllr I;in-- of thr place or building shall gorem.
8. Jobsite. The trrm juhsite slinll be undcr~toodto mean place of erection
or con.wuction as desienatrd ahore in 4.
9. Drawings. Dr:iir-in:; iir 11rinti ihall be undrrstood to mean reproductions
from drni1-ing. prrp:irnl hy eirlier party but identified by written matter as a
part of the w ~ r k( v r G a h o w l . Tracingi shall br, nndcrstood to mean original
drawings from ivliich reprod~~ced cupivs or prints hare bcrn obtained. Dram-ings
may be wid to he identifid ir-lien their idrntifying numbers are included in the
contract ilonnnmts or :idilt,niia thereto.
10. Supplies; ('omti.iicti(~~i ifoti'i~iols.a d .llnteriuls. (a) Supplies are under-
stood to mean those m:itrr~:il. of a eo~l.~u~~:ible nature exclusive of tools, such
ns m e r y cloth, ~:indpaper,drinking cups, i.lcric;rl supplies, fuel?, lubricants, and
any other such i t ~ n lvhieh
l :ire nrcrssary for construction but do not necesiarily
enter into the ~~rmrmnent plant or remain as :I part of the plant after construc-
tion is complete: ( b ) conrtnxtion materials :Irr: the h ~ a v i e rmatwi:~lswed in
conct.rnr:tion sucli :is scafioliiing, form lun~her,f o m ~tics (but not reinforcing
rod) : constrwtion buildingi togcthrr with all thrir parts including electrical
lighting, plumbing, lmting or ventkiting rquipmmt ; trmporary electrical service
connections for electricaily driven ron.~tri~ction eqnipn~cnt.mircellaneous piping,
and miscrll:~neous bnlk material; i ~ fall kinili used for constn~ctionbut removed
after crrnrtruction i; complrted; (c) uintrri;~liare generally ~lnilrrstoodto mean
permnnrnt materials -ilrli ai the eiilnl~oliiwt of concrete, or stone, sand, and
cement; brick, mortar, niiscrllancous fill m;itcrials, n-elding rod, rivets, miscel-
laneous bolts.
11. Co~zstmctio~i Tools. (o) Smnll tools, ronsumable: icren-drivers, pliers, pipe
and other wencher less than cighteen in. (18") in length hack r a m , hack saw
blades, chisels, h a ~ n n ~ r r welding
r, sots, ~vrlding (oxyncet>-lune) hoses, etc.; ( b )
hand tools: hand took are gmrmlly unrlcrstood to nleari the larger tools such
as axes, shorcls, s p n i l y wheel l>:irroi~-s, rnnent buggies, dollies, sledge hammers,
etc.; ( c ) driven tmls: electric or pneiinx~ti~:, drills, grinders, hammers, rivet-
puns, r:inlking tools, inip:ict 77-rrnches, e t c : Id) m:rhinr tonlr, smill: portable
electric or pneun~ntir:1i11i-t~, pipe and conduit bmiing and thre:~iIing machines,
portablr air compresmrs, ~wlilingmachines, etc.; i e ) ronstrnrtion tools, large:
steam or electric drivm hoisting mginer, guy, :ind other typesof ilr:rricks, inelnd-
ing cuhlrs, sheavci, Iirioks, slings, sidfdrir~ncmnee, grading machines, tractors,
trucks inchding a11 their :1lil,urtrn:mrw IIeavy rn:~chinetools installed (fixed
base) for use during conotruction inrh ;IS 1;1thw,drill 13WSWS, metal P:I\VS,etc.
12. Security. The word recurity sh:ill be lirnd~mtourl to mean ARC'S plant,
security or protectiun organization, or the organization prtwided by CONTKAC-
TOR to police the riin.<tmction areas.
13. Premises. Prrmises shall be understood to Incan :illC's property either
the immediate constmction area or :idj:icent, or other ;arcns owned by .4BC or
usrd by ABC.
14. Trade Names, Terminology. W r r e tr:~denanies are used in descriptions
or specifications, t h ~ yshall be as tipplic;~bleas form:~lrlrseriptions. I t is nnder-
stood that the contractor is ~xpcrirmrtdin tlie type of w r k to be performed and
expressions connnon ti, thc tmde sh:111 :~gpl?- and be nccepiable.
15. 8quip,ntwt. TYliere tlie wurd equipnirnt is included herein it is under-
stood to mrnu proecs.* or pcrm:~nenLplant equilmrnt s s installed or erected or
purchased f i r ubc of ATiC
Article I. S r o p e of 1l.ork
The CONTRACTOR s h d furmsli d l nccrrsarj- denlgns, instructions, dram-
Contracts and Controcfors 175
ings, sprcifirations, labor, material?, and r.rjliipment as arc rrrluired to prucurr,
fahriwtr, w e t , inml in>tidl, ready for 11-e or oprmtion, :(I1 etjuipmrwt to l>ro\.iilp
the facilities awl prrirrses herein dwrrilx4 in :~rcor~lance rr-it11 C:OSTR.\i:TOR'S
proposal :itinched licrrto :ri Exhihit I .
Article I I . COh1TI1.Af'TOR'S ( ' o s t s mid T m m s of Pn!ilizmt
1. ARC shall rrirnburse COSTKA('TOR for nll rmsts indicatrd :IF direct rosts
as described hrlox ,-dus tlie prrcvntagr; indimted fur the 7-ariiriir 1r.irt; of the
work.
2 . CONTRACTOR'S fee dinll hc cmnputed n- n summntion of thr plns per-
rentages :~dderl to COSTRSCTOK'S direct ro+ and d ~ n l lnot crrrnl right
hundred, and fift.y thorlsand dollars 1S830,000.001, exet'pt as notcil brlmr.
3. Estimated Selling Price: the COSTR.iCTOR eitimatcs the cmts rlf labor
and material and rynilxnrnt to complr.tp the faditie; derrribrd in Eshihit I,
plus the above fre to br nrit more than t.i?lit niillion, six h~udrcil:mil tiventy-
five t11ou;;ind dollar. lSS,R.25,(H)O.UO)in ;icer,r,lmw nith the detailed e-timate
included herein an Exhihit (1. ('OVTRAC'TOK dues not en:mntee ertimntr hilt
agrtw that the fee in itrm 2 abovi. ~Ii:dlbe n niauim~imvhen the estim:~triltotal
cost is equal to or ruweds t h :nnount
~ :~hol-e.
4. Fee Increasc rlr Cliangr,. The C'OSTl(ACTC)R'S fee in itcm 2 iibii~eshall
br increased or changed only. ( o ) TThm :,nil if thr :~huvrestim:~tml total selling
prim: exceeds thp actual coits of the ~ o r k the , C0STR.iCTOK'S fee >hall b r
increa.ed by an :nnonnt q u n l to t w n t ? per cent (XI':) of tlie differrmrr between
CONTR.iCTOR'S cstinl:lte and a r t i d total mst. This increase shall he nnder-
stood to be a bonus p:iynient; ( b ) d ~ e andn if the scope of xork hcrein shall bc
increased by ARC by additions or c h a n q s increasing COSTRACTOR'S vork or
equipment or materiulr in mutonlly :tpreerl upon c11:1nges,the CONTR-iCTOR'S
fee shall he increased by an a~nounteqnal to ten prr rent of thc artnal costs of
such increases or chnnges. .ill such extrxs shdl he kept separate from total
costa of original estimate and shall not affect the honr~spaymrnt above in sec-
tion a ; (c) when and if the scopi, of ivork herein shall be r r h : e d hy .4BC as
changrs or modific:itions, the actn:il cost rduction sh:ill be conlputed as a per-
centage of the above e.timntrd belling price item 3 and COSTRACTOR'S
fee ilia11 he red~wcdhy a likr l~erccntage. Thr n~arimrtmred~~ctinn in COX-
'TR.4CTOR'S fee d m to reilnrtirm in -rope uf w ~ r kshall not eucrrd one hunilrtvl
mil eight~yfivethowaml dollars (SlS3,000.00), t w e p t in the e w n t of cnncelia-
i tion under Article IX.
5. Accounting :ind Billing l'roceilure.
( N o t e : See Articles 5 a n d 6 of t h e Exnniplc Engineering Services Only
Contract. T h e hilling pri~eedure f o r a n y contract \vli~,reo ~ v n c r p a y s
direct costs plus n percentngrx consists in prescntntion of t h e contmctor's
invoice plus substantiating dnte in llie form of attached papcrs or refcr-
cnce t o t h e contractor's rccoriiu. Generally for labor charges copies of
I
actual payrolls lilust he included. V s ~ i n l l y papcrs such as vendors'
invoices a r e held b y contractor since obtaining sufficient copies for o x n e r
j a s ~ v c l as
l contractor is w ~ n e t i m e sdifficult. I n order t o prove a n expendi-
ture f o r equipment t h e contrartor ordinarily h a s three instruments:
11) contractor's purcliast. order, 12) a ficld irceiving report, a n d ( 3 ) a
ropy of t h e vendor's invoirr. Thcse a r e sufficient in most cases since if
t h e contractor ackno~vledgcst h a t h e h a s t h e vendor's invoice he is com-
 178 Project Engineering of Process Plants
regulation?, orders, dirrctirrs, or statutes npplic:~hIc to wage and emp1o)-ment
practices, and to act in accord311(~1'vith the poliric>sof ABC on matters which
affect area practir.c? and n-llirh nlizht tend to set prrwdent.. Constructi~nlahor
wage rates in Exliib~t ST- form the hasis for COSTR.iCTOR'S estimate in
Exhibit IS. The COKTR.\CTOR will nut enter into agreements with various
lahor organizations nnplo:-ril in tlip ir-ark iihicli tmd t o increase such rates
withont previous notificntion to A13C.
2. The COXTRACTOR r i l l n1nint:iin si~it;~hle temporary sanitan- and shelter
facilities for use of its rrnploy,e;. C0STRACIY)It'S empl~yecssha.11 not trespass
on nor usr sanitary or other of .iBC's plant facilitiiw.
3. The COXTR-iCTOK rrill employ n c o m p e t ~ ~ ~t
registered nurse and provide
suitnhle cxamin:ition and first-aid facilitiw contiimo~ldy at the jobuitc during
constrnction. Pro\-isions d l alio be m:ide for prompt mrdic:rl aid and hospitaliza-
tion in the nrarest facility for snrh servicri.
4. COSTR-iCTOR'S rrnpli)y~csirhrn on A1IC's plrmises shall rumply with
,211 general rules and regnlatii,ns :is reqnired b\- ABC. COXTRACTOR'S em-
p1uyee;i shall not 1m1-c COSTI{.\CTOI1'S n-<irk :Irw slor risit r~thcrparts of
Ant's premises n-ithollt prrmission, in nrmrssar>- ~lltholity,unless in the line
of duty and/or n-hcn :~ccrirnpmiedby an mmplriyr of .iIX
5 . Disrrgar~lfor rides mi practicw ns rcqriired b:- ABC by an employee of tho
COXTRACTOR ?11:111he sufficient jnstifiriitii,n for disn~i,-sal.
6. Employers ilid~iirpc~d for r:nl.e hy COSTK.iC:TOH or by ABC's rrquest
shall not br: re-empla?-t,il 111-COiiTR.iCTOR for work nndrr this agreement.
7. COXTR.\CTOR'S ~ ~ m p l o y cs11:ills he prorcssed for idrntification and he
provided xith identifiration b:idgcs nrcrptable to ABC. The processing of
COSTRACTOR'S prrsonnrl to meet smurity regnlatims shall be carried out
in st,rict acrordanrc with instn~etions from .\BC. The COSTRBCTOR will
maintain a t the johsite a srpnratr file on vnch employee regukirly employed in
COSTRACTOR'S r o r k or intermittently visiting thc jobsite. All employees
visiting the jobsiti: s11:ill fiillon. initmetions with reg:iril to secnrit,y and ident.i-
ficntion tha same as i f reg~dnrlyenililr~y~d at the jobqite. .Any of ABC's security
officers m:by at any lime requcst pmprr identifiration a l ~ d i o rthe employme&
history oi any per,xmnel.
8. Certain of COXTRACTOH'S personnel may be prmnitted to bring personal
nutornobiles within ARC'S pl:~ntprtwi>cs. Infractims of rules or rceulations
with regard to us? of anti~molilesd l automnt,icnlly rerokc any such pcrmit.
In gcnrml all construction per,mmnel sh;~lluse thc ABC plant gate desigmted
for COKTRACTOR'S entranci:. T h r n other entrances are used COXTRAC-
TOR'S personnel nmrt obtain a special pass from wcurity.
9. Tendor's reprtwntntivcs or other pr7sons visiting COXTR-ACTOR'S officrs
for business purposes shall romply ~vithAAC's plant regulatiol~swith regard to
visitor3 and m s t bc identified by delegated COKTRACTOR'S personnel. The
COXTRACTOR shall be responsible to ABC for such persons. Unlcss special
permission is obtained such persons are not to be allowed access to any part of
the work except COXTRACTOR'S ollices.
ARTICLE VII. Trarrsportation
CONTRACTOR shall route all rn:~t~,rials over carriers designilted by AUC by
means of traffic maps 11rovidcd for the COXTRACTOR.
Article VIII. Completiu~rof Work
1. CONTRACTOR agrees to diligently prucecd ~ r i t hall parts of the work for
ABC's best interest.
Contracts and Contractors 179
2. Unlcre prevented by r;i~i;cs he>-onrl his control COVTR.\CTOR proposes
to romplrtr all the fncilitie,+hwcin inclnrlcd not more t l ~ mc~izhteet~ n m n t h ~aftm
rzerwtion rlf thi* n~rrc~ment
3. CONTR.iCTOR agrees to schrdnli hi? rr-ork for cnrnpletion in arcortlnnrr
~vithtlir prere<lrnw : ~ g r e dupon with :\li(' nml ilr~scri1)mlin Eslnbit I .
4. TVlicnrvcr any l n r t of the n-01.6 .s11~11l x complctml :and r c d y for uperation
ARC may tzkr over thnt fartlity : ~ n dopernte it: horr.rrr, thr takino over or
operation of ;in>- part of thr completr,il n-rrrk rhall not necrs;arily constitute
acceptance on thr part ~f SHC, ;1n0 COSTR.iCTOR shall lir obligated to
complete any unfinirhcd parts of the f:~cilit~- and s11;ill he rrslmn.~il)lefor error?
nr omissions discovered aftcr onerntion bv ABC the samr a . if the facility had
not brrn put into opei-a t'Ion.
5. When all "arts of the ~ o r :irek comulrtnl to the sati~S;rctionof ARC, then
BBC shall proLvide COSTR.4CTOR \rich an :i~~thorizedaccept:lncr at rrhirh
time 1111 frinils or paymenti due :ind/or ~ ~ i t l ~ lsliull
~ d i lbe due and piy:~hIc to
COXTRACTOR.
A r t d e I X . Ca~icellationof Contract
1. This agreement m l y hr, rxncellcd by .\nC nt nny timr npon giving COX-
TRACTOR written notice ten (10) < l a y in nilranci of s w h actiun. The
COXTR.iCTOR shiill h ~ nllo~~-ed
: n re:~soll:~ble timr: firr transfer of all parts of
the m r k in his posse-+ion to .iBC:. The pei.io<l of tnne nlloived niter noticr
of eancelintion shall h,k n o i r ~as~ i l ~ C
r S C E I . I , . \ T I O I period. In no r:isc shnll
tho CAXCELLATIOV period excerd thirty (30) days from date of rcccipt of
notice of cilncellation.
2. If cancellation is rffectcd after CONTRACTOR has made commitments
for morc than fifty per cent (30%) of the eitini;ited value of m;itr,rials :~ccording
to CO?JTR.\CTOK'S e h n n t e as s11o~l-nin Exhibit 11, thru COXTRACTOR'S
fee, eight hnndred and fifty thousand ilull:rrs (S8.50,000.00) shall be due and
payable within thirty (30) days after noticr: of cancellation is rwrived
3. If cancellation iz rff<.ctcdbefore C0XTR:iCTOR hns in:~derommitlnents 11p
to fifty per cent 0 of the eitim:~trdm l r ~ e of m:rtrri;di nccorrllng to
COXTRACTOR'S estimate as shown in Exhibit 11, then C:OXl'R:\CTOIt'S fee,
eight hundred and Eft\- thollsnnd rlollnrs i~S.i0,000.00) shall hi. rri111rwl to the
nrtud plus percentn~eon I:ihor nnd rnnterinl enrnrd ,111 ti, the time of c:~nrdl:itinn.
4. COXTRACTOR shall continllr to fnrnish all nci.csi:lry per3onncl and m:rke
even. effort to expediently transfer dnt;i and other for~uq,drnxinps, opecificntion?,
ordrrs as prepared Ear :xnd used in the work to .\ti(:. COSTR.iCTOR
shall be rrimbursrd for a11 such costs in aiirmlnnce vith thc srheilr~lesof costs
and plus-pcrrcntages :~pplic:ihle tlicrrto ,113 to timr of nutire by .\KC to
CONTR.4CTOR of completiou of eancelintion and tr;insfrr of dntn :~ndmnteri:~ls
to ARC.
5. I n the event of cancellation AllC shall h r c the right to imme<liatrly enter
npon the premises a t any timc aftcr noticr of r,:incellntion and t:ikc over a11y
part or parts of the ~vork it so chooses. togetllcr with all m:~terinls, tools
either on-ned by itself or by COSTRAWOR, anil con~plete the ~vork. The
COKTRSCTOR shall be paid rt,;~wnnblermtnls as agreed upon 1~1thABC for
use of his tools or if he so rlccts lie may n w o r e such tools from ABC's
provided (a) the remov:d of such tools d l not affect conlplction of
work; (b) such removnl is :~greenhleto AUC: (ci rnrh rtmornl is charge11 to
the CONTRBCTOR'S crict. COSTR.\CTOR'S tools wed by B C for conl-
plrtion of the work mill be disn~nntlerl,loaded and/or o t h e r ~ ~ i sprepared e for
182 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 183

Exhibits for Engineering a n d Construction Contracts Lump-Sum Contract Forms

S e ~ e r a Exhibits
l have been referred t o in tlre above contract. The dis- The lump-sum or fixed-price contract is much less involved, and a
cussion a t the end of the engineering rontrart has described a typical typical form for such contracts has not been included. Since a fixed
proposal in some detail. For such a contract as the above, the proposal price must be established, the original specifications: descriptions of the
mm~ldbe in greater detail, describing in addition to the process and work, and types of equipment are described in detail in the contraetor's
process e q u i p l e n t all facilities, types of architecture, and any points proposal or owner's inquiry. The contract then need only carry the
r ~ h i c hmay be peculiar to t,he particular installation. standard general clauses.
Exhibit 11, the estimate, would in this case be quite detailed. The
follo~vingform is sometimes used. The first part of such a n estimate 3r CONTRACTS A N D ENGINEERS
summary and the esti~nat,efor unit A is included below. The contract phase of project engineering requires a competent legal
Exhibit 11-Estimate, dollars
department. Men who are trained in both engineering and law are ideal
members of this group.
Combined Estimate
All project engineers, however, should have a n understanding of con-
Englneermg
Facil~tles and Cler~cal Material Lab01 Total tracts since it is their duty t o execute many of t'he terms of a contract.
3,996,000 I n developing this understanding, the engineer should avoid an over-
2,303,000 critical attitude toward the legal phraseology. It shuuld be rememberd
615,000 that the long sentences, big words, and hackneyed legal exprc:<' w o n s are
Power srrviees 6,000 112;000 33,000 151,WO part of the conservatism of legal practice which have proved their
Genrnd utilities 12,000 207,000 48,000 267,000 durability through decades of legal decision.
Plant buildings 18,000 340,000 85,000 443,000
- - - -
ETHICS AND THE CONTRACT
Subtotals 320,000 5,855,000 l,G00,000 7,775,000
Fee 850,000 There is never any intention among reputable contractors or owners
Total combined estimates and fee 8,625,000 t o deceive through fine print or confusing terminology. The cont,ract
Estimate--Unit A should be thought of more as a written agreement between gentlemen.
Materials Labor Total It is nritten because memories are poor, and written records do much t o
Foundations 95,000 115,000 210,000
Structural steel and building 154,000 126,000 310,000 preserve friendly business dealings. Legally the contract contains pro-
Process equlpinent 1,890,000 230,000 2,120,000 visions for cancellation and penalties for failure in performance, hut
Pipmg 619,MX) 226,000 846,090 these actions are costly t o both parties in both time and money.
Electr~cnls 96,000 59,000 155,000 Above all, the mtegrity and technical cornpetence of the personnel of
142,000 48,000 190,000
- - both organizations are the only criteria for successful project plant
projects. The contract protects against willful negligence and illegal
801,000 3,830,000
Eng~neeringand clerical 166,WO acts. It cannot protect either party from unethical practices or in-
Total, Material, Labor, Unit A 3,996,000 competence.
.
[n actual nractice estimates arc much more detailed. The above REFERENCES
estimate for Unit. A is condensed. The item "process equipment'' includes
1. Eshbach, 0. W.. Handbook o f Engineering
- Fundamentals. 2nd Ed.. John
all mechanical equipment, pressure vessels, tanks, heat exchange, and
Wiley & Sons, Inc., k e w York, 1952.
condensing equipment and insulation. Estimated costs of each of these 2. MeCulloush,
- . L. B.. and J. R. McCullouah.
- . The Engineer at Lnlu. Vol. I . Iowa
would be shown separately. General items such as supervision and State College Press, Amps, Iowa, 1946.
clerical operations for construction are also separated in the usual estimate 3. Sadlcr, W. C., Legal Aspects of Engineering, John JVilcy & Sons, h e . , Yew
exhibit. York, 1940.
4. Sadler, W. C.. The Specifications and Law on Enaineerlna Works, John W i l w &
T h e various exhibits attached t o a cost-plus contract usually include
Sons, Inc., New ~ m k 1948.
,
much detailed information on construction craft rates, consumable sup- 5. Simnson, L. P., and E. R. Dillavon, Law for Engineers and Aichitecls, 31.d Ed.,
plies, and contractor's tool rental rates. West publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn., 1946.
 DETAILS OF
ENGINEERING DESIGN
AND
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
 CHAPTER 12

order to participate intelligently in selection of equip

I N
ment and design of process facilities, foundations and
structures the project engineer must understand to some
extent the details of engineering design and equipment
selection.
VESSELS
The design and fabrication of the many sizes, shapes and types of
vessels required in process plants is a complex task requiring the co-
operation of process and project engineers, vessel designer, and fahrirator.
Vessel design requires the skill of an experienced engineer who specializes
in the field. A working knowledge of the various cudes, fabrication
properties of materials, and procurement problems requires full-time
attention to this one field. The greatest need is for project and process
engineers to familiarize themselves sufficently with hasic design and
fabrication procedures so that an intelligent exchange of ideas with the
vessel designer can be effected.
The purpose o i this chapter shall be to develop background information
which will aid the project engineer in directing the design and fabrication
of process vessels. It is not possible to develop all the details of vessel
design and nu attempt will be made to repeat information that is now
prcsented in various codes and standards which are available to anyone.'

VESSEL FABRICATION

The Shell
Pressure vessels and tanks for process plants are usually of cylindrical
shape. Bending rolls are used to form the cylinder.
'The codes referred to in this section, unless otherwise stated, are the API-ASME
and the ASME codes for "Unfired Pressure V e ~ s e l s . ' ' ~ . ~
I87
188 Project Engineering of Process Plants
A bending roll is shown in Fig. 12-1. The top roll imposes the bcnding
forces on the plate and the distanec b e t w e n the top and bottom rolls
controls the diameter of the cylinder. The rolling may be done cold on
thin plates of smaller size. Prior t o rolling, the ends of the plates are
shaped t o the desired radius in a press using a radius-forming die. B y
this procedure, perfectly round vessels can be made. After rolling,
the edges of the plates are planed t o prepare them for welding.
Fig. 12-1. Bending 1.011s:241 inehcs long, 96ineh OD shcll being rolled from %-inch
plate. (Courtesy uf Lulicns Stccl Company.)
Welding
Welding bas bccome the most common means of joining metals. Burst-
ing tests invariably prove the weld t o bc stronger tlian tllc shcll itself.
Such welds, however, must be made by compctcnt welders. Elaborate
tests t o qualify welders arc given in the various vessel codes.l.2
A number of very excellent weldinc- nrocesses are in use. Shielded arc
. If both the circumference and length of a shcll are greater than 195 in.,
welding is perhaps the most common method used in vessel fabrication.
An arc is produced between a metal electrode and the base metal. The
heat created causes melting of the electrode and portions of the base
metal near the arc. Tlie weld is formed by the fusion of the metal from
the electrode and the base metal. The welding rods (electrodes) are
coated with a flux which, when heated, produces an inert gas blanket
around the arc and deposits a protective coating of slag ovcr the weld to
Vessels 189
i~rcl-entoxidation. Arc nelding can be ~rlanualor automatic. For large
longitudinal and circumferential seams automatic welding mael~ines
p r o w particularly advantageous. For circumferential seams the cylinder
is mowd :ind t l ~ ctorch remains stationary. The opposite procedure is
fnllo~veilfor longitndinal seams.
h c e t y l ~ n egai ~veldingis common, especially for welding thin plates
and small attachments. I n addition, acctylenc welding is a necessity in
:my vessel fuhri~xtions11op fur n l m y utility purposes. A few of it.
uses are: f1:nne haril~ming of small 11art5, cutting, and tack-~vcl~ling
.ccti,in~ l~riorto antonlatic arc ~vcliling. Gns \velding is alsu used ill
brazing n.hic11 is the joining of metals with a nonferrous filler without
~nelting the base metal. Other welding procedures such as atomic-
I~yilropcu, flaA resistance: thcrmit, and submerged-melt xvelding are
use11 for sl~crialtypes of work. For a detailed discussion of welding
t c c l ~ n i q u ~tbc
~ s , rwdcr is refcrred to standard n-urks on t b r subject.
TT-clrling of vessel -rams generally requires the application of ~ c v c m l
luyers of ~vcldmaterial. It is necessary that great care be exercised in
making surh "multipass" ~vclrls. The surface of each weld pass must hc
tl~orouglilyclcanr~land cxainined hefore proceeding r i t h the next pass t o
insure good penetration nnd freedom from cracks, slag inclusion, and
other n-cakcning dcfccts. A faulty weld can be disguised by a satisfactory
final meld pass.
The wider's torch has also l ~ c c o ~ na en invaluable tool for cutting metal
to any desired shape. 3lechanically guided cutting torches are used cx-
tcnaivcly and job.: that xvonld bc tedious when handled by ordinary
mecl~aniralmethods can be done a i t h case when a cutting torch is used.
Shell Plates
Plates for the fabrication of vessels are usually ordered by thickness.
Plates made by a sliearcd-plate nlill are preferred because they are of
I ~ r t t e rquality and are available in a greater number of sizes. They can
I I obtainul
~ in n rvidc varicty of thirknrsses, the most comiuon being
f r ~ m in. to 1 in. in increments of in., 1 in. to 1y2in. in increments
i ~ %
f in., an11 1y2 in. to 4 in. in increments of % in. Lengths up t o 800 in.
are produced in the thinner plates. The maximum width obtainable is
around 195 in.. although widths over 100 in. carry a n extra width charge.
it b c c ~ ~ m cnecessary
s t o employ two or more plates to fabricate the vessel
(Fig. 12-2). Since extra charges on w i d t l ~start a t 100 in., it may prove
economical t o use more than one plate in certain instances for sizes re-
quiring plates ovcr 100 in. wide. A comparison b e t ~ w e nplate width
extras and tlle additional costs of fabrication with ~nultiplcplarea iunst
be made.'"
190 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels

Vessel Heads
1de:illy. a splirriral-shnprd prrssurr w s w l is the niost desirable sinre
it withstands higher l~ressuresfor a given nietal thickness. Spherica!
vessels are used in the dorage of volatile liquids and gases, but they are
not suitable for the construction of tlie usual process vessels. The cylin-
drical-rliaped vessel is the next best design and is u w l most extmzively.
The heads for sucli vessels ilia? be flat, cllips~~idal(elliptical dished),
dished, hemispherical, or conical. Examples of such designs arc given

Fig. 12-2 Shell fahrieat~dfrom more than one plate.

in Fig. 12-3. Flat heads can he employed economically only on small

vessels ( 3 ft rlr less) or on vessels operating a t low pressures. Flat lieads
may he welded to the vessel or installed as blind flanges on smaller vessels.
Heads other than flat heads are manufactured by pressing or spinning
large flat plates to the desired shape. Sizes from twelve inches t o twenty-
one ft in diameter can be manufaeturrd by spinning. Pressing is more
generally confined t o smaller heads and is only economical when there
is a deniaud for a large number.
Often the process requirement,s dirtate the style head t o be used. A
conical head, for instance, would be used for the bottom liead of a settling
drum. If no certain style is dictated, however, the choice between
licmiapherical, standard dished, and ellipsoidal heads is a question of
economics. As the thickness required to withstand a given pressure in-
creases in the order hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and dished, the cost of
forming decreases in the same order. A l t h ~ ~ u gith is difficult t o generalize.
i t may he said that in the range of low t o nioderate pressures the standard
dished head is used. At higher pressures (above about 200 psig) it proves
t o he more economical to employ tlie ellipsoidal (elliptical dished) head
with 2 : 1, ratio of major to minor axis. A ~ ~ i assortment
d e of standard
heads is manufactured, and it is always desirable to use these whenever
192 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 193
possible. The use of a nonstandard liead requires the nrannfacturc of shu\\-ing (he trusrez for support and bubble cap assemblies is given in
additiunal dies needed in the forming process, and thus entails additional Fig. 12-4. Grid and perforated plates are becoming popularl and their
expensc. support is even less of a problem because of the lightweight of such trays.

Nozzles
All process vessels require nuzzles for the fluids t o enter and leave the
vcasel. for drains, l~andhi~les,and uinnholcs. Tlicrc, nozzles may be fabri-
catcd of pipe, pipc couplings, forged steel nozzles, cast steel fabricated
plate, or other suitable material in accordance xith tlic code requircn~ent.
.UthougI~ thc codes'.? permit the usc of both fusirm rveldcd or threaded
attacliments, the usc of tlrrcaded attachnicnts is gencrdly avoided.
Cutting of holes into tlie chell of tlic vessel for the installation of
uozzles !wakens tlic vessel; and, thcrcforc, reinforcement around tlic
nozzlc is required. Detailed rules for such rcinforce~ncntare given in the
codes.',"orged strcl v.elding necks of lengths sufficient t o protrude
hcyond vcsscl insulation are mars-pruduccd by scvcrnl manufacturers.
The lengths uf such nozzles have been standardized, and it is customary
in designing vcssels to adhere to standard lengtl~s,whethcr tile nozzle he
purcllased ur fabricated from pipe. So-callcd melding-type nozzles arc
also available. These arc made x~it11integral reinforcing necks and do
not require tlic additional reinforcement necessary for wclding neck
nozzles.
Connections for srnall drains and vcnts one inch and under are usually
made x i t h pipe couplings. A hole s~nallcrthan the inside dianlcter of
tlic pipe coupling is drilled or cut into thc vessel and the coupling is
w l d e d to the surface of the vcssel unly. The urc of nipplea instead of
couplings is ronaidercd poor practice, since tlie tlircads are constantly
exposed during installation and can easily be daniagcd.

Vessel lnternals
A large percentage of process vcssels requires certain internal elcments Fig. 12-4. Bubble t r y . (Courtesy of Frite \V. Gliisch & Sons, Ine.)
to eflcet the changes in the materials passing through thc vcssel. T h ~ s e Key:
include bubble trays, packing, and packing supports for distillation 1..idjoetablc ~ e i seal
r plate. i 6 7.4. Periphanl tray rlnmp8.
to\\-en, lirating bundles, baffles, agitators, and othcr simililr ilrviccr. 2. Trapezoidal minor blvsa. 8. Removable cap and riser :~ssrmhly.
I'sually, the vesrcl intcrnals are not manufactured by thc vrrsrl f;lhri- 3. Channel-shaped minor truss. 9 6 S.i..Hold-down meclhniw ior
cator, since nlost such items are of special design t ~ n drcquire a tcchnicnl 4 9r 4.4. Top-type tl.usr liangm.s. internal tray mnnlr.:tya.
5. Thermal expansion joint hrlwrm 10 6 10.4. Downromer clamping hst.s.
know-how peculiar to a particular organization. Bubble trays and calls tray floors nnd supporting ~I.II.SCS. 11. Adjustuble ~reirs.
represent a typical example of vessel intcrnals wllich arc purchaseit fro111 6. Intepml minor support in truss. 12. Fabricated stlvctuml majot. l m ~ m .
n ~r~anufacturer specialiaing in tlicse items. T h e vessel fabrieatur, lio~v-
ever, provides the tray supports. I t is dcsirahle for all vessel internals to be designed so that they may
Lightweight alloy steel plates and bubble caps are in extensive use a t bc removcd from tlie nlan\\.wys in the vessel. Large pieces of equipment
this time, and the support problem is 1nuc11 less t h n in the day uf the must be arranged so that they may be taken apart and removed in
heavy rvmt iron tray. A typical modern-type bubble tray arrangeuieiit sections.
 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
194
External Appurtenances
I n a&lition to the nozt,ler, inanholes, and liandholes that m u d he con.
nected to the average process vessel, certain other exterior atta(.li~l~ent?
are usually rcquired. These includc angles for the support of insulatim.
lugs and various brackets for the support of platforms and ladders which
are to be ~ t t a e h c dtu the vessel, and skirts for tlie support of the tower
a t the required elevation. Thcse items are supplied by the vcssel fabrica-
tor and ~velriedto the vessel prior to shipment. Structural grade steel
is normally employed.
Stress Relieving
Residual stresses are produced around the wclded seanis of vessels.
Such strcsscs weaken the vessel a t these points, particularly in thicker
ressels (above 1% in. tliicki. I n these instances and in all c a m where
liiaxiniuro safety is rcquired, the wssel 1s stress-rclieved t o eliniinate
surh residual stresses. Tlie codes',2 permit a higher joint efficiency if
stress relieving is used.*
Strcss relieving is an annealing or heat treating process which relieves
residual stresses. The operation varies, depending on the material of
construction. For instance, carbon steels are heated t o approximately
llOOF and then cooled slowly. Most austenitic stainless steels are
heabed to around 2000" F and then cooled rapidly in order t o prevent
carbide precipitation characteristic of these metals in the range of 800 t o
1600" F. Precipitation of the rarbides in stainless steel destroys the
currosioo resistance.
A mell-equipped vessel fatxication shop has large electrically heated
furnaces capahle of receiving almost any size vessel that can be shipped
in one piece. 1,arge vessels that must be welded in tlie field can be stress-
relieved around tlic rvclds using gas fired portable furnaces. Several low
temperature strcss-relieving processes are also used. These employ
special oxyacetylcnc torches which apply heat to the area a t the welds,
followcd by n water spray.
Because of the widc differences in physical properties of metals, it is
imperative that the propcr stress-relieving procedure be outlined by a
compctent metallurgist.
Radiographing
When the greatest confidence in the soundness of a construction of a
vessel is desired, radiographing (X-raying) of all welds is done in urder t o
detect defects. Hecnuse of the greater kno\vlcdgc oi weld quality, the
codesl.2 permit a lower safety iactor in the form of a higher joint effi-
* S e e Table 12-1.
Vessels 195
ciency. I t is particularly advisable to radiograph the Iargc longitudinal
and circumferential aeams of all important vcssels.
Shop and Field Fabrication
Because of the superior equipment and working conditions in a fahrica-
tor's shop, field fabrication should he kept to a minimum. Large dia~neter
vessels (20 t o 30 f t ) , however, must be field fabricated. Rolled sections
(arcs) of the shcll 7 to 8 f t wide are shipped t o the jobsite. V h e n plan-
ning any vessel over 10 ft diameter by 35 f t long, railroad agents should
be consulted. Sizcs above this d i i c h can be shipped depend largely on tlie
railroad facilities scrving the area. Lengths up to 60 to 80 it have been
handled using special cars, but such shipments must be carefully planned
early in the job.
Vessel Inspection
The vesrcl codes require inspection by somc puhlic inspertnr, such as
state, municipal, or insurance company inspccturs. before the vr.sscl can
he certified as romplying nil11 llw mdcs. Prior to this inspection, the
purchaser should havc inspected the vcsrcl during all phnses oi its
fabrication. This includcs inspection of the plates and heads as they
arrive a t tlic fabricator's shop, study of mill test reports,' and thc
follo~vingof all operations including the final hydrostatic test of the com-
pletcd vessel.?
THEORY OF PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Rules for the design and fabrication of rmfired pressure ressels h a r e
been carefully outlined by two major codcs whir21 arc used by tlie proccss
industries. These are the ASME and the API-ASXIE codes for unfired
pressure vessels.l,2 They are based on the judgment of experts. A11
process vessels should be constructed in accordance with tlic rules of onc
of there codes.
Before proceeding with a discussion of design equations a hricf
theoretical background is desirable. The formulas given in the codes
for determining the minimum shcll and ticad thicknesses are very simple
and easy to use. Many occasional users, therefore, forget the limitation
and the basis of these equations. Such indiscriminate usc, which has
been encouraged by the large numbers of so-called rapid vessel design
calculation charts, lead t o poor design.
* M i l l test reports give the physiral and e h e m i ~ a lproperties oi the piirticul;lr stpel
that was used b y t h e steel mill in ~rrnnufaeturingthe platcs being used f u r the vessel.
i Vesscl~are hydrostatiealiy tcsted t o on?-and-a-half timcs the maximum working
prewurc. A t this test pressu1.c all neklrd joinis are subjertcd t o impact by hammer.
the weight of whirh is equal :ipp~.uximatel>-t o thc t h i c k n w ui the shell in trnths of
a n inrh. A numhrr oi variations of t h r e t w t s nre possihle depending o n the vcssel
size, thickncm, material, and athcr siruilar iiicturs.
196 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 197
. and K ,arc equal 111K thc r:dius of thc spht:n,.
I n the r.ast3 of :I s p h ~ r eR,,,
Thin-walled Vessels
and hecause of this symmetry 110th S, and St arc the same.
Thin-TT-alledvessels as defined by the ASJIE Code have thicknesses
less than one-half of the inside radius.' Such vessels constitute the Ilence,
niajority of tliose encountered in process plants although high prebsure
operation, such as tliat necessary for ammonia synthesis reactors (10,000
to 12,000 psi!, rcquirc thicker walls and the usual analysis for thin ~ ~ a l l s
is not applicable. For thin-mlled vesscls equal stresses along the entire

I n like m;rnucr. wing thc s a ~ n cgeneraliz~~rlequation. Den IIart(1: l ~ a i

ilemonstratrd Biezcno's classical construction of a pressure v c s ~ c lhead
of .?ur:lr currature tliat the ur~nlbranes t ~ ~ s r are
e s the s:urrc urer I~otli1111'
Iicad and 1111.cylinder and the tliicknrssee ;\re constant. I t is interr.sting
t o note that the popular 2 : 1 elliptical hc;rtl very nearly approachc: this
i i l ~ x lshape.

For a cylinder I?,,, is infinite and R Lis equi~l10 lhe ritdiuh of 111~1ryli~rdcr.
Hence
S-,
= +St I'
=

S , = -I'R
=f - I'D,"
2t
thickness of the \\.all enn be assumed. The 1,ressurc a~,tiiignitliin snch a
cylindrical vessel produccs longitudinal and circuinferential or tangential
The ni~ridionalstress, 1vhi1.h in the case of a rylindcr is caller1 the lougi-
dresses as shown in Fig. 12-5. These stresses can be ealculatcd by
t ~ d i n : ~strrss
l (S,,),is ohtained 11y considering the shell in the ~lirertionof
nsi.uming rquilihriun~between tllc opposing forces. The derivation for
th~~ t m t r line.
r From Fig. 12-5 it is seen that the t,otal stress :it the en11
thc riiiil~leryiiniler is familiar t o inany and is givcn in :my standard work
of t h cylinder
~ is aD,,,lS,. Opposing this is the pressure acting in the
on strength of niatcrials. I k n Hartogs has presented a iiiost cnliglitcn-
lorigitudinal direction, 1'aUm2/'4.
ing gcner;tlizcd derivation frolu which equations for any slrcll produced
by rerolntion of a n clement can readily he deduced. His gencml cyuation
is 3s follo~rs:
-S +
, -= S, P
R, R, t
n-here S, = meridional stress, the stress in a plane v i t h the center line of 'l'l~us t l ~ ct;~ngcntinlstrrss is the, larger ;1ni1 nwil 1 1 the
~ only on,. [.on-
rohtion for the membrane and acting perpendicular t o t'lic -i~lerctl in calculating the wall tl~ickncs,*rcquircd fur ;I tllin-w~tllcd
ccntcr line rylinder to \vithrtnnd a givcn internal Ilresture. TIE tangential stress
St = tangcntial stress, acts in a tangcnt t o the circular cross section in a cylinder is often referred to a s the hoop stress.
perpendicular t o the center line
I f 1 = uormal distance between the center line and a point on the Codes
shell (for a cylinder, the radius) Some very excellent rules and regulations governing the design and
X,,= ladius of curvature in meridional plane, infinity for a cylinder fabrication of pre.ssure vesfiels and tanks liavr l w n pulilisl~ctlin the for111
P = internal pressure, psig of codes. The folio!\-ing is a rcpresentativc, hut not romplctc, list of rob
t = thickness of shell wl1i1.11I I Z ~ C i:orui11l:11(~~I
: I I I I ~ i~r~gaiii~:itionr 1111c.sfor ves~1.1:mI t:mk 1~111-
' Thc Al'I-ASME Code specifies one-tenth of iuaide dimnrter. stl'ucti(1n.

198 Project Engineering of Process Plants
\PI-.iSME Code; Unfired Pressure Ywseis for Petroleum Liquids and Gases.
S M E Roiier Code Section VIII; Rules for Constmrtion of Unfired Preszure
l~esiels.
American Petroleum Institute; Specifications for Oil Storage Tanks, Section
xo. 12-C.
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Kntional Board of Fire Underwriters.
.\nrerican Factory Mutual Fire Inzurance Companies.
.\rnericnn Bureau of Shipping Rdps for Clafsificntion and Construction of
Sterl leiiels.
Of thc above named organizations and codes, the code published by the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and that published
jointly by the ASME and The American Petroleum Institute (API)" are
the n u ~ s videly
t used rules for vessel design and construction. Knowledge
of thc historirnl bnrkground of t h e e codes is of valuc in their interpreta-
tion. Samansl' has compared the recent editions of the two codes most
cffectirciy using nn historical approach.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, between the years
1920-1925. forn~ulntcdthe Boiler Construction Code, Section V I l I of
~1-1iichappwred in 1925. This section was thc first edition of ASME
Code for Unfi~erlPressure Vessels. Although it represented t,he first com-
plete conlpilat,ion of such regulations, i t was based mainly on practices
existing in thc steam polver and boiler industries. A t about this same
t,ime the petroleum industry began its remarkable march of progress, and
the need for vessels that could withstand high pressures and temperatures
hccame mnre and morc common in that indudry. Because of the narrow
range of temperatures corered by the AShlE code a t that time, en,oineers
in the petroleum refining industry considered the ASME code of 1925
inariequatc for their use. Their thoughts were prcsented before the Boiler
Codc Committee in 1925, and it was agreed t h a t the pctrolcnm industry
should publish its o\\-n practices and mei,hods of pressure vessel design
for thc benefit of both the petroleum industry and all other process in-
dustrips. A joint cornmittce of the A P I and the AShIE was formulated.
The API-ASME rode which they developed was first issued in 1934 and
was folloa.cd by revised editions in 1936, 1938, 1943, and 1951. Since the
issuance nf the first, API-ASAIE code, the AShlE code has been exten-
sively revised. Tllc latest 1952 edition of Section 8 contains complete
rules for the use of cast iron, nonferrous materials, and high alloy steels
3s well as rules for carbon and low alloy steels corered by the API-ASME
code and previous editions of the AShlE code. The API-ASkIE code, in
fact, now refers to the rules for high alloy steels and clad steels by refer-
*.As hook it w j r lc;+~.nrdthat thr .API-.ASME C O ~ will
n-tmt ti, prrss P be dis-
rotitinilv,l. It ia lwlirvrd, however, that many o~.ganizationswill continue to use
it for several years to come.
Vessels 1W
ence t o the ASXIE code and thus avoids repetition of these regulations,
I t is not surprising that certain differences have developed between the
two codes. many of which are minor and result froln differences in wording
that h a w produced variations in interpretation. Perhaps the m0i.t im-
portant variation is the definition of qualified inspectors; the ASME.: mrle
seems to have improved the system of inspection.
The ASME code now contains a more complete list of permissible
materials and a more recent method for calculating thickness of vessels
subject t o external pressure. These differences are due t o variations in
philosophy that occurred between the groups responsible for formulating
t,he rules.
Situations continually arise in the design and fabrication of pressure
vessels which make int,erpretation of the code difficult. The Boiler Code
Committee, therefore, accepts inquiries about code interpretation and
mccts monthly for discussion. Decisions made in these meetings are sent
I to the inquirer as well as pnhli.hed s ~ ~ h s e q u e ~in~ tJfechnnicnl
lg
ing, the official publicat,ion of the ASME. In like manner, questions can
Engineel.-
i he addressed to the American Petroleum Institute concerning the inter-
pretation of the API-ASME code.
I
! Working Formulas
,I The theoretical formulas present,ed above for thin-walled pressure
i vessels have proved reliable by actual test, and are used in both the M I -
/i ASRfE and ASME codes. The API-AShIE simply adds a corrosion
allowance and an efficiency factor for the longitudinal joints and presents
the formula as follows:
I
where P = maximum working pressure or design pressure, psig
D, = mean diameter in in.
S = allowable working stress, psi (values of S are given in both
codes',2)
E = efficiency of longitudinal joint (values of efficiency vary from
50 t o 95% depending on type of joint and whether stress
relieving and/or radiographing are used. See Table 12-1
for typical values)
C = corrosion allowance in in.
1 = thickness in in.
The use of a mean diameter instead of an inside diameter is an attempt
to more nearly estimate the mean stress value across the thickness of the
shell. A more convenient equation in terms of an inside diameter can be
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Vessels
dereloped from eq. 1 hy ralling

Dm= DI + (Dl + 2 t ) (where D L = inside diameter)

2

Hence t = PD1
2SE - P
+C (2)
T h e A P I L i S J I E code lists cq. 2 and a similar one hased on t,he o ~ ~ t s i r l c
diameter. The .iSJIE approaches the prol~lem of ohtaining n mnrc
accurate mpan stress value by adding 0.ti of the thickncss to t,he radius
glrmg the equation,
I'R
t = (3)
SE - 0.W
where R = insidc radius in in.
C:oniliarisun wit11 equation 2 will indicate only a slight difference if
R is cl~angedt o 1 1 , by multiplying nulucrator and dnlrminator by 2.
Similar comparisons between the basic theoretical equations and the
i\-orking quntiuna presented II? the codes can be given for c:lr.l~ of t l ~ c
v e ~ s e lshapes. It is helpful for the project engineer to bccome fn~riiliar
v i t h the barkground rlf each frequently used formula as given by the
codes so that the limitations may be clearly understoo(1.
I n p a r t i d a s it should he rccognizcd that sllell t11ickncs.s formulas girt!
I~ared on the thickness required for the stresses created by internal
e c . I.(~arlingssuch a3 de:d loads (due to w i g h t of vessel anti
~ , o n t t v t ~n-iml
i . ]<lads,tcmperaturc stresses, and otller lo:& I\-hirh 111:iy
owur l ~ i u s he t considered separntely. Often the ~ v i n dload on n high towcr
\\.ill govvln the thickness of the lower courses of the t m e r .
Frequently w e d vrssel design equations are sr~minarizedfor ronvcniencc
in T:111lc 12-2. Users of this t a l h arc ci~utioned against hlinrl usr of
~ I I I I : I ~TTntil . tlw hmis and limitation of tlicw equations 11ccol11(,
familiar t o the user, reference to the original source shnuld Ilc I U : ~ V .
'The fornlulas for thin-n.allcd vrsscls w r e tiased rln the assan~ption
t l ~ the
t ~~ivcumfercnti:d stress is unifunnly d i d r i l ~ u t c ~across
l the ~v:.xll.
Tlii. ~ ~ r w n l ~ ti ih onotr ~ true, for thick-n.allc~ivessels. 1-arious e q u a t i < l ~ ~ s
:Ire uacd for de-igning such thick vessels. Perry'" gives a good rerimv
of some of these. Accurate calculation is still not l~nssit~le, howcver. 5in1.c
:dl the fo~111u1:1s ~lcvclope(ltlius f a r are 11:w~lon SOIIIV ervonwua U S N I I I I ~ .
tiun. l ~ ~ x ~ ~ c r i .stu~lich
u ~ e ~ ~UIIi ~thick
d c r s 11eing c o ~ ~ d w tI,? d
c y l i ~ ~ ~ l IW
sevmrl Iwgr cllen~icalcun~panicaengaged in high pressure olieratiuns.
Yerifivation of cnlrulatiun pmcedurcs or derelopl~lentof n e x equatiuns
should rtisult from tllis work. A t present it is necessary t o use existillg
data :m1 c ~ ~ l l ~sizable
l u y safety iacturs tu a l l u ~for the 1i111itedknuwicdge
uf tljick-xxll vessel ,lesigti.
202 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 203
I = moment of inertia, (in.I4 SB = allowable stress for buckling,
TABLE 12-2. Summary of Formulas for Design of Thin-Walled
M = bending moment due to xvind, 2 X 1 0 6 ( t / D ) psi
,
Pressure Vessels (Internal Pressure) lb-ft S o = stress due to dead weight, psi
Purpose ASRlE API-.1SRIE P = working pressure. psig S , = longitudinal stress, psi
P. = wind pressure. p f S,,, = stress due to wind, psi
1. Tliirkness of shells R = inside rndius of shell, in. 1 = thickness of shell or head, in.
(Internal pressure) R, = radius to which the head is 11' = weight of vessel. Ih
( a ) Cxlindrical 1 = PR
SE - 0.6P
+C t = PD1
2SE - P
+C dished measured to centerline a t
thickness of crown plate, in.
a = one-half of the included angle of
a cone a t the centerline of the
S = alloanble working stress (see conical head
(b) Spherical 1= PR
2SE - 0.2P
+C t = p,D1
4Sh - P
+c tables in code), psi

2. Heads T h e calculation of thicknesses for shells subjected t o external pressure

(a) Ellipsoidal (2:l) t = PD1
2SE - 0.2P
+C (vacuum vessels) has been presented in the form of charts in both cotles.
T h e detailed design and application of stiffening rings is also outlined.
(b) Dished (standard
ASME with Shell Stresses D u e to D e a d Weight a n d W i n d Loads
Knuckle mdius
6 % of crown) t =
0.885PRc
S E - 0.1P
+C t =
0.885PR,
SE
+C
T h e codes for pressure vessels state t h a t wind loads and loads due t o
dead weight of the vessel and its contents should be considered in analyz-
ing the stresses d-hich occur in a given vessel, but no sperific rules
(c) Hemispherical t = PD1
4SE - 0.4P
+C t=-+C
PD,
4SE governing tliis are stated in t h e code.
On the x i n d r ~ a r dside of a vessel the stresses due to rvind and internal
( d ) Conical 1=
PD,
2 cosa(SE - 0.6P)+ C t = PDc
2SE cos a
+C pressure (in tliis case, longitudinal stress) act t o produce a tension on t h e
vessel wall, while the dead weight stress produces compression and there-
3. Thickness of cylindrical
shells based on combined fore is opposite in sign. On t h e leeward side: the stress due to wind and
loads weight both produce compression, while the longitudinal stress due to
(a) Combined dead internal pressure is again acting in tension and is opposite ill sign. These
weight, internal two conditions can be expressed mathematically as follows:"
pressure, and
wind loads Windward side Windward : S = S, - Su + S, (4 1
Leeward: S = S, + So - 8, (5)

Leeward side where S = allowable stress

2P,y W PD,
1=-
U D ' S + ZS- 4~
1. Buckling
Nomenclature
C =corrosion allownnce. in. D, =inside diameter of a cone a t the
11 =outside diameter of shell, in. point of consideration, in.
D' = outside diameter of shell includ- L), = mean diameter of shell, in.
ing insulation, in. E = joint efficiency, fraction (see
DL = inside diameter of shell, in. codes)
D, = mean diameter of a cone a t the h = distance from top of vessel to
point of consideration, in. point under consideration, ft
S, = stress due t o mind load
So = stress due t o dead r ~ e i g h t
S, = l o n g i t ~ u d i a stress,
l PD,/4t
F o r estimating purposes the allowable stress in t h e ahove formulas m a y
be taken a s the joint efficiency multiplied by t,llc allowable working
stress listed in the codes for t h e material in question.
I n addition t o the conditions considered thus far, the x i n d and dead
weight loads can also produce buckling on the leeward side of a cylindrical
vesscl. T o be on the safe side, i t is advisable t o assume t h a t the internal
*The ahove analysis is hnwd an the most commonly used and simplest t,heow.
the maximum stress theory. Other theories in use include t h e maximum strain,
maximum shear, and modified strain-energy. Brummerstedt%eviews these theories.
204 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels
l ~ r r s ~ l lisr l ~
ZI~rofor tl~isr a l ~ : ~ ~ h t5inw I I : I ~ i11f'rr;l.w~tile
i ~ ~ n~. I I ~ , , I ,pr?>.llrc Ilence suhst,it,uting in eqs. 4 and 5
stal)ility of a v e s ~ r l . Thc allo~vahleFtrcs. for hnrkling is equal to thc
stres:: due to vind lciad plus that h e to dead \vcight loail ISR = s, + S,,
1,. 11. L)ol~ncll" has 'lone eonsidcrable expcri~nentalrvo1.k on the hurkling
I \ \ ~ i n d ~ ~ -allon
a r d able stress = S =
2lh2
--- - .-
IV
+-PD,
T I ) ' ~ TI),,,~ 4t
of shclls and has dcreloped the following empiric:d equation for cvnlu:~t-
ing t l ;~llo\\-:~hlc
~ rtrt,~.

21',h2 If7 - -
I'D,
Leeward allowdjlc stress = S = -- +
T I ) ' ~ nL),,i 41
whew l sh~,lli hirkncss
=
I< sll~!llr:~(lius
=
I:' = m~ululusof ~,lasticiLy
S, = yield point,
.Jnrgmsen7 has simplified this formnls for the usu:~l carhon steel shcll to
S H = 2 X 106(i I>) ~r-hichW:IS d ~ r i v e using
~ l a factor of si~fctyof 4 on this
stress ralrul:itnd from 1)onnell's formula.
r .
1 he :~llm\-ahlcstress formulas can he further cxpanrletl as folio\\-s:
.111)'12 (Imsed on the \veil-kn~nvn hcnding stress The above three formulas and that for the. rircumfcrential stress sl~onlrl
\\'ind lo;~d= S,, = -
formnla, l~cn~ling
momentsection modulus I
21 he used to determine the controlling thickness. Since the operating weight,
of a vessel depends on the thickness finally chosen, the m i g h t must first
where '11 = Ijcnding moment be assumed. Several short cuts t o this estimate have been suggested.
P,,
=
=
( 1 , 2 ) P , X (D'j12)h2lb of force-ft
unit wind pressure, * psf
+
.Jorgensen7 has developed a formula: TI' = 1.5.lillht 0.1G3h112 for in-
sulat,ed towers having cast iron trays. Nelson%uggests calculating the
D' = outside diameter of slicll in in. Inrlu~lesinsulation and 'or w i g h t based on the thickness t and height h, using a metal density of
other projections 0.283 lh!cu in., and then increasing this value by 18 per cent. Lo allox for
h = distanre from top of vessel to point, lwing considered, f t liquid, insnlation, trays, etc. Employing this procedure eq. 8 for the
I = moment of inertia xindward side becomes
= approximately a ( D ' ) W 8 , (in.)'
1 =
2P,,.h2
-
TI)'
- - +
PI),, '4
1 = thi~,laessof shell in i n S +
411 (11)

Hence eq. 9 for thc lee11 an1 side becom~s

2fJ,,RhD.
' - PI),. ' 2
48 P , D ' h ' V P-
,h2 t = (12)
- - - S - 4h
24a(Df)'t TD'~
Dead load: and cq. 10 iur buckling 11rc111nt.s

where TV = weight of vessel plus i n t e n d s and liquid Eq. 11 through 13 provide a method for estimating thickness for
I), = mean diameter of shell in in. typical to~vers. Eq. 8 t l i r ~ ~ u g10,
l ~ howrwr, should he u s d whcn nrorc
*The unit wind pressure is related t o thp wind velocity by an empirical formula accurate information is reqnirrrl and the thickness ran t h ~ nhe rletm-
dercloprd hy tlic TJS. Weatlier Bureau. 100 mph wind is agpl.oximately e q u i d e n t n ~ i n d11y succwsivc al)prmiiootiu:~of t l ~ rweigl~t.
to 30 psi; a 125 mph \I-ind, to 40 psf. In c x t r ~ ~ n c tall I ) I I P C ~ 011 the internid p r e ~ u r e
l y t o w w the thick~~rils
i
206 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 207
alone is often not adequate to x i t h s t a n d the combined stresses produced others several thicknesses m a y be indicated. Each case must be con-
by wind and u-eight. Sincc there stresses increase from top to t h e bottom sidered separately. Generalizations are to he aroided.
of the tou-er, i t is usually economical to increase t h e thickness of the lower T h e a b o r e principles and c q u a t i m s arc briefly illustrated in the fol-
~~-

lowing example. T h c calcnlations represent only the preliminary thick-

ness calculations in p r e s u r r ressel design. Detailed stress calculations
when necessary lnupt he mndc b y a competent vessel designer skilled in
engineering mechanics.
Item No. T-lo/ EXAMFLE: .I process sketch of a fractionating tower is given in Fig. 12-6.
Service P / m f 8 FeedStob//,rer Prepare the mechanical design assuming a maximum !%-ind velocity of 125
Inside Diameter 7t0" miles/hour (equivalent to 40 psi <rind pressure). Design in accordance with
Length the API-ASI\IE Code. TTse ASTM A-70 Firebox Grade Steel and double-welded
(Tangent toTongent) ~ 3 ~ 0 " butt joints. No stress relieving or radiographing is required.
Operoting Temperature O F 550
Operating Pressure psig /00 THlcKNEss O F SHELLREQUIRED PRESSURE
FOR INTERKAL
Design Temperature O F 600
Design Pressure
l20>,
Corrosion Allowonce 5%
Weir Height 3"oN t r o w From API-ASME Code: E = 0.80
Downcomer Clearance / " o// tmys S = 13,750

NOZZLES

-
No. Size IInches1 -
Service Nearest Practical Thickness = in.
/ /6 Overhead Vopor
COK~IDERING STRESSESAT BOTTOM TANGENTLINE
2 3 Ref/un
3 /'? F e e d /n/et* Estimated operating weight (not including skirt), Dm = 7.05 ft
4 16 Reboiler Pounds
(Make Tongenfio/) Cylinder: (1/12) (5/8) (a) (7.05) (53) (489) = 30,000
5 8 Bottoms
Heads (two a t 1622) = 3.244
-2---

Trays (alloy steel trays 26 psf) (a) (7)'(26) = 15,000

4
3( Des;gn h t e r n o l disfributor to Liquid on trays (base on water and 3 in. depth)
provide even d i s f d u t i o n across
length of troy. ( 1 5 ) [ ( ~(7)2/41(V12)
) (62.4) = 9,000
Liquid in bottom of tower (7 ft)

Nofe: Provde manwoys, ?ope q/oss.

ondlevel control connecfions.
Insulation (3 in. plastic insulation) = 8,600
85.494 1b
Weight of water when full during hydrostatic test = 133,000
Fig. 12-6. Process vessel sketch. Weight of vessel full of water = 189,844t

section of the tower. Fabrication procedures and plate costs must be THICKNESSBASEDON WINDWARD STRESSES AT BOTTOY TANGENT
considered in selecting the thicknesses. Theoretically, t h e thickness of W PD
a tall shell should increase steadily from t o p to bottom. Such a design
S = (13,750)(0.8) = 11,000 =
2 P ha - -
aD't aDt 41
+-
is, of course, impractical. I n some rases a single-:hell thickness equal t o *Volume of 7-0"ID 2 : 1 elliptical head.
the maximum required a t the bottom m a y prove the most economical. I n +
t 85,494 - 9,MH) - 19,650 1 3 3 , m = 189,844.
208 Project Engineering of Process Plants
= 0.072 - 0.0292 + 0.232 = 0.2748 in.
THICRNESBASED
O N LGEWARDSTRESSES
2P,hZ
s=-- + - -IV- PD,
sD't sD,t 4s
Inspection indicates this not to be controlling.
THICKXESS Use reight full of vnt,er ns a-orst ron<lition.
BASEDox BRUCKLISG.
= 9500 approximately (based on corroded thickntss, 0.625 - 0.125 = 0.500)
All of the above ralues are less than the unmrrod~dthickness based nn tho
circumferential pressure; hence the 1:~ttcris controlling.
Design Conditions
The allowable working stress t o be used in the various for~nulasis
given in tabular fonn in each of the codes. It is t,he minimum tensile
strength of the particular mctal divided by a safety factor. This factor
is 6 for the A S N E Code u p t o 650" F, and 4 for the API-ASME Code.
The allul~-ablestress corresponding to the design trmpcmture should hc
selected from t,he applicable tabulation. T h e maximum working prcssure
or design pressure and the design temperature must be selected by thc
vessel designer in cooperation with the project or process engineer. As
spccificd by the codes, thc design prcssurc should certainly not he 1c.s
than the maximum relief valve settings. It is customary t o use a design
prcssurc of appnlximatcly 20% above the niaximum operating pressure
anticipated. Unusual operating conditions m a y require selection of
higher design pressures. I n a similar manner, the design temperature
should be chosen a t a reasonable value above the normal opcrating tem-
perature, such as 50". Higher margins of safety may be used in processes
where greater increases in temperature are possible. It should he re-
membered t h a t every possible contingency cannot be considered in the
design, since the cost would then become prohibitirc. But the vessel
should be designed t o withstand all reasonable possible contingencies, and
suitable pressure-relieving devices should he installed t o protect the vessel
aiid the personnel in ease ol unusual situations.
Vessels 209
DEVELOPMENT O F A VESSEL DESIGN
Setting Basic Dimensions
The size and shape of no st proccss vessels are determined by the
process eugineer. B y training and experience he is the logical pcrson t o
make such decisions. The diameter and height of a distillation toner
;ire sct n-ithin limits, by thc distillation design calculation. The rolume
of accumulator drums. reactors, and scttling tanks are similarly dictated
by the process calculation. Anyone n-ho has made such ~.alculntions,
Ilorrercr. realizes that tlwre is ronsiderahlc Icc!!-ay possible in thi. final
1,110ice. For cxuniple. nn accumulator drum nus st have a certain rolunie.
hut an infinitc 11un1hi'r of lengtl~to diameter ratios can be cniploycd ti1
give t h a t volume. Other factors being equal, i t is necessary t o choose the
mart economical design. Brunimerstedt~ llnr sho~vnthat a length t o
diameter ratio of 3 : 1 or 4 : 1 is most eronouiical for l o ~ vprcssure tanks in
the range irom 50 to 75 psig, and length to diamcter ratio of froni 4 : 1 t o
6 : 1 is preferablr for prcssllres a l ~ o r c100 11sig. Other fartors. sncli w.+
plant layout, appearnnce, and foundation conditions must also ht: eon-
sidcrcd. Ahove all, the process engineer must specify wssels so that
standard materials can be employed throughout. The usc of sta~liiard
heads, for instance, rill avoid extra charges for special pattemp.
T h e prucess engineer ~villdo well to consult with the resscl designer
during the early stagcs of vessel planning so that tllc most econmnical
design can be realized Engineers concerned with the detailed mechanical
dcsign and fa1)sication of :t vessel are not in a position to c11:mge basic
dimensions, sincc it is asramecl that tllesr d i ~ u c n s i m s: ~ r crcquire~llor the
process. It is, therrforc, irnpcrative t h a t the basic dimensions ho set in-
telligently by the pr(~cessengineer s i ~that t11t.y ill fulfill hut11 I ~ r w c s s
rcquiremeiits and tilt: rrquirmicnts of economical design.
Materials of Construction
Selection of the materials of construction for the vessel must be a
rooperatire effort between thc ~ c s s c lilcsigncr, projcct enginper, and
process engioccr. The ~uctnl:,cuiployrd must rrsist corrosive or crusirc?
conditions and must also ]lo.2scss sufiicient strength a t tlic ol~cratinpt m ~ r -
perature and prcssurc t o permit a practiml dcsign. V i s e sclectiun oE
materials will insure lo\!- uiaintm:mrc costs a n ~ iImv first cost?.
.4uy attempt t o list recommended materials vuuld bc incnmpletc and
niislwding. Selection of materi:rls for rorrosion resistance in particular
is an euq)irii.al science which depends on the exact conditions of uw
including even t h r presence of t r a r r irn1)aritii.s in tilt, r r ~ v i r i ~ u ~ l i rsur-
ut
rounding the mctal. Ihginecrs sliould urr so-called "linndy" material
icli~ctiunr11:uts wit11 r:wticnl. F : s ~ ~ t ~ i ~ ~ results,
i m t a l p r ~ v i o u s~ ) l a u tex-
210 Project Engineering of Process Plants
perience under similar conditions, or the opinion of a corrosion expert
are the only safe guides.

Transmitting Process Specifications \

The most efficient means for transmitting information about vessels and
tanks is by sketch or drawing. The process engineer can make a simple
~ k e t c bof the vessel which indicates the operating condition. the number
and size of nozzles and types of internals required (Fig. 12-6). H e also
s h o d d recommcnd the material of construction (particularly in the rases
involving corrosive fluids) and the thickness of insulation. Any require-
ments which are unique or unusual should he discussed with the v e s d
designer. T h i ~includes the proper c , ~ r ~ o s i oallorvance
n to he used in
determining tlie thickness of the vessel.

Detailed Mechanical Design

After receiving the process sketch, the ~ ~ e s sdesigner
el can procccd wkh
the detailed mcchaniral deaign of the vessel. Tlic design is invariably
based on one of tlie codes (API-AShlE or ASME) ; the choice of code is
usually dictated by tlie industry for which thc vessel is being designed.
If t h r w is no preference on the part of the ultimate user, the designer is
free tu use his judgment. Many states and cities h a r e codes or special
requirenicnts that must be fulfilled, although a large number of thesc
are based directly on the A H - A S M E or A W E codes. A summary of
these reqnirements for thp United States and Canada is cuntained in
Synopsis of Boiler Codes, Rules and Regnlations b y States, Provinces,
and Cities, Kational Bureau of Casualty and Surety Undcrwriters.lj
There is, of course, no rule forbidding construction superior t o t h a t out-
lined by the codes, and in inany cases the ultimate user or the designer
elects to follorr- certain rules in order t o realize a better design. I n such
eases, specifications arc written by the designer, uvhich include appropriate
references t o the code as well as the additional requirements which are
desired.
After completion of the initial mechanical design, which includes cal-
culation of the required tliickness of the sl~elland heads, a preliminary
sketch of the vessel is made which shows the major details including the
size and number of nozzles. Exact location or orientation of the nozzles
is not attempted. This initial sketch can be made in such a form t h a t
it will eventually, after suhsequent revisions, become the final and
complete vessel drawing, or it can be made on a smaller-size sheet as a
temporary working dra~ving. I n either event,, it finds its greatest use a s a
means of transmitting preliminary information t o vessel fabricators for
the purpose of obtaining quotations. Since steel plate and other materials
 VESSEL DATA I

I '
SECT. B-@

9 6" ISOf R F REBolLER T O I

8 1 1" I 3001IRF ( LEVEL GAGE 2
MANUAL WELDING
7 1 2' 1 3 0 0 'RF 1 LEVEL CONTROL
~ ~ . - I I ?

6 12. 150'RF REBOILER RETURN I

5 3 150'RF BOTTOM OUTLET I
I E-2 SPLITTER
SPECIFICATIONS FOR:
4 10' 150XRF VAPOR O U T L E T I
3 2'' 3OOfRF REFLUX I N L E T 1
CUSTOMER:
2 4' ISDXRF FEED INLET 2
1 18 ID. 150'RF MANWAY FURH15H COYEP h, WLT5
NUTS AND GASKETS 2 SECT. A-A
CONN.
SERVICE REMARKS NO.
REq'D
I I I I I
REMARKS: A. W R GENERAL NOTES 5EE OP-545-64A UEVA 3-11-55 ADDED CROSS ANGLE AND NO. REVISED BY
8. TRAY5 TO 8 E V4'THICK CARBON STEEL WITH 10 GA. C5. RISERS AND 12 GA.TYFE 410 ALLOY CAPS.

REV8 3-21.55
-
ADJUSTABLE WEIR TO
WWNCOMER
REDUCED SKIRT HEIGHT
FROM 10LO' TO 5'0:
-
REVC 328.55
-
ADDED NOTES A & 6
REDUCE0 CONN. 2 TO 4'

Fig. 12-7. Vessel drawing, e n g i n e e r i n g c o m p l e t e . (Courtepy of F o s t e r W h e e l e r Corporation.)

 Vessels 21 1
j required for fabrication of vessels often have long delivery timcs, it is
necessary to place the order for the vessel as soon as possible. and it is
not feasible to wait until a final design lms been made. Once the order
has been placed, the vessel design can he developed ti] an extent sucll
Trc rllat t h fabricator
~ can p u r c h a s ~the major material items, such 3:- shell
plate and heads.
ta~ The plant design procee~lssinlultaneously witli the devclopn~entof the
hkl ressel design and as piping dra~vingsare complctcd, tlie orientation of
an nozzles and manholes and exact li~cations of vessel internala can be
shi finalized. The vessel drawing is then completed after being cllecked by
inx the piping designers for orientation and possible interferences, thc struc-
me tural steel designers for location of lugs, the process engineer for process
de requirements, and the project engineer for economical design and process
det requirements.
Vessel dmwings pass through the hands of a number of different,
cngineera for checking and cunimcnts. I t is important that the engineer
who is asked to check such a drawing check only those features f i r ~vllirh
his training and experience qualify him. I t is a waste of tinic for 3 pvocesa
the or project engincer t o concern himself witli a detailed clicck of the mechan-
bar
ical design of the vessel.
USL
An example of a finished vessel drawing is given in Fig. 12-7. I t will
If
bc noted that important information such as design conditions. operating
free conditions, code, and material specifications appear on the drarving. T h e
req I weight of the vessel d l e n both empty and full of watcr should he in-
are !
eluded since this helps the structural and foundation groups plan their
tllc
work.
S!/7
It has been found by most companies t h a t nozzle details and support,
anc
Th,
lint
1I dctails, such a s saddles and tower base plates, are nmst i.onvenicntly
standardized. I t is unnecessary, therefore, t o repeat, t h e details on each
1 drawing; instead, a standard drawing is included as an attachment to
clec
cas, I the individual vessel drawings.
Tlic fabricator prepares shop drawings from the vessel dra~vingreceivcd
reft
from the purchaser's engineering department. These shop drawings w e
lies
working drawings for use by thc welders, boilermakers, and machinists.
A
Standard d d i n g symbols, a portion of ~vhirliis shown in Fig. 12-8, are
cul:
used t o guide thc welders in their operations.
ske
It proves worthwhile for the purchaser's engineers to check tlie fabrica-
size
I tor's dra~vingsagainst the original vessel drawings since it is possible for
is r I the fabricator to misinterpret certain features of the original drawings.
it . This checking should be done without delay so that the fabricator can
cox
continue tiis work. Last-minute changes in the vessel design or specifi-
te~r.
cations should be avoided unless absolutely necewary. Even the smallest
me2
change can cause considerable delay, confusion, and expense
the
212 Project Engineering of Process Plants
~. ~ ~~~

BASIC ARC A N D GAS W E L D S Y M B O L S

TYPE O F W E L D

PLUG GROOVE
BEAD FILLET OR
SLOT SQUARE V BEVEL U J

BASIC RESISTANCE W E L D SYMBOLS

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
T Y P E OF W E L D
FLASH WELD CONTOUR
SPOT SEAM OR ALL
JECTION UPSET AROUND WELD FLUSH CONVEX

STANDARD LOCATION OF E L E M E N T S OF A WELDING S Y M B O L

I
F ~ n i s hsymbol Groove angle, n c l u d e d
angle of countersnk for
Contour symbol plug welds

R o d a w n i n g ,depth of Iilbng Lenglh of weld

l o r plug ond r o t welds
P S I C (~c e n ~ e r v t o ~
S z e , w e or strength center1 of weds
for r e i s t o n c e w e d s
Weld a l l
Reference n e around symbol

F ~ e l dweld
S p e c f c a t l o n process
symbol

T O (may beomitted
when reference I S not u s e o )
Arrow connecting
201ic weld symbol reierence l n e to

Fig. 124. Standard wrlding symhols. (R~ilt.:imnhy pet.mis?ion, 11'eirling llnnrlb~rni~.

.\n~el.ivan \Velding Socirty.)

REFERENCES
1 . APl-AS.\IE Code f o r Unfiied Pirsraii. l'esnels, 8111. Soc, hlech. Engrs.. Smv
York (1951).
XCU. l w k
2. ASJIE Code (01. Cvfii-ed Pressure I~rawla,Am. Soe, h l ~ c l l Engl.~..
.
(1052) and (1956).

HEAT
EXCHANGERS
Chemical processes invariably require the addition or removal of heat.
Careful design and application of heat exchangers, thcrcfure, lins t w o m e
a n important consideratiun in plant design.
The completc design of heat exchangers is seldom the job of the pl.ocess
engineer or the project engineer. Such equipment is generally purchased
from the heat exrhanger manufacturer and is designed and guarantecd by
the manufacturer. The project engineer, hoverer, niust nndcratand the
methi~dsof designing and fabricating heat exchangers. An undrrstaniling
of these techniques permits closc coopcration tletrecn the projcct enginccr
and the manufacturer's representatives, a cooperation that can rave both
time and expense.
HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES
Many different types of heat exchangers are manufactured. A few of
the most widely used heat exchanger types will he discussed t~elov.
Special designs can alxays be deviscd, which may be advantageous for
a particular application. It is, however, preferable to use standard
designs or so-called "stock" i t e m wherever possible. Exchanger man-
ufacturers are able to produce certain exchanger types and sizes on an
assembly-line production basis. Any deviation of conscquencc from these
stock designs will require special operations and, therefore, increases in
cost.
21 4
Heot Exchangers 215
Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger
As tlie n a n ~ eimplies, the double-pipe heat
exchanger consists of t ~ v oconcentric pipes.
One fluid flo~vsin the internal pipe and the
other in the annulus hetwccn thc inside and
outside pipes. Such exchangers are m o d con-
veniently arranged in the form of hairpins,
similar to the extended surface exchanger of
Fig. 13-1. Thc usual practical length of these
hairpins is twenty it,. Such exchangers are
very easily made in practically any shop and
rontinue t o prove useful where very small
surface requirements exist (approximately
100 sq f t ) .
Double-Pipe Extended Surface Exchangers
One of the advantages of thc double pipe ex-
changer is its Ion. cost. .i dcsire t o benefit from
this lor7 cust and a t tlie sanic time to h a w the
advantages of larger surfaces proinpted the dc-
velop~nentof the extcnded surface tube. Typ-
ical examplcs of puch tubes arc shown in Fig.
13-2. The longitudinal fin is used most fre-
quently in double-pipe exchanger dcsign (Fig.
13-1). Transverse fins are employed princi-
11ally for cross-flow arrangements in either ex-
tcndcd aurfacc tubc-and-shell exchangers or in
air-cooled exchangers which are growing more
pq)ular in arras whcre water scarcity is a prob-
l e m Usc of fin tubes is particularly desirable
for gases, viscous liqnids, or strearus of small
flow rate. Such fluids pruduce high resistances
to heat flow, which are partially or7ercume by
thc larger effectire area introduced by the fins.
For surface requirenients below 1,000 sq ft the
use of extendcd surface double-pipe exchang-
crs often eRects a considerable saving. Par-
ticular consideration s h d d be given tu such
units for surfaccs below 500 sq ft. The d o ~ ~ t ~ l e -
pipc sections can he arranged in r o w and
connected in series (Fig, 13-3).
Fig. 13-1. Extended swiner double-pipe exchanger;
G-fin. (Courtesy oi Griscam-Russell Company.)
 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 217
the otlirr fluid. I n s l ~ e l l - : ~ n ~ l i-qt u~i~pll ~~ ~ ~this
, n t i.5 ~iiostne;irly olj-
proaclied by the so-called "1-1 exchanger" n-hidl consists of one shell pass
and one tube pass (Fig. 13-4). If a 1-1 eschanger is supplied with a float-

Arrongernent of four parallel bonks
of three sections connected in series.
Tube rennertorr are used to connect
the elements of each bonk in series,
with 90" threaded adaptors being
supplied for the tube inlet and out-
let <onnections. Inlet and outlet
shell manifolds <onnett tho four
bonks in poraliel.

Fig. 13-3. Typical arrangement oi doublc-pipc exelmiger sections: G-fin. (Gout.-

tesy of C.riseom-Russell Company.)

Fig. 13-2. T i I l l i I : : ( u ) , ( h ) , ( c ) , and ((1) rmss-fins: ( c )

1li11-fins;( / I I m g l I ~ l d m ~fins
l I R c p ~ i n l t dhy lximiwr,n, R. J. Sldi;,, C i ~ c c z .Eag.,
61. X o . 12. 142 (1051) :airrl hewn Fintuhr Conrpnny.)

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

I(!. h r tile most ii-idcly u m l heat cxcha~rgertype is the shell-and-tube.
.Is lieat ~ , x r l ~ a n gsarfncc
r r r ~ q u i r c ~ ~ w nhccmnc
ts large, rlouhle-pipe es-
r,l~nngcr ~lwignz rcquirc cxccssive spacc. Tlic shell-md-tube design,
hoirever. p r ~ ~ v i d c21slarge, surface area per unit volume of space occupied.
Alttr~nigl~dificring in cr,rt:iin d c ~ i g ndetails, thcrc arc z e v t ~ a lstandard Fig. 13-4. One-onc erchangrr: single-pass slrcll, single-pnss t u t r s , fixed t l d ~sheet.
I - I - I cxc.11ang1.r types fnbriciite~l by all rxcllmger manufac- (Courtesy oi Engineers and Fahriearors. Inc.)
turers. .ipprosi~l~atcly ninety per cent of all l x a t exchange duties can he
I~andledby onc or t.he other of the basic designs. ing head on the tube bundle (Fig. 13-9). the outlet nozzle on the Hoating-
Lead side must pass through a packing gland, since i t must be free t o
Counterflow 1 - I Exchanger move with the floating head. The 1-1 cxcliangrr is employed \\-hen tube-
of hcnt con be nccomplisl~edhy a counter-
Tlic n ~ u s trflicimt c\;cl~:il~g~, side friction losses must be kept to a niininlun~and when temperature
:wwnuwiwt ill I\-lii~hm e fluiil flows in an oppositc direction fruin
li<~r\- requirements are such t h a t true countercurrcmt floiv IIIII-t be used.
218 Project Engineering of Process Plants
1-2 a n d 2-4 Exchangers
The 1-2 exchanger, as illustrated in Fig. 13-5, consists of one shell
pass and two or more tube past3- It.wn numljcr of t n l ~ rp a w s I . 'This
design is perhaps the most c o n ~ m t ~ofn all shell-am-tube excl~angcraand
Fig. 13-5. One-two exihnngcr: single-pnsi: shcll, two- pa^ tubes, removable tuhe
bundle. (Courtesy oi Enginecra and Fabrientors, Inc.)
it is the simplest to maintain. I n the 2-4 exchanger, as illustrated in
Fig. 13-6, two shcll passes in a single shcll are provided by installation of
a longitudinal baffle. This exchanger may have two or more eren-
numbered tube passes.
Fig. 13-6. TKO-four exchanger: two-pass shell, four-pas tubes. rcmovnble tihr
bundle, cross baffles arrmged for side-to-side flow. (Coul.tesy uf Engincrls and
Fahl.icntors, Inc.)
Shells with more than two shell passes are impractical but the advan-
tages of additional shell passes can be obtaincd by connecting exchangers
in series. I n this manner two 1-2 exct~angeraconnected in series would be
equivalent to une 2-4 exchanger. The two-shell pass exchanger is more
Heat Exchangers 219
difficuli to maintain. eincc the longitudinal baffle requires a more complex
(lesign. The tx\-o-pass shell is hest used for clean fluids.
Reboilers
The primary sourcc of heat supply to most distillation columns is thc
reboiler. -1 reboiler is a heat exchanger designed to supply heat anrl
permit easy control of dist,illation toxer conditions. One of the earliest
Vapor out
t
Liquid in Liquid out
Fig. 13-i. Kpttlc-type reboilcr: removable two-pass tube bundle. (Courtpry of
Engineers and Fnhsicntors. Inc.)
methods for supplying heat to the bottom of the distillation colurnn was
t o insert an exchangcr hundle in the t~ottomof the tower. Thiv is still
done in somc cases hut is not very popular because maintenance is more
of a p r o l l e n ~ . Largc bundles in to~versare difficult to design and cumber-
some t o service.
Kettle-type rehoilcrs (Fig. 13-7) are ronstructed similar t o small
evaporators. A uwir is loc~tctia t the cnd of thc bundle so that the liquid
completely covers it. -4 large vapor space is provided. All the heat
furnished by the kettle-rcbuiler is returned to the tower hy the overhead
vapom from the reboilcr. Tlic kettle-reboilcr, therefore, acts as a srpara-
tion stage similar to a tl~eorcticalplate.
Thermo-syphon rehoilers, as illustrated in Fig. 13-8, are the most com-
monly used in the process indnstry. The thermo-syphon design is sirnilar
to a standard shell-and-tube heat exchanger except that t,he inlet and
outlets are usually located in the middle of the shcll so t h a t flow can be
divided equally between the two halves of the exchanger. This divided
flow arrangement insures low pressure drops on the shell side.
220 Project Engineering of Process Plants
The liquid from tlrc 11ottmr of the distillatim ton-cr passes to the
tlrerni~~-s>-pI~onrrhoilrr nnid is partially vaporized. This less dcnsc
liquid-1-allor ~iristurethen p:i-xs h c k to tlir ton-cr. Thc ~ x t eof cir-
cul:ition is gox-erue<lI I the
~ l~rcs.!ure i1riq1 tlrro~~gli
tlic .rstem :rnd tlrc
driving force produced 11y the diffwcnce in liquid den-ity on one side and
Vapor plus
lhquld out
t ioi~lingfluids since tlii,? are more econonrically Irandled inside tlrc tul~r-.
I 11t~:rilsnrr in use. I f t h liwrl is the split ring type, the floating I i t d
Liquid in
liquid-valwr density 011 tlrc 11tlrrr ;.irk of the system. Careful considera-
tion must 11c givcri to tlir ~lesipnof i~ipingf , rt h e s ~ n ~ ~ - ; y p treboile~s
i ~ ~ n SII
t h t circulstion ~villnut he liuriteil by cxcessi1.c pressure drop in the
~'ipingsystenr. A safety factor of a t least t x o should be applied to all
pressure drup calculations connected with rt,boilcr piping design.
Condensers
Conden,scrs are usu:dly ctan11:lrd 1-2 excl:angers rritti vapor belt or
annular distributors on thc vapor inlet nozzle. This design pcrmits hetter
distribution of the valmr and elinrinatcs excessive entrance losses. Other
~u~~rlitieations
arc nrade such as the :~rrangvmentof inlet and outlet nozzles
for split flow in order to keep pressure drop to a niinimum.
Vertical Exchangers
Although tlrc majority of heat exchangers are placed in the horizontal
position, certain situations arise in xhich a vertical exchanger is prefer-
able. A vertical condenser is often preferable t o tlrc horizontal condenser
~ ~ I r esubcooling
n is required. Suhcooling can be acco~nplished in a
Irorizontal cirrici~~nscrby l~roviding:I loop seal so t h a t a portion of the
t u l w is corcred by liquid, hut thc aluount of surface covered is not pru-
Heot Exchangers 221
postioual to the height r ~ liquid.
f 1l:rny ol~r.mti~r.: hrlierr that iulmwlini:
in' vc~rticalrontlenscrs is better controlled than in the liurizontal con-
~lenscrs. T h e vertical unit, however, is more difficult to rervire and
require-. a clear space aborc it equal t o its lengtlr so t h ~ the
t tuhe hr~nrllr
can he removed.
Horizontal rehoilprs arc t h ~most T\-idcly I I P P ~ .hut v ~ s t i r a lwhoilrr-
are prcf~rrccifor ccrtail~in?tall:rtions. 1 1 1 v,,rtic:rl sd1111I(,sst11r 1 1 r o ~ +
-trc:un is usually passed inside the tuhc. This is an advantage for
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Nomenclature and Parts
I n I'ig. 13-9 the iri~lrortantpasts of a 11ei1texchangc~~wr.sIrr~\r-nirnll tlrc
u s i ~ s ltclminology c ~ u p l ~ ~inydescribing
~d these part.; is g i r t - n Tn :rdrli-
tion to the floating hracl design illustrated, several otlier types of he;ul;
Iran he provided. If expansirln is not a l~roblenr,fixerl-tulle sheets and
fiam-hvad e a r l r n r ~ ~ c rcan
s he used. Tliese esrlrangrrs arc rheaper t l r m
tlie floating lrcntl rxchangers hut provide no means for alleviati~m of
ciiilesentiul esl~:rri~ion n slrcll and tuhes. TKOtypes of floating
l ~ r t ~ w ethe
cover must be reuioved hefose the tube hundlc. Tlre "pull-tlrrouglr" float-
ing lienil is designrd so t h a t the head diameter is less than the di:uircter
of tlie sllell. T h e tube bundle c:tn then he remored \vitli(lut ren~o\-ingt l r ~
flo:rting head corer. T h e poll-tlrrougli arrangement, iio\~ever,retlurcs
t,Irr number of tubes that can he l~lacedin a shell of a given diameter.
I n ordcr t o avoid the use of a floating head and internal girslieting, it
is possil~lrto enrploy r - t u b e s to make up a tuhe bundle. T h e W x n d s
ex[)and freely ~vitliteml~eraturechange. Sin1.e cleaning 11f such l~uncllcz
is a difficult task, their use is restricted to only (.lean fluids.
The segmental bafles shomn in Fig. 13-9 are the most xidcly used
means for providing proper distribution of the shell-side fluids. Orifice-
type l~afflcsform annular spaces around each tuhe through n.11icl1 the
shell fluid parses and can be used for clean, nonfouling fluids. T h e
limited usefulness of the orifice-type Imffle, as w l l as prcjudiccs against
it by many former users, has p~acticallymade i t obsolete.
Coil-in-Box Cooler
K h c n adequate x a t e r supply is available, the sulxncrged pipe roil, or
coil-in-box cooler, is one of the clrcnpest cooling surfaecr. Material t o
he cooled passes tlirouglr a series of straiglit pipes connected by return
bends. T h e entire coil is placed in a large trouglr or box ronstructe~lof
roncrete, wood, or steel. Cool water usually enters the hottoiu of the
box and passes over a weir from the opposite end. It is simple to huild
llilw coils, and the boxes arc usually large enougl~t o acconrnrodate addi-
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Heat Exchangers 223
tional lengths of coils as other cooling loads become necessary. This
flexibility, together with the low cost and ease of replaring corroded or
eroded tubes, n l a k r thc coil-in-box cooler popular for cooling corrosive
or erosive streams. They are particularly useable i&en the outlet tem-
perature is not critical, as in cooling matcrials to be pumped to storage.
Temperature control of the coil-in-box cooler is much more difficult
than for the usual shell-and-tubc exchanger.

I Pipe Coils
One of the easiest, although not always the most efficient, means of
supplying heat to or removing heat from a tank or a piece of pilot plant,
erluipmcnt is ~ ~ i at hlielical pipe coil. Such coils are easily fabricated,
and can be placed in a small tank made from large diameter pipc and
used as a sample cooler or as a pilot plant cooler. Pipe coils are also
used for heating contents of tanks and reactors.
I
Trombone or Trickle Coolers
The cooling of extrenicly corrosive matcrials is often a difficult and
expensive job. The trombone, or trickle, cooler has heen used rritli
marked success. I t consists of straight lengths of pipe connected in series
by return trends. TTatcr is allowed to trickle over the pipes and is col-
lected in a trough beneath tlie unit. Some of the water e v a p ~ ~ m t eass it
mores down thc pipes. The pipes can bc fal~ricatedof prartirnlly any
material that will ~ ~ i t h s t a nthe
d fluid flowing insidc. Ceramic tubes have
been particularly popular for corrosive rnatcrials such as wet HCI.
j

I Air-Cooled Exchangers
Many portions of tlie world suffer from serious water shortages. The
development of the air-cooled exchanger has permitted pmcri.: plant
construction even in areas d i e r e water scarcity is a definite psol~leu~.
These units usually consist of a largc number of tubes ~vithtrnnsvcrse
fins. Tlie fluid to be cooled passes t,hrough the tubes and air is forced
past the tubes by either an induced or forced draft fan. Beranse of the
high resistance of gas filrus these air coolcrs require largc surface areas,
1
and therefore a large space, per Btu of heat transferred.
\ FABRICATION OF SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Standards
The Tubulal. Xxcl~angerl\lanufacturers' Association has puhlisl~eilrie-
tailcd standards for tlic design and construction of shell-ancl-tube heat
exohangers.*3 The mechanical standards have been divided into thrre
parts representing three different classes of heat exchangers, Classes R:
C, and A. Class R is designed to meet the requirements of petroleum
I
224 Project Engineering of Process Plants
refinery and high pressure petrochemical operations. Class C is designed
to uiret general process conditions involving mode~;rte pressures and
tcinpcrature.. and relatively noncorrosive! fluids. Clnsc ; I i- r1r.ienc.d
for the use of alloy materials of construction for handling particularly
corrosive or liigli temperature fluids. Class R spccifies Iargcr corrosion
alloxmres than Class C : and in general, has more rigid constructim
requirements.
Overall tube lengths are spccificd by these stanrlards as eight, tn-clve.
or sixteen feet. Tlirec-quarter and onc-inch dianictcr tuhrs arc tile nmst
common, although the use of one and-a-quarter and onc and-:%-lialf.ns
!vcll as smallrr sizes is permitted r h c r c special conditions varrant.
Shell sizes have also been standardizcd Sizes up ~ I tn.mty-three
J inch.
inride noniinnl diameter. are made of pille. .4horc txcnty-three inch.
they arc fabricated from rolled plate.
The minimum pitcli of tubes is set a t onc and-a-quartcr timrs tlie
outside diameter of the tube. Minimum baffle spacing is one-fifth of the
shell inside-dian~ctcr,or t v o inrlrcs, n.liiclic~cris greater. 1-erit and drain
conncrtions are three-quarter inrli. Tiirse t~ndmany otlicr st:indx~.di.
including dimensional tolernncrr, are ~,art,fnli>- s~~ccificdby the E s c l i i ~ n ~ c r
Xanufacturcrs' Association. One of the greatcst benefits of such stand-
ardization is in thc simplicity of stocking spare parts.
Fabrication Procedure
Various parts of a slirll-and-tuh~ licat eschangcr are illustrated in
Fig. 13-9. Refwenre to this figure mill :+id in un~lerstantling tlie fol-
lowing iliscussiori. Tlic sIrel1 portion of tlic licnt rxv1ii:iigcr. hcing n
pressure ressel, is fahrirated in the a n i c iiimncr as that d i s c u s 4 in
Chapter 12. These shells arc fabricntcd in accordanct! with tlie .%PI-
ASME or .4SLIE Code for Pressure Vcs~el;;. ; \ ~ ~ t o ~ n n wc~lriir~g
allnost cxclut.ivcly on tlic I~~ngitudiu:dscams an11 also 011 most of tllc
tic is use11
circumferential reams. The large flangcs rrccdcil for the c1i;mncl and
shell covr3rs require carcful facing operatiuns.
Aase~nblyof tlie tul)e bundle is an interesting oper:itioii. Tube sheds
are cut. from stccl or brass plate. Tlie cutting operation is ilsually n
n~echanical operation for brass, but eldi ding-torch cutters nrc used for
steel tube sheets. Tlie tube holes are the11 drilled in the tube slieet aiter
being laid out in their 11n)per pitch and orientation. T11w groorcs nre
lnilled illto t l ~ ctube Ilult,>. f-lo11,s arc ; t I s ~drillc<l in tiit, cross b:tffl~,to
ncconu~iodutethe tuhcs. Baffles, tube slieet, tubes, tic ruds, a i d s p u c ~ ~ s
are all brought to an assembly jig \~-Iicrcthe tube sheets are plar~11
securely a t the correct spacing for a g i r n i exclimger. Tic rods arc then
screwed into the tube sheets. Bafflcs arc slippcd onto t l ~ csupport rods
: ~ n dfirlnly locnted ill tlieir 11roper ]11:1ce. Tulwa :we then 11:wwl tl~r.~iu:li
tlic tube sliect and b:tfflc, iuid thc tubes itre fixed in pl:icc by :111 cqmiiling
I Heat Exchangers 225
operation. They are w t in a preliminary fashion by f o r c i n ~a plug
ngainst tlie tubes. Thc plug prevents the tube from turning when the
roller expander is inserted.
-4 cross-section of an cxpanding operation is illustrated in Fig. 13-10.
The tubes are expanded into grooves in order t o produce a stronger joint.
Expanding of tnhrs rcquircs experienced operators, rincr overexpansion
I dl unnecessarily thin thc metal and produce rapid tube failure.
of rollers-no
Fig. 13-10 Tube expanding operation. (Courtesy of Bridgeport Brnrs Company.)
!I
I Tubes may bc a number oi different metals: stainless steel. various
copper alloys, including bronze, brass, or admiralty metal. Aluminum.
AIonel, nickel, and other materials arc widely used in sevcre scrvicca. It
is not uncommon t o find conditions where the fluids both inside and out-
E side the tubes arc extremely corrosive, and in addition, require a different,
~ metal on each side. Tubes xvhich combine two metals can be used t o
incct this problen~. The metals are permanently bonded togcther, one
I facing tile inside and the othcr the outside. Combinations include stwl
i mcl admiralty, alurninum with copper or brass, and alloy stccls wit11
copper alloys.
ITsing the same pitch (center to center tube dimension) it is possible
t o place more tubes in a given shcll employing a triangular pitcli (locating
tuhcs a t the apiecs of equilateral triangles) than by employing a square
1, pitch (locating tuhcs a t the corners of a square). The use of the square
pitch, h o r e r e r , is recommended whenever fouling fluids arc t o be enconn-
tered outsidc of the tube. This arrangement affords larger cleaning lanes
and, therefore, simpler maintenance. For cases in which fouling fluids
must be handled inside the tubes, sizes smaller than %'' O D and Xo.
14 BWG* are usually avoidcd.
i
* B K G refers t o Birmingham Wire Gage and is s measure uf tube thickness.
.1
I
Handhooks list the thickness corresponding to the various BWC numbers.
226 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers
After completion of the bundle, it is brought to a test rack where n k,, = conductivit,y of tuhe, Rtnl (hr) (o F) (ft)
hydraulic test is applied. Bundles are then lowered rertically into the A, = average of A, and 4 o, sq f t
exchanger shells and the final hydraulic test of the exchanger is made. A. = outside surface area of tuhe, sq f t
After the outside of the shell is painted with a rust-preventative paint A ; = inside surface area of tube, sq f t
and all flanges are covcrcd to prevent damage, the unit is ready for Since Rd = l / G d hy definition, then
shipment.
- "
HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN A0 'I" A0L" 1
-+r,-+- +ro+ -
The basic equation for llest exchanger design is perhaps familiar in noa at, h , A* .I, .4,,,kz6 ha
engineers 7%-hohave had an introductory course to the subject of heat The overall coefficient Ud is the more familiar trrm in commerce and
tmnsfer. n-ill be used here.
The major problem in heat exchanger design is the evaluation of the
individual resistances that appear in c q 2. Eitin~:rtiiin of the insidc
and outside film, especially thc outside coefficient, have been the most
where Ao required effective surface of the heat exchanger based on t'he
=
perplexing problems.
outside surface area of the t,ubcs, in sq ft
q = heat transferred in Btu/hr Inside Film Coefficient
AT = mean temperature difference between hot and cold fluid (this Xusselt"' she\%-ed liy ilimcnniorial analysis that the inside film ro~ffi-
is the driving force)" F
rient \va* rclated to thc properties of the fluid and the diameter of the
Ud = design overall coefficient of heat transfer in tube as follows:
Btu/(hr) (o F) (sq ft) based on outside surface area
Ra = design overall resistance l/Uri, based on outside surface area
The amount of heat transferred is directly proportional to the surface
area and the driving force AT, and is inversely proportional to the overall where D = inside diameter, f t
resistance t,o the flow of heat Rd. The total resistance Rd is composed G = mass velocity, lb/hr-sq f t
of a number of rcsistances in series, and, as electrical resistances, they p = viscosit,y of fluid, W f t - h r
are additive. These resistances are: lc = thermal conductivity, of flnid, Btu/(hr)(' F)(sq ft/ft)
C, = heat capacity of fluid, Btu/(lb)(o I?)
1. Resistance of fluid film on inside of tube. L = length of tuhe, f t
2. Resistance of scale on inside of tube, r,.
3. Resistance of tube ir-all.
L-
x: = Reynolds' number
4. Resistance of scale on outside of tube, ro. I.I

5. Resistance of fluid film on outside of tube.

""
--- Prandtl numher
k
a +-+-
R
-d= - 1 1 L, ro 1
Hence
Ao h-4, + + Ao ho-lo I t is in~pmtantto realize that each of the terms are dimensionless and
consistent units must he eniployed within eacl~term.
a, a, c, and i arc constants which must be determined experimentally.
and, following Nnssclt's derivation in 1910, considerable experimental
where hi = inside coefficient, Btu/(hr)(sq f t ) (o F) work u-as done to evaluate consistent constants that would apply to all
ho = out,side film coefficient, Btu/(hr) (sq f t ) (" F) fluids. hIost of the early work was done with air and water, and the
r , = inside scale resistance or fouling Eartor, (o F ) (sq ft) (hr) fRtu correlations were hascd on properties developed at the temperature of
ro = outside scale resistance or fouling factor, (" F ) (sq ft) (hr) :Btu the filni. This ternpcr:%turcx-oulrl a1)pc:ir to ire corrcrt theoretically, hat
L, = thickness of tube, ft it was tedious to einploy in design since it had to be estimated by trial
228 Project Engineering of Process Plants
and error. I n 1929 3Iorris and ~ ~ h i t l l l a n attempted
14 a correlation based
on a number of fluids and used the average hulk tempcraturc instead
of film temperature. They obtained a relation that x:ts consistent for
fluids being cooled and anotlier relation for fluids heing heated. Dittus
and A o e l t e r V o l l o ~ e dv i t h their wll-kno~r-nequation l~ased on bulk
t ~ m p e r a t u r eand flow in the turbulent region iahorc Reynolds nutnl~cr
c ~ 10,000)
i rrherc the ratio L/U had no effect.
Cooling:
The desire t o find one equation which 3-onld exprcss hot11 heating and
cooling encouraged furtlier inrestigdtion. Sieder and Tntc" rcasonrd
that the relation Iletn-ecn tlie viscosity in tlic hulk of tlir fluid to tlrar
a t he wall prodnces a change in the velocity distribution of tlic indiviclll:tl
fluirl streams. One type diitrihutiort is ohtnined in heating :~ndi~notlier
in cooling. I n cooling the viscosity a t the wall is greater than i~ thc
bulk of thc fluid, and the opposite is true for heating. They derided to
introduce another din~cnsi,mlcss tcrm, the ratio 111 tllc riscosit? it1 the
hulk of tlic fluid t o that a t the rvall, p/+,,. The exponcnt mas dctcrniinrd
experinient:~lly, and the following equations appliwble t o both heating
and cooling w r c devclopcd from tllc data:
Streamlime flaw (Re = 2100 or less)
Turbulent flow (Rc = 10,000 or above)
Thc transition region wliich lies in betrwen lteynol~ls'nunlt~crsof 2100
and 10,000 as not easily represented 1)y an eqnatii~n. Instead it \{-as
found simpler to plot cq. 6 on11 7 a s follows:
This products a single straight line on logarith~niccoordinates for the
turbulent region and a series of lines for various values of L / D in the
.;treitnrline region. The transition region was then determined 11y extr:l-
] d a t i n g the t\vu sets eurvc.5 and cllecking ~vitll,xpcl.iment;il i . l i ~ ( : ~ .
The Sieder-Tate curves and equatiuns have beconic the standard and
Heat Exchangers 229
are widely used in heat exchanger design for all fluids. Other e r p'I.t 'tons
have been dvveloped d l i c h are more accurltte for specific fluid*. The
,3eder-Tate curves, liowevcr, h a r e proven t . 1 ~luost 11-idely applicable
and are included in the Standards of the Tubular Exchanger 3lanufac-
turers .4zsociation.2:J
The Sieder-Tate equations can be rearranged by multiplying each
side by c,p/DGc, and the form
resnlts. This f o r ~ nis particularly nscf~lllor gases since c,p/k tends t o
he constant orer riorn~altemperature ranges for n ga;, and thc lmhlrtn
of finding values oI gaseous conductivities, wliicl~ is a difficult one, is
eliminated.
Outside Film Coefficieni
Double Pipe Exchanger
The film coefficient uutsi0c the tnhes prcwnti n more 11ctplcxin:
problem. I n the simple case of a plain doublc-pipe exr.Ir:mgcr thc fntnili;~r
engineering proecdure of employing an rquivalent diameter I),. in place
d the term II is follu~vedusing the equation for the inside film e~xffiricnt.
This equivalent dianleter is defined as four times the hydraulic radius
wliicll 11111~be four times the cross ecctinnal area divided hy thc T\-cttcd
perimeter or thc heated perimcter. The former is tlie same equivulent di-
:tmcter as is used in pressure drop calculation and is D? - D l . (I).? is tlic
inside diameter of the outer pipe and D , tlie outside diameter of the innrr
pilie.) Based on the heated perimeter, D, becomes (D,z - D , ~ I , ' ~ > , .
httclnptz a t currelation of data using hot11 types uf equivalent diatiietcr
produced equal accuracy. Until more data b c c o l ~ ~available,
e II~I-ever,
the urt: of tllc a a u ~ eequivalent dianietcr required for prcssure drop
enlcul:~tious (D2 - D l ) secn~smost convcnicnt.
Extended Surface
Tllc outside coefficient of an cxtenrlcd iarfncc cxehanger is compli~~aterl
by t c ~ u l ~ e r a t u rvariations
e along tllc f i n Some weiglltcd value ill the
heat transfer coefficient for tlie conihination of fin and plain-tube surface
nlust be obtained. It is difficult to establi~lt a satisfactory base arca
on the outside of the tube because of the many variations of fin arrange-
ments that are possible. Hence, all extended surface calculations are
based on the inside surface.
1
- = -1 + -1
(I; hi h,,
230 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 231

where h,, is the fin-side coefficient based on the inside tube surface area. based on the inside area as does hi. IIence t'he factor must be added to
h,, is related tu the average outside coefficient for both fin and bare surface. l / h , and the resulting design h , used to determine a design h,, from
hi, by the expression Eq. 9. Then
q = hI,Ai AT = h,(A,, + A o ) AT
Shell a n d Tube Exchangers Outside Coefficients
\\-here Ale an effect,ive fin area equivalent to the total fin area illmuki-
=
plied by the fin efficiency R The outside or shell side coefficient of a shcll and tube heat exchanger
A . = outside tube surface area exclusive of area beneath the fins has proved the most difficult coefficient t o correlate. It was early agreed
q = heat transferred that for forced convection outside of tubes an equation of the same form
The tin area is not as effective as the outside tube surface and the fin as that used for flow inside the tubes would apply.
efficiency serves to correct this area to an equivalent amount of outside
surface. Rlurry'j and Gardnerg have derived an expression for the fin
efficiency
tan h mh where Do = outside diameter of the tube, f t
n=
mb But because of the variations in baffle and tulle arrangement it has been
a real problcm to eorrelatc data for all shell and tube exrhnngcrs wit11
one equation. Colburnz proposed the equation
k = conductivity of fins and tube, Btu/(hr)(' F) (sq ft/ft)
P = perimeter of fins, ft
a, = cross sectional area of fins, sq f t
where a = 0.33 for staggered tube arrangement and 0.26 for in-line tube
h = height of fin, ft
arrangement
The fin efficiency, thereforc, provides a means of accounting for the
Essentially these same data are presented in the Standards of the
\-ariation of material of construction, slze, and arrangement of fins.
Tubular Exchange Manufacturers A s s o c i a t i ~ n . ~ JG,,, is there callcd
De1,ormzo and Anderson4 correlated data for a number of extended sur-
Geir (effective mass velocity) which is defined as the pounds per hour
face arrangements using the Sieder-Tate form of the equation plotting:
flowing divided by an effective cross flow area. This effective cross flow
area represents the factor most difficult to define and no attempt is a r t w
ally made to do so in the Standards. It must someliow take into accuunt
design clearances, baffle spacing, leakages, and by-passing. Such factors
De is the equivalent diameter defined as vary with the manufacturer. I n our present state of knowledge each

r: ( h 2 - Dl2) - cross sectional area of fins1

manufacturer has developed some means of obtaining an effcctive area
that permits good correlation of design data with actual operating
*1
T

total \vetted perimeter of fin side 1 performance. Curiously enough it has not been until recently that a
systematized approach to the problem of shell side coefficients for com-
ahere Ill = outside diameter of inside tube mercial exchangers* has been made. A research program at, the Cniver-
Dz = inside diameter of outside tube sity of Delaware under the joint sponsorship of the ASRIE, API, TIC>IA,
This correlation enables cak:ulation of h , which can be converted t o hi, and many exchanger manufacturers and operating companies is in prog-
using Eq. 9. Knowing h , , the inside film eoeffirient, the clean inside ress. I t involves the study of idealized models in order to isolate the
coefficient 1,ri can hc mliwlat,ed. The design value of T i i must be deter- variables, and will be follomd by a study of full-scale con~mercial
mined by adding thc nppropriatc scalc or fouling factors. The fouling * Short20 has made a study on a lnhoratory exchanger which has heen u i great aid
factor on the fin side has the same complex relationship to the resistance to exchanger designers.
232 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 233
exchangers. It is l~opedthat u>efuI ancl IIICIW wliaI>lt~mrrelations \\-ill
be produced from this n-urk. For thr reailrr 77-lio does not have access
to the various confidential conlpany chart? or procedures for empirically
estimating the outside coefficient, the equation presented by Donoliue7 c here h latent heat. of condensation, Btu/lb
=
is suggested as the most reliable. nonohue proposed the equation: Q. 32.17
=

hDo
- = 0.22 DG, ( ) '6 (T)
C,p 0 33 (f)O1'
at = temperature difference between saturated vapor and condensing
surface, F
1;
Do = OD of tube, f t
where G, is defined as W S , and If' = 1h;hr of fluid flo~ring I, = tube length, f t
18 = lh hr
s*= d(crossflo\v a r m ) (hafflehole area) = v SnS, i-
G' = Xass ratc of condensate, (lb/hr) (sq ft)
The crossflow area S,is arbitrarily based on the inside diameter of the shell. IV
Vertical tnhe: G' = -
S,' = [ ( I D ) - ( D o )( N ) ] [ B ] (14) 7TDo
where B = baffle spacing, ft W
N number of tubes at or near inside diameter Horizontal t,ube: G' = -
= L
IIj = inside diam of shell, f t
p = deusity of condensate, lh,'cu ft
The haffle hole area is:
Subscript f refers to properties at the film temperature.
Su = Area of segment - area occupied by tubes Because of the similarity of eq. 17 and 18 they are often written as
Donohue's correlations based on this effective area exhibit reasonable one equation using an averagc constant 1.50 and an appropriate value
accurary when applied to wmmercial cxchangcrs. There are many of G'. Horizontal tubes in vcrtical r o m present an additional problem
other correlations for arriving at an effective arca involving much more since splashing increases turbulence. In addition thicker films rle~relop
tedious calculations. The order of accuracy oi such correlations, h ~ n - on each successive tube which inakes the lower tubes lees effective. If the
ever, does not appear to justify thc additional effort required. tubes are staggered, results nould be expeetcd to differ from that obtained
fur the in-line arrangement.
condensing Coefficients LIclldan1s,'3 Donohue,G Kcm,I2 and others liavc proposed ~uctlio~ls
The cr~ndensationof vapors on the shell side of horizontal exchangers is for calculating thc G' for banks of tubes to be used in the Nusselt eyua-
an important operation. Unfortunately the tlicory, altl~ouglirolmi~inous, tion. Kern suggests the follo~ving:
is very inadequate. I t can be said with impunity that thc dcsigu of a
process condenser, particularly one inrolx-ing mixtures of vapors is an
art. The novice can best use typical ovcrall caefficicnts and avoid a large
amount of calculations, the interpretation of which is difficult and W
Horizontal tubes: G' = --
qucstionablc. Using a highly idealized mechanirm Nusselt,l7 considered Nti3L
the condensation of pure vapors on both horizontal and vertical surfaces. IT here .VL = total number of tuhes
The follo~vingcxprcssions were derived based on viscous flow. IT7 = total cundenaitte flow rate, lb/hr
Horizontal tubes For siiiqile rapors approximate condensation coefficients for the out-
h = 0.725(kl3Xp;'g/Dopj ride of i~orizoutaltubes and for the inside nud outside of vcrtical tube?'
can be predicted fnlm the equations of Nusselt. For turbulent flow of
the condensate and high vapor veloeit,ies there result larger coefficients
than predicted from the Kusselt equation. AIrthods for calculating
Vertical tubes coefficients urrder these conditions have been ,ii*cussctl.':J
h = 0.913 (I;f3Xp,2g,/pjL at)' Often vsl~urseuter a cundenser superheated. Part of i.lle condenser
234
Project Engineering of Process Plants
acts as a gaa cooler and that portion in gas cooling service operates with
a much loum transfer coeficient. Such situations are hest handled by
cnlrulating mrli section wpiratrly. A weighted overall transfer coeffi-
cient and a weighted i t are reported.
r refers t o the condensing section
G refers t o the gas cooling section
Atwt = 9
-+-
9%
At, 4to
Po
where q = total heat transferred
q. = heat transferred in condensing section
qo = heat transferred in gas cooling section
At = mean temperature difference
The cr~ncleuwtiou[if a single vapor in the presencc of noncondensablcs
or the condensation of mixed vapors is a difficult proccss to analyze. I n
each case Trapor must diffuse through a gaseous film before reaching the
condcnsing surfacc and the phenomenon is one oi heat transfer combined
n-it11 mass transfer. Rigorous methods for considering both diffusion
and heat transfer in the determination of a condensation coefficient have
been d c s c r i h e d . V h e s e metllods are admittedly tedious and involve
trial-and-error solutions. Many "short-cut" methods have been proposed,
thcreforc, involviug certain simplifying assumptions which were known
to be incorrect.
The methods in current use can be divided into t v o classes. One con-
sidcrs heat trnnsier alone, assuming that tlie lieat flows through a series
of resistances, including a vapor film, a condensate film, tube wall, dirt,
film, and a co(rling liquid film T h e other, the more rigorous, considers
both heat and mass transfer. It is neitlier possible nor worthwlrile to
reviciv the various methods which have been proposed. Curiously
cnough, the accuracy of any of the available methods is poor. The best,
proccdure is to adlrpt the method m ~ l s tconvenicnt for one's o x n use and
employ it continuously. Calculations hxscd on this method should bc
compared a t every opliortunity with operating data so that tllc designer
can develop a sense for the relationship h e t u w n the actual coefficient
and a calculated cocfficicnt. The members of the Tubular Exchanger
Alanufaeturers' Association are well aware that existing condenser calvu-
latiuns arc inadequate and attempts are being made to remedy the
rituatiou.
111 the cundenaation of multiconiponent nlixturcs tlie licavy matt&~la
Heat Exchangers 235
condense first nt the l~igllcrteu~pernturesand arc aui~cooledns tbey pro-
gress tm\-ard the end of the rxcl~nnger. Tlic cxclinngcr designcr sl~uuld
he s~qipliedwith x condensation curye for use in designing such excliangers
(Fig. 13-111. The temperature oi the condmeing mixture ia plotted versus
thc heat rcmovcd from tbe mixture and is ohtained from flash m p o r
Heot Duly, ~ t u / h r
4
Fig. 13-11. Condensnbion curve
equilibrium calculations. This curve is a great aid in designing a con-
denser, since it indicates thc desuperlieating and suhcooling regions and
also is uscd in obtaining a wcigl~tcdtcmperaturc difference, as described
below.
Boiling Coefficients
The calculation of boiling coefficicnts in the design of rehoilers and
similar equipment is, at this atagc of dcvclopnicnt, practically impost.ible.
Most designs are based or. some allou-able h a t flux (q/A in Btu/(hr)
(sq f t ) , since q/A = C A t , Zi can he determined from the a l l o ~ a h l eheat
flux and a n acceptable value o i At \vliicIi is based on practice. For
organic liquids in forced circulation Kern" suggests a maximum of
20,000 Btu/(hr) (sq i t ) and 12,000 for natural circulation. As in cou-
densers, often a portion oi the reboiler is used in tbc t r m s f e r of sensilile
heat, and in these cases the scnsible heat rrgion and the boiling region are
considered separately.
Pipe WaM Resistance
The pipe v a l l resistance given in eq. 2 is rcadily calculated, since the
conductivities of most metals used in heat excbangers are d l known.
It is most often vcry small in comparison t o the other resistances and
car1 be neglected.*
* Kot true for liquid m r t d lieat trnnsfrr whwe pipe wnll resistance may be
controlling.
238 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heot Exchangers 239
the generalized chart f i r liydrocarl~onsin TEXlh.23 For nonviscous t o the loss of one velocity head and that the channel and floating head
liquids (brlon. one i,entipoi:r I at ml~derateterripcrature ranges, the value losses bc assumed to be equal to four velocity 11cads per pass.
of F, is 0.5, and tlic caloric temperature then is simply the arcragc of An accurate shell-side pressure drop is just as difficult to ealeulnte as
the inlet and outlct teniperatures. Such is the case for most inorganic an accurate shell-side coefficient. A number of equations have been
solutions. proposed. The equation presented by Chilton and Genercnuxl is perhaps
Sieder21 has suggested the following rules: (1) For water-cooled units. the most familiar.
use an F, of 0.3 for the shell side hot fluid; (2) for steam-heated units,
use F, = 0.,55 for tlic shell side fluid being heated; (3) for oil-to-oil ex-
cliange~susc 0.45 for botl~hot and cold fluids. The average temperatures
thus calculated are used to evaluate the properties appearing in the heat where AP = pressure drop, psi per pass
transfer film coefficient equation. urn, = velocity based on flow through space betveen tubes
p = fluid density
Pipe W a l l Temperature g, = 32.17
In the Sicder-Tate equations it will be noted that a value of the pipe N = number of horizontal rows
wall temperature is required in order to evaluate b. SiederZl points f = friction factor
out that this can frequently be assumed t o bc equal to tlie outlet vater This equation gives the pressure drop across the tube bundle. Values
temperature in oil-~5-atercoolers. I t may also bc estimated by simple of the friction factor were determined by Grin~ison'o and these data as
calculation based on fi1111 c~efficients~vhichwere calculated assuming later analyzed by Colhurn are presented in TEhIh Standards23 corre-
r/p," = 1.0. The following equations are used: lated with tlie Reynolds numher. Just as for flow inside the tubes. tlic
Cold fluid in tubes: t, = t + R(T - t ) friction factor obtained from the chart is divided by the correction
( e / h ) '.I4.
Hot fluid in tubes: t,=T-R(T-t) In addition to the cross flow pressure drop a pressurc drop also occurs
where t, = pipe mall temperature as the fluid passes through the baffle opening. Tbis opening can he con-
t = average cold fluid temperature sidcrcd as an orifice with a discharge coefficient of 0.7, as shown by
T = average hot fluid temperature Donohue.7 Pressure drop througli tlie baffle opening then becomes:

ho
R =
hi(4ilAo) + ho for standard tubes
h,hi,di where u = velocity through baffle opening, ftlsec
R for h n e d tubes
=
h,(Ai +&)(hi + hi,) p = density, lb/cu ft
g, = 32.17
Pressure Drop A P = pressure drop, psi per baffle opening
The problem of dcterrnining the pressure drop in a shell-and-tube heat The total shell-side pressure drop ia the sum of pressure drops of
cxchanger is conil11ic:it~riby the progressi~echange in temperature of cross-flow, baffle opening, and tlie entrance and exit. Research scientists
t,he fluids. Sieder and Tate,2? hoxever, discovered that for flow inside a t the University of Delaware are studying and correlating she!l-side
tubes the usual isothermal friction factor rould be used, if it is divided pressure drop data. These data should prove valuable, since the accuracy
by a correction, + = ( l l / l r , , ) " . ' 4 for Rcyncdds' numbers above 2100, m d of existing methods is quest,ionable.
(p/I*w)O.", for Reynolds' numbcrs belov 2100. I n addition to the
actual friction loss in the tabcs, therc arc loares in the channel and DESIGN PROCEDURE
floating heads due to abrupt changes in direction, and losses at the Designers of heat exchangers must be given certain information hefore
entrance an(l exit. they can begin the design. In order to prevent delay, the projrct engineer
Kern12 suggests that the entrance and exit losses be estimated equal should see that each manufacturer who is Lidding on an excliangcr is
 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Heat Exchangers 241
Exchanger Specification Sheet
~-
provided with all the necessary infurlnation t o complete a satisfactory
luh no. design. The Tubular Exchanger AIanufactnrers' Azsoeiation has pre-
Cllrtourrr
--- Referenre no.
-~ pared a Standard Exchanger Specification Sheet23 which serves a s a
~~
lddr?"r
- -- 1n'iuiry no. handy reminder of the information required. \lost exchanger n ~ a n u f a r -
I'h."t locatlo" Date
turers use this form t o transmit information on the heat exchanger they
srmice 01 ,,nit Item no.
are proposing. The same sheet is also valuable as an inquiry form
sire
- ~- Type Connerfcd in
(Fig. 13-12) since the upper portion of the sheet describes the perform-
Sllrinco per unit Shrllr pcr unit Surface p ~ ahell
r
ance of the unit and has space for information that mnst bc supplied by
Performance of one vnlt the ultimate u m . The following essential data* are required.
Fluid Circulating. Common materials such as water need only be
identificd h p name. Complete descriptions of less conunon materials
are necessaryl however. If thc fluid is a complex misture, its c,on~por;ition
should he given and if it is compo.;ed of several phases (rapor and liquid),
these should be defined and the amount of each estahlirhed, including the
amount of ~ a p o r i z a t i o nor condensation expected in the cnoling or hrat-
ing process. Generalized correlations are available for cstirnating ]nost
physical propertics of hydroearhons when the specific gravity anrl boiling
point are known. It is prcferahle, howerer, to pro\-id? tlrc designer ~ ~ - i t h
ai. nluch physical and chcmical data as is possible.
Specific Gravity or Density Jol. Liquids. This inforlnation is required
for the calculation of mass flowing and the estimatiun of other properties
from generalized charts.
Molecular Weight. AIolecular xeight is important in defining the

I
-. rxohanged-Bta,hr
Heat -
Tranafer mto-rrvier
I

Clesn
construction
I
X1.T.D. (Corrected!
I
I
properties of a gas.
T'i~cosity. As scen in the discussion on tlworetical aspcrts of hrnt
transfer, viscosity data arc perhaps the most importnnt 11hysical data
required. Viscosity is significant in both hcat t r a n d e r and Ixessure
drop equations. B t least t ~ v ovalucs of viscosity a t differrmt tcuq~eraturcs
within the operating range should be given. Additiond v d w s can nor-
mally he obtained by interpolating on a logarithmic plot of tenlperaturc
versus viscosity, assuming a $traight-line relationsl~ipwith trmprrature.
For hydnxarbons morc accurate estimation is possible using .-\ST11
kinematic viscor;it,y-trinperi~tt~re graph paper (Chart 11. .&ST11 D-341 1
1.atent Heats and Sperific H ~ a t s . Altl~ouglrthe (Iuty ~f the r x ~ l ~ i u ~ g e r
theat exchanged in Rtus per hour) is included ill tlw tabulation. latent
heats and specific heats should also bc given. Thc man~~factnrers' dcsigner
can then check the duty calculations. Specific beats are alsu used in t h
calculation of transfer coefficients. Whcre pussible, several ~ a l u e sa t
tenlperaturcs in the operating range should be given.
Covosion. The designer should be given any information on the cor-
rosive characteristics of the fluid and any unique hazards asrc~ciatedn-it11
the transporting of the fluid.
Fig. 13-12. Excbaneer specificstion sheet. [Reprinted by prlmissian. Stundards oj
the Tubular &rehangcr M a n u f o c t u r ~ r s.4ssocinlion, 3rd Ed. (1952) I . * A m w e lletnilcd discussion a i this prohlcm has been given l,y Oti.,r.'" Sanre oi
his *wewtiuns hnvo I w n inwr~ml;ttr,rlin tlic ;hove diseusrion.
240
242 Project Engineering of Process Plants
The procedure for the design of a heat exrhanger has been outlined in
several bonks on heat exchange. K e r n ' V n particular, has given some
excellent illustrative prohlrms xhich show the pl~ilusophyand factors
involved.
Since tlie calculation of film coefficients depends upon the type and
design of exchanger, it is necessary t o assume an exchanger type and size
in order to determine the overall coefficient by calculation. The general
procedure is as follows:
1. Specify process conditions. I n addition to the quantities flowing,
this includes specifying the inlet and outlet telnperatures of all streams.
Charts for the deterniination of optimum cooling ~vateroutlet tempera-
ture have been prepared. I n general. hoverer, thc ecuno~nicfactors are
not well defined, and use of such charts is questionable. Certain condi-
tions, however, make the selection of the outlet water temperature simple.
For many waters it is necessary t o keep t21e flon. rate above four ft per
second to prevent the growth of algae and it is further necessary, a s
suggested by Iiern, tu avi~iilheating the water t o temperatures much
higher than 120" in order t o prevent excessive corrosion. T h e r e cooling
tower water is elnployed the operation of the cooling to~vershould be
eonsidered in conjunction ~vitlithe selection of the outlet water tempera-
t,urc. When heat is being exchanged bct~veentwo process streams, the
optimum temperatures must be determined by an economic study, bal-
ancing exchangcr eirsts and utility costs. This study must include the
other exchangers, coolers, and heaters required for the two streams being
considered, since alteration in tlie outlet and inlet tenlperatures of the
heat exchanger will affect the size of the other units.
2. Route the fluids. Certain general rules for the routing of fluids
have been developed through the years. High pressure fluids and cor-
rosive fluids should be routed through the tubes, since it is cheaper t o
design a tube for high pressure than an entire sliell and only the tube need
bc resistant t o corrosion. Higll-fouling fluids, including water, should be
routed tln-ough the tubes. Because of the flexibility possible in baffle
arrangements, extremely large volumes of fluids and very small volumes
of fluids, as v.ell as viscous fluids, are best passed through the shell.
When lox+-pressure drops are required the shell side should be used.
3. Assume a design overall coefficient and calculate a trial area.
4. Select the length, arrangement, pitch, and size of tubcs. Standard-
ization nhere possible is desirable. This permits ease of maintenance,
requires tlie stocking of feurcr parts, and makes for more attractive plant
appearance. It should be re~nembercdthat short tubcs are much more
expensive per square f t than longer tubes (twclrc or sixteen i t ) .
5 . Detcnnine the niinimum numlwr of tube passes I~asedon the total
number of tubes corresponding to the trial area. The number of tube
Heat Exchangers 243
passes depends on the alloivablc prrssurc r l n ~ pand cost of ronstruction.
A reduction in the nuuiher uf tulle passes helow the nlininlrnri will result
in a lower transfer rate and tlius highrr surface areas. At this point a
check of the tube side pressure drop shonld \IP made t o be certain that
the nnrnhcr of tube passes chosm is satisf:irtory.
6. Select the numher of hell passes which xi11 give a correction factor
( F T ) for the log-mean temperatwe diffcrmre of 0.75 to 0.8 or greater.
Below these values of F, the curves for Hie corrrctiun factor k~ccome
quite steep and a small change in ten~peratnreconditions cansci a large
change in correction factor and consequently the ultimate mean tenipera-
ture difference. I n this regiun, therefore, it is reasoned that inherent
errors in the assun~ptionsmade in the derivation of tlie correction factor
become significant and thus the rrgion below 0.75 to 0.8 should he a v ~ ~ i d e d .
If the FT correction is too low for a me-shell pass, often a tvo-sl~ellpass
arrangement mill provide a larger F , wl~ieh ill be accept,zble. I t is t o
he remembered that twu one-shell pass exchnngcrs connected in series
are equivalent t o a two-shell pas? exchanger.
7. Selcct a ~tsn(1nrdexclimger to rnrrt as closely as possible the
requirements of items 3, 4, 5 , and 6. Determine the tube side transfer
coefficient.
8. Proceed t o the shell side and assume a trial baffle spacing using a
sniall spacing for a small amount of fluid and a large spacing for a large
amount. Thesc spacings according to TEhI.4 may he varied from one-
fifth the shell diameter to one shell diameter in order t o meet the heat
transfer and pressure drop requirements on the shell side.
9. Determine the shell side coefficient.
10. Calculate the overall clcan coefficient and then a design coefficient
based on proper fouling factors.
11. Determine required arca. Compare this to the surface area of the
unit selected. The ideal chilice is of course the minimum arca that will
produce the required heat transfer. If the exchanger selected docs not
meet the requirements, it is necessary to assume a liiglier snrfacc area
unit and repeat the procedure.
These steps require t,rial and error in many portions of the calculation.
For tlie novice or one who rates exchangers only occasionally. tlie joh
proves tedious. Frequent calculation of exchangers, and particularly
calculation of exchangers in similar serrices, enables an engineer to
develop know-how or perhaps a e,lairvoyanre ~ l i i c heliminates to a large
degree the laborious trial-and-error procedure.
Short-Cut Methods of Heat Exchanger Design
Many so-called short-cut methods for the design of lietit exchangers
have appeared from time to time in the literature. A number of such
244 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 245
articlrs privent r u r w c or nomogr)i~~lis for drtti~~niiniiigfilm rocffit,ienfr.
TABLE 13- 1 (Continued)
Hntcliinson" has compiled charts in graphical form for the determination
of film coefficients for a 51-ide assortment of ron~pounds. I n addition. Liquid Boiling Cnndenshg
Fluid ( S o phase change) liquid vapor
many article* have presented a series of charts rlesigned to reduce the
Amine solut~ons
labor in heat excliang~rralculations. Unfortunately, ho~vcvcr,the occa- Saturated diethanolamine
sional user of such charts finds i t just a s difficult and time-consuming and monoeth:inolamine
to design a n exrliangcr using these charts a s to follon- t h e method previ- (CO? arid H7S)- ,
o u l y outlinnl. Lean allline sohltions
Sieder?' l ~ psr c . ~ t ~ n t r:Id number of l m t transfer ta1)Ie~:in hooklet Oils
C~.udeoil
f m n v11ir:li ennlile rapid estiu~atioilof film corfficicnts. T h e d a t a are T1ie.d oil
presented in tabular form in order to climinnte mistnkes t h a t arc so often Fuel oil (hunker C )
made when using graphs or noniogmplis. T h e sources of all d a t a are Gas oil
pliiinly given so t h a t one m a y evaluate the information intelligently. Light
These tahles are particularly recommended for engineers who only Heavy (tyl~icalof cat.
cracker feed)
occasionnlly need to clierk heat exchanger ratings, such a s t h e project Gasolinc (400' ZP)
engineer. Heating oil(domrstic 30' ;\PI)
T h e only truly slinrt-cut nietliod of lieat exchanger dcsign is t h e one Hydroformate
in n.liich the overall coefficient is a s s u m ~ dlinwil on previous experience Kerosine
Lube oil stock
and from n.hicli a n a r r a is citlrulatetl. Such a nirtliod i . valid for rapirl Xaphthas
estimation and comparison of heat exchanger quotations. Ahso~.ption
T h e selection of a n orerall coefficicnt can often be made with a fair Light virgin
degree of accuracy, particularly when good opcmting information is -
I h h t cntalvtic
Heavy
available on exchangers in similar services. I t \v~iuldhehoove the project
Polymer (Cars)
enginecr to keep a record of typical o ~ ~ c r ntransfer
ll coefficient,^ for various Reduced crude
exehangcr 3erviccs. Slurry oil (fluid cat. crarker)
Fair and Rases have prerenterl ii tahle of typical resistances for a Stenm
represcntatix-e number of fluids. Tltese r a h e s givcn in Table 13-1 are V.ater
Boiler water
Cooling tower (untreated)
TABLE 13-1. Design Resistances for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers* Condensate (flashed)
Rivcr and well
Roiling Condensing Sea wuter (clean and below
. . liquid vapor 125'F.)
Aroni:~ticliquids * Reprinted by permission. Petroiezim Refiner, 93, KO. 7, 121 (1954).
Benzene, tolwne. ethyl- iCondensing rrsistanres for ;tram mag. be m u d l higher wlwn noncondmriblps are
hennene, st,y~.cllc 0.007 present as is often t h e ease with low pressure cxl~nustste;~m.
Dowtherni 0.007 P A r;ihe uf O.OOi is suggested ahen doubt as t a the quality 01 m t e r mists.
Inorganic solutions
CaC12 Brine (25'h) 0.001 Gases in turbulent flow Resistance
Heavy acids 0.01:3 Air, CO, CO?, and N2 0.045
KaCI Brine (20 9;) 0.0035 Hydrocarbons (light through naphthas) 0.035
Misc. dilute solutions 0.003 based on operating d a t a and current design practice. T o obtain a n
Light hvdrocarhon liouids
3 , C;, G 0.001 estimated overall design coefficient for a shell and tube exchanger, proceed
Chlorinated liydn,c;i~~h,,ns 0.004 a s fr~llolvs:
~ I i x ~ l l i l n e o uorgnrrir
s liquids
.Iretone 0.007 .... . .. . 1. Read values of resistances for the two fluids. Note t h a t no dis-
t i n c t i m is made b e t w e n shell and tube sides.
246 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2. Calcul;~tethc rlvcrall design coefficiciit hy taking the reciprocal of
the sum uf these t x o resistances.
Other exrhnnger t,ypes are estimated by nlultiplying the overall design
coefficient for shell and tube exchangcr by 0.25 for extended surface ex-
rliangers and 0.30 for coil-in-box exchangers. The method is recom-
mended for most stanclnrd exchangers, rnusual designs, very large or
very small rscliangers, and partial condensers cannot be estimated by
this method.
1 Heat Exchangers 247
20. Short, B. E., 1Jnircrsity of Texas Puhlication Xo. 4324. 1-55 (1943).
21. Sieder, E. Y.,Heat Transfer Z'obles, American Locomotive Co., xea y u r k ,
1952,
22. Sieder, E. P;..and G . E. Tatc, Ind. Eng. Chem., 98, 1420 (1036).
23. Slandnids o/ l'ubrtlar Ezchanger Xio,~u!nctimis Association, 3rd Ed., Tubular
Exchsngcr Manufacturers Association, Inc., S e w I'ork, 1952.

EVALUATING EXCHANGER QUOTATIONS

In evaluating heat exchanger quotations the more ohvious factors such
a - price, delivery timc: terms, and manufacturer's reputation ~ h o u l dbe
considered first. In addition thc important mechanical and design factors
should hc carefully scrutiniacd. A tabulation should be made for each
quotation romparing the materials of construction, various design featilree,
shcll and tube thicknesses, surface areas, and other special features. It
is possible that designs for the same service by diffcrcnt manufacturers
d l show largc yariations in surface area with comparable variatiuns
in price. In sucll cases it is necessary for the project engineer to esti-
mate a surface area for the service in question for comparison.

REFERENCES
1. Chdton, T. H., and R. P. Gcnereaux, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., Z8, 161
(1933).
2 . Collhrn, A. P., T m n s Am. Inst. Chem. Engn., 29, 174 (1933).
3. Culbum. A . P., and T. P. Drcw, Trans. A m I m l . Chcm. Engrs., 33, 197 (1937).
4. D c L o r ~ n z a ,B., and E. D. Anderson, h-ans. A m SOC. Merh. Engrs., 6'7, 697
(1946).
5. Dittus, F. IT., and L. M. K. Boelter, Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Eng., 2, 443 (1930).
6 . Donuhue, D. A , ind. Eng. Chem., % , 6 2 (1947).
7 . Donohue. D . .A,. Ind. Eag. Chem., 41,62 (1949).
8. Fair, J. R., and Howard F. Rase, Petroleum Refiner, 33, KO.7 , 121 (1954).
Y. Gardner, K. A,. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 6'7,621 (1945).
10. Grimison, E. D., Trans. Am. Soe. Mech. Engrs., 59, 583 (1937).
11. Hutrhinson, F. W.,induslriol Heat Transfer, T h e Industrid Press, X e w Y o ~ k ,
1952.
12. Kern, D. Q.,Process Heat Transjer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., K e w York, 1950.
13. Mebdsrns, W. H., Heat Trommission, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
Yolk. 1954.
14. Morris, F . H., and W. G. Whitman, Ind. Eng. Chem., 90, 234 (1926).
15. Mnrmyl W. M., J . Appl. Mechunics, 5, A78 (1938).
16. Tuuselt, IT., Mitt. Forseh. Arb. Ing., 89, 1 (1910).
17. Korselt, W., Z . V e r . deul. Ing., GU, 541, 569 (1916).
18. Otcn, P. S.. Chem. Eng. Prugr., 41, 411 (1948).
19. Sakiadis, B. C., and J. Coates, Louisiana State University Eng. Exp. Station
Bulletin No. 34. Baton Kouge, La., 1952.
 Process Pumps 249

RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Although the usc of a reciprocating action to produce pumping had
it,s origin some 2000 years agol it \!-as not until 1840 that Henry R.
Worthington invented the direct-acting, reciprocating. steam-driven pump.
These steam-driven pumps hecame extren~elypopular and in the years
to come motor-driven unit's also came into use.
Application
In the early t w n t i r t h centnry. the rmtrifugal pump began to encroncll
npon thc field of the reciprocating pnmp. The uniform discharge of thr
centrifugal pump gave it a distinct
nilvantage. e q ~ w i a l l yin the proc-
ess industries d m e steady flow 6000

PROCESS rates are a necessity for satisfac-

tory opcration The applications
4000
2000
of centrifugal pumps x-ere limited ,

PUMPS only by design restrictions on

capacity and pressure. Improve- 5 600
1000

mcnts in dwign, l i o ~ ~ r e have r, 0, 400

gmdually eliminuted t h c x restric-
t,ions and there are now fe~vappli- ,E
The modern process plant xould be inoperative were i t not for the cations belonging exclusirrly to 100
the reciprocating pump. Nodern a
E, 60
pumps which maintain the steady flow of fluids through the plant and
reciprocating pumps are bcst 40
make continuous procrsscs possible. Improper and ill-considered selec- 30
tion of pumps could create serious bottlenecks and cause unsat,isfactory suited to high head and lov ca- 20
operation of tlrc plant. Close w p c r v i ~ i o ~therefore,
i, by the project engi- pacity. Fig. 14-1 presents a qual- 10 , ~ ,
neer of selection, purchase, and engineering of pump installations is itativc picturc of thc range of 2 o o o o 0 0 o
u.-efulness of rariow pump types. o w 2 0 0 0
imperative. o w 2
Since pumps are prorluccd by tile nlanufacturers in standard sizes, it
is only necessary to select thc sizc and type that most nearly fit,s the
It is oftr-n found advautngcous to -. . 5Gallons
'. . '
perminute
I'
elnploy slean-drivcn reciprocnt- Fig. 14-1. Pump selection r h a r t . I.idaptcd
service in question. Closc collaboration with manufacturers' represrnta- i w P ~ ~ for P tewol.ary
J installa- from R.L. J ~ C ~ cho,~.
~ S , E,!@ plo0,. .;g; 234
tives is helpful and strongly nrged. To obtain tile maximum benefit from tions or for interniittcnt m t l (19531, I,? pcrmisaionl
such collaboration and to properly judge the manufacturer's rccummenda- varying conditions such as tank
tions, it is cssential that ccrtain basic fundamentals of pump opcrat,ion a r m transfrr pumps. I n such installations the ru~gedness.flexibility. and
be understood. ccononiical ctraracteristics of thcsc pinnps may he used to an nrlv:mtngr.
The pumps most cotnnmn to the process industries (centrifugal, recip- and theil. unstend? (Ii~chargeis no iiisa(1rantage. T l ~ rcriprocatin:.
c 11u111l1
rocating, and rotary) will be discussed in this chapter giving particular is often prefcrrrd for thr pumping of liighly mhatile lirlnid.; irsprri::lly
emphasis to the theory and information required for intelligent pump xhere gassing conrlitioni are possil)le). slurries, and viscm; liquids
selection. The lack of colnnlent on many special types of pumps designed
Description
for specific services docs not imply that these are not t o be considered.
Indeed, certain services ahsolutcly require n special design and manufac- Thc following tabulation gives an abbreviated list of terms useil to
turers' representatives should be asked for recommendations in these cases. classify reciprocating pumps. The majority of all surh punlps wed in
248
250 Project Engineering of Process Plants
tlic process industries are steam-driven: direct-acting, duplex or simplex,
donble-acting or single-acting. T h e double-acting is more c o m n ~ o ucx-
cept for higli-prt?ssure service for ~ v h i c hthe single-acting pump (usually
the plunger type) is more frequently employcd.
Reciprocating Pump Classification
(Basrd on tcrmrnology of the Hydraulic Institute)
I Unve
A. Stcam
1. Direct-acting; steam piston directly connected to liquid piston through
piston rod.
2. Crank and flyrvheel; pump with crankshaft, on which the flywheel is
mounted. Used for large installations, and uith compound cross arrangements.
3. Types of stcam ends
a. Simple; one high pressure steam c)-lindcr for each liquid cq-linder.
b. Compound-tandem; a high- and lowprcssure CJ-linder on same
rrntrr line.
c. Compound-cro.$s; a high and low cylinder arranged side by side a i t h
cranks $10" apart.
B. Power; motor driven through crankshaft
11. Nuniber of liquid cylinders
A. Single or simdex:- . one
B. ~ u p l e x ;two
C. Triplex; three (power-driven only)
111. Liquid ends
A. Pistnn (Fig. 14-Z), packing carried on piston
B. Plunger; packing nng is stationary: preferred for high -pressure operation
beeansr of else oi servicing and vi8ibdity of packing gland
1. End-nackrd ( F i e 14-21
2. center-packed ( ? ~ i ~ . G - 4 )
C. Jingle-artinp; one pumping stroke per revolution
D. Double-acting; two pumping strokce per revolution
IT. Armngrment of cylinders
-4. Yertlcal; usually for designs with three or more liquid cylinders
B.Horizoutal
Reciprocating pumps have become standardized over t h e years. T h e
various types of pumps and their 11arts a r e illustrated in Figs. 14-2, 14-3,
and 14-4. Brief comment on certain of the these items is in order.
Materials of Construction
T h e folloxing a r e t h e most frequently used material designations for
steam pumps a s given b y t h e Standards of the H y d r a d i c Institute?
Bronze Fitted (Symbol R F ) . a . A bronze fitted pump consists of bronze
piston rods (except end packed plunger pattern) iron liquid pistons or
plungers, bronze or rubber liquid valves, bronze liquid valve scats, guards,
*Reprinted by permission from the Stondords oj the Hydraulic Institute, eopy-
ripht 1055 by the Hydraulic Institute, 122 East 42nd St., New York 17, N. Y.
Process Pumps 251
and springs. iron or steel liquid cylinders: b. Bronze fitted piston pattern
pumps includc bronze lined liquid cylinders. Bronze fitted plunger
pattern pump%include bronze hushed plunger glands and throats.
Fully Bronze Fitted (Symbol F B F ) . A fully bronze fitted piston pump
consists of bronze piston rods (except end packed plunger p a t t e r n ) . bronze
liquid pistons or plungers, bronze or rubber liquid valves, bronze liquid
valve seats, guards, and springs, iron or steel liquid cylinders. Fully
bronze fitted piston pattern pumps include bronze lined liquid cylinders.
Fully bronze fitted plunger pattern pumps include bronze hushed plunger
glands and throats.
Acid Resisting (Symbol A R ) . All parts of the pump in direct contact
with t h e liquid pumped a r e made of corrosion resisting matwisls of suit-
able properties for t h e specific application.
411 Bronze (Symbol AB). All parts of the pump coming in direct con-
t.act v i t h the liquid pumped are made of bronze.
All I r o n (Symbol d l ) . All parts of the pump coming in dircct contact
with t h e liquid pumped a r e made of ferrous metal.
Standard Fitted. Individual manufacturers m a y use the tern^ standr~rrl
or regular fitted t o designate the material used in punips of their regular
production.
Discussion of Reciprocating Pump Types
Because of t h e smoother flow characteristics of t h e duplex pump, it is
prcfcrred t o tlic simplex. T h e steam slidc valve action on a duplex p i n i p
is such t h a t short stroking (iailure of pump to makc full stroke) can
occur. This condition in effect increases t h e clearance volume and is a
disadrantagc on pumps operating a s wet vacuum p u n p s or in liigl~ly
volatile liquid pumping service. Under such conditions the lack of full
d i q ~ l a c e m e n tpermits the accumulation of excessive volumes of vapor in
t h e cylinder. T h e simplex design does not have this defect and is, there-
fore, indicated for such services.
o s PLUNC.ER
P ~ s ~ VS.
Pistons are differmtiated from plungers b y their shape and the mode
of packing. Referring t o Figs. 14-2 and 14-3 i t can be seen t h a t a piston
is a flat disk while a plunger is more like a long barrel. I n addition,
piston-type p u ~ n p scarry packing on t h e piston itself to reduce leakage
from the discharge t o t h e suction side of t h e piston. T h e plungers in a
plunger pump operate through stationary packing in the heads of thc
cylinder and a r e classified as end-packed or center-packed according t o
the packing location. Thp end-packed plunger pump reqnires no packing
hox on the piston rod mhilc thc center-packed pump, like thc piston p u n ~ p ,
does (see Figs. 14-3 a n d 14-4).
Project Engineering of Process Plontr Process Pumps 253
R r r : i ~ ~ rall
c pwking lciik:ip{, on 11l111rg1.r
p u l n p is clrnrl>- visil~lct,, tilc
oprrator and hecause of the ease of repacking or adjusting the packing,
thc plunger deeign, although more expensive, is prefcrrpd for revere

L-IW
Fig. 14-3. Portion of end-packed plunger. pump

Fig. 14-4 Portion of eenter-packcd plnngcr pump.

services such as Iiig11 prcssurc operation. l l a n y users prefer the plunger

I I I I ~ I I ~for
I diffc.rcnti:~l pressures nbow 400 psi, erpcrially in high t r n q ~ r r n -
turc, service. For p r r s s ~ ~ above r ~ s 1000 psi tlic plunger pui~ipis a11110et
universally specified d i e n the reciprocating pump is indicated.

Reciprocating Pump Paris

(See Fig. 14-2.)

CYLISDEHS
liquid oylinders are cast iron for most general service pumps: hut, a t
high pressures aad tcmperaturcs east or forged stccl is required. the
latter being used for extremely high ixcssures.
254 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 255
The cylinder sbouki 11e drsignrd for tire full stalling pressure whicl~is Other piston packings such as combination duck and rubber, bronze,
the pressure a t d i i r h tlic forces on the liquid piston and steam piston arc and monel, arc r~serlfor special conditions. The Standards of the Hydrau-
equal. lic 1nstituteQive detailed recommendations.
Wherever exresaive \,.ear or corrosion is expected a cylinder liner is
either bolted or pressed in place. .\lost process pumps are equipped x~itli
liners, and a variety of material can be used depending on the liquid and
pumping conditions. Xickel and chrome-steel alloys are popular in hot
oil pumps.
Steam cylinders are generally cast iron sincc the usual steam pressures
for pump operation seldom exceed 250 psig.
The dimensions of the cylinders and the length of stroke are expressed
in this order: steam cylinder diameter, water cylinder diameter, and
Dwk valve. Flat circular valve of rubber Wing valve. Circular valse with guides
length of stroke. or metal, guided by stem fastcncd to cmt or foigcd integral, with or without
EXAMPLE: valve seat. faring. Faring may be rubber, leathw,
fiber, or other material.
10 x 4% x 10
10 in. itram cylinder
4% in. water rylirrder
10 in. stroke
VALVES
Of the liquid cylinder valve types illustrat,ed in Fig. 14-5 disk and ~ i n g
valves are the 1n11stfrequently used t,ypes, the latter being employed for
high pressures (above 300 t o 400 psi). The discharge disk valves are
mounted on a valve plate which is removable once the head has been re-
moved. Each wing valve is covered b y a pot cover which can be removed
for inspection and servicing of the valve.
Ball valves because of their free opening are specified for pumping
viscous liquids or slurries. Many other valve types are available for
particular pumping problen~s.
The steam cylinder valve arrangement is standard. Slide valves, direct
ronnected or operated through auxiliary pistons, or balanced piston valves
are used. The latter is preferred for use wit11 superheated steam.

PISTON RODS
Rods are u-ually alloy steel of high tensile strength and hardness, and
are preferably made in two parts t o insure ease of dismantling.
PACKING
Proper choice and installation of packing is a must for satisfactory
pump operation. The h a m pistons are usually sealed with hammered-
iron snap rings. The liquid pistons are provided with bakelite rings for
temperatures below about 250 t o 350" F. and hammered-iron rings for
higher temperatures.
Ball valve. Spherical valve oi rubber or metal.
Fig. 14-5. Rccipmcntmg pump, valve types. (R~printedfl.om Standards oj t h e
Hydi-nulir I n s t i t , d ~ , rupyright 1'355 117 Hydraulic In*itutc, 122 E. 421x1 St., Xeru
York 17. X. B.)
Leakage along the piston rod is prevented by the st,uffingbox packing
which is r~suallygrapliitc impregnated ael~ertoson thc steam end. On
the liquid end the stuffing box packing varies wit11 the typc of flnid
and pumping conditions. hsbcatou, rubber, semi-nletallic, and lnetallic
 I
256 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps
I 257
packingi are ur;ed. For severe conditions such as tho-c cncountercd in Tllc rnrrcctirm Z <lcpcn~l.i on tlic drsign of tile ~ I I I ~ ) I Tn
. most raws the
the pumping of hot oils metallic packing is indicated. , n cstcn<l+through the inboard end of the pump and is attached
~ ~ i s t ,rod
Stuffing box- on pumps operating a t high temperatures (ahore 400' F.) to one end of the piston. For this design:
should be weter cooled. Pump8 operating under a liigli vacuum on the
mction side or thwe pumping volatile liquids should bc fitted with a
lant.ern ling in the stuffing box for the introduction of sealing liquid. I Double-actlng pumps
% = 0 0204d,2PC

Air chambera installed on reciprocating pumps produce smootl~erflov.

The air compressed during the pumping stroke cxpands while the piston
is reversing and thus forces liquid from the chamher to tlic discharge line.
The volume of these chanihers should be six to eight timer the displacc-
ment of simplex pumps and three to four time:: that for duplex pumps.
~ Certain designs sucli as end-packed plungcr puinpa require no correction.

Actual Capacity
The theoretical capacity is never met in practice because of leakage
t,hrough piston packing, stuffing hoses, or valves. The amount of air or
othrr gas carried into the pump also reduces the theoretical flax rate. Bs
Flanges on pump cylinders are cast as an intcgral part of the cylinder is so often the case in engineering, the relation between the actual and
and may he faccd as raised or flat-faced flanges. Care must he exercised throretiral rapacity is expressed as an efficiency called the volumetric
in specifying the proper companion flange to the pumll flangc. If tlie cificiency ( E , ) :
pump flange is flat faced, the companion flange iiiust he spccified as flat
faced. The strain produced in tightening a raised facc against a flat-faced
flange on the pump may crack the casing. The Hydraulic Institute
recommends the specification of tongue and groow typc joints when 1 where G, = act,ual capacit,y
temperature and pressure conditions require greater gasket pressures I G = theoret,ical capacity
than those obtainable with flat-faced flanges.
I slip

Sizing Reciprocating Pumps

~ Another term o f t m used is slip.
E"
Theoretical Capacily Slip = 1--
100
The theoretical cap:icity of a reciprocating pump depends on the dis-
placement of the liquid piston or plunger. E x p r e s d as gallons per
I G - Ga Leakage
I Hence Slip = ---- =
minute the equation for calculating the capacity becomes D Theoretical Displacement
If the leakage can he assumed constant ~vithspeed. the slip will increase
! with dwrcasing speeds. At high speeds, however, the leakngc inrrrnacs.
The d i p is usually less than 10% (0.10). A value of 370 (97% volumet-
ric efficicncy) is often used for calculating piston diameters fur pumps
operating at norlnal speeds. When in doubt, however, 10% iia a safe
where G = gpm design figure.
D = dinm of plunger or piston, in.
P = piston speed, ft/min Recommended Piston Speeds
C = number of cylinders
! Based on years of operating experience, the Hydraulic InstituteR has
F = factor, 0.5 for single acting, 1.0 for double acting
Z = correction for volume occupied by the piston rod during a recommended in its standards design speeds which were cllosen at speed8
unmuing stroke that would produce the tniniluum wear on the pump.
258 Project Engineering of Process Plants \ Process Pumps
259
Typical values corresponding to the lengt11 of str~lkecommnnly uwd pumps operating a t pressures above 300 p s ~ git is often desirable t o base
and ilul~lcxare reporte~l in T:ll)le 14-1. Alt111~11gll
for ?i11111ler: a ~IUIII~ the selection on a speed 0 8 of normal to reduce danger of shock.

TABLE 14-1. Recommended Piston Speeds* W a t e r Horse P o w e r (Liquid Horse Power)

Sinigl<,a n d Duple.; 131recl-.Actm: Steam Pumps Water or liquid horecpol~-eris the output horscpolver of the pump and
Length of stroke Sprrd, f t h i n is calculated in the same manner for all types of pumps. Basically the
3 37 valculation originates from the general energy equation which is most
3% 42 conveniently applied by a n energy balance bet~veenthc suction and dis-
4 46% cliarge of the pump. Kinetic and static effects arc usually negligible and
5 53 the work done by the pump is:
6 59
7 64
8 68
10 75
12 81%

where PD = discharge pressure, psia

P, = suction pressure, psia
W = 1%-ork,hp
G, = actual gpm pumped
p = density, lb/cu f t

Viscosity or Trmperature Correction The friction effects caused by entrance and exit losses and losses within
the pump are all included in the evaluation of the mechanical efficiency.
Viscosity, or Tcmperutnre, Multiply
SSU "F basic speed by
M e c h a n i c a l Etiiciency
250 70 1.00
1000 83 0.89 The term mechanical efficiency E m is defined as the ratio of work done
2000 105 0.80 in the liquid end t o that done by the driving end of reciprocating pumps
and generally represents the overall efficiency including the hydraulic
5000 210 0.65
losses and mechanical losses. The volumetric losses arc evaluated in the
6000 260 0.62 calculation of G,.
7000 330 0.58 Steam driven pumps
8000 41.5 0.55
0000 5'20 0.52 WHP
10,000 650 0.50
E m = --
IHP
Note: Base col.rrrtion on tempel.ature or visrasit,y, d l i c l r r r e r is controlling. For Power driven pumps
intermdate values, interpolate linearly.
WHP
*Adapted hy permission oi thp Stnndnrris of the llydroalic Inslittile, Copyright Em = --
1955 hy tlic Hydraulic Institute, 122 East 42nd Stwet, New Pork 17, K. Y.
BHP
where W H P = water h p
v i t h a short stroke can make more revolutions per minute, one with a I H P = indmator h p
long stroke ean run a t a higher piston speed. The values given are aver- B H P = hrake h p
nge values bared 11n a widr variety of pu111l)s and conditions. Individual Typical valurs of inerl~aniralcfficienries E,,, for reciprocating pumps
~n:~nufacturers'recommendations should be used when obtainable. For as reported by J a c k s h r c given in Tahle 14-2.
260 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps

n-here P = stcani linc prcssurc a t pump, psis

TABLE 14-2. Mechanic01 Efficiencies of Steam-Driven Reciprocating Pumps*
G = Ilack pressure, psia
\Iwlxniic:il Etficimcy
intermediate-pressure cylinder area
To 300 psi .\bove :i(M p i R =
1)iffcrnitiel 1)iffewnii:il high-pressure cylinder area
Stroke Pi-ton l'lunger Pllmger lo\\--pressure cylinder area
3 55 50 41 R1 =
4 60
.-
i)J 44
high-pressure rylinder area
li G5 ii0 51 Keco~~ullcndcd
values of i, to be uscd ~\-licuh:ick pressurc is not known:
8 GS 54
Simple 16 psia
Compound 6 psia
Triple-expansion -5 psia
111like inunner tlic iuri:e exrrtcd by the liquid cylinder, since it is al~~my:
a single cylinder, m ~ u l dhc

E', = (P,, - P,)

I'.:"(
- --

.
Relation Between Pressure in Steam Cylinder a n d W a f e r Cylinder
\\-here PD = discharge pressure, psia
T l ~ cf o ~ c cexerted by t l ~ ch a m cylmdcr 1s
P , = swtion pressure, psis

= ("I") (T) *Da2 D ,= liquid cylinder diam. in

Recausc of the mechanical fri~.tioneffects tlic water cylinder forcc is
less t11an the steam cylinder force. The ratio of thcsc trvo forces is the
where I), = steam cylindcr diam, in.
mechanical efficiency.
hZEI' = mean effective prcssure dctcrmincd from the indicator card
diagram in psi
Thc most conniion p~.occsspunip has only one steam cg-lindcr per water
cylinder. I n such 11ump&the stcam cscrts full liressurc during thc entire
stroke and the indicator diagram is thus n rectangle. The mean effective
pressure, therefore, is simply tlic Iicight i ~ fthis rcctanglc. \d-liich is the
stcam line pressuro minus tlie back liressure (c1iscli;~rgcirr Ion. pressure
steam line prcssurc). Thc value oi hack prcisurc hen not definitely
kuon-11can be assumed to be 16 psia.
Value;. of LIEP for various steam engine drives can be approximated This cqu;ition may IK ux11 to calculate tlic stc:i~ncylintlcr iliameter
as follorvs: 8 rrlieu the p ~ s ~ u r c:md j \r:~tc.r c?lii~der <liaiuetcr are k n o w . Tllc
~iiiiximumdisch~rge1ir~.sslirvPn that :Lgiven 11~11111 ~~roiluccs cnu aliu he
Type Formula calculatc~lfor m y lmon-n stram pressure. Kent," rccummewis that 90:;
Simple cylinder MEP = P -b of the usual r d u c s of ~ u c c l ~ a ~efficiencies
cal be uaed in tllc above calcula-
P tion.
Compound MEP = 2P - - - bR
R Controlled Volume Pumps
A v ~ , r yi111]~~rtt~n1
gri1~111
of punlps in tlie proctw incIt1.4ries is the cori-
trollcd roluuie l~unip (Fig. 14-G) IT-hicli is used extnirively in iceding
262 Project Engineering of Process Plods
ticcurately controlld strc:ims into a process and in proportioning the
flo~vsof sevcrid stre:nns to re:ictors and treating or hlcnding tanks. Thesc
pumps act not only as 11urnps but also as positive rolumetric metering
devices. They are plunger-type reciprocating p u n ~ p s v i t h hall-type
valves on hot11 suction and discharge. Units arc built for pumping against
discharge pressures up t o 25,000 p i g . Both simplex and duplex designs
Fig. 14-6. Controlled volume pump. (Courtesy of Milton Roy Company.)
can be obtained. A spccial duplex design has been offered which produces
a constant flow rate without pulsation. This is accomplisl~edby causing
one plunger t o deccleratc a t tlie samc rate t h a t the other plunger acceler-
ates.
The units arc equippcd with variablc speed drivcs and micrometer
adjustmcnts for accur:~te variation of the piston speed and thus of the
flow rate. The uiaxirnum safe speed of these pumps cxcccds that recom-
mended for tlic usual rcciprocnting pump, althougl~in pumping liquefied
gascs lower speeds are rccummended.
Controlled volun~epumps can be obtaincd either with electric or air-
noto or drives. The air motor is often used in hazardous locations in pref-
ercncc to thc more expensive explosion-proof electric motor.
These pumps arc \viilely uscd as chcmical feeders, and are constructed
of various u ~ r t a l sfor the different services. hlaterials used include cast
irons and steels as n-cll as corrosion-resistant alloys and plastics.
Other Reciprocating Pumps
Spwial dt,bigr~r(11rrriprucwtmg 11un1psare oiten required in thc prtncest:
induatrics. Thc use uf surh corrosion rcsistant materials as stoneware,
Process Pumps 263
porcelain, and rnl~berrequire uuique design features. Onc of t h i ~nlore
familiar >perial designs is the diaphragm l ~ m n p ircc Fig. 1 4 - i i Tllv
plunge'. of this pump is attached to a flexible ruhbcr diaphrngnr, v l ~ i , , l ;is
the only material in contact ~ v i t hthe fluid heing pumped The up and
d u a n i~iove~nentof the diaphragm p r ~ ~ d u ct le~~rpruilping i ~ c t i m Thesr
pulnpsarc mcll suited for pumping heavy slurries such a s thc sludge
from a Dorr thickener.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The development of the centrifugal pump has been phenomenal. and it
is now used for almost eTrery type of service. Indeed, m o d nlanuf'ic t urers
produce centrifugal pumps ranging from capacitica of 5 gpul and 2 to 5
psi differentiala t o large multistage pumps capal~leof 11umping 2800 to
3000 gprn a t 3000 p i g discharge prcssurcs. Many designs arc h i l t for
successfully handling fluids up t o 850F: highly viilatile Ruiils, :mil
slurries.
Special pumps have been designed for evcn morr: in~prcssivcoperating
couditions. Punlps a t tllc Col~madoRiver nque'luct can l~unlp90.000
gpm a t 444 ft of head and those a t tlie Grand C o d e Irrigiition Project,
607,000 gpm a t 310 ft of head. Special installations of ccutrifugal pumps
in series have heen designed for pressures above 5000 psi.
Classification of Centrifugal Pumps
The confusion t h a t exists in many fields because of misleading nomen-
clature has not cscaped the field of centrifugal 11uml1s Originally a cvn-
trifugal pump was a pump t h a t produced its puniping action by means
of centrifugal force. As the field grew, howcvcr, new iuq~ellerdesigns
produced only part or none of the pumping action hy centrifugal f o r w
A11 of these pumps, h o ~ v c ~ ~arc
e r , classed a s centrifugal pumps since there
is a basic relation between them.
I n its broad sense then a centrifugal pump consists of an impeller which
produccs a pressure head by rotating in a casing. Thc various cl:wes of
these pumps are best dcfined according to the impeller design wl~icll
varies from radial t o axial flow types. The classifications given helow
conforin t o those suggcsted by the Hydraulic Institute (see Fig. 14-81
1. Radial type. This impeller dirccts the flow of fluid by centrifugal
force radially t o the periphery of the impeller. The velocity head thus
created is then largely converted t o pressure head in the ~liscl~arge portion
of the casing. The vanes of these impellers are usually I r a c k ~ a r dcurved
and have a single curvature. The radial impeller is by far the most,
connnon type uscd in process plants.
Specific speed: 500 t o 3000, single suction
up t o 6000, double suction
/ 264 Proiecf Engmeering of Process Plants
U Y L T I D U I Y SHEAVE
THREE C 9 0 0 V C S 3 "-BELTS
Process Pumps

2. M i r e d F l o ~ c . Head is developed with thin impcllcr partly

265
rr.Il.
trifugal force and ] ~ a r c I yby the push of the ranes. This is accolnl,lisllcl~
11y u ~ a k i l ~the
p vitncs d0uI11y ~ w r v e dor ~cren.-sI~apcd
so t h a t t l ~ ediJcllarge
js a combination of axial a n d radial flows.
Specific speed: 4500 to 9000

PLAN
Open Semi-open Closed

M ~ x e dFlow Axlol Flow

Fig. 14-8. Itnpeller types. (The three impellers in the top row are mdisl.)

i .In inter~nediatctype brtvcen the mixc&flon. an11 the radial i. t l ~ c

Francis-type ilnpeller. I t has :ill :~xinlinlet and :I ra<li:ll r~utlc,t.
Specific speed: 1500 to 4500
3. .4xiul Flea or Propeller Type. N o s t of the Irratl p r ~ ~ i l l ~ c I,? e , l this
illll~elleris due t o the pushing or lifting action of t l ~ cvanes. l'lrc finill
. imprllcr in itn :lxi:il or ncnrly n s i n l ilirertioll.
enters :ind l c a ~ e *the
Specific speed: 9000

Description of Pump Types and Parts

S E C T I O N A L ELEVATION I n the acculupanying illustrations aever:il of tile illore C U I I L I L ~ ~cI I~ ~ i t r i i -

ugal pumps a r e illustrated and parts arc identified. T l ~ cdisrasciou n.ill
Fig. 14-7, niwl1r.:wn pump. Dorrco V-type pump. (Courtesy D~~~conipany, he confined priluarily to t h e r:idi:il imprllcar rle.+n 5inct. it is bv filr tile
Engineers.)
uiost c v m n o n in prucvsi 11u111ps.
 -
266 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 267
The unique requirements of the process industries which often require of the plastic rasing together. These plates ~ x o t r c tthe plastic and a; in
the pumping of fluids at high pressure and temperature and under corro- llrunps c ~ ~ n s t r u c tof
t ~ alloys,
l the bolts do not pass ihrougli tlie gasket.
sive condition. h ~ r caused
e the devclopn~entof complete lines of pumps
specifically designed for process plants, called proccss pumps. These can Water Cooled
he divided into three major typcs: general service, hot oil, and chemical S t u f f t n g Box
Jacket
pumps.

General Service Pump

Thesc are moderate-priced pumps designed for services which do not
require the spccial alloys and mechanical design featurcs necessitatcd hy
high temperature or corrusive cond~tions.

Hot Oil Pumps

Some manufacturers rcfer to their line of hot oil pumps as process
pumpsdthough it ~ o u l dseem desirable to reserve this term for the ilc-
scription of all pump types employed in pumping process streams.
Hot oil primps are specifirnlly designed for pumping hydrocartir~nsand
~-nrimi.;otlicr cheiiiirals or solutions under conditions of high tmpcrature
(1q1to 800' F.). These conditions require special constrnction to prcvent
undue strain caused hy uncven temperature distribution in the pump
hody and supports. In addition stuffing box design and materials of
construction must be given special consideration. Generally, these pumps
are designed so that the entire rotating element( hearing bracket, shaft,
and the impellcr assctnhly) can hc removed without disconnecting any
piping or mo\-ing the puml, case or driver. A spacer type coupling (Fig.
14-9) is uscd, and thc pump cover can he unbolted. The rotating elcrnent,
and hearing nswn111ly can then be removed as a unit. This makes it
poseihle to take the rotating part of tlie pum11 to tlie shops for repairs.
/
I
- Cover '\ Water Cooed
Bearlnq House
Jacket
Chemical Pumps
P u ~ n p sin this category are constructed of corrosion-resistant materials Thrust
such as alloy stecls, ruhher-lined steel and evm plastics, glass. or stone- Bear~ng
ware. Hccnuse of the unusual properties and high pricc of such materials,
the nieclianicid dcsigo of these pumps is unique, but simplicity of design
is stressed in order to reduce the use of ex1.1msive alloyr.
The cnsting of certain alloy steels is oftrn a difficult problem. I n order
l
iFlexible Spacer Coupling
to avoid strains and shrinkage which cause porosity in castings, tapped Fig. 14-9. Typical process pump (hot-oil pump).
1lolcs and busses are vliniinatecl by cla~npingthe two portions of the
caring. 'I% icrrange~nmthas the furthcr advantage of elinlinating the All chemical pumps should be designed so that leakage and corrosive
11:iss:~geof holts thr~n~gti gaskets where corrosion can occur unnoticed. action can be easily detected, and so that dismantling and servicing of
.Z typical r~lrcmicnlp111np%-it11a casing c1111str111.tedof plastic is s11on.11 the pump is simple. There should he suitahlr means for removing stuff-
in Fig. 14-10. hletal muunting plates nrc uscd to clatrip thc t x o portions ing box leakages ~ ~ i t h o damaging
ut tlie nonalloy portions of the pump.
268 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Rotation of Pump
In ~perifyingmotors and planning pump in.stallntinns it i n r r c v a r y
that t h r draigiration of rotation he stanclardized, It is c r ~ t o ~ n n111
~y
rlcscrihc the rotation of the pumli as clwk\i-isc or rn~~ntrrrlorlin.isr
frnm n
11o>itio11nt, 1 1 1 ~<lrivcr ~ I N If:~viilg
, t11c 1iu111p.
Fig. 14-10. Clrcmirnl pump rvith plnsiii: cnsing. (Courtcsy of llisriun I'nn~p
r<m,,:,ny.1
Pump C a s i n g s
C a s r s c .\IATERIAI.S
Tlic t,ype scrricc ilcterminr~t l ~ econstruction m:~terialsrequired fur the
rasing of a centrifugal p u ~ ~ i p .(:e11cr:11 x r v i c e p11111]1 r,asings n l i i r l ~
operatc wit11 rold liquids are cast iron or semi-;;tee1 up t o 300 to 450cl:.
and l~ronzefor nll-bronze ~ U I I I ~ S .
Hot oil pump casings are constructed of cast .;t,ccI. For lliglr prrssl~re
niultistage pumps opcr:~ting ;~llu\-e 1500 psi, hen-ewr, n forged stwl
"barrel" liiust be usccl. The intt.rnnl itsrnlbly is fitted into thi* I~arrel
and each stagc bas a scpamte inner casing. The outer casing or b a r l ~ is
under full discl~arge11ressure arid tlic inner casing is 1111dera comprcsrirr
force due t o the differential pressure bctn.ee11 stages. T h e "harrel" is
designed as a pressure wssel. T h e casings for chemical pumps vary)
depending on the s c r ~ i c c .
Process Pumps 269
I ~ . A S D DIFFISION
~ T ~ r C. I R~ C~I.4R, C.\SIS(;S
.-Iltl~or~gl~
several I I I ~ I I U ~ : I C ~ I I ~ ~ninlic
I.;, -iirgIe-dngc pumps wit11 rirculnr
I casi~igsand claim a n advantage in pumping abrasivc liquids, t h 111ajorit~-
oi all .single-stagc pumps are built n-itli rolute casings designed so that
the avcrage velocity through all sectinns \\-ill be the same.
Alan? ~nultistagepumps have n diffnsio~rcasing. Diffusers (see Multi-
stage I ~ n ~ ~ e l l e rhsc)a t e d between stages produce a gradual clinnge
fro111 vclocit,y liead to ~ i l ~ ~ - s uheail. rc
\~~ERTICU.I,T OR HORIZOSTALLY
$?LIT
Pulnp rasings are either wrtically (Fig. 14-9) or l~orizontallysplit
r Fig. 14-11 I . H o t oil puiuy-. are nsually c~mstrurteclx i t h vcrti~,;rlly.plit
<:lsing~. rIllis
.
permits the sopport of tilt! 111111111at the sllaft rcntrrline :I>
that it can expanrl or contract \ v i t l ~ , ~ udangert of niiaalign~ncnt.
Ca-ings vplit on the Iiorizontal centrrline are most r o ~ i i ~ i ~illo 1iunil1.~
~i
iluving iiqiellcrs niolmte~il i r t v e c i ~the l~carings (douhlc-suclion rir. lo\\-
I"."IUT ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l t i s t aTghce- upper
). 11a11 is then rmiovable for. rcaily :iccc.-
ill r,;~scof repairs n.itl~outdi-turl~ingtlit' 11i11ingsince the suctioil and
1. discharge nozzles are lucntcd in tlic Lottom purtion.
Sucliolr AND DI~CIIARGE NOZZLE ARR.IX(.E~IEST
Altllelnpli gcnel.nl >errire nnd cliemic;d liu~iips ordinarily arc rcntrr
suctiuri and top discharge, it is piwsihle to order alternate ilischnrgr nozzlc
1oc:itiims ;it 45' :md 90' \\-itli tile lrorizontal in any of four rlnallrants.
I n ail~iitiont o ceiiter suction and top discllarge designs hot oil ~ I L I I U ~ I S
arc also built n.it11 top ruetion and top discliarge. T h e latter is morc <lftm~
the stnnrlnrd arrangement. Both the suction and discharge nozzles arc
veil supported by the pcdeital, and the pump casing is not suhjcctcil to
stre~scacreated by pipe expansion. On center suction designs tlic suction
line must he supp~irtecl:IS it enters the pump in order t o prevent unr111r
stress on the casing aud po~siblecracking. Tap-suction, top-diichargr
pru11lw also c l i ~ i ~ i ~ i the
a t c necessity of special vents and thus simplify
piping.
T h e casing uf the puliq~m a y he cast intcgral with a rigid fuot support
or hox type f r m i e having bolt lioles for mounting. M a n y pumps, par-
~l ticularly in services above 500" F, are supported on pedestals (saddle
mountingj a t or near the centerline of the pump. As mentioned prc-
viously, the vertical split hot oil pump (Fig. 14-9) has a support of this
type a t the liorizontal centerline allowing free expansion and contraction
t. \\-itl~outdisturbing tile alignment.
270 Project Engineering of Process Plants
.. .A,
Fig. 14-11. Douhle-suction centrifugal pump. (Courtpsy of Pwifir Pump Company.)
Many manufacturers offer water-cooled pedestals for pumps operating
ahovc 500F. Stepanoff'" cautions that water cooling on turbine driven
inrits uiigllt do more harm t11;ln good in certain cases since the turbine
mounting is never water cooled and often reaches thc same temperature
as the pedestal. I n this case rnisalignmcnt would result if the pump
pedestals nerc water cooled.
SINGLE-SUCTION ASD DOCDLE-SUCT~OX PUXPS
Although double-suction pumps c:m he mide vertically split so t h a t
the casing can be supported at the shaft cenierlinc, such an arrnngcmcnt
is less connnicnt for scrviring. Hence practically all double-suction
pump casings are horizont:llly split. It then fullows that hot oil pumps
are generdly pingle suction.
Essentially a double-suction inipcller (Fig. 14-11) appcars t o be two
single-suction impellers tiiuclling bnrk to bnrk. The liquid enters both
sides of the impcller. Since the same suction and discharge pressures act
un both sidcs of a double-suction impellrr, t l ~ utlieoretiral axial thrust is
zero. Actually, a su~itllthrust bwring is uwd o r tllere punips. The
aingle-suction pump lina sartion and discliargc prrssnrc acting on the front
imd 1n1y di.wlli~ry(,~ ~ r e h - ~ 1111
i r vits I ~ i dd t a . Ail u i a l iorce outward is
thereby rrcatcd ~ ~ h i crcquiwa
h :I larger tl~rust bearing. Smle single-
suction p u ~ n p sare built \nth a balancing hule tl~roi~gli tlw inlpeller for
Process Pumps 271
silmitt,ing suet,ion prcrsure to the Lack sidc of the impeller, t h w achieving
R IIIOTC balanced c1cl;ign In any evcnt tlirust bearings are ilrsigne<l for
the full tlirust ~ s p ~ c t e from
ii a single-suction design. Because oi' ttle
added cost for thriist he:irings, the rli~lhlc-srictiondesign has advantages
on large pumps operating at modcrate tenlperatures.
Radial Impeller Types
Impellers are cast in one piece and are made of cast, iron, bronze. alloy
such as 11-13% chrome steel, or other materials suitable for t,hc liquid
to he pumped. The impdlcr is keyed to the shaft and held Feeurc.
Several radial impcller types arc shown in Fig. 14-8. They are closed,
seuii-cluscd or semi-open, and open. The closrd impell~ris u.sually in-
stalled un hot oil pumps and is very common on all typcs of pumps
handling clear liquids. The inllwllers of this design h a w sidc rvalls called
shrouds which totally enclose the w n c s except a t the periphery and the
suction. Closed impellers a1.e in~t:illetl to pro~41lea running contact
between the impeller and the casing, thus minimizing leakage from dis-
charge to suction.
Seini-open impellers have only one nall or shroud, the bark one. Ope11
impellers have no shrouds, alt>hougllribs or partial shrouds are provided
for mechanical strength, especially on the larger sizes.
Liquids containing solids in suspension or viscous liquids arc best
handlcd 117 open or semi-open inipeilers. These impellers C:UI he cleaned
easily and operate with a minimum of clogging. The open impeller re-
quires the ilimplest caating and the least metal; and, tlierrforc, is the low-
est in cost, a particular advantage wheu special alloy coustruction is
required as in chemical pumps.
Rccause of the leakage rneountered in the semi-np~nand open impellers,
which increases with near. the effiricncy of thprc pump. after prolonged
service is not as great as for the closed impeller. The open and semi-
clused impeller designs, llo~ve\.rr,give a sliglltly imj~roveilinitial efficiency
duc to reduction in disk friction.
Although the semi-closed nnd open impellers arc cheaper to fabricate,
i t does not necessarily follo~vthat a semi-clo*ed impeller pump, for in-
stance, is cheaper than a closed impeller pump for the same sen-ire.
Indeed, hot oil pumps with semi-closed impellers are more expensive than
their closed impeller counterpart. This is due to thc mechanical difficu-
tics in making the rlcarance between the semi-closed impeller and the
casing a. mininium in order to reduce leakage and maintain efficiencies.
Wearing Rings
Most pumps with closed impellers (hot nil. etc.) are provided with
wearing rings as illustrated in Fig. 14-9. Sincc these rings arc rerno~able
272 Project Engineering of Process Plants

and renervahle. ;I n-orn 1711mpill ".!~icll ti;(, r~luningrle:il;i~~rcl~ctxrcnthc

impeller and the casing has become excessirc can he restored to satisfac-
tory operation at n small cod by installing IT rings.
The majority of d l hot oil pumps have both casing and impeller rings.
Some arc furnished with casing rings only, hut the impeller hubs are over-
siacd in such pumps so that impeller rings can be installed when the Iluh
has hecome Tvorn. General service pumps x i t h closed impellers usually
cmne eqnipped v i t h rasing rings only although some designs have no
xvearing ring*.
Ahsence of rearing rings is a disadvantage on large pumps n-herc the
cost of replacement of an impeller compared to t h a t of a wearing ring is
great. Because of the mechanical problem: inrolverl with alloy construc-
tion, wearing rings are o f t m not used in clo.-ed-impeller chemical pumps.
Care is exercised, however, in the design and manufacture tu provide
horizontal xvearing surfaces on each ride of the impeller.
Since clearances between wearing surfaces arc Yery small (0.01 in.) it
is necessary that thc t v o matching surfaces he made of different materials
or o t least of the same materials ~ v i t hdifferent surface hardnesses.
Closed iuqicller pumps designed for handling ahrxsire fluids arc
equipped with a flushing chamber. Injection of clean liquid into this
chamber prevents the entrance of abrasive material into the clearance
between the rings.

Single Stage a n d Multistage Impellers

Up to about 600 ft of head (600 ft-lb of force/lb of mass)' differential
single-stage pumps arc used almost exclusirely. iibove this head, 1 1 0 ~ -
ever, multistage impellers must he used. 3luitistagc pumps have two
or more stages connected in series and can he pnmps of the volute or
diffuser-type (Figs. 14-12 and 13). I n the forn~er,each stage discharges
into the next through a rolnte. I n tire diffuser pump the liquid discharges
into :t diffuser after leaving cach stage. Thc diffuser converts velocity
head into pressure head and then discharges the fluid to the suction side
of thc next stage.
The diffuser-t,ype pump is characterized by highcr efficiencies although
in recent years volute designs have been introduced that have similarly
high effieicnries. Diffusers permit operation over a wider range of operat-
ing conditions a t a sustained high efficiency.
lcristal and Annett' report that a t reduced capacities volute multistage
pumps can develnp large radial thrusts on thc impeller which have been
known t,o cawe shaft failures, but radial loads on diffuser-types a r ~
*The term 1ien.i is aiten sxi,~.eisedin it. Actually it is s. work term on a pound
of m:ws hasis. Thc correct units are iaot-pounds of farce (ft-#) per pound of
mass (Ib).
274 Project Engineering of Process Plants
balanced. This objection has been largely overcome, however, on some
volute primp designs by the uc of a douhle volute xvith outlets 180'
apart. Opposed forces thu; crrntcil i n u r e rncli:il halancc a t any capacity.
On other dczigns radial unbalance is partly ilverrome by staggering
volutes radially.
Volute multistage pumps are popular cipecially in tlic tn-11 and thrce
stagc designs. In high pressurc-high teml~eratnrehot-oil pumps tlic
diffuser type predon~inatcs.
IrnDeller wearng r n g i
- ~- 1 ~
ri ~ ~ - ~ - p
p-~p - ~ ~- ~ - ~p
Fie. 14-13. Diffuser-typu nltiltislagr rrntriiog:il p u r r q , . f C u u ~ t r s yof k ? r d ~ . Pump
Conrluiny.)
The prohlcni of I~alancingaxial tl~rnstis in1port;rnt in nlultistagc pumps.
T'olutc type designs h n w an allvantage lweanlc 1iydr:rnlir b:ilancc can h i
ap])r~xiniated11y arriu~ging11art of tlic inlp~llerrfacing in one dircction
nnrl part in the other (Fig. 14-12). Diffuser-type punips cannot he $0
nrrangcd becallse of the nm~lianicnlproblems. The stagcs in tlic diffuser
design must, thcreforc, he arranged all in the same direction and axial
Lhr~istovercome by means of a lly(lraulio balancing dcvirc employing n
balancing rharnl~erwl~ichis connectd to the suction line (Fig. 14-13),
The area oi tlic balancing disks is such that the hydmnlic axial thrust of
the pump is balanced by the pressure diffcrmtid ijetivccn tlie back f a r e
of the 1:1rt stage irnprllcr and the lj:ilani,ing cl~:i~nl,rr.
Bearings
Ail pumps, whether e(pipped with hydraulic balancing derices or not,
l r :I thrnst bearing and n railin1 Iwaring Thc
arc ronstmcted ~ ~ i t hot11
thrust hcarinp is lockrd ~ d i i l vtile r;dial hearing is iree tu inn\-e axially
Process Pumps 275
with the shaft,. General service nnd many clicmical pumps empl(ly
greazc-lnhriratctl hall bearings for both radial and thru.:t bearing. Hall
bearings are also useii in mo.1 11ot oil punlps but they arc, oil lubricated.
Tlic hearing horising on hot oil pmnps provides an oil reservoir in mhicll
the correct oil level is niaintnind hy a rnnstnnt lcvel oiler. Slingcrs or
rings attached t o the shaft continuously discharge the oil in trougkrs
leading to the bearing. Bearing housings on such pumps arc n-ater
rooled.
Large high-pressurr multistage punips oftcn miploy sleeve-type radial
bearings and Kingsbury tbrust bearings since these bearings are sur~erior
for high speed, hcavy duty service. Lubrication of Kingsbury bearings in
thesc large pumps is nccomplislied by an oil pump. gear d r i v n from t h r
pump shaft. The oil is eirculatcd tilrouglr a small cuoler for tcml~eraturc
control.
Shaft and Shaft Sleeves
To ~vitlrstirndthe forccs acting on it. the shaft of n rentrifngal pump
~ n n s thc nindc of high tcnsilc steel in alloy (SAE 10'35. SAE 4140. SAE
2340. and various alloys such as 11-13s cchri~me). I n 2111 but very
small pumps the shaft is pri~tertcdagainst wear and corrosion lly a sleeve
over thc portion of tlic shaft xhich extends throng-h the stuffing hi~x. The
choice of sleeve material depends on the nature of fluid being pumped.
~
~
Stuffing Box
As can be seen in Fig. 14-9 tlie shaft of a pump passes through n stuff-
ing box a s it cnters the casing. The proper design of this stuffing box is
:In important factor in tlic successful operation of n 1nnnp, sinre it
prwents leakage both in and out i ~ fthc p u n i p
The stuffing box can either be packed at: slro~vn in Fig. 14-9 or
equipped with a ~nerlianical seal (Fig. 1 4 - 1 4 1 Packed boxes m:~y 11c
packed solid or provided with a s c d cagc or lnntrrn ring locnted in the
middle of the course of parking (Fig. 14-9)
When a punip is operating a t 1mv snctirm preswres air leakage into tilt-
pump through tlie stuffing box is prcrented by using a lantern ring-seal
cage-(Fig. 14-9). Scaling liqnid is injected into the lantern ring and is
distribut,ed tlirougllout the packing producing a cooling and lubricati~ig
action. A small portion of the liqnid leaks to thc outside through t h ~
stuffing box gland.
The liquid being pumped ran he used as a sealing liqnid by piping dis-
charge liquid t o tlie lantern ring. If the liquid being pumped, hoiwver, is
corrosive or erosive anothcr sealing liquid must be used. I n petroleum
retineries, f ~instance.
r a special sraling oil is used.
For high teniperatnre operations a circnlating-type stuffing box c5n
276 Project Engineering of Process Plants
I N rnqrliqwl so tli~ttt l ~ ccxtvrn:~l si.;iling fiui,l ~ ; U I I N 1,1ro1?11 mid rerir-
culated. The circulnting-type stuffing box is designc~lso that cool sealing
liquid enters one side of the stuffing box, circulates tl~roughit, and t,lien
passes to a cooler from \vliich it is recirculated.
Sealing liquid (seal oil) systems are often installed in plants having
large numbers of pumps that require sealing fluid. The oil can he piped
to tlre pumps i n n cornmon header and returned t o n cooler tlrrougb a n o t l m
header. The f l o of ~ scaling oil into the pump is controlled by a presiurc
regulator ~ \ - l ~ i maintains
cl~ 3 constant iliffcrential trrtwccn the suction
and seal cage pressure. I n addition to the ~ e a l i n goil, hot oil pumps are
often equipped v i t h a !~-aterjacket arounrl the stuffing box.
Khenevcr the Lubricating liquid leaking tlirougli a stuffing 110s is a t a
high enough tc~~~pcr:tturv to cnwc flasl~ingof flannnnl~lr,noxious. or dia-
agrecnblr v:~l~nrs, a smothering gland may 11e used instmd of the usual
pacliiug gland T l ~ csmotl~eringgland is arrangcrl so that colrl ~ v a t c r
i,ntcrs a t the point wlicre scaling liquid touelics tlie gland. T l ~ ex i t e r
corrls t l ~ esraliny liquid thereby preventing vnporizati<rn.
. \ I o ~ tgeneral service ancl rhcmical punl11~arc il~,.igncd tci rercirr four
or five rings of conventional packing; hot oil pumps receive from s e w n
to ten. Proper packing is a necessity. If the shaft cannot bc tnrned l ~ y
hand: t l ~ cstoffing hox has b c m inq>ropcrl?- packeil.
(kneral service pumps are usually parked wit11 asbestos-inil~regnaterl
g ~ i p h i t e . Packing frrr chcmical pumps must he selected for the specific
liiluid to bc hanclleil. I n Irigl~tc~nperuturcservicc snrh as that encoun-
tered wit11 hot oil pumps nietallic packing is u;cd. lletallic 1)acking is
inteuded for use with h a r d e n d rtcel shaft *lee\-es. Only a soft grade (if
packing should be used with sl~nftswlricli h a r e bronze rlervcs.
Packing problems have hecome increasingly <lificnlt as the pmcess in-
dustries resort to lliglrer tempe~.aturesand pressures and to the ~ ~ i u u p i n g
of volatile materials. .4 nurnticr (if mcrlianicxl seals I ~ a wIree11 r l ~ v l q r e d
by various manufacturcr~for these sevrre servirr:; (Fig. 1.1-141. Tlrcsc
arc used in lieu of p:tckcrl stuffing hoses and most of thr hot oil and
rlwniirnl p u ~ n p ~ rlcsigned
~rc to rec~,i\-eeitlir~.11:1ckingor the 111ccl1a11icsl
seal. Tlrc meel~aniexls r d is mow rxl~r.nsire,11utoften s e r ~ i c trr,n(litions
,
\vurrant its use.
.\Ierhanical seals consist of t w ~ rhighly polished surfaces in eliding
contact. The contact is luaintained try springs \\-l~ichare : ~ l / n s t c ~t ol
exert a force sufficient to prevent lrakagc of the fluid being pumped. The
surfaces are of dissimilar materials. One snrfacc is stationary anrl is
connected t o the frlmie while tlre other rotates and is fastened to the shaft.
The surfaces are lubricated by the fluid bcing pun~petlrrr by :m auxiliary
fluid if that being pumped is nonlubrirating. The mcrlranical seal effcc-
tively stops all stuffing box leakage even undcr high stuffing box pres-
Process Pumps 277
sures. It is, tl~crcforc,l~:~rlicula~.ly
inrlic:~lcd fur usc in serriccs wtlcrr
leakage cannot be tolcratrcl such :IS the puniping of light hydrocarbons
which are near the boiling points o r the pumping of corrosive and toxic
materials.
/ r Corbon Gond
Cooling O u t l e t
(Rototesl
Fig. 14-14. Merhnnicnl rrnl (Cmrtcw oi Dumrnctnllir Corporntion.)
For higl~lycorrosive or high temperature liquid:: a d ~ ~ u b mechanical
lc
seal is employed. It is designed so that a cool lubricating liquid can be
injected across tlie seal faces preventing contact by the pumped liquid.
Couplings
Flexible couplings (Fig. 14-91 of the steel-spring-grid, gear, spacer, and
~ r i nand rubber bushing type arc used. Thcsc couplings can coml~cnsatc
ior slight misalignments but arc not intended a s universal joint?, and
g c a t care in alignment r ~ fthe shafts is necessary. Thc flexible coupling
is usu:~llyfurnislrc~llry the pump manufacturcr, Irut he n n ~ Ire t told tlrc
dimensions of driver shaft so the coupling can be properly liorcd.
Base Phtes (Bed Plates)
Pump manufacturers usually supply a base platc on xhich thc pump is
mounted and which is drilled t o rcceivc the motor or turbine specified for
the service. The purchnwr inus1 supply the pump manufacturer with
certified dimensional drawings furnished by thc driver manufacturer (for
economic reasons it is usual practice to purchase pumps and drivers sepa-
rately). The equipment is shippcd separatcly, for mounting in the field.
T h e base plates for small lnunps are usu:~llybuilt of steel channel. Base
plates for largcr pumps arc east iron and havc a rimmed trough sloping
278 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 279
toward one enrl for draining Ieakagc tu waste. Grout holes arc a h pro- The curves are usually based on the pumping of clear, cool water. The
vided. On extrcnwly large installation^ i t niay be marc eronunlicnl to characteristics for pumping other liquids are not necessarily the same
inount the pu111l1and driver on sf!pmtc stwl 11alls or sol? plnrri nn t l ~ r as for water.
integral foundation, rather than provide a common tlase plate. The characteristic curve is not to he confused with the so-called test
curve. Test curves are obtained f11m1an actual test of a particular pump
Drivers
Centrifugal pumps are driven by direct-ronnectcd nn~torsor turhines.
\Vlien two pumps arc installed with one to serve as il sparc, a motor is
often used for onc and a turbine for the other thus supplying the niaxiinum
flexibility.

Materials of Construcfion
A distinct advantage of the centrifugal pump is the vide variety of
~naterialsfrom n.hich its various parts can be cmst~wctctl. Casings car1
he rnadr of niatcrials ranging from glass and atonc~vnreto tlie toughest
alloy ;.trel.;. Gelieral statcnicnts, thcrcforc, are of little vuluc. It might
he said that in 11roccss plants bronze parts arc avoi(1ed in serviccs opemt-
ing nhovc 250" F. and cast iron ia not uscd a h w 350 to 400'F. AIl~lys
such as 11-13% chrome steels are frequently used for operating tern-
pcratures abovc 400" F.
U. S . Gallanr per Minute
Centrifugal Pump Calculations
Fig. 14-15. Pcr.fol-minrc ruri-r for ;i eent,rifugal pump (Adapted fmm .Illis Chnl-
Horsepower a n d Efficiency Inera Company datsi, hy permmsior~.)
The water horsepower is defined and calculated for centrifugal and
reciprocating pumps in like iixumer. Thc llrake li,mcl~on.er.definul a,< and may bc purchased with t h a t pump for an adrlitional charge. Char-
the energy input to thc punip shaft, is rclatcd t o the watcr horsepo~vcr aot,eristie curves represent the average performance of tlic type pump
hy an efficiency. This efficiency for centrifugal punips is an uvrrall purchased and small variations i-wtn-ccn indiridnal pnmps product4 on
value and includes mechanical, hydraulic, and volumetric efficiencies. the same pattern are possible. It is grnerally not necessary or econon~i-
cally rou~rdto rrquebt tcst curves except for large expmsive pumps in
~vliiclicase tlic tcst cost will be only a snlall fraction of the total cost.
The niark
Performance Curves I
T h e graph in Fig. 14-15 illustrates a typical head-caparity or perform-
which appears on cliar:irtcrist~ccurves designates tlic head and capacity
ance curve for a centrifugal pump a t a constant specd and is rallcd a
fur rvliich tlic p u n q ~was snld. The illark
characteristic curve. The corresponding cfficiencics, brake horscpomrrs,
and the minimum values of net positive suction head rcquired a t cach
flow rate are also given. Tbese curvcs arc furnished by the pump sup-
plier for each size and type of pump that he manufacturers. The head- indicates the gu:lrantced efficiency. In general pumps are selected so
capacity curve represents the work per unit mass of fluid pumpcd called that the operating point correspunds t o or i3 rlwc t o the best efficiency
head (ft-lb of force/lb of mass) a t each possible flow rate. The head, point (the maximum efficiency obtainahle. usually designated as BEP)
which is often callcd feet of head, can be converted to the differential As the caparity of n rrntriiugal pntnp is inrreascd, a p i n t is reached
pressure under which the pump operates by multiplying by the density. at wl~iclifluid velocity in the caring is st] great that local pressures in the
280 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 281
casing decline to thc rapor pressure or helon-. This point is called the
cut-point or hreak-point hccauw vapor bnbbles are icrrn~cdand a rapid
decline in head, efficiency. and c:ipncity result?. Fur t l k reason perform- The following conclusions can n o x be made.
ance curves should never be extl~:ipolated. For the same pumps or geonletrically similar pumps Q/(g,H)'*D2.
nW(y,H)", and nQ",/(g,H)"' hare unique ralaes rorresponding to each
Affinity Laws cfficiencg and these values rcmain ronstaut rrgardlcss of tthe imlxller
diameter or pump speed.
Through the application of the principles of dimensional anwlysis (111 The constancy of t,he various dimensionlcsa g o u p s expressed above is
the physical jlropertics affecting pulnl> operation the folloa-ing re1:rtion- an ideal case and not completel? true. I t is, hmvc\-er. a useful approxima-
ship is obtained.*
t of considerable value
tion and several relationships can be derived t h t ~ are
to the chemical engineer in determining operational characteristics of a
pump vhen the pump diameter or speed is ~ h t n g e d .
For the Same P i m p Opcraliny at Dijjerent Spertls:
where Q = capacity, IYI ft w ~ i tima t D = constant
II = pump hcad, St-# '111
II = speed. r r r o l u t ~ i o n ~ u ntime
it Hence at an? givrn cfficiency:
D = impeller diam, length Capacity
g, = Ih-ft '(time)2;+. 32.17 if t,ime unit,s are seconds Q nD
p = density, mass.'oubic length
and ---- are constant
(g,~)h~~' (y,~)'~
F = viscosit,y, absolute
# = pound of force
Ih = pound of mass
Call the dimensionless expressions a,, aa, and r, in the order in which Hence
they appear. For true dynamic similarity, 8 1 , s 2 , and a3, must be con-
stant for similar pumps or for t.he same pump at different speeds. sd,
15-hich vill he recognized as a Reynolds' number since Q'W is proportional
to the wlocity, cannot he maintained constant with changes in pump
speed or size if the same liquid is pumpcd. I t has hcen shown, ho\'ever, :. (2 = K'n where Zi' and 1< :irr c ~ ~ n . ; t ~ m t s
that for practical applications the Ileynol~is'nomhcr can be neglected in
considering the conditions for dynamic similarity.
Thus the conditions for dynamic similarity are constant values of a1
and m.. The form of e q 1 can hc altered I I :~ppropriate
~ mathematical
operation to give the follo~\-ing:
nl)
= constanl = J
(!7,HJ
or
Calling n D / ( y , H ) % = a', it ran t ~ cst,strcl that for conditions of simi- 11'D2
Inrity of Row a,,a2. a110 a ' p ;ire cor1sla111.
- - .J' vhcre .l and J ' are constants (1)
H
It has been s l ~ o \ v nthat
~ ~ for similar pumps or for thc salue pump a t
different speeds the velocity diagrams a t the impeller are geometrically Hence a t constant diameter
similar when thc pumps are operating a t the scum effiricncy.
282 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 283
BHP For geon!etrirnll!/ ,sinzilur p i ~ ~ n pwith
s different impeller dianlerers but
same speeds:"
1WP a ()H rr n3 a t constant I ) .\t Hie siuiie eficicncy puints:
Capaczly
From 13q. 2 ahove,
T h e application of these I a v s is best illustrated by t h e following exam- Q = Iin113
I . Remember t h a t these laws apply only for efficiencies of the same At constant t p c d
value. Q = li"L)\n.hcre K a n d li" a r e constants
or

Head
At constant spccd from c q 4 al1o1r

HIiP
I n like manner

Gallons pet M8nute Application: A series of curves can be prepared for different diamctcrs
when one curve is k n o v n in a nianner similar t o t h a t described allove.
Fig, 14-16. Estirnat,ion of p e r i o r m a n w curve f o r new conditions.
CHASCIYO IYPELLKE L)IAMETERS IN THE S.AJIECISISG. Even more
import:mt to tlic chemical engineer than the variation of head and
EXAMPLE: Given the performance curve a t 3500 rpm illustrated in Fig. 14-16. capacity in a series of geometrically similar pumps a r c the changes pro-
I t is desired to calculate a new performance curve a t 1750 rpm.
duced by reducing t h e impeller dinmcter of a given pump. A smaller
SOLUTION: impeller m a y he installed or t h e existing impeller turned-down on a lathe.
1. Select any efficiency and read off corresponding values of Q and H. T h e new ilnpellcr aud casing con~i)inationis no longer g~om&caIly
2. Solve for H 2 and Q r
3ilnilar to the original arrangenient, but the rffect of the diameter change
r a n he approximated ~vlienit is assu!ned t h a t the reduction in diameter
reduces the discharge peripheral velocity without affecting the efficiency.
T h e pcriphernl velocity is dircetly proportional t c ~thc imj~elleriliani&r
and hence Q a u a D . Head is proportional to u'/2g, (udlere u is periph-
cral velocity).
3. Plot these as one point on the Head capacity curve.
4. Plot the value of the selected efficiency opposite h)? as a point on the effi- These approximations yield t h e following relation. whicli apply a t
ciency curve for 1750 rpm. equal cficienries just a s the previous equations hased un the affinity Ian-s.
5. Enough additional points are selected to enable sketching in thc desired
curve.
0. BHP curve is calculated in a similar manner.
A whole series of curves can thus be calculated for various speeds. The line
d B in Fig. 14-16 indicates a line of constant efficiency (50':;). There are nunler-
ous such lines corresponding to each yalue of efficiency. I t is only on these
lines that the affinity laws may be applied.
286 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 287
for water a t the BEP t o obtain values for the viscous liquid. These
factors are correlated v i t h the Reynold~'number and are given in the
Standards of t h r Hyclraulic Institute!! or in Centrifugal and Axial Flow
,' P ~ r m p s ,by Stepanoff1O
The fdlon-ing relations apply:

where H , and H , = head for water and the viscous liquid, respectively
E, and E, = ~fficiencg for lvatcr and the viscous liquid, respectively
Ca and CI: = corrections for the head and efficiency
Since the specilic speed is constant a t the best efficiency point:

Thus (3, (capacity ~vhenpumping the viscous liquid) rr~rrespondingto

H , can hc calrxlatcd. A second point can he estahlisl~eda t the shut-off
point (0 gpml sine? viscusity has no effect a t 0 flow and hencc the
efficiency (zcro a t zcro flow) and head remain tlie same a t shut-off.
Thesc t v o sets of points permit the sketching of corrcctcd curves for
the riscous liquid. The Hydraulic Institutes has developed a chart
(Fig. 14-17) f r m ~vliicl~
more than two points can be estimated so that
a loore accurate curve can be drawn.

NPSH (Net Positive Suction HeadJ

Peiliaps no d i c r suhjcct in pump design and selrrtion has bcen dis-
russc~lmore profusely and ~ v i t hless reason than the calcul:~tioni ~ SPSH.
f
The calculation of KPSH is simple and requires no detailed explanatiun.
K P S H is simply tlie total suction pressure a t the suction nozzlc of the
pump minus the vapor pressure of the liquid a t the pumping temperature
.~ -- ~ p~

.
0.8 X Q.. m i l 1.2 X Q.,. Head thc wrluea of Cr (rfficiency rot.rcction), P a (enptw
~ t cw~.pction).
y and C n ihcnd r.orrwtion) f w all font. capacities hy entering t h e d ~ r t
Capacity in 100 gallons Per minute ;,I t h r m t c r mpacity and miding up\r.ard t o thc corresponding head If", ~ l i r nhmi-
zont;illy (either left or right) to the i l r s i r d viscosity i:twr-es u i t h r liqtlid in qrwst~on,
Fig. 14-17. Viscosity correction curves for centrifugal pump performance. (Re- and t h m p r ~ c p e i l i ~ l n ~ i i itdo the i.iit.ious c o n w t i m ~ t ~ n eM-lilltil,ly
~ . P;LCII R P : I ~ .
printed from Stundurds of fIyriiaulie I n s t i t u t e , copyright 1056. Hydrnulir Institute, iap:trity. m i pfficiency for n n t m by the curr~sponding c~,s~wr.tion ti, ohtain tlir
122 E. 42nrl St., S c w I-orh 17, X. Y.) ~ : w r w I e dr;rlucs.
I I I I I i n i s t i t . 1)1tin.
USE OF F I G . 14-17:
s t r I I i t . T h e h a d a t sllu-ofi can 1,- t ; h n a s ;il>pi,xi-
Given the i:ompirte prrformanre rhararteristirs of a pump v h e n handling rmter.
mately riir i : m c as that i u r wnlc~..
Inrate t h e water enparity at maxin~omefficienr.? (1.0 X Q.*). C:tIrul:tte 0.8 X &,
288 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps
expressed in foot-pounds of force per pound of mas? (usually rcfcrrcd the dwsity.
to as S P S H in feet of liquid punipe~lI .
KPSH = h, - h,,
psi = (A)
(y)(2) cn ft,

or XPSII = h', - h:, Operating Points of Centrifugal Pumps

xhere h. = total suction head in ft-#;lb absolute (includes atmospheric For any given piping n r r a n g r n ~ o ~a t bystcm hrad c n l ~ erim 111' S U ~ P T -
I iu~posedoil the head-c;~l~:icitycurve for tlie l~ump. The system head
pressure) , ' I ,-
p

h., = absolute vapor pressure in ft-P ;Ib rurve is composcd of the pu-
h', and h',, = ditto except gage pressures in ft-#;lh tmtial (static) lica11, lm.ssure
lie;ld, and friction lrcarl. Only
Vapor pressure is m ~ s generally
t reported as an ahsolutc pressure. so- the latter varies with flow.
called Reid vapor pressurcs are gage value.?. Such a plot is shown in Fig.
S P S H is important in the selection an11 installation of punrps x l ~ i r h 14-18. The point at wlricli the :
handle fluids near or a t the boiling point. If pufficicnt head ahore t11c t v o curves cross (Point A ) is
I

vapor pressure is not provided, operation of the pump d l he in~possil~lc
or unsatisfactory. As the pressure a t the suction of the pnmp ncar- t l ~ c
vapor pressure of the liquid, vapor bubbles form in the punlp casing anrl
arc subsequently collapsed a t the discharge portion of the casing. This
action. called cavitation,* can cause severe pitting oi the imp'llcr ; ~ m l
casing. In addition as vaporization increases pumping ceases or hecoioes
erratic. -4centrifugal pump can only produce the head in ft-#/lb indi-
cated hy the performance curve. This curresponds to a very lo^ prrsr;ut~
for low density material such as vapors and thus the pump caunclt pso~luc~,
the discharge prcsmre required by the system.
The NPSII most suitable for 8uccesaful operati1111as repostcd IJ? tllp
Hydraulic Institute9 is correlated with sperific speed for hot vatel. anrl
correction factors are givcn for liydrocarbona. Xmufncturers reco~nni~~nrl
tlie NPSH required for their pumps. Thcae values usually apprar on the
performance curve furnished with the pump. (See Fig. 14-15.)
Specific Gravity a n d H e a d
The so-called head of a centrifugal pun111 is actl~allya unit of n.11rli
heing correctly cxpressed as ft-lb of force per lh of mass (it-#/lbJ. 31-
though it is usually just referred to as f t of 11e:td. If this fact is c1e:wly
understood, the effect of specific gravity or density of the pumped fluid
on pump operation is easily followed. The actual ralucs of head on the
periorrnance curve are not aflected by density 'since head is expreawl
ILS t11e xurk per unit 111:1ssof fluid that tile ~ I I I I I I ) )d l : ~ r ~ w u ~ p lfor
give11 volume flow. To calculate the wol.k dune per unit Litr~e,l i o u - ~ , v ( , ~ ~
i s l ~:L
the vuluiue of flow nrust be converted to uiass by inultiplying by thc
density. In addition, the differential pressure in psi also depends on
*When cavitation occurs in a pump, noisy opemtion ami undue vibration of thr
l n ~ ~ t t j > im
n gi t n1.e ubsewed.
tcrmed the operating point for
the system. This is the only
tlor rate 17-hirh the puml> will
delirer unless the characteris-
tics of thc system are changed.
The usual way to aceou~plish IJ,,n,p,Fig. 14-18. Opwnting point of a centrifugnl
this rhnnge is by throttling
the discharge valve. Throttling adds an addkional quantity of head
on the system and moves the curvc to thc left thus reiluring the
capacity of the pump to some point R which depends on thc amount
of throttling.
Series a n d Parallel Pump Arrangements
IVhen it is impossible to mect the head requirements with a single
Imnp two or more pumps in series may he used. Thc flov rate througl~
tach pump is the same a t any given t,ime for pumps conncctcd in series.
1: The heads of the head-capacity curves for the t x o pumps arc adriitivc.
Tire clelivery for a given system can he dekrmined by the intersection
I! i ~ the
f y s t r ~ ncurve with the nelv combined performance curve.
'To incrcese capacity beyond that available with single pumps, parallel
:~rrangcmmt.can be used. I n parallel arrangement the pumps llrodncr
equal hearls, and the new head-capacity curve is determined by adding
I
I
the caparities. Parallel arrangement is often used in pumping statir~ns
rvhere demand varies widely. All but one of the punips can then be
cut out at low demand periods. The satisfactory operation of pumps in
I parallel requires that tlie pumps have stable cliaractcristic curves so
that TI-ideswings or surges in pumping rates can he avoided. A stable
curve is one having n head which constantly increascs toward zero
I capacity.
 290 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 291
I
ROTARY PUMPS Each b.a.: sperial advantages
for particular a l q ~ l i c a t i o ~ Bc-
~s.
Rotary 1111nil1.: a r r p~~aitivc-
~ l i q ~ l a c c u i c npumps
t whirh, through rotat-
rausc of tlic clwc cle:irance.~
ing action. t r a p liqniii I I nirchanical
~ uienns a t the suction sirlc, :ind rrl<yisc
r i r c for certain rotary
it a t tlie d i s r l m r g ~side.~ hniong the numerous types of rotary ~ 1 1 n n j ~ jnr~nps. allra.:ive fl~iid. cannot
l gcar, scre~v,lohe, ran<,,and rani l,u~~il)s.. typiral gear
~ n a n n i a c t u r e ~are
be s u c c r s i u l l y lianclled. This
11ntup is slrown in Fig. 14-19a. T h e unnir.~llingof the gears llroduces doca not apply. lio1verer. t o all
a vacuum n.Ilic11 d r a w the liquid into the spacer i)etn.een t h e teetll.
r7 rotary p u ~ n p ~Certain . special
l l l c liquid is conductetl to the other sidr of th15 I ~ U I I ~liere I re tlw nierhing ~lcsigns of lielical pumps can
of tlic gear.: forces the liquid into tlie discharge l i n e P1111ips such a? han~lli. s o l u t i ~ ~ n scontaining
tliese p r ~ d u c epressures up to 1000 psi and flow rates tu 300 gpm.
Iwgc solid particles.
Rotary pumllx arc most often
:iilr;u~t:~grorlsly applied in proc-
IYS plants for pun~llingviscous
liqnid n-hicli T T - I I U ~h~r difficult
for ccntrifog:ll punips to li;inrlle.
T k n z i t i e s a s high as 400,000
wnti-tokes rxn riisily he
pnmpccl. Rutary pulnlk are Fig 14-20. Pelighrr;tl pomp itnprller ilimv-
niannfactured ~%-l~icli are cilp;t- ing r,a,trl.n,
hle of discllargc pressures u p
~ ~

t o 5000 11". Engineers engaged in the s e l e c t i ~ ~ofn j~unlpssllould not fail

t o investigate tlie many special dcaigns of r ~ ~ t a pumps.
ry particularly those
for difficult pumping jobs in tlie low capacity range (helow 500 g p m ) .

Full pump PERIPHERAL OR "TURBINE" PUMPS

(a) (b)
Fig. 14-19. GPLLI.P I I ~ I P S (. a ) External gear pump. (Courtrsy of Gro. D. Ropm
Conipmi); ( b ) intmm gcar pump. (Courtesy of Viking Pump Cumpany.)
Fig. 14-196 illustrates another t,ype of gear pump, called a n internal
gear pump. T h e crescent shape on the inside of this pump acts a s a
seal hctween tlie suction and discharge ports. Tfic.:c pumps are manu-
factured in sizes producing flow rates a s high a s 1000 gpm and pressures
of 200 psi.
Periplicrnl or "turbine" pumps (Fig. 14-20) drrelop high lieails by
re-circnlating thc liquid to the vanes. I n this manner even sm;ill c a l w i t y
pumps can he designed for high heads, and i t is in this service t h a t they
find their greatest use.
SPECIFYING AND SELECTING PUMPS
T h e succcssiul selection uf t h e hcst pump for a givcn servicc requires
r310sc c o ~ ~ p e r a t i owith
n the nianufacturer'a reprcscntativc. TIII, widrly
used st:mtlard specifirntion shect aids in the orderly priwntation i ~ f

Theoretically most rotary pumps should deliver t h e same volume
,regardless o i discliarge pressure. A certain amount nf running clearancc.
however, is necessary in all designs and this causes a small arnount of
leakage (slil~!. Tlic slip is inversely prupr~rt,ionalt o t h e pressure differ-
ential of t h e pump and is also afiected b y the r i s c ~ ~ s i of
t y tlic liquid being
candled. Usually, however, the capacity varies only a small amount
wit11 discharge pressure.
Numerous rotary pumps other than t h e gear type are manufactured.
11rorcss information (Fig. 14-21). Recansc t l ~ csprcification skiccts are
written in :rl~hreviated form, however, engineers arc pronc ti1 provide
sketrhy or iriailequ:~t~~ information. Full details of the pumlling prohlrni
nlnit IIB given.
ln cmpl,lyiny s;~fi.tyiar.ti~rson tlie required capacity iuid I I C : I ~ . ii is
I m ~ l e r ; ~ lti) ~ : hoth tlic 11l1eratinga n d the celcnlatcd design valurs. It
~ lgivc
oit1.n lin]~lwnsthat tlle arhitmry safety fnctur I I S C V ~11roduces :I design
value n-llicll nccessitntcs the selection u f a mure exllt,nrivc ]lulng. In
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 293
,\ncli cases a reductiun of the arbitrary safety factor mill yield lower
PROCESS SPECIFICATION (Ie-ign cunditions for n-lii(,l~ a leas expensive puulp can be selt.ctc(1. H ; ~ v i n g
FOR PUMPING EOUIPMENT
I~lltlldcrigtr :lmd operating ralues, the pump cnginccr cnn spot snrh >ltll:l-..
PROCESS DESIGN PIC PLANT CPLA-2 t i i n s anrl inform the project engineer a t once.
CHECKED B Y RLJ SPEC. NO BR-DO0
DATE 3,20,5Z ITEM NO P-105
E s t r u ronsidcr;~tion must be given to selecting a pump rr-hie11 i? to
GENERAL I scrrc as a spare for two pum1,s ol~cratingin diifcrent servicrr." Tllc
SERVICE 1 Furnace Feed ~ x r 11cr k unit mass (heacl) required for cneh scrricr :I. ! d l a s the llifter-
NO OF PUMPS I N REGULAR USE I 1 cuti;rl prc.surc :ind capacity nus st he cmnpnred. This i; 11artiri1l:trly
REOUIRLD AS SPARES ncwzsnry fur centrifugal 11uuil1ssince the liead ~lcreloperl\I? a riritrifngal
ln111111 reniainr the ei~rncior a given capacity rcg:~rdleas of the s p w i f i ~ :
-
FLUlL ,,n,.uLru I VAL
gral-it?. Tlic spare ruuat of course 11c rliosc~tfor the ~ n : ~ x i u ~ n~m
,o~iditim.
CORROSIVE OR NON-CORROSIVE
CORROSIVE COMPOUNDS
SOLIDS ! IF A N Y I
I Sllghrly Corroslve
I ~..lr,._ I INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY MANUFACTURER
" ,,rlll:lIlee cllr\-c..>
'The uinnuiacturcr sliould 11e rtqncatcd t o sup11ly 11cli
Q U A N T I T Y H A N D L E D G / H AT 60F A N D 761 .''.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60F A N D 760 M M 1 U.~UL installation and opcrnting inrtru~,tiulis,and wrtificd ~litncnaionvrlh a w -
PUMPING T E M P E R A T U R E
VISCOSITY-CENTIPOISES AT PUMP'*" T ' L . D
1'F
10
150
1 I ings for all pmnps purcllnscd so t h a t accurate piping layout untl fuunda-
tiou iiraxvings can 11c ni;rdc.

PUMP INSTALLATIONS
PRESSURE
Location
P u m p s s l i r ~ u l dbe located a s close a s possihle t o the source of fluid to
rcduce the l e n R t l ~m i l cowplrsity of the suctiol! linr. Frcc s11acc fur
OISCHARGE CONDITIONSI(AT PUMP) srrricing both around thc pump and above the put1111 e h ~ ~ u be l d provided
-PRESSURE P S I i ABS OR GA I ZZO paig
I n the case of rcciproc;~tingpump. this space should be ~ d c q u a t etu per-
-5P G R AT PUMP TEMP A N D SUCTION PRESS 0 810
-LAPACITYAT OlSCH COND GPM 294 init the ~61110v:11of p i ~ t ~ l and l s rods. I n ndriitiorl t h e area :iroullil the
pumps sliould he free o i undue safety Iiazanls.
If t h e pumps a r c in u pump liuuse, ;rdeqn;rte air clinngcs shordd he
~ x o v i d e d . Special cxl~aust,ducts a r e necessary a t the stuffing bow^ IIE
pumps handling rolatilc ur poisonous tnaterials. \Vhcrc possil~lc,tliertl-
Sore, pump houses sliould he avoidcd. I n general they create addit,iomal
expense and liazards and have little real adwmtage.
\Then practirnl, process putiil~sd ~ o u l ~hel instullctl in a line o p l ~ ~ ~ ~ i t r
-REMARKS
--i SPECIAL R E Q U I R E M E N T S OF Ilazardous procc.?s units. ;\ roadwly or frcc area can then be Iol.:lkll
-PUMPSO R ORIVERS.ETC,I betn-ccn the unit and the p u m l ~ s.;o t h a t they can be serviced \\-itl~out
TYPE O F P U M P RECOMMENDED Ccntrlfugal
-TYPE OF DRIVER R E C O M M E N D E D
undue interference in pl:rnt operation.
This in-linc arrauge~nent makes elertrical c,~ncluit instdlatiun :mi
- REGULAR M O ~ O F
- SPARE Turbine steam piping inuclr s i ~ u l ~ l e:iltl~ougl~
r the 11roceas 1)il~ingti1 mid from t i i t ,
~ ~ u m pcan s t,ectnue c m ~ p l i c a t d . It the pro~,csspiping WOLIIII Ix too
-- complex for n certain p u u r l ~it , ilia)- be pwiernblr to plncr that one ~ I U ~ I J I
-- - - ~ ~~ ~~

\vitlii~lt h e proc~.ssunit i ~ r e ~ i111 . g e n t ~ ~puulpa

l; t ; k i n g m e t i o ~Srtm
~ tl~r
Fig. 14-21. Procc% ylccificatiou form lor pumping equipment. [ K e p r i n t ~ d by area and discharging to auother area arc u ~ u s tuti~rnabletu the rrmotc
. .
t ~ ~ r ~ u ~li.
s s1,.~ .J:wks.
~ ~ i ~L'hew
, Eng. P r c l g r , 3,234 (lY53).l in-line arrangement. I n operations wlierr fire is not :I hazard punips
d~uul~ bei yroul~edclwe to the unit;: being served.
294 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Foundations
All plmqis regardless of type rcquire sulistantial foundations ahich
n x capable of absorbing the vibrations created hy the pump. Fuunda-
t i m s are generally concrete poured on solid ground n-hich requires in
IIIOP~c h e s that they pxtenrl beneath the surface of the top soil (see
C'llaptw 2 2 ) . They rxtenrl a h ~ m grade or floor level a minimum of one
f~iot. Fonnilati(nis for pnnips to be installe(l in-line are often made a ron-
stant height a l ~ o r cgrade. If the punips vary greatly in size, ho\\-ever, the
fin~n~lati~:m lieigllts above grade may be varied so that the pump center-
lines are a t the sanlr level. IVlien .so arrangc~l,servicing of the punips
\\-ill II(, (mier, since t11t.y x~illaln-ayr hc a t onr height above ground.
P I I I I fIo~u~n d a t i u ~ ~sh(iuld
r be p1111red rarly to allinn. ixdequate cnring
time hci(~rethe pump is installed. Approximately one inch of space
Iietvcen the hascplatc flange and the top of the foundation should he
allonwi for grout. Tile fonndation bolts (if t l ~ rsizr sprrifird hy the
11u11rl1 vcnilor rind of ~r~ffirient lmgt11 (it is better to have thcni too long
since they c:in nlr\-a?s he r,ut 1 :Ire liclil firmly in thc iounil:~tion. Tliey
arc cncuscd hy a 11ilic clcrl-e of three to four ti~ncbthe rlianietvr of the
holt. This llern~itsmol-cment of the bolt to conforin to tlic tiaseplate
holes.
After alignment of the pumping unit, a thin mortar consisting of one
part renient and t ~ v uparts sand and water sufficient t o make a fluid plastic
Inass, i.: injwted under thc haac of the pump. This operation is called
grouting and insures fin11 attachment (if the pump base t o the founda-
tion. A ~%-iiode~l iorni is h i l t around the baseplate to hold tlie fluid gruut.
Holrs proviilcd in tlrc hareplate of the pump permit the escape of air and
enable tnmliing of the grout mixture.
Alignment
1)etailed instructions for the alignment of all pump types are furnished
ti?the ~nanufacturcr. Proprr alignnient is essential to satisfactory pnlnp
opwation. If the niotor or turhine operates a t :I temperature much differ-
cnt from tlie liu~iip,find :digmilent should he checked under operating
conditions or prollcr alloi\-snce made during the initial alignment.
Suction a n d Discharge Piping
Adcquate provisi~msshould be made for expansion in the design of all
hot oil p~itnppiping so that none of this exl~ansionforce is exerted on t l u
[ m i p 1,asing. Clever arr;ingemrnt of the piping so that it ran expa@,
trcrly i d 1 often ubr-i:~tcthc nrtd of rwstly cxpanrion joints. Hut *uctiw
:ind d i s c l ~ a r glines
~ i n ~ IIF
t anchored or s u p p ~ r t t ~sol that the pump
casing will not be required tu vithsiand expansion thrusts.
Process Pumps 295
Suction lines should be as short as possible and rlcsigned t o keep frie-
tion losses to a minimum. This is arcumplished hy using a n adequate
line size ( ~ ~ s u a l one
l y Ilr two sizes* larger than the sortion nozzle on the
, a minimum number of lirntli.
l u m p i , long radius ~ l t i o v can11
Pockets n.11cre @IF or air can nccunulate s111i11ldIJC :ivoided in sudion
lines of centrifugal pumps. Eccentric rrduccrs m-it11 t h r ;Iul~ing ~ i d e
installed do~vnwardshould be used a t the suction nozzle so that no air
pocket ran form.
Suction lines should be sloped, where possible, one-friwth inch to tlie
foot ton-an1 the pump when the pump is M o w tlie source, ani:l in rlie
opposite direction when pump is above the source. Elbo~vsentering
double suction pumps shonlrl be installed in tlie vertical. ITlien in>t:illcd
horizontal or a t an angle, tlie result is unequal distribution of flov ti, tht:
t i w 8idt.s of the impeller.
Unless pumps are ~naniiolriedin parallel, a gate valve is usually not
used in the suction line. h strainer, howcvcr, app~oxiinatclythree l o
four t,imes the cross-sectional area of the suction line is desirable and
should be used at l e a d dming plant rtart-up when loose m a t r r i a l ~may
he in the lines. IVlien gate valves are installed in tlir suction line, it is
recornnierded that they be installed with the stem horizontal t o eliminate
chances for vapor collertion in the top of the valre. This practicr, though
often recommended, is not follo\ved generally.
T o assure minimum turbulence a t the pump suction, a. straight run of
pipe approximately three pipe diameters in length should he used between
the suction nozzle and the last elbow.
Common suction headers for a series of punips operating in p;irallel
should be designed for equal velocities a t all points (this approximates
equal pressure drops for any pat11 and assures good distribution).
Discharge lines can he made smaller t l ~ a nthe discharge nozzle and
sometimes are. The available head and economic consirl~rationsdeciilc
the size t o use (see Chapter 18). Velocities in these lines mnge from 3 t o
15 ft/sec.
h check ~ d v is e placcd hetween tlie discl~argenozzle and the gate
valve t o prevent liquid backup in case of pul~ipfailure.
A relief valve sliould be installed on the discharge of pouitive displace-
ment pumjie between the pump and the gatr valve. I t sliould be ~ c tto
open st 1070 in excess of the maximum or king pressure of tlie pump.
A relief valve is not necessary for steam-driven reciprocating pumps
which have a stalling pressure less than the niaxirn~nnallowahlc pressure
on the liquid cylinder.
Pumps having flat-face flanges require tlir use of flat-fiice companion
flanges regardless of piping sprrification.
*This, obviously, is a mle-of-thumb. Tho size should he governed by thr friction
caleulntioos and NPSH required.
296 Project Engineering of Process Plontt

Auxiliary Piping
Auxiliary piping (cooling m-ater and gIand oil piping) particularly t o
centrifugal pumps i~ a small hut extremely important item. Manufac-
turers' sugge.stims on this phase of the piping s l i o ~ l dbe heeded. -411
ralrc. s l i o ~ ~IFl ~ :lcccsiihle
l and thc nrrangtmient, o i tlic piping should ho
such that ~crricitigand inspection of tlic pump will not be impaired.
Priirision for piping o i stuffing box leakage and otlicr drainage away
intm the O I I I U ~u i w t )N' ~ m t . i O e j . Sucii I ~ n l i a g eis often collected in :I
colirmon siimll for all 1,ulnps from \\-liicl~it is then pumped to n-aste hy
:m auto~naticallycontrolled sump pump. COMPRESSORS
REFERENCES

1. Addison. Hrrhmt. Ccntiiliranl and Other. Hotodvr~nmicP ~ r m p r ,Chapman :mi AND

l\.leG~.aw-HillRook Co., SCW York, 1949.
3. Cllurdi. A , H.; Centrijugal P u m p s nnd Blotam. John ITilcy 6 Sons, Inr.,
?;rw Y w k , 1944.
4. Fincll, V. C., Pump Handbook, Sation:il Press, Milhrap, Caiii., 1948.
5. Jacks, K.L., C h e m Eng. Prngr., 40, 234 (10633.
6. Iicnt, K.I.. .lfechnnieul Engineer's Handbook 11, l l t l l Ed., John Tl'iky 8. Sans,
Ine., X e a 1-ork, 1936.
7. liristal, F. A,, :md F. 8 . Annett, Pxrnps, 2nd Ed., hlcGmm-Hill Book Co.,
Ncw \-ark. 1953.
8. Sirkd, F. F., Direct Acting Steam Pumpn, hlcGwrr-Hill Rook Co., X e w
I-ark,1915.
9. Slmrioi-ds o j the Hydinulie Institute, 10th Ed., Hydraulic Institute. S e w 1-ark.
1955.
10. Stepmuff. .\. ,I., Cmtl-ijiigol om1 Arb1 F l o v P u m p s . John IViley 9- Sons. Inc.,
Kew I-ol.k, 1!)48.
11. Taylor, Irving, C 1 , e n ~ .Eng. Progr., j:, 336 (1948).
VACUUM PUMPS
Tlnnsjmrting gases and vapors is xe important as the uiovemtnt of
liqnirl.~in many clicmical plants since some processes require that feerl
gasc:: be coinpressed to elcrated prcssures. T h e compressor station is a
plant ~yithina plant coluposed uf complex and cxpcnsire machines wliicll
require not only skilled operation but also careful eiigincering in selection
atid installation. Coiuprcssor ~i~niiufaeturers usually provide the service.
of their engineers to tlic curtoincr or prusl~ectircrurtoiiicr to aid him in
sclccting the proper units. Here again, l ~ u m r e rtlic, project engineer must
knolr certain fundamental facts if ior no o t l i c ~reason than to m a b k
him to ask pertinent questions and carry on intelligent conrersationi
with the manufacturer.
A listing of conipressor typcs is viinilar t o that for pumps. Uccnurr
of the co1iipressi1)ility o i guscs, hoivcrcr. ttic ilesigli of a cunilmwor is f a r
uirm coml,licatrtl. Furthcmiori,. tllc oa. of wcilmratiug I I I I I I I ~!I:IS I.~
~lcclincd to relatircly siiiall prol~ortions,wliile the rcci1,riw;iting ,,IIIII-
pressor still does the major l~ortioriof all gar c u r n p ~ e s s i ~ altliorigli
~n, riucc
194.5 centrifugal comllressor w i g c has increased rcmarkal~ly.

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Briefly, as defined by tlw Compressed Air and Gas Iiistitutr:' a reci1~-
rocating compressor is one in which the compressing clrrnrnt is n piston
follon-iug a rcciprocntillg ~iiutiunill :I ~ylildclr. B~V:LII-I, 1 1 1 the 111ar1y

t y l ~ e sof reci1rror;lting coinpr<:ssorr llcilig built today it is ,lifficolt to

297
298 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 299
preparc a rational list of general types. T h e Compressrd Air 8nil Gas
I n s t i t n t ~ ~ b u g g e s the
t s frrlloving listing:*
1 . I I I - I . C'c~mprrs-irinrti'reted in m r end of eylindrr only.
2. Ilouhle-.&ctiny. Compr&on occurs in both cnds of cylinder.
3. S!IIFIP-S~:I~~. C O I I I ~ ~ ~ Sfrom
S ~ O Iinitial
I to final stagr orcurs on rach
working stroke of the piston.
4. .\Iultiiragr. Gas rompreised from initial to intermediatr pressure in first
cylindcr and is conlpletrd in one or more iribsequr!nt c>-linder.
5. Vertical. C:ompressing element in verticnl position.
6. 1lorizont:d. Compressing element in horizuntal position (most common
in pnrrsr induitrirs) .
7. Angle. i\h~lticylindrrcrmpressor with cylinder axes a t an angle with pach
nthcr (pnrtic~ll:it.l:-ronnmm to imall :~ndportable air compressors I . This tenni-
nolo:!. i- hnsrrl rntirrly on the compressor cylinders. The use of a n ~ l eas a
t?-pc no!!- more grnrrall?- refers to large direct connected machimy in which the
comprrsaor cylinders are horizontal and the poxrer c>-linders are a t an angle
u-ith the compressrr cylinders (see bcloxr).
8. Straicht line. (Single frame)-Horizontal or vertical units with 3 single
frame h:~vingone or mrirt, cylinders in line.
9. Dnplex. Tiro par:illrl cylimirrs connrrtd to a eonnnon crank shaft. - . - .. .
First
.
'
1 . Air c . Cooled by natural atmospheric air circul:rtion iim:~ll eom- I Steam - Flywheel I
pressors only).
11. Wntrr coolcd. Kater circulated througl~jackets surrounding the cylinders
(most process comjiressors) .
T h e large higll-specd multicylinder compressors which were introduced
in the early 1940's have become common t o process plants but their com-
plexity makes the above terminology inadequate in many respects. It
&-odd seem preferable t o describe t h e modern process compressors on
the basis uf the type of drive.

Reciprocating Compressor Types

Direct-Connected Steam-Driven
T h e majority of early conipressor installations mere steam-driven units.
Use of tl~eseunits is noiv largely confined to small (10-300 111)) I m -
pressure installations, single stage or txvo-stage tandcrn units n h i c h pro-
duce maxiniuni pressures of about 150 psi and 5CiJ psi, respectively.
These compressors operate a t 250 to 500 rpm a n d are most popular a s
air conlpressurs. T h e steam end is similar to t h a t on st,carn-driven
recij~rocalingpumps.
Larger 1200 to 1.500 hpi stcan-drix-cn compressors arc generally of t h e
horizontal, duplex type in single-stagc or two-stage designs (Fig. 15-1).
T h r w cxn hc built for high-prcs*urc operation u p t o 50W psi. Choicc
of such :i unit will depend largely on the steam balancc in a n existing or
* Rrprintcd hy pmmimion Cimprrasud Air H n ~ i d b o o k ,2nd Ed., Cumpressed hr
and Gna Instilutc, I\lcC;~.an-HillBook Co., A-.Y. (1954).
Second
stoqe
Fig. 15-1. Plan and pictorial view of t~o-stag?,stpun~ilriren~.cciprorntingr o ~ u -
- pwnsor. (Photograph hy eourtcsy of Ingnrsoll-Rand Com~inn~.Pirtorinl ndapted
by permission.)
Motor-Driven
There is a wide variety of motor-driven rcciprornting rolnpressor
designs ranging from small single cylinder niodi\ls (,5 to 150 h p ~to large
opposed multicylinder compressors (150 to 4500 h p i . T h e smaller units
a r e arranged for flat belt or V-belt drive whilc the larger unit;; a r e de-
signed f o r dircrt-connected synchrmons nmtor; ( F i p . 15-2 and 15-3).
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 30 1
Units such a s t h a t illustrated in Fig. 15-3. composcd of four to six eom-
Intercooler pressor cylinders rcquire the uiost careful dezign. Inertia forccs can he
zrc:it in sucli installations, arid tliesc must be carefully halancrd in t h r
ilesign. T h c opposed arrangement of cylinders in Fig, 15-3 mininlizrs
these forcer. Complete balance, lion-ever, is never achieved and due con-
:ideration of the magnitude of unbalance must be given in the design of
coinpres~orfoundations.
Syncl~ronousmotors can bc conreniently designed to operatc a t the h v
speeds required for reciprocating machines. If a .;yncl~rononsm o t o ~ .i-
to be eniployed in a hazardous atmosphere, horvever, it is ncecssary t o
srparatc the motor from t h e conlpressor b y enclosing the motor in a brick
r'r coi11,retr room. A motor shaft cxtension rvhich is supported 11y ;in
outl~oarilh a r i n g is uicd. T h e r o o n ~is rentilated so that tile p r c s s u ~
i n d e is higlicr than in t h r ronljireswr rooill, iinrl a n y air an11 gas le:~k:rgo
will go ~ ~ instrad
u t I,! into the iiiotor room. I n many haznrdous :III~III.>-
phcrc?. l ~ o ~ v e ~it -11:~s
~ r . I)wn found satisfactory t o rnrase the niotor col-
~ ~ in a s l m t inctnl housing and iunirrtain :I liii-itire llrrszurc in
l e c t ~ring
this bowing using an inert gas such a iiitr~~gcti.S i r h :in a r r a u g c ~ i ~ ~ ~ n t
is i t 1 r t i c i 1 1 1 r l cunrenient and for lurrcr bol.se11uner inrt;ill;itiotr~
11jclo~v450 lipl it is porsihlc to employ induction inotors crr1noniical1~-
which r a n be made explosion-l)ruoi. Induction 111ot111.s, I t o ~ ~ - e r erc- r.
illlire re~luctiongears b e c a ~ ~ sofe their higher speeds (compressor inax-
n i is generally around 5 0 0 ) .
i ~ ~ i u rpnl

Turbine-Driven
Steani turbines instcad of clc,rtric tnotors ?:in ilr used to ilrir-c the I Y I I I I -
~ ~ r c s o dcscribcd
rs al)ovc. Stcan1 turbines ;irv used en p u w r c a t s art,
high :mil rtcani costs are 111n.

Engine-Driven
Large coniprersors designed for motor d r i r e can also be driven h p diesel.
gas-diesel,* or gas cngincs. T l ~ c s ccngincs arc connected through a fly-
n-heel t o the rom]~reszorw i t . I t is desiralils, liorvwer, t o cmi~loytlir
compact "nnglc-type" coniprt:ssors ~lescribed helon. ~x-llcndiesel or gas
fuel is inrlirated. For rcwtaiii !~igli-presswe,high-rqxirity i ~ p p l i c a t i o n ~
beyond t l ~ srangc of t h e "anglc-type" i a b o w 2500 h p ) i t is nrccssary
to use the engine d r i r e connerted to a "ntotor-driven" type unit.

Angle-Type
An anglc-type compressor has liurizontnlly mounted cornprrssur cylin-
Knockout ~ i s c h a r a e Svnchrbnous iubricatina Suction
Drum Header Motor Oil Pump Heoder ders d i i c h are driven b y power cylinders n ~ o u n t e da t an augle of approxi-
n ~ a t c l y90' to the horizontal.
*TIN,z n ~ - d i e s ~mI x i m c : m 0 1 > , ~ 1 1 on
< ~ villws gas o v <liwel fuc~l and is i m l i c ~ ~ l d
;an i n t ~ m ~ p t : d ~mucw
~ l x w lv d g:t- SIII>,>I? vxi<ts.
302 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 303
T h e early gas engines were siniply modified steam engine compressors.
.~
I h e y n-cre improred during the 1920's and many large installations of
horizontal. 4-cycle gac enginc-driven. dnuhle-acting compressors were
installed ezperially for gas transmission senice. These units are still
produced hy some nianufacturcrs: but have dcclined in popularity because
of the advent of angle-type compressors.
Perhaps lone of tlic most q w t ; r c u l a r clerclolm~entsin compressor design
took place in the late 1930's and early 1940's x h e n the 2-cycle gas-driven,
angle-type roniprcssor was introduced. It had three i~nnicdiatelyappar-
ent advantages o\-cr its lower speed horizontal predecessors; namely,
higher tlicrnial efficiency. lower (apprr~ximatelyone-half) space require-
ment. and Irnver COP^ per horsepo~verinstalled
Tlierc are tn.o designs of angle-tyle compressors. On? is the so-called
"right angle" (Fig. 15-41 with the power rylinders arranged side by side;
it lias tile advantage 01' easy accessibility to all power cylinders from one
platforni. A w r m d t y l i ~ ,t h r 1--angle ~ i t ht l ~ r1mvcr cylinders in a
V-arrangement (Fig. 15.5) has tlie a d ~ m t a g eof more cylinders per unit
length of engine. Rotli 1 : ~ ~give s excellent service and have proved very
popular. The "ripllt-:~nglc" t > y c has 5 , 6. 8 or 10 p o m r rylindcrs and
tlie "V-angle" type has 6 , 8 , or 10 rylinders. Botli deliver from 250-300 hp
per cylinder. Tlic opcrating spec11 ranges around 300 rpm and as many as
six t o seven stages of coiiil~ressi,nncan bc inrorporated nn one compressor.
Botli two- and four-cycle engines arc manufactured. Four-cycle
engines opcrate extreniely xell a t nick variations in load below the rated
capacity. T~vo-cyclemachines operate satisfactorily high above rated
capacity. I n two-cycle operatinn 811-called scavenging air is pre-com-
pressed in an auxiliary scavenging air compressor which is connected t o
the crankshaft. This air enters tllc cylinder toward the end of the expan-
sion stroke and aids in expelling or "scavenging" the remaining gases.
T h e four-cycle cnginr arcomplislics the intake and compression of air
in each cylinder and thus requires no scavenging air compressor.
T l i c ~ eare certain inherent ndvantagcs t o each type ~vhichare discussed
fully in lncclinnical engineering literature. The two-cycle engine became
popular since it required smaller spacc and lcss weight per horsepower
and operated w r y economicnlly a t the low speeds required for recipro-
cating machines. The four-cycle engine requires no scavenging air
compressor arid recent designs aff(~rrlsavings in space. T h e four-cycle
operation inlirrently lias high rffirirncy, and tlie two-cycle has more
uniforri~crank action since every down stroke is it power stroke. T h e
f m ~ r - r y r l ccan he runtrollcd from 100% t o 50% of operating speed n l ~ i l c
t111:rnngc for a t\vo-ryvl~:is 100% to 60:;. I n t h r final analysis instdlcd
cust c~~uip:lriions :%longnit11 cunrp:irison of engineering features will dic-
t:tte tlic cl~oiccof any style unit.
304 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
1)icseI-(driven. angle-type conipressorF are used xhere gas is unavailable.
Gas-diesel units are employed if the gas supply may be interruptable (sea-
sonal availahilityi. Tlir gas-driven and certain gas-diesel models are
-~mt.kignited ~vitlllow voltage ignitors. In hazardous areas a low fire
hazard ignition system should be sp?cified.
Ttre p o w r cylindrrs of anglc-type comprersnrs are r a t e r cooled. Lubri-
<,ationis force fed t o the power end by a gear pump directly connected
to the cri~nkslrait.

Reciprocating Compressor Parts

Fig. 15-5 indicates somc id the major parts of a reciprocating com-
pressor. Brief comment on several of the more important parts may
prove helpful.
Cylinder. Compressor cylinders are built to handlc pressures u p t o
25.000 paig. Most manufacturers havc many cylinder styles and are
al,k to selcrt the one rnort appropriate for any particular service. Low
pressure cylinilers (up t o 1200 to 1500 psig) are generally cast iron or
so-called semi-steel (high quality cast iron). I n the medium pressure
range (1500 to 2500 psig) cast steel construction is used, and in the high Water Coaled
Cyllnder H e o d ~ Exhaust Monifold
pressure range (above 2500 p i g ) forged steel. The cylinders are designed
Inlet
Dirtribution
Woter Head
for water cooling. Water is circulated around the cylinder barrel and
valves to remove the heat of compression. For low compression ratios,
air cooled cylinders can be used. The cylinders of most compressors are
Power Cylinders
Drive
skoft rGos Manifold

lined with cast iron or other remowhlc liners.

Pistons. The pistons are cast iron or fabricated steel depending on the
~ i z eand type of cylinders. T m or more snap-type rings of cast iron or
other rnsterinl recommended by the manufactnrer prevent leakage past
tile piston dnring the compression stroke. Pistons are flat-faced, rounded,
or conical depending on the valve arrangement.
Tire piston rod is constructed of forged carbon steel (alloy steel when
~rorrosionis expected) and extends through a water-cooled stuffing box
packed vitli metallic, composition ring, or another recommended packing
material. A second layer of packing on the crank end serves a s a w.iper
ti) minimizc oil loss from crank end. The packing next t o the cylinder is
force-feed lubricated on large compressors. The cylinder support or dis-
tance piecc forms a chamber next to the compressor cylinder wbich can
he vented so t h a t hazardous gases leaking through the stuffing box may
be condncted safely out of the area.
Compresso~Valves. I n 1915 tbe introduction of pressure actuated suc-
tion and discharge valves sparked develolnnent of the modern com-
pressor. There are numerous different types of these valves. All pperate
on essentially tbe same principle. The pressure difference across the
valve causes flexible metal strips or thin plates t o move against or away
306 Project Engineering of Process Plants
fro111a s ~ r i c suf ciincimtric ur purallei rect;ingul;~ropmings. The differ-
ential pressnrc ~'erpircil(11 accomplish the movement is increased on
certain (lcsigns 11y t l ~ c;il~lllicationof a countrractine., force in the for111 of
spring tension (helical or leaf
s p r i n g or miglits. This coun-
tcrarting force cushions the
valve artion.
The ralve s h o w in Fig. 15-6
consists of thin stccl strips
xhich cover a number of paral-
lel ports. The strips are flexi-
ble and open or close depending
on thc pressure differential
across the valve. For example,
tlic strips on the suction valve
n ~ o v ct o an open position on the
suction stroke when the prc.5-
siir~'i l l thc sllctiiln line cxecetls
t h t in tlie cylinrler.
Thc goal in valve design is
grntlc opening and closing and
sufi(.imt valre area t o cnable
low pas velocity through the
valve. It is sometimes desira-
ble t o employ a double-deck
ralve assembly which is simply
tivo valvcs, one monnted above
tlic other and arranged t o oper-
ate in parallel. This design in-
c r w c s the effective valve area
and reduces valve losses. It
is particularly desirable for hig11-c:~pacity, low-eomprcssion ratio
operation n-here valve losses may be a large portion of the horsepower
requirements.
1-alrc parts arc constructed of carbon steel, stainless steel or chromc
alloy depending on the type valve, the operating conditions and the
corrosive ~ ~ a t u uf r c gas.
Lubrication of Reciprocating Compressors
, .
l h e proper lulrricatiim of :I reciprocating compressor is a complex proh-
let11 anc1 careful iltt(.ntinli niust he gircn t o tlie ri~niprcssurmtmfacturer'r;
r r r ~ , ~ ~ ~ l n i , ~ ias
( l :w(.II
~ti< :IS~ Iliow
~ ~ s of oil co1~11~11ly Iul~riratinj:rllrri:~lists.
A typiwl g:~>or i l ~ w - d ~ ~ i:~ngle-type v ( ~ ~ ~ , r o n ~ ~ ~ r ens ~z x~ yrhave t11ree
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 307
separate lubrication systems. A force-feed typc luhricator sulq>lies
sllecial cylinder oil under controlled f e d rntw t o the emil~ressorcylin-
ders and pistun rod packing. I t s function is to create an effective piston
seal and to protect the coniprcssor valve parts. Too ~nnelioil. however,
xill lead t o carbon formation on the valves causing valve Icakage. An-
other lubricator supplies tlie p o m r cylinders and s(,avenging Illomer. I n
addition, there is a continuous rerirrulating lullt, oil . y s t e ~ ~n.hic11
i cun-
sists of a rotary pump driven off the coniprcssor crankshaft, an oil filter,
and a cooler. This systenl supplies lubrication f11r thr crankzliaft, bear-
ings, and connecting rods and also serves as a ci)ol:tnt for the pi)n-er piston.
Oil is pumped from beneath the cranksl~aft,tllrougli tlie filter and then
tlie cooler to all parts of the systen~. A 11ressnre regulator maintains
the proper luhrirant pressure.
All reciprocating compressors require lubrication of a similar nnturr.
On some small units certain lubrication streanis can be combined. The
Compressed Air and Gas Institute'? giws smnc rxlnnhlc s~~ggrstions on
lubricants, but manufacturers' recmnnendations are more specific and,
hence, more useful.
All reciprocating compress(~r cylinders reqnire oil I u i ~ r i r a t i o n ,and
~
suitable separators must be provided a t the discharge of the compressors
to remove unxanted oil from ga? strcnnis.
Reciprocating Compressor Regulation
The gas delivered by a reciprocating compressor can he rcgulatcd by
one or a combination of several methotls. The incthod used depends
largely on the typc drive. Regulation in uiwt proreises is conwnicntly
based on the maintenance of w constant rollillrcssor discharge or suction
pressure. Wlietl~crto use the suction or discharge pressure l:irgely de-
pends on the process for xhich the compressors are t~cingselected. Often
in process plants it is d e s i r a b l ~to niaintain a given prcssure in a systeui
into which the compressor discharges. I n this instance discharge pressure
is used as the sensing element. IVl~ensuction pressure is nhove atn~os-
pheric pressure it is sonietinies prefc,rat~lc10 cmtrol the suction ~ ~ r c w u r c .
Start and Stop Control. C o n ~ n ~ o n lused y for plant air compressors: a
pressure s r i t c h starts tlic nmtor when t l ~ eair pressure falls below that
required and stops tlie motor xlien it reaches the desired prcsure.
Driver-Speed Control. Direct-acting, steam-driven co~iipressorscan
best be controlled through variation in the speed by means of governors
of the throttling type or automatic steam valve cut-off type. Gas, gas-
diesel, and diesel-driven conlpressorz are controllrd from 100 per cent
* I t is possible to obtain at nddilionnl cost S P P I . ~ :n~ o r l l u l x i ~ n l ~~dy l i n d c t ~iiiwinp
s
pistons fitted with carbon rings, but this is justified only ~vhcneanrprcsscd gases must
not come in contact with oil.
308 Project Engineering o f Process Plants Compressors a n d V a c u u m Pumps 309
t u 50 or 60 jrrr w1it of wpacity by mc.;ma u f a gul-cmor ( o m l)c : i ~ ~ i m : ~ t i -
cally actuated) vhich operates by controlling thc amount of the fuel
admitted to the p o w r cylinders. I n most processes this range of control
is c n t i r ~ l yadrquate, although snction valve nnloaders and rlrarxncr
Clearonce Pocket
pockets as drscrihed helm7 a r r an aid to smoother operation if suction 100% Capacity
or (liirhargc pressures vary. \Vhere this variation is rapid automntir
control of the u n l o a d ~ r sand clearance 11ockrts is indicat~il.
Clenrnnce Pockets. Clcnrnncc pockets arc. usually provi(1rd in c o n -
75% Capacity
iwwsor cylinder; as s l ~ u n nin Figs. 15-4 :md 15-5. 'rllc clc:~mnc?vnlves (Cleoronce Packet Open 1
ran t ~ carranged for autoniatir opcmtion or iiiilnual operatinn. \\'h(v
ol~enerl,the increased clcnrancc addrd t o the (,ylin(lerreduces the r:ij~:wity
uf tlic macl~ine. It has heen demonstrated by Yorkl4 that althnugl~the,
volumetric c f l i ~ i c n lis, ~reduced by the ollming of a clenrancc porkct, c o n - 50% Capacity
(Suction Volver Held Open
~ ~ r e s s i o rfficimry
n is essentially unaffccted ithe gas in tlic clcarancr Crank End
Cleoronce Pocket Not Effective)
pocket is co~nprcsse,lhut returns this energy in the recxp:insiou rtepl.
E r c n rm romprcssors not designed for elcamncc control: there are rlear-
ancc plugs n.liic11 permit manual change in ron~prrssorenparity if ojlcr-
ating conditions cliange permnncntly.
8
25% Capacity
Siiction 1.nlz.e or "Free Air" Cnloorlem. T h e suction valve unl~~niler ( SucI8on Valves Held Open
Heod End
as shown in Fig. 15-7 (KO. 2 nnd Yo. 31 h d d s thc suction valves open Crank End on Cleoronce Packet)

,.
wit11 steel fingers I'nrtcncrl to the pneumatically o p r a t e d unloader piston*.
I his nctim 11rcvmtrthtx piston from compressing gas during tlic partirular
s t r ~ ~ kine ~vl~iclithe unloaiiing i~ccurrcil. Compressor capacity is therehy
rcduccd.
Step-Control. So-called firc-step or. for small compressors, three-step
rapacity control is employed on constant rpccd nmtor-driven compressors.
T l ~ ccapacity is controlled in fire (100, 75, 50, 2,5, 0 % ) steps or tlircc
(100, 50, O%,) as the case niiglit be, through tlic usc of clrarancc pockets,
suction valve unloaders or ;L comhin:ition of hoth. Fig. 15-7 illustrates
a typical five-step control employing t w unlonilcrs and one clearance
pocket on a double-acting cylimlt~r. -4 g o ~ w n o ris ;~ctaatedby the com-
Ireasor discliargc pressure cont~.,~llcr.Tlic gorrrnor selt,rtively energizes
or dc-energizes one or morc of tlir solenoiiis v l i i c l ~control air t o tlrc
unloaders ( K O .2 and Nn. 31 or rlcarancr purkvt valves ( K ~ I1. I . C o n -
plete unloading is necessary for starting synclmmons motor-driven units
under load.
S e l e c t i o n of R e c i p r o c a t i n g C o m p r e s s o r D r i v e
T h e selection of the t y y 3 reriprucating compressor for a given plant
is primarily dependent on the type of drive most suitable for the plant
fuel and po\ver conditions. Fuel, steam, and electrical costs in the area
or plant iuust he evaluated hcfore a n intelligent derision ran be made.
Ench situation is unique in itself. If porvcr costs are extremely low: the
0% Capacity
(Suction Valves Held O p e n
Both Ends )
fig. 15-7. Fire-step elenr:incc conti.01. (Conrt~syof Wo~.thingtonCorporation.)
motur drive should Ire used. Compressors of all sizes r a n be obtained for
motor drire m i l the advantage of l o ~ vl,o~~-er
c o d slii~uldnot 11e overlunkc~i
just because a number of other plants constructed in different parts of tlie
country h a r e used otlicr types of drives.
Gas-drivcn compressors 11ave become p:~rticul:lrly advantageous for
rcfincrics m i l pctro-cllcmical plants since sup]~licsof gas arc p r ~ l u c c d
as "nxste" after the heavier portions are rcmoverl for ~ ~ ins the e process.
Chcmical plants operating in arcas l ~ a v i n glarge uniuterruptnhle gas sup-
plies also find the gns-engine drire advantageous. In arcns ~~-11ere gas
is sold a t a low price only during the Tvnrm n ~ o n t l ~the
s gas-rliencl engine
drive rliould be cmsidercd.
IYhen low cost stealn" is available or ~vlleulow pressure prowss steam
must be obtained from high pressure steam, turbine-driven coinprcssors
*Unfol.tunntely plant stcam costs are oftcn unrealistic hook mlucs and do not
actual conditions.
rcflect
310 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps

are s o ~ n e t i ~ n einrlic:~tcd
s T h e c w t of rr,Iuction gears and steam piping,
IIOII-cvcr,n ~ u a tnot be overlooked in such a (leeision. On m a l l and
niedium-sized cr~nlprcsaorinstallations ~lirect steam-drive often proves
advantngeons. I t is important t o rnnke a tliorougl~cconomic study c o n -
binerl ~7-itI1a n engineering eraluation of tllc easc of operation a n d suit-
ability of the various types of drivers for the particular plant situation.

Reciprocating Compressors in Hazardous Locations

I n the prilccss industries equipment for hazardous areas is designed
to he explosion-proof as discussed in Chapter 24 Sucb design is prac- / suction Discharge \
tically i~npossible x h c n compressor installations employ gas or diced
drives nnd synchronous motors. I n such cases explosion-proof construe-
tiori n-ould be proiiil~itire. It is possible, however, to build these units
v i t h lo^ fire hazard crmstmction, using rlliclded spark plugs for gas
engines and an enrlosed collector ring with a n incrt gas or air purge for
synclil.onous motors.

CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL BLOWERS AND COMPRESSORS

Classification a n d Terminology
T h e C o n ~ p r c ~ s eAir
d and G a s Institute13 has for convenience classified
centrifugal and axial machines as follons:
1. Blowers (turbo-blo~ers).Discharge pressure not exceeding 40 paig (based
on air).
2. Compi.c,ssors (tirrbo-comprrssors). nisc,h:~rgi:pressure exceeding -10 psi:.
3. Fans. Chnrchz has defined these low spccd centrifugal machines as operat-
ing in the w r y lolr pressurc mnge belo~v1 psig and with large volumcs.
hluch of the terminology of the centrifugal machines is similar t o t h a t
steel
Shaft
1 Diffuser LCasmg Drain
alrcady presented I centrifugal p u n ~ p s , and, therefore, only brief
comment nred be nrade concerning most of t h e terms listcd below:
1. Single-Stqe. One impeller or one row of vanes
2. Jldtistage. TKOor more impellers or rovs of vanes 7. Characteristic Curves. Plots of the discharge pressure versus the inlet
3. Centrifugal. Have radial inrpellers and the flov through the machine is in capacity.
a radial direction. These impellers may be open, semi-elosed, and closed. They 8. Performance Curves. Show the shaft horsepowr versus the inlet capacity.
may have straight or back~vardcuwed blades. I n multistage units diffusers are
located between stages for efficient conversion of velocity head to pressure head - 9. Equiz,alent Air Presswe. A term ~vhieh has been l i d in cornparing
centrifugal or axial conillrcssors and unfortnnately :ilq~earsrrell entrenchcd. It
(Fig. 15-8). is the pre~erlrcin p i g that a compressor will drvdop operating a t the r;itcd
4. Axial. Flow of gas is in an axial direction. This motion is created by vanrr
attached to a rotating drum (Fig. 15-9). St:itionary vanes separate each row capacity when handling air a t 14.4 psi absolute and 60" F.
-
of rotating r a m s and serve in the same manner as diffusers on centrifugul
machines.
.I
As with centrifugal punlps, centrifugal a n d axial compressors or blouvers
5. Stane Groiin. Defined bv the -4ir and Gas Institute as any group of
individual impellers and diffusers oper;~tingas a unit on a single shaft, in a
II aceomplisl~the pumping or compressing action h y the rotation of wries
I i i n ~ l l ~ r sT. l ~ rrrlocity imparted t o t h e :;IS Ily (11,. i m j d l c r is con-
-.i
single casing and n-ithout cooling betrr-een individual impellers. vertcd to p r e s s ~ ~ inr e a volute or a difl'uscr. At first gI:mce a m ~ ~ l t i s t a g e
6. Multistage Croup. Two or more stage groups driven by a single driver '

with intercoolers bet,ween groups. centrilugsl conlpwsror (Fig. 15-8) ~ n i g l ~1)ct mistaken for a i i l ~ ~ l t i i l a g c
312 Project Engineering of Process Plants
wntrifugnl pump. The iml)ellers of the rompreszor, Iio~vever,generally
decrease in ~virithfrum the 1011- lo high prcs.sure side because of thc de-
crease in fluid ro111iiie:I? t h ga- I ~ r u n i c scoln1)rrsscd.
Some experts hcliere that the centrifugal compressor is beginning a
pcriod of popularity similar to that of centrifugal pumps in the part
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 313
these may provc helpful. . i s wit11 oentriiugd pu11qx the ranc shapc of
the impeller influences the head capacity characteri-.tics. Many shapes
and types :ire built. The three important centrifugal iliipeller types are
s h o r n in Fig. 15-10: ( a ) Forward curved; ( b ) backward curved; (c)
radial.'

7Stator blades

Backword Rodlol Forward

Copaciiy

Fig. 15-10. Impeller typcs and tppirnl characteristics.

Typical? characteristic curves for these impeller shapes are sho~vn. It

can be seen that a maximum head is reached a t point M. As v i t h pumps.
operation a t or near this point produces unstable operation or surging
since tlie niachinc .ivill "hunt" b e b e e n two capacities for one discharge
pressure. The maxilnuln or critical point for the for~vard-curved blade
ilhistratcd is so far removcd from the origin that the efficient operating
range is in the unstnble region. For n givcn diameter, however, tlic
iormard curved impeller can handle a greater r i ~ l u m eof gas than the
other typcs. It has, therefore, become popular in some fan applications
Fig. 154. . k n l compl.czsor. (Adaptrd by pcxn~ission.CI:wk I3rothrs Cornpsn?.)
when operation is a t high capacity and low pressure. Such operation is
(lernilc. The rrntrifug:il ninrliinc 112s definite atlra11tag1.r over tlic ~.i,rilr- in thc range nherc the unstahle region cnn be most ronveniently avoided.
rocating machinc ior estremcly high rulumcs and in the lower p r c s > ~ ~ r o For higl~pre~suresand high speed the back~vardcurved and radial designs
have proveil tlie most effirient and reliable and art,, therefore, used almost
range (sce I1e1on.l. At lover volumes the efficiency of the centrifng:ll
s o r off ~ q ~ i r lthat
c ~ ~ m l ~ e sdrop- l y it berolues u~~econon~ieal. The range exclusively on centrifugal blolvers and compressors.
uf applicability, l ~ u i v c r t ~
is, c o n t i ~ w d l vb e i ~ ~innreased
g as new design '-The term radial as hwe m ~ p l o y dimplies mdinl ~ a t m n g ~ m e noft the impellet.
techniques are developed. hlndes about the axis. Thesc may be peddle-vhccl itremcl. ~ y p cor may be eurrctl
:tt inlet c n d Since nll erntrifugal machines impart n rnclinl motion to the gas as
opposed to thc axial machine, the term radial is also o s d to describe rentriiugnl
Impeller Types I,IUWCIS and eoml,~~csso~~s.
Before discussing the various types of centrifugal fans, blowers, am1 iThcpc rw,-cs :are only rcpresentntire oi the general t y p c Pronaunced valktion
rulrrprci~urs:I fen c o ~ l ~ ~ : ~UII
m tinil1c1lc1.s
s t o :,I1
n-1ricl1 will be co~iirnul~ can he obtained by alteration oi the impeller blnde curvature.
314 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Because of the high speeds employed for most blower and compressor
applications carcful static and dynamic balancing of the impeller is im-
perative. Factory tests a t about 25% over the rated speed should be
made before delivery so that balance can be checked.
Single-Stage Blowers
Single-stage hlon-ers are regularly furnished in two types, both of which
have ovcrhung impellers similar t o those of centrifugal pumps. The im-
r~ellermay he mounted on an extended shaft of the driver or the impeller
may he nionnted on a separate shaft supported by two sleeve bearings
and nttaclicd to the motor shaft by a coupling, as in most centrifugal
pumps. These nnits operate most economically a t flow rates above 8000
standard cfnl and a t discharge pressures from 2 to 9 psi. The casings
are constrnctcd of cart iron hut can be made of special alloys for corrosive
serrirc or for high inlet pressures.* Thc casing is shaped in the form of
a volute ~ ~ - i tnl itangential discharge and a single or double au~,tioninlet.
B y rotating the casing the discharge nozzle can be located in any desired
position. t
For a l h ~ v e rdeveloping higher heads a diffuser (see Chapter 14)
passagc is located in between the impeller and volute. Impcllers may be
open-type with radial blades or closed-type with radial or backward
curved blades. Those with radial bladcs are cast in one piece and are
generally designed for high tip speeds and thus a high compression ratio.
Single-stage hlolvers are used extensively in the process industries.
They are employed a s gas boosters in processes as varied a s hydroforming
and water g w pr~~duction.They are most frcquently used as sources of
large rolnmcs of low pressurc air for flotation, pneumatic conveying,
ventilatiun, and for foundry cupolas and other o w n s and furnaces.
Multistage Blowers and Compressors
T o obtain higher differential pressures multistage units have been
designed (Fig. 15-8). Fully enclosed impellers are used exclusively in
these units. They are keyed to the shaft. Large impellers h a r e machined
alloy disks and cover plates with vanes, generally backward curved,
formed from stainlcss steel plate vhich arc rivcted or welded in place.
The fully enclosed impcller providcs better support for the vanes and is
better suited for multistage design.
Each impeller is surrounded by a vaneless type diffuser (Fig. 15-8) for
converting velocity head to prcssure head. At the inlet to each inlpeller
guide vanes direct the gas to the impcller eye. The first stage guide vanes
can bc made adjustable so that the characteristics of the conlpressor can
be modified by changing the angle of the vanes.
*Single stage cnsings have been designed for opernt~onat 900 psi.
t Kumber of positions is limited only by the nunrber of bolt holes in tne moms
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 315
The stationary separation walls between stage? are called diaphragms
(Fig. 15-8). They are constrncted n-ith a passageway for conducting the
gas from the diffuser of the previous stage t o the inlet guide ranee of the
next. These guide vanes may be cast integral with or attached ti, the
diaphragm. If high compression ratios arc necessary in each stage, tem-
perature ripe will he great. Diaphragms may be designed for internal
cooling of the gases t>et~\-cen stages hy florv rif cooling ~ v a t e rtlirougl~a
baffled passage in the diaphragm. Kormally, l~owcrer,Atncrican cen-
trifugal compressors are nncodrd.
The casings are cast iron or steel depending on the operating conditims.
Thcy are horizontally split permitting casy access for repairs. All eta-
tionary elements such as the diapl~ragmsare also liorizonally split.
Jlultistage centrifngal hlon.crs and comprcssors are xi-idely used in
many process plants for the movement and comprcs~ion to moderate
pressures of large volumcs of air or gas. Perhaps the most, familiar ap-
plication of inultistagc hlolvers is supplying air to hlast furnilces nnd
Bessemer converters a t 30 psig. The blast-fnrnace t ~ l o w r sare usually
rated at 100,000 standarii cfm n-hile the Dessemer hlon.eri 1111111p 30:000
to 40,000. Similar units arc employed for copper convcrtixs. Many ap-
plications of centrifugal blorx-ers in other process industries h a r e ex-olved,
such as (1) compressing flue gas from furnaces or lime kilns to 10 t11 15 psi
for brine treating; ( 2 ) supplying regeneration air ior fluid catalytic rrack-
ing units (20,000 to 600,000 cfm a t 15 to 25 p i g ) ; (3) boasting gases in
any process involving recirculation; and (4) aerating sewage. Most
multistage blower applications require from two t o five &ages.
As the differential presenres become greater the term centriiugal com-
pressor instead of blower is ernploycd. The growing popularity of rcn-
trifugal compressors in the past few years has been astounding. They
arc designed for shaft extension a t both ends, pcrniitting the coupling
together of up to three ronlpressnrs so that one driver can be cmployed
wit11 rcsulting savings in initial ci~stsand space. Such a n arrangement
is shown in Fig. 15-11. This unit was designcd fur oxygen con~pression
with tln-ee compressors in series compressing oxygen from 11.7 psia t o
350 psig with intcrcooling hetwecn rompressor bodies. Units for han-
dling from 2000 cfm to 120,000 r f m arc manufactured.
Ecunomy a t high flm. rate. has madc the centrifugal compressor a
standard choice for large refrigeration systen~ssuch as those required for
dewaxing plants. This same characteristic has brought about the use of
centrifugal compressors as an initial stage in the cornpression of large
volurncs of gas such as feed gas to annnonia rmvcrtors or natural gasoline
plants. I n such instances the centrifugal compressor rompresscs the gas
from its initial Irnv preseurc ti, ;I ~ ~ r e s ~ of
u r from
e 40 to 150 psig. The
lowcr volnn~eof gas a t thv l~iglirrpreswre :tllon-F reduction in thc size of
t.he reciprucating compressor ~ \ - l ~ i crcccires
h the g;rs from the centrifugal
318 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 319
enable competition with gas-driven reciprocating machines in areas where (similar to the sliding-mne pump in Fig. 14-19) has an eccentrically
cl~eapgas is available. Sereral gas turbine-driven ecntrifugals have been mounted rotor to vhich sliding vanes are fitted. T x ~ ~ - i n i ~ e lblolvers
ler
installed' have two mating lobed impellers which rotate in opposite directions (Fig.
15-12). The impellers do not touch and, therefore, no internal lubrication
Regulation of Centrifugal a n d Axial compressors a n d Blowers is required. This is an advantage in the cumpression of air.
If the mupressor is turbine-driven, varying turbine speed is the most
satisfactory and economical metbod of control. For constant speed
drives it is preferable to control by throttling the suction. For a constant
discharge pressure and a given mass flow rate tbe borseponer ~onsumedis
l e s for throttling the suction than for throttling of the dischargr. This
has been very clearly discussed by Kassarik.'"
A second method of regulation for constant speed machines is the use
of adjustable first stage inlet guide vanes. These n ~ a ybe operated
through gears and linkage so that they automatically change the prrssure-
~ d u ~ ncharacteristics
e of the compressor by changing the inlet angle.
The iulrt guide vane incthod is more efficient in pon-er utilization tlrnn
suction throttling.
Hecausc of the rr.lati~-cly flat cliaractrri~tic curve of centrifugal
machines it is prefrrablc to use actual flow rate as thc sensing dcvice for
actuating the controls on a centrifugal. This flow is generally measured
by a veuturi meter.
Centrifugal machines are ideally suited in many al~plicationsas first
stage units feeding reciprocating compressors. I n surh instances it is
necessary to control the discharge pressure of the centrifugal to insure
smooth operation of the reciprocating machines. This may he done by
means of n preszurc controller in the disrliargt, line of the centrifugal
mi~chinr. I t i:: importnnt to be certain that one control does not work
against another in designing the complex controls for such installations.
I
Fans
Fig. 15-12. Two-impeller blower. ( C o u r t ~ s ya1 Roots-Conncrsviile Blower Division
Fans can be built as centrifugnl or axial flow units. The axial designs of Dresser Induslries.)
are called prq~ellcr-typeunits. The same principles already discnssetl
a p They are used most irequently in process plants for ventilating,
for conveying and re~noringdusts, for supplying draft to boiler furnace
draft fans, for circulating hot air or gases, and for similar applications.
I
I
The t~o-impellerblower has h e n used for many years and has proved
a rugged piece of machincry. It operates 8 t Ion- speeds around 450 q m
and at differentials up to 11 to 15 psi. This blo\~eris used extensively
for supplying Iowpressurc air to flotation cells, cupolas, and pneumatic
Rotary Compressors a n d Blowers
conveying systems. For volumes helox 10,000 standard cfm it appears
Gases are compressed and moved in rotary compressors and blowers 1 favored over the centrifugal h l o w r because of 101%-erfirst cost. To con-
by the positive action of tlrr rotating elements. There are several popular
!

I
trol capacity on constant speed unitsl the discharge is by-passed to thc
designs of these positive displacement machines. The sliding-vane type suction or the gas is rented.
*One imge installation employs 10 gas-lwhinr driven e ~ n t r i f u g d sfor reinjaztion .4 thin1 popular type of rotary positire displacement compressor is the
of natural gas into gas field at 1935 palg A series-parallel arrangement of com- I ~ . o t a r y - l i r ~ ~ ~ i d - ptypc
i s t ~ ~asn shown in Fig. 15-13. The ~~iultiblade
rotor
PIPSSOIS is used. of this machine revolves in an ellil~ticalcase, partially filled 75-itl1 water
t
320 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 321
or otl~erliquid. The rotor revolves a t sufficient r11ccd t o thron. the liquili
against the caring valls. The elli~~tical shape of t l ~ ccasing forces the
liquid to fill the l~uckctc;of thc rotor on tl~c,~iilesand wccrlt. IIII tll? top
and hottoni. This motion dra~vsin gas at the inlet ports, and eonipresses

Capacity, cubic ft per min

- Rotation

CHOOSING COMPRESSOR TYPE FOR A GIVEN JOB

Capacity, cubic fiper min

Fig. 15-14. Cunirlwsaoi.-type relrrtion charts. LReprintcd hy permiwion, I . J.
1ial.asaik. Ciirm. E w . , id, Xu. 10 (194i1, and \Vol.tllington Pump and hlachine
Corporation.]
322 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 32:
operation and volumes too small for centrifugals thc rotary compressor
such as the lobe-typc appears advantageous. .ill these types, of coruse,
overlap. Karassik'o has presented scveral charts (Fig. 15-14) illustrat-
ing the fields of application. These a r e f o r illuztrative purposes: of
rourse, and sllould slot hc used blindly in choosing compressors or blo~vers.
RIaintenancc coats should not he overlooked in t h e selection of co111-
pressors. It is wcll known, for instance, t h a t centrifugal machines require
less n~aintenancethan reciprocating machines. T h e unbalanced forces
characteristic of rcciprocating machines cause greater strain and w a r on
moving part,s. T h e rcpair of a centrifugal machine, howevcr, is more
complex than t h a t of a reciprocating machinc. It has been found advan-
tageous to maintain spare centrifugals in the plant warehouse for com-
pressors in important services.

VACUUM PUMPS
Most of thc equipment described thus f a r can he built for use as vacuum
pumps. T h e principles of operatim are tllc same cxcept t h a t the inlrt
pressure is h e l , : ~atmospheric
~ pressure which necessitates ccrtain design
changes. Volumes a r e largc a t these low pressures and compressor
0 I S C " I I I C C TO
POI1I)" PYYP t
cylinders, for instance, must be correspondingly increased in size. Steam
jet ejectors with dircct contact condensers and in conjunction n i t h
barometric condensers are extensively employed for production of vacuum
especially for m c u u m distillation units. Applications of various types of
vacuum-producing equipment are illustrated in Fig. 15-15.

COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES
Low caparity single-stagc r e c i p r ~ ~ c a t i ncompressors
g a n d centrifugal
hlolvers requirc few accessory items. Air cooled cylinders, grease, or
simple oil lubrication suffice. Large compressors so typical of modern
chemical and petroleum plants demand a large number of accessory items.
Several of t h e more important items are:
I. Reciprocating compressors
A. Auxiliary lubricating and cooling oil system. Provides forced lubrication
and piston cooling oil in addition to lubricators o p r r ~ t e dErum compressor
crankshaft.
1. Lube oil grar pump (motor driven).
2. Lube oil cooler (shell and tube).
3. Oil strainers.
4. Oil filtrr.
B. Intercoolers and nftercoolcrs. Shell and tube or extended surface (fin)
exchangrrs for cooling cornprrsed gaws bet,wen st;~gesand aftm final dis-
charge (aftrrcooler). In high prcssnrc installations less rxpensive constroction
can be realized by pasing the compresed gas through the tubes.
(2. C>-linder cooling water. Each cumpressor cylinder should be provided
n;lh a separate valve for controlling flom. Closed cooling wnter systems often
Fig. 1615. Vacuum-erpiprncnt seleelion chart. (Cawtrsp of Ingersoll-R:md
Conl,'an~.)
prove fearihlr. Carefull? treated xmter is employed and large volumes of ~vatrr
;In,lirrd x i t h a trnll~rr:1tllr~
rice (I[ only tell decreer or Ims.
In a closed system if the m t e r has been properly treated, higher tempem-
tnre watcr can be used, 130-150" F, rvithout cscrssire corrosion or scaie
formation. This high temperature permits the socccssful uppliration of air
coold exchangers for cooling thc watrr in areas where ~vateris scarcc.
D. Kntickout drums. Condensate in compressor cylinders can have disas-
trous effects. If condensate is expected to fornl, provision siiould be made for
its complete re~novalafter rach cooling stage.
E. Suction ;and clircharg~:surge drmns or bottles. Because uf the pulsat~ng
action of reriprocatin: rnnrhines surge riru~uaon both the sucfion and discharge
side uf each cylinder are necessary. Thcse arc drsigncd tu hsvc a volum*
 Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 325
5 . Tlier~nalreI:ty to 1,ruteet against operatin: overloads,
6. .\Iotor trmprl;~tnrcindicator :and alann.
son^ uf t h w motor :mt,--orivs are r a t h r erprmirr but ;arp entirely
justified mi the 1000 h1r :,lid largrr motor.; e~lcounteredin con~pre--orpracticr.
.\ hnowleilge of the ch;~racteri.dirsof the pon-er ~llpply3 r d continnity o/
o11er:~tirn1required in thr. prow-s run aid the electricnl e~x$tiwrgrcxtly in th<,
d c s i g of u >ysr<,nlfor ~uazin~mn reliability of uperntiun and tnxzinnnn niimx
life. Tlie lrrojcct engineer slior~ldsupply this information us n-ell ar inforniu-
tion on the ciSect of short pon-er interruptions on the procw.

COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION
Inatalltitioir is a i ~ i i p l cmatter for small low speed loncliincs but witL
the 1;irgcr unit:: Inan?- ~ : o ~ n l ~11roblems lcx arise. 13ec11nscof the u n l ~ a l s n r r ~ l
f w c c i ~~li:~r:iiwristir id large reciprocating ~ix~chine.. g c n t cart in fi~und:i-
tion ~lc.;ign :~ndpil~ingl:~youtis essmtial. Tlic high r p c c ~ l1111crationof
rentrifugnl ~nachinc., 11111liosaccurate nligr~luent imperative in order t o
a1-oil1 damiiging ~ i b r a t i o n s .
Compressor manufacturers furnish rcco~ii~ilended foond:~tio~idralvings
opmitiu: in ierit,-. for thrir units 11asrii on firm .<oil. Poor hearing mil ~ l e ~ n a n the ~ l s atten-
U. I~r?trutilent:rti~~t~ tion of :in expert fonnclatii~na i d suil specialist to insure the prorision of
1. Pressure gxgesmd temperzturc intlicntors.
2 . Flov contrullera (ventnri) on suction to cr~ntrol sperd of drivc or aileqliatr f~ninil:itions. l l n s s r : r t i ~ ~ofs fro111 2 : 1 to 4 : 1 (concrete t o
suction presure. eornlire-sor and driver weight) a r c c ~ ~ s t o m i t r i lused y for reciprocating
3. Suction gressure controller. uuits. I I i g l ~speed cel~trifugalsrequire c o ~ i ~ p i l r n l ~ratios. le (:o11111res-
Drives aurs fo~i~iiliitiu~is are hest dcaigned sep;w:$te from building Euun(lationi.
, (:as rngine or gur-diesel for reciprocating rolliprcssors
Scqmxtion imd insulatioti of the founclation f r ~ ~ adjacent ni flouring a i d
1. 8t:irting air compressors (250 piig).
3. Starting xir surge tanks. building Iicll~scli~iiinatevibration in the buililing.' \Vhen scveriil re-
3. D i e d oil t:inks, pump;., and filter. ciprocating compressors arc located in olm huilding i t is desirable t o pro-
4. Enpine oil :mr li11rn11,cooler, filter, :tr;iincr. v i ~ l ea I ~ O I ~ I I ~ I I Im
I I a t under all t h e foundations.
T h e building Iiousing the compressors should bc well ventilated to in-
sure cliniination of hazilrdous gas mixtures. Servicing space should be
provided a s reco~ii~ne~iderl by compressor ~ ~ ~ a n u f a c t u r e rTrolley
s. bca~iis
arc needed for hoists and tnu>t hc a t suilicicnt height and of sufficient
capacity to lift coniprcsaor parts.
Aclcquxte pipc sizes slic~uldbe used t u eliminate uriduc prcssurc 11rol1
erpi~ciallyin thc suction hc:i~lcrs t o rcvillrirati~igcolupressors. I n corn-
prcssor ~ " . : ~ r t i wa velwity of 30 to 35 ft/sec has been found ~ i i o s tsatis-
f:ictory. I t is unxiae to i~ntlwsiaecol~ipressurpiping.
T o e l i m i n ~ ~excessire
te friction loss changes in piping direction must he
avoided as tnucli as possible, and where they are necessary long radius
e l b i ~ ws h d d 11c osc<l. T h e : I ~ I ~ I ~ O : I < ,toI I the inlet of n rentrifugal rom-
Irebsor *hool<l II:L~I. a t least tu-,r d i a n i r t e r ~of strnigl~tp i l ~ r . '!Xis i.4 a n
3bsolute necessity for centrifugal compressurs. Sharp bends should also
326 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 327

IIC avoidcd on reciprocating machines a t the inlet. The discharge line of q = heat added from surroundings,* ft-#
a centrifugal s l i ~ ~ n be
l d a very long hend, about 10 degrees. 11' = vork done on the surroundings, (work of expanaiorr), ft-//
On reciprocating unit? overhead piping is nut rec~~mrncnded since in # = poun~lsof forre
order to prcvcnt excessive ribration anchoring problems hcconlc r r r y S o \ \ - the exart different,ial for the energy hmrtion 1. (internal nrerg?)
(liffic~ilt. The ancliuring and supporting oi discharge piping is. in an? is d l : = T ciS - I' d17, and fur a reversihlr process dq = T d S (n-llrrr. s is
event. a priihlem TI-hicli drserve; careful attention. Tibration in ini- the entropy and ?'the absolute temperature). Hence, with the restrirtiuri
properly anchore~lsystems can cause fatigue and bursting of the line due of a reversible proress (ideal frictionless operat,ion) Eq. 1 hrromrs:
to fatigue. Piping for centrifugal compressors must he carefully supported
and anchored tu avoid strains on tlie compressor casing.
All conipressor piping should be thoroughly cleaned of scale and foreign
inatter, During initial operation. particularly, strainers should be in-
stalled in the suction lines.

COMPRESSION THEORY
To thc engineer who must only occasiorrally he conrcmed with the
calculation of compressor periormance, tlic formulations and numenclature Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial and final state.
familiar to the compressor industry often appear baffling. If, lion-ever,
1ic understands scveral basic principles uf tl~ennodynamics,he realizes Theoretical Work of Compression
that all the many compressor design equat,ions are bared on tlicsc plin- For the usual case of coulpression d ~ e r ekinetic energy rfferts are
ciples. negligible eq. 2 becomes:

Thermodynamic Energy Functions a n d Work of Compression -W = If ~ d ~ (3

Although reciprocating compressors conihinc in tlicir operation a f l o ~
For fans and other differential pressure hlowers V may he considered
and nonflov procces: tlie overall result is a flow proccss. Hence. coni-
constant and work is equal to TT(P2-PI). Nq. 2 and 3 arc true for revers-
pressor equations for all compressor types can be based on the eqnation
for flow work obtained from t,he general energy balancc. It is convenient ible flow processes only. Irreversihilities such as frictim effe~trincr~mc,
t o base all calculationi on the ideal reversible process. I n this manner the total work that must be done. Some autl~oritiesu reicr to the
rigorous calculations can be made with relative ease and then corrections
t o the actual case applied in the form of efficiencies.
It is possible to devchp eq. 3 for rcvcrsible flow work by considering
The Overall Energy Balance thc area in a n ideal PV-diagram. This method is perliapi m o coli- ~
The ovcrall energy halance in differential form assuming potential, cise, but unfortunatcly the limitatiuns of tlie expression arc obscured
surface and c1ectrir:tl effects t o he zero or negligible can be expressed as when tlie general energy balance is not uscd directly in the developuient.
follu\vs: Eq. 3 can be related directly to tliem~odynamic energy functions
when the exact differentials of certain of tl~csefunctions are cunsidrred
under tire restrictions of constant temperature (isotliermal) and constant
entropy (isentropic). These cxact differentials, the development of ~vhicll
can be found in any standanl elieuiical engineering therniodynamir tcst-
where P pressure, #/sq f t
=
book, are:
1' volume, cu ft
=
m = mass, lb
u = velocity, ft/sec
g, = factor 32.17 for c o n v e r h g from absolute to engineering units
ti = internal energy, it-#
328 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 329
where V = volume rharts that permit the calculation of enthalpies and entropies when A1ollier
P = pressure ~liagrarnsor tables of cnthalpg are not available.
T = ahsolute temperature If thc gas obcys the ideal gas Inn., solutions to the integration of
S
G
= entropy
= free energy
l2 T7 d P can be simplified as shorn helorv The use of \Iollier diagrams
H = enthalpy when possible, ho~l-ever,is strongly urged since no assumption of ideality
is necessary in their use ; u ~ dthe results are for the avtual gas.
Reversible Isothermal Compression

Applying ,I(: = - S dT + 1. iIP ! Equations Based on Ideal Gas Law

Thc I d e d Gas Lar5- is cspresscrl as:
- S dl' = 0 a t constant 2'

i1 P
~vllf'r~
n
=
=
pressure n ~q ft,
number of 113-moles
1'1,' = n1lT

1 V
R*
=
=
volume cu ft.
Gas Imv constant in vnnsislent unit,s 1,514
Reversible Isentropic Compression* I (#/sq ft)(cu ft,)/(h-rnole) (a R )

Applying dH = 'I'dS+T'dP I Equation G may be witten:

T (IS = 0 at constmt S
.: T' ilP = dH
H hrre 7 , = molal volume, cu it 113-mole.
I<c\ b:l+SlIlI.t: I ~ U T I I E R Z I A L COIIPRESSIOS(IDIXL
GIS)
Employing cq. 7 , u = /<TIP the ~vorliper mole ( ~-Ti7,,,) is:
Eq. 4 and 5 indicate two distinct methods for det,ermining the reversible
work of compression, First, if the relation betveen P and V is lino\\.11,
for the isothermal or isentropic process, the integration of the l1 V iil'
R ~ \ ~ S I B IISESTROIX
.E GAS)
(IDEAL
COXPRESSION
term \vill yield the ~vorli. Secondly, if d n e s of enthalpy and ent,ropy at
the initial and final condit,iolls are available, the work can be calcnlated as Similarly for the isentropir rase:
1 H - T A S for isotherm:d \vorli and AH for isentropio. Indeed, the ease
hg TI-hichisentropic reversible work can be calculated from a Mollier
diagram for a giveti gas has been a major fact,or in t,he adoption of isen-
tropic work as the standard or base for comparison. I<no\ving the initial \diere 111' = enthalpy change for an ideal gas, H t r ~lh-mo!r.
temperature and pressure and the outlet pressure, one only need f o l l o ~
a constant entropy line to the outlet pressure to obtain the h a 1 enthalpy
i C , = molal heat capacity at constant pressure, Dt,u '(Ill-mole) (" F)

and temperature. The final minns the initial enthalpy is t'he Btu equiv-
alent of the work and is converted to ft-lh by multiplying by 778.
(1 Btu = 778 ft-lb).' IIougeri and \Vatson"ave presented generalized
* A reversible isentropic process is a n adiabatic one since dq = I' dS for n rc\.ers-
ihle process. It is often common, therrfore, fol. iorntropic rumpression t o b r inllcd *It seems p r ~ f e r n h l rto rrrnember one gas ronit:iot ;and n i c k < , 1~0n\i~1~si011s
3s re-
adiabatic. Such a practirc is not recommendrd since :dl ntlinbatic processes are not q i 1 i 1 . 4 I n conrpwsrion rnlculntions lrss rhance fot. rwol. o r m w if : ~ l lunit; tire k q > t
nccessnrily isentropic or rcrwsible. m i w t . ~ , u u n t l s .:m<l~I~:grws
Hiiuhine

y "?' ,.~C< r. .~ <,, i;.*

 Compressors ond Vacuum Pumps 331
330 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Rased on the assumptiorls of these rlerivations the values of k must hr
Call this R' the gas law constant in heat units. hased on it11 average of k at the inlet and outlet. Thcsr equations an.
:.R'dlnP = C,dhT true for an ideal gas and the I; can be evaluated from the heat capacitirs
at 0 psia and the average temperat,ure hetwecn the inlet and discharge.
The discharge temperature is, of course, not known at first hut a rongh
g u e s usually suffices. For most rompressor prohlems variation in specific.
where Corn= arithmetic mean of inlet and outlet heat capacity heat is small x i t h temperature and values a t rooni temperat,ure are
satisfactory.
Hence Tz = TI( P z / P I ) ~ " ~ P - Eqs. 8, 11, and 12 all have unit,s of TI-orkper mole (ft-It] per 111-mole).
+
Now for an ideal gas Cum K ' = CDmand calling C,_/Cm = li (Ratio There are many variations of these equations, hut all are hasically the same
of heat capacity at constant pressure C P mt o that a t constant volume C,_) although the multiplicity of compressor formulae in the literature often
the following is obtained: cause confusion. I t is advisable, however, to understand the development
of one form of t,he equation such as t,hose above and the11 conrrrsion can
he made t o any other units that may be convenient. For example to ohtain
the total work per unit time the equations need only he multiplied hy the
Eq. 10 provides a rapid means for calculating the theoretical final com- Ib-moles/minute of fend t o t h r compressor. The ~vorkprr unit ~veight*
pression temperature for an ideal gas when the initial temperature, com- (ft-lh of force per lb of mass) can be obt,ained by dividing eq. 12 by the
pression ratio, and the heat capacity ratio are known: molecrrlar weight of the gm. Horsepower reyuired for t~omprcssionran lw
From eq. 9 above: ~te firm onr of
calculated hy dividing the value of ft-lh per n ~ i r i ~ ~~htninccl

- W, =y 1
C, d~ = Cnm(Tz-- TI)
the equations above hy 33,000 ft-lb per minute per horsepomr.
Since the equations are developed on s molal basis the mold heat
capacity should be employed.
Substituting eq. 10, k can be calculated as C,_!(C,m - R').

Polylropic Compression Coefficient

It is often argued that since actual compression is ncither isentropic
I t is corrvenienl to convert C,,* t o an expression in terms of k. nor isothermal, becausc of certain internal irreversible effects, it is prefvr-
ahlc to calculate a work of compression baaed on tlrt, esprcahiun
PV" = constant, where n is defined as the polytropic. coustant. Thc
value of n for a given gas can be determined from compressor ~ ~ ~ I o I . I I I -
ance tests using indicator card diagrams d ~ i c hare in effect plots of
11ressure versus volume.
Then
Log P + n log V = log constant
Hence the slope of the indicator diagranl line will give a value of n.
Hence These values are neresaarily approximate, liowcrer.
The cxpreasion for work in the polytropic case is

or

or since P l v l = KT, * T h e work per unit weight (ft-#ilb) as with pumps is unfurtunntcly aften referred
t o as Head piirticolarly in wnt~.ifugaleomprpsior pnrlnnee. T h e tcrm it u i iwnd
stiould he re~nenlberedto be actually it-lb of foreellb.
 332 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
333
Tlic I~orscl~on-cr ~Irtcrlirincdfro111 this c.quntion i.< an eh11l:ltiolr of 1111, xr-hrrc 1) + CC, = volume: comprr~scdmmsurml a t inlct condit,ions
indicatpd horsepower.
Becausc it is so eary to calculntc iscntrnpie I I O ~ P I ~ I O I ~from C ~ cntl~alpy
diagrams, the use of the isentrq,ic hnsc for all enlcult~tions11ili mricl~
merit. The calculation of cornilressor xork is at Iltist an al~priiuimation Compressor Operating Efficiency
2nd the ~a111coht::inrrl niwt hr rnrrcrtcil to h n k c llr~rsrprwcr11y 1111,
(I~~uqircssor efficiency ran he defined in a nu~nbcrof ways depending on
cpplication of an appr~priilt~' e f f i ~ % u fc~~c t o r . I t woulil swm prcf?r:il111!.
thc )la+ clioscn. .in efficiency i-aluc ~vitllout referc.nr:c to t l ~ cbasis.
tlrcrefore, to base all calculatims on the .~ilnplcrisentropic case and us?
therefore, is meauil~glcs~.The use of compressor efficiency,in a111-el-cnt.
r:ffir.iencics haserl on the th~orr~tic:~l ismtropic llasis. For recipro~.atin:
1s ;in attempt to awount for the internal irrcvvrsibilities nnrl u ~ c r l l a ~ l i e ~ l
marllines the compression nrtually appro:~vhes iscntropir operation bc-
r;lllsc of the ~atcr-jnclictcilrylinrlcr. hut for uncm~l~rl rcntrifugal rom- losses n-llich occur in actual colnpressii~n. Thcse losses difler for I.?-
~.iprocatingand centrifugal ct~~iq~rcssion. For reciprocating compressorh,
Iressori that is not the ease althi~ugl~ the iscntriq~icbasis is still rccom-
t1ici.e losses :irn fl~iiilfriction losirs including lusrrs tirrough r:rlvcs :in<{
rnrnrled (see belun.) .
inlds and i ~ ~ l t l e t~nerhanical
s, frietim in moving parts SUCII :is tlic pi4toll
: I i t I . Lo-ses for emtrifugal coulprrssors i~lclu~le flui~lfrivtii,~~,
Compressor Efficiencies 1e:tkagc olong shaft rind between itngcs, disk frictiol~iiud 111~(:11alli(,:~l
!Iis ~lrsirablcat this ]mint to define tlic various cfficienr:ir.s used in the loss~~s in the h r i n g c aurl i~:~cliing.Si~nreof the morc frequ~:ntlyuser[
~ ~ l r r ~ ~ r cindustry.
ssor cfficitmcics arc listcd helo~v.
Isotlienllal efficiency:
Volumetric Efficiency
! Iicversible isothermal work X 100 =
1 -4s r i t h reciprocating pumps the actual volume of gas t&m into the Er
I cylinder of a reciprocating comprcvsor is lcss than the displar,ement of the Actual shaft input rorli
!
I cylinder. The ratio of act,ual volume measured at inlet conditions to thc 1 The actual shaft I\-orli is c ~ p i r a l c n tto the brake horscpo~r-r3r.
1 rlisplaccment is called the volumetric efficiency. ! Isentropic efficicrrey:
The relation hetween volometric efficiency and the clearance (C) cx-
-
I
I ~ ~ w r s i lisentropiv
~lc n-orli
pressed as a fractiolr of the tot,al displaccmcnt ( U ) pcr stroke is easily
~p~

X 100 13,
Actual shaft inpnt xork
derived. The clearance of thc cylinder is filled with compressed gas vhicb
re-expands on the return stroke. I t is this re-expanded gas volume t'hat llechaiucal efficiency
~ P ~ I I I Y ' the
S amount of g;~st,hat cnn be rrreived hy the surtion strokf,. Indicator horscpo~ver - Indicatot. hnrsepo!r-er
I
For irlenl gascs the clearance volumc at, suction ( V I ~is)related t o the clear- - X 100 = h',,
I Actual shaft input ~ r o r k Hrakc hursepuwer
anix volume a t discharge (Tryc) by:
11.L172;= I ) , vl:
I Polytropic efficiency:
I'olytropi~.w o k
X loo = I?,,
.Ictual shaft i n p ~ vork
~t
\Then the lldytn~pir:cxl~oucl~t is dctc.rnrincrl f m n ;ln :ictil:rl inrliwtol~

Fract,ional voh~metricefficiency - IL =
Inld- ri~lnme
- -

l~isplae~~uient
rlingram the pdytropic efficiency bnscil 011 the n w l u e thus dctcrlnineil i-
approximately equal to the mechanical efficirncy.
334 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 335
ugals more nearly approach 11olyti.opic compression than isentropic. I t isentropic base, and e~nployingisentrupic rfficiencies to correct tlleoretical
is: tl~crefore,arguedl and R-it11 merit t h a t the isentropic efficiency of a work to actual work. Table 15-1 presents pime t y p i r d isentropic re-
giren machine ~villr a r y markmlly x i t h the gas. This is true because all ciprociiting ~ O I I ~ [ I I ~ C ~dSfFi O~ ~i ~ . n e iivhirli
rs nrny bv ci~nsi,lercdto be equir-
tlic losses icxcel)t iuechanical loises x h i c l ~are oniv a small per rent of alent to t h e niechnnical efhirnries a s well.
the totali heat the gas being cu~npresiedand increase the deviation froni
iscntropic condition-.. Tliesr various deviatimn rrquire different isen-
tropic efficiencies for c a d i gas considered in one machine.

Suction Volume CFM

TABLE O F CORRECTION FACTORS DUE T O COMPRESSION RATIO
Where p, : I n l e t pressure, psjo
Compre$rion Inlet Volume in C F M 60,000
Ratio 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 7500 15,000 30,000 8 over
k = R o t t o of ~ p e c t f l c

0 84 heats,

60 70 80 90 100
Pdytropic Efficiency

Fig. 15-17. Rrlirtioualiip t ~ t w t , c nismtl.opir and poiytropie effirimey ior rent)

Noter: Asterisk lndicoter figurer applying only to high molecu1.r weight hydrocarbons. eao~pressws. (.Adaylcd I,? jirrmiwinn. Clwk Brothers Camp;iny.)
Factors apply on one comprerror body with sir or less impellerr.

TABLE 15-1. Reciprocating Compressor Efficiencies

Isentnipic hp
bhp =
I n Fig. 15-16 typiral polytropir: ~,fficienr.iesfor wntrifugal conlprcssors Efficiency
arc plottrd reran? thc inlet volulnc. This curve rcprrsentr a n rstimate
for :my gas. Tlic [~olytropir:efficiencies, of course, :tko vary 71-itl1 the gas
being cmsirirred although nut a s rr~uclias the isentropie. It is, thrrefore.
possible t o select a, polytropic efficiency for a given machine aliicli can
be used for a n y gnr from a curre such ils Fig. 15-16. Tlic arlvantagcs of
working wit11 the isentropic basis, ho17-ever, are too great to be orerlouked.

II
2.5 80-89
Tlic pu1ytro~)icefficiency may be cimrerted to an isentropic efficiency for 3.0 82-90
the gas being consi~iervdl ~ yuiemsuf Fig. 15-17, and this makes i t possible 4.0 83-90
to use l\Iollicr c l ~ n r t sur entliall~ytables. *Multiply the above values by 0.95 for motor-driven cumpressors
~LECIPHOCAI.ISC COYPHE~SOH E;WICIENCY Temperature Rise w i t h Compression
Since reciprocating r o ~ ~ ~ p r e ~so
s i onearly
n approaches adiabatic c o n - T h e actual final gas temperature from reciprocating compresstirs can
pression there should be no hesitation in basing all calculatinns on the be estimated from eq. 10, or better, a hlollicr diagram, iirrer. tilt, nrncliine
336 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 337
approaches isentropic con~pression closely. For uncoolcd centrifugal and bhp curves for any inlet pressure. I f the inlet pressure rcmains con-
compressors, ho~vcver,the isentropic temperature riac is not comparsble stant and thc inlet temperature changes. thc iscntropic head remains
t o the actual since most of the losses in a centrifugal serve t o heat the cmstant if thc compression ratio changcs t o fulfill this constancy (eq.
gases being comprrsscd. An approximatim of the actual rise can bc 11 I . Dixhargc pres.surc curves for i11l1.t temperaturf changes, therefore,
obtained from the follon~ingrelation: can be calculatcd from the new cornpression ratio.
C,, ATs
Isentropic efficiency = E, = --
C, A16

where AT, = act,ual tcmprmtnrc rise

ATs = isentropic t,enlperature rise

Centrifugal Compressor Performance Curves

It has become customary for Inany people in industry t o think in terms
of air comprcsion nnrl niost michines arc tested n.itIi air. Thc purchaser.
however, should r e < j u e ~at pcrformance curve for the gas to be ccmpressed
Inlet C a p o c i t y , cu f t / m i n

The same relations developed for centrifugal pumps expressing the

effcct of speed changes on performance curvcs can be applied, altliougl~
~vitllless accuracy, t o centrifugal com~mssors. These are applicable a t
the satnc cfficiency points:

Inlet Copacity . cuft/min

(lti)

where G) = inlet volume

N = rpm
H. = isentropic head, f t - g l h
based on the design inlet conditions. Volume is gcnerally plotted on sue11 Centrifugal Compressor Impeller Size a n d Speed
curves in cfm a t inlct conditions versus disr11al.ge pressure in psia. I n Thc v o r k 11r~lucedby one stage of a centrifugal rouipresso~~
is a func-
addition brake horsepower is also shown. These pcrformance curves tion of thc kinetic energy and can hc esprcsscd in ft-# per lb as fo1lon.s:
(Fig. 15-18] are givcn for sewr:d spceds if the speed of the d r ~ v c ris
variable.
Another more useful curvc of isentropic head and cfficiency can be
plottcd from Fig. 15-18 that r i l l bc independent of inlet pressure varia- where ITr = ft-#/lb
tion. This is done by choosing various points on Fig. 15-18 and caiculat- u = peripheral velocity, ft'sec
i ~ i gthe corresponding isentropic head and then the iscntropic efficiency y, = 32.2 conreraion factor (poundxls per lb of force)
(Fig. 15-19]. I< = ovcrall prrs.sun: corfficient varitls het\i.tvvl (1.5 and 0.05
Fig. 1:-19 can bc used to dcvelop volume rcrsus discharge pressure dcpmding wi itnpdlt~r:mI st:~gr tkxigt~.
338 Project Engineering of Process Plants
One large manufacturer designs the major portion of its centrifugal
machines for a normal peripheral velocity of 770 ft/sec. Hence for an
average value of K = 0.55, 10.000 ft-lb of forcellb per stage is a good
average value for estimating the required number of stages. The num-
her nf stages ii thus set by the overall compression ratio and the x ~ o r kper
stage. The peripheral velocity is related to the impeller diameter and
the rpm as follows:
where = diam in in.
N = rpm
Hence
N =uT20-
a 11
-
aD d\/ri ""A
-i 2 0 \ / G , -
-
D
A standard nnpeller size can thus be chosen and the required rpm cal-
culated.
Multistage Compression
Rlultistage compression as discussed in this section shall refer to eom-
pression v.ith complete intercuoling het~veenstages. This is accomplished
by passing the compressed gmcs thruugh 1,-atcr-cooled intcrcooiers be-
tween stages of a reciprocating i.oml~rersor or l ~ e t w x nt ~ centrifugal
o Most of the equatiuns presented thus far are for ideal gases. At liigh
compressors. I n this manner the gases can he cooled to near inlet tern-
perat,ure after each stage nf cotn[~rrs.;ion and the compression process
thereby approaches i s ~ ~ t h e r moperation
al for which the work of cornprea-
sion is the least. (That isothcnnal operation theoretically requires the
least n n r k for a given roniprcsrion ratio can be seen by comparing eq. 8
and 1 1 . )
The total work of compression in a multistage operation is simply the
sum of x o r k in tlrc various stages. Assuming k and the suction tempera-
ture t o each stage is constant and setting the differential of total work
with respect to intermediate pressure equal to zero the opti~numcom-
pression ratio per rtage is found to he the S root of the overall compression
ratio: ( P outlet;P inlet)'/" for each stage x h t w S is the number of
stages. This is the xell know1 rule of equal wcork (equal con~pression
ratio) for raclt stage. Strictly this derivation l101ds true for ideal gases
only. On the basis of eqnal cornpression ratio per stage the total work
Compressors ond Vocuum Pumps 339
hccomes for S .;tagc;:
It is preferable to calculate the hp for each stage separntely since ap-
proximately 5 psi sl1~1n1d be added to the discharge of each stage in order
to allow for friction lusrca in interconnecting piping and intercoolers. For
mechanical reasons, it is desirnhle to h a r e approximntcly the same work
in each stage. IVit11 actnal gases this does not necesrarily ronform to
equal compression ratio per stage." '4
Dodge' repwts that maximum pressurc ratio in any stage of multistage
machines is 11etn.ecn 3 and 5 . Each case should he considercrl on its own
meritd. ho\wvvr. anil the eriinomical rompression ratio determin~~d in CII-
operation n-ith the cnmpressi~rnianufacturcr. Typical compression ratios
used are:
Large pipeline rornprc~:ors 1.2 ti1 2.0
Process eom~~ressors 1.5 t o 4.0
?mall pilot plant high pressure 6:l
The final d c c i r i ~ ~isn l~asedon many factors. I t is, of course, desirable
to use as few stages as [,ossiblc. The limitation is the gas outlet teni-
perature. The discharge teniperatnre of the gas from a cylindcr .should
be kept below 300" F. Compressor manufacturer's murt estimate the
actual discharge temperature sinct: it depends on the cylinder c ~ o l i u g
water arrangement, although a rough idea for estimating can be obtained
from the isentropic calculation (cq. 10).
Calculations for Actual Gases
pressures sonic gases deviate markedly from ideal beharior. Tlie pc,rfect
gas law has been empirically corrected to apply for actual gases by a
multiplier called the compressibility factor.*
Pu = zRT
The compressibility factors of all gases have been found to correlate
I
(Fig. 15-20) ~ i t h i nengineering accuracy n-itli rctlnccd teml~eratnre7 " T r
- and reduced pressure P / P c , lier re T s m i P are the ahsolute tempera-
ture and pressure and Tc and P c the absolute critical tcmpcrature and
pressure of the gas. For mixtures it is satisfactory ti) calci~lntethe r(,-
duced temperature and pressure employing pseudo-critir,:il tcuilvrntnl.r-
and pressures. These are determined from the molal average of the
critical temperatures and pressures of the romponents.
* I t is often referred to as tlic si~pc~.eomp~.essihility
factor. Such sope~.lnlives,how-
ever, do not alter its value or rncamng.
1
i
340 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vocuum Pumps 341
Cumlxcssit~ilitycan be t l ~ u u g h tof a s :I correction factor by rrllicl~the
ideal gas rolumc must be multiplied to produce a n actual rolume.
EXAMPI.E:Calcnlate the volunlr occupicd by lGO0 113 of nrrthanr at 60" F
and 2000 p i g . Critical tmmprraturr of nwtlxine is -116.5" 1.' 2nd
critical prcssurr is A73 p i g .

From Fig. 1.5-20, r = 0.78

1600
Basis -
16
. = 100 It,-moles of methane

T h e volumetric cfiricncy o i reciprocating macllincs is affected b y t h r

deviations frinn icienlity, :nld t':~ilure t o c ~ n f i d c tllcsc
r deviations n ~ u ylend
to niis-sizrd compressor cylinders. Eq. 14, ~vbirliexpresses the rc1:ltion
between volun~etriccficicncy, elcarancc a n d con~pressionratio, can 11e
derived f o r actual gasps 11y using c ~ ~ n ~ p r e s i b i l icorrections.
ty The
expanded volume, a t suction conditions is:

I T ~ n a l l yT2 is no1 know1 but cnn 11r approsirnated from t h e ideal gas
rrlatinnship

where 1 refers t o suct,ion conditions a n d 2 t o discharge conditions.

T h e project engineer niust supply compressor manufacturers ~ i t h
accurate values of co~npressibilitiesfor t h e gases t o be compressed so t h a t
cylinders m a y be sized correctly.
If a n entllalpy diagram is available for the gas being r o i n l ) r ~ s e dt11r
,
theoretical ireutropic work and temperature can be ralcu1:ited accu-
342 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compresrors and Vacuum Pumps 343
rately and rapidly. T h e difference in enthalpy in R t u per pound molc
temperature. All the formulas presented previously are on the mole basis,
between initial and final rmclitions a t constant r n t r o l ~ yis equivalent to
and the examples to follow illustrate their use.
the isentropic ~ o r kfor a n a e t u d gas (see illustratirc examplrs). If an
enthalpy diagram is not a\-ailable, generalized enthalpy charts can be EXAMPLE 1: A centrifugal compressor is to be selected for comprrssing 462 lb
used such a s those of H o u g m and \Yatson.Q T h c ideal gas entlialpy can per minute of pure nitrogen at 80" F and 14.7 psia to 40 psia.
Determinr the iollo~ving: i n ) Hrnke horse11orver; (b)Sumber of stages; (c)
be corrected to actual gas cnthalpy by using these generalized charts, Inlgeller diameter; (rii S p e d in rpni.
but the calculation requires trial and error and is time consulning.
I n most caws t h e theorrtirnl isentropic horaepo~\-ernred not be known Properties of S i t r o g m
with great acouracy and approximate mctl~odsare justifiable. S u ~ ~ i c r o u ; ; Xolnl heat capacity: 6.97 Btuj(lh-mole)(O R)
~ncthod.; h a r e been prop0sed.3.j.l3~,'4 R i d g ~ a y l 3studied
~ t h e effrct hlolecular weight: 28
of rol~~pressibilities of gases on t h e indicator card diagram and pro- 8.97 k-1 - 1 . 4 1
k = = 1.10 and -- ---- - - 0.286
posed correcting the ideal gas horsepoi~er as calculated l1y equation^ (6.97 - 1.9Xi) k 1.4
11. lln, o r 12 to a r t u d ga.; horsepower I y mnltiplying by the aritlimetir a. Basis: = 16.5 lb-mdcs per ~uinutc
average of the snrtion and disrliarg? romp~cssitiilities. This same pro-
cedure can also be deduced b y consideration of eq. 9. Compression work
for the actual gar can be ertimntrd a? f o l l m s :

Inlet ~ n l u m e= (16.5)(3i9) ($%a)

= 6500 cfrn
From Figs. 15-It; rxnd 15-17
For a n ideal gas - (AHf)(7i8)
Isentropic efficiency = (0.767) (0.955) = 0.733
483
bhp = - = 660 hp
0.733
Recause of thr lox pressure operation there is no need to correct f n r d ~ r i a t i o u s
from ideality. An assumption of ideality is completely within range of accuracy.
b. Xnmhcr rlf stagrs: use 10,000 St-#/lb per stage.

966.000
Since R i d g ~ a y ' sapproxin~at~ion is hased on correcting the ideal gas Work per stage -= 8.630 ft-#/(lh)(sttlge)
(28)(-l)
horsepo~ver,k shonld hc c ~ a l u a t c dat 0 psi, and w should 111, a n ideal gas
c. The selection of the impeller diarnetel. depends ronsidernbly on the re-
specific volume (RT1/P1). quired rapacity of the mtlcliinc. manufacturer'^ data indicate an 18 in. inli>ellcr
T h e method has been popular a n ~ u n gcompressor mginrers because of for the inlet capacity of 6500 cfm.
the ease b y which values iiir ideal gas h o r s e p o w r can he corrected to Fronl eq. 17:
horsepower for a n actual gas.

Illustrative Examples of Calculation Techniques

There is a distinct advantage in using a molal basis for all compressor
calculations. T h e basic quantity is then independent of pressure and
Exanrrr.~2: 1800 standard cfnl (60" F unri 14.7 psin) of natural gas colnposeli
of 80.2 mole per r w ~ tC H 4 . 10.3r; C2Hs.6 . 5 ' , (':,HI. 2 . 0 ' ; i - ( ' ~ H I oi~nd
. 1.0',
n-('iH is to be compressed in n multistagc reriprrwiting ro:npveswr. The $:IS
entcrs the compl.essor ;tt 85 psig and 85" F and is to be compressed to 2400 pslil.
344 Proiect Engineering of Process Plonts
Determine the follon-ing, first assuming a n ideal gas nnrl tlren n n actual gas.
.,\ssume complcte intercooling b e t ~ r e e nstages aurl 10'; cleal.ance for all cylinders:
( a ) S u m h e r of stages. (b) Horsepower per c?linrlcr. (c) Total brake horse-
power. (d) Elisplacement required for each cylinder.
Basis: G' o-; = 4.75 lb-mo1es;min.
Properties of gaseous mixture
1:ravtirmnl
hlol~r- Ihc- Criticnl Vractioual Critical rritical
Comp hlolr, ulnr bionnl pressure, Critir.11 tempera- tPrnpcr:l-
nent r' wt mol w t psin pressurn ture,"lt ture
/o
CHn 80.2 16 12.8 673 539.0 343 275.0
('2He 10.3 30 3.1 717 73.9 550 5fi.7
CJls ll.5
i-CaHlo 2.0
n-CJ11o 1.0
100.0

Compound Mold* C, R.ar.tionn1 C,, =

nt 150" F (C,) (mole-irncbion)
CIIr 8.!17 7.1'1
C ~ ~ + I S 13.78 1.42
Cr Hs 1!)..58 1.27
i-('411~o 25.82 0.52
n-C,lTlo 2616 0.26
-
A r c r a ~ ?C, 10.66
* 150" F nssunicd as an a v e u g r tm~pw:~tm.e.

Often values of i: nrr t:rhnI:ited. These call be r~rt,<lfur most r~;~lci~l:~liulk

-ilir? the rnrintion n-it11 t r l n l ~ r u t u r eis uii~:iIIynot :r?:lt.
Assuming ideal g m
a. Assume tljwe stages.
Fig. 1531. Enthalpy-entropy diagram for b n a t w a l gas. [Rcpl.intcd hv permission, George Grangcr Bmnn, Trans. AIAIE, 160, 70 (1[145).]
 Compresrors ond Vacuum Pumps 345
Use three stages.
Suction. 1st stage discharge 2nd stnge 3rd slage
100 psia 290 psia 510 psis 2400 approx. psia
h. Horsepower per stage. (Correction for thc increased pressure needed
to overcome intercoolsr 3f' mill he t~r~pjpctcd
)

First it:ige:
-- 1.23
(1544)(545)[(2.0)0.'Y7- 11 = 990,000 ft-!,.'lb-mole per stage
1.13 - 1.0
Efficiency from Table 15-1 = 82 %
(990.000) (4.75)
bhp/c! linder = = 174 hp
(33,000)(0.82)
c. Tot:rl bhp = (li.i)(:3) = 322 lip

or 86 5 for each rylinder

Displacement of firat stage:

IXsplacernent of second stage

Displacement of third stnge:

From the displncenlents c;~leulatcdabove, standard cylinrlcr sizes and eom-

pressor speed ran be selected. Exact cle:irnnues for the machine selected XP
given hy the manuiacturer. I t is particnla1.1y iniportnnt on gas-engine driven
cornpressors to select cylinder sizes PO that the cngine will maintain a relatively
constant load. In this way fuel economy will he high. Mnst'? has presented an
interesting description of the cylintler selection process.
Act~ialgas
a. The number of stages should not he altered hy deviations from ideal gas
b and c. As a first assunlption ass~nneequal compression ratios per stage.
Enthalpy charts for various natural gases :ire available. One such chart for
n natural gas 0.7 specific gravity is rcprotluced in Figure 1621. I t can be used
for the gas in question since the properties are very similar Referring to Figure
16-21 the compression in any stage is follmved on a corlstant entropy line from
i d r t to discharge prmsure. Intercooling is traced on a constant pressure line.

MOTORS
AND
TURBINES
Motors and stcam turl~incsarc the most common drivers for machinery
in a in'ol!er plant, hut the h i c r bct\wrrl tlictn is not :I ,.imiilc on(,.
Porrcr and stcanl rosts and availability niust hc carefully c~~nsidert~d for
cach particular situation .4lthough electric mutors arc inherently innre
efficient, steam turbines arc more reliable. Tile operation of an electric
Inotor depends on equipment such as s ~ r i t c hgear and transforulcrs n.llir.l~,
I tliouglr usually reliable and good for niany years of service, can fail ~vitli-
out varning. The steam turbine, on the other hand, requires only a
constant supply of steam and such supplies in a nell-dcsigncd plant arc
seldom interrupted villiout previous
I n wuie areas p o w r costs may he so high t h a t stearn turbines sllould
be used n.1lerevi.r possible. Certain services, sue11 as 1oxr-er-speed pumps,
11oaevcr: arc not rcry efficiently 11andlcd by turbincr. Since tlic turbine
is prilnarily a higll-syed machine (3,000 t o 5,000 rpm), expensive gear
reducers are rerluircd vhcn used to drive Ion-speed apparatus. I n such
cases lowspeed motors can be ctnployed withuut the use of gcar reducers.
Even when tlic power costs indicate that electric motors should be uscd
in a plant. turbinel: may bc advantageously used for some services. Be-
cause of their greater reliability, they are very often specified as driveti
fur rllarc ~ ~ u n l ~ ~uther
i l ~ lsinlili?r
d nlacl~inery. 1,arge noncondensing
turbines can often be used for the dual purpose of driving a Iargc pump
or compressor and for iupplying Iorwr pressure process steam for heating
purl~ohcsin the plant. Higll-pressure stuani is supplicd t.u the inlet of the
348
Motors ond Turbines 349
t i I I 1 1 : 1 t : I Ii I f 1 1 n g r o s I-trlikr
csliaust steam frorn wciprorating machinery, turhine exhaust stealn is
free from iiil and ot11i.r contan~inantr.
.4lthirugh tlie dctailed design of clcctrir inotors and turbine. is rntmptr({
to specialists. the project engineer hmefits from understanding eolne of
t 1 1 ~f ~ ~ n ~ l : i ~ n rprinriplcs
ntnl nf o ] w m t i ~ n:!nd
~ froin linnrrinfi tlw tyln- of
inulors :m,l turhinr- tli;~tare ~ n a n ~ ~ f a c t u r c d .
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES O F M O T O R O P E R A T I O N
\Vl~enthe p I ? s of a magnet : I ~ P~iintlcto f:iec cnch otlier, as slioivn in
Fig. 16-1. the lines of in;ignctic forcc in t l ~ xir r gull p r ~ r c c i lin t111, ~ l i r w t i o r
of north t o sin~tli:tnd in a straight line. An electric conductor n-I1ic11is
carrying a current elso produces a magnetic field around the nire.
The dirrction of this field is recalled hy mast studrnts d i c n they
~ i s u x l i a egrasping t l ~ ccondurli,~in tlir right linnd i ~ i t the
l ~ tlnnnh 1111int-
ing in the direction of cul.rcnt An\\.. Tlic utller lour fingcri, rhcn, in(lic:~tc
the direction of the mlgnetic ficld :lnlund tlic conductor. For illnstrntirc
pnrpow~":t l ~ ccro.9-scctim uf a roivhctar 1i:lving ;r (id in tlie I L I I ~ I I I \ ~
i~xlicaie. that the current is flon.ing t o r a r d tilt, rc:rder, d i i l e that hn\.ing
:I cross indicates, :IS in Fig. 16-2, that, it is floxving away from tlie r(wlcr.
IS t l ~ ccunclucli)r slio\\-n in Fig. 16-2 is plaecd in thc gap hetween tllr.
tiyo i1111rs of thc magnct of Fig. 16.1: the field elro~min Fig. 16-3 rr.wlts.
The force lints a h o ~ ethe conductor nre implemented by tlio;.c from thc
flux of the magnet rvhile tliore lines he lo^ the conductor oppose tlic forces
f r u n ~the magnet. This situation produces a resultant force in the illustra-
tilm of Fig. 16-3 in the down~varddirection. I f tlic conductor is 11~lii
.stationary and the magnet is free to move, this resultant forre will 1,:luse
the inagnet to muve. Conversely, tlic magnet can be 11cl1lr t ~ ~ t i o n a ran(i ?
tlic con~lnctori d 1 then m o w . Althongl~o~ersi~nplificd, thew inmc ha4c
principles explain tlie operation of nmst motors.
M O T O R STANDARDS
! P c r l n ~ l ~no
s other item of process equipment lins been more c n r c f ~ ~ l l p
st:rn~lavrliat~d than the electric mntor. The Sationnl Elrctric I\l:~nui;rc-
turcrs' .issocintion puldialres, an11 regularly rc,viscs, coniplctr ~t:indnrils
for motors and gencmtors. These standards are often r e f e m ~ lto as
NEXA standards9 They include standard ratings, rliinensions, t c ~ t s .
and classification of all motor types. I n addition, the Xntional Elt.ctric
Cnde ( a standard of the Xational Board of Fire Undcrrriterr, the S a -
tional Fire Protection Association, and the American Standards Asso-
ciation) outlines installation methods for motors and gives complrtr
instrurtions for their use in 11azardous and semi-11azardous loc:~tions.
1 This c<~clc1 ~ 1 heen s ronwniently interpreted and sunnnnrized in linnd-
 356 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Motors and Turbines 35 1
moue. The process is repeated continuously. I n a standard motor the
armature is tilade up of a number of loops and may consist of two or
more poles.
This discussion is adniittcdly an oversimplified description of the direct
Direction of current motor. The reader is referred to milre detailed acrounts con-
M a g n e t ~ cF~eld tained in standard TI-orksin electrical engincering4.l1.l2
Fip. 16-1. hligrwtiv field around Fig. 16-2. Diwcrion oi magnetic
There are three basic direct-current motor types:
:I p'rmiiutnt niilpn~t. field in an rlertl.icn1 conductor,
Shunt-wound Motor
A slnint-~vrninii,direct-current motor is one in which thc field coils and
arrriature arc connected in parallel. With this zrrrang~mentit is possible
to perniit only a small portion of the current t o pass througli the field
circuit. Shunt-~vmnd motors operate a t practically constant speed
regardless of the load.

Fig. 16-3. Ilistortion o i m n g n ~ t i c Fig. 16-4. Simpliiied direet-
field lip inlr.oductiim af rondur- eurvmt mutor.
tor.
hook forn1.l Tlic Underwriters' Laboratory, Inc., has issued standards
fur the construrtiim of various parts and fittings for electric motors and
appurtenances.
MOTOR TYPES A N D APPLICATIONS
I
Direct Current Motors
A stronger msgnctio ficld can be produced by replaring the magnet
shown in Fig. 16-3 ~ v i t han i r m core around ~\-l~icliis wral~pedwire in the
form of a coil. As cuvrent is passed tlirougli this wire, a strong magnetic
field is produced in the air gap.
If the single conductor, shown in Fig. 16-3, is replaced hy a loop, as
illustratcd in Fig. 16-4, tlre principles of a direct-current motor can be
illustrated. Tlic loop ~vircis called the armature (or a t least serves to
illustrate the function of the a r n ~ a t u r e )and the helically-mapped iron
core is called thc field coil. If a direct current is permitted to flow in
both the field windings and tlic armature, magnetic fields will be set up
in both. Tlie south pole of the armature will be attracted t o the north
pole of tlie ficld coil causing the armature t o rotate. At the instant the
north and south poles are (~ppositeeach other a device called a "commu-
tator" reverses tlie flow uf current in the armaturc, causing it again to
Series-wound Motor
A aerie;.-n-uund mutor lias the ficlil and armature circuit,^ connct.tcd in
serics. .is the load dcvreasez, tlie arlunture current c1eiwii.i~~an11 the
iniltor increases spccd. If such a motor is arranged for belt drive and t h e
belt breaks suddenly producing no load, the motor will peed up to dan-
gerously high rpm, causing complete destruction of the niotor. Series
niotors liave extreinely high starting torques and are adaptable t o such
services as crane motors and drives for mobile equipment.
The Compound-wound Motor
The iwrnpound-wound niotor 118s two field windings. O11c is ri~nnertwl
in parallel with the armaturc. and the other in series. -4s n~i$it he :us-
11rrtc(I, these motr~rscomhine features of \loth A u n t - am1 serir.i-\viiunri
ir~otvrs. Tliry Iinvc relativrly l ~ i g lstarting
~ torrpwi and will qiccil 111)
as tlic load becomes lighter hut not to excessively high slieeds. Thcy arc
p a r t i d a r l y useful on appar~ttui; producing varying loads and wliere
i constant speed is not required.
I
I
Direct-current motors cannot be started under full-current loads. It
is necessary t o einliloy a starter wit11 a large rwist;mcc so that the rurrcnt
can be increased gradually lnlt,il the motor rearhes its nrrnnal s i ~ r e d .
1 Despite the larger initial cost of the dirri+current motor, r o n ~ l ~ a r e d
with an alternating-current niotor, tlirre arc rases in wliicli tlit, greater
ease of speed control inakes the dirert-currmt motor il ilesirahle choice.
Tlie speed of a ,I-c inot,lr is easily controllc~~l, either by rl~iingirigthe,
v,~ltt~gea t the arnlaturr or l ~ ycliwngitig tht, strciigtli of t11v ~iii~giietir
field. Reducing tlre strength of tlic magnetic ficld increases the spccd
 352 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Motors and Turbines 353

oi tho niotor \\-llile rcducing tllc vultagc :it the : I ~ I I I : ~ I I ~dc~.rcases

C t h current. Tllc revolving magnetir field cuts acres.; the coppcr rondur:tors
sprrtl of thc motor. U(ltl1 of tlicsc operations arc :11~1~~,111plisliri1 by intro- gn the spirrel i,agc and sets up voltages and magnetic fiekls in the r(,tor,
ducing variablc resistance in series n-it11 t l ~ eficld coil3 or tlic armaturr the polcs of wIiic11 are nttrattcd by the opposite polps of the revolving field.
windings, respectively. The rotor of an induction motor must rotate a t a lower speed than
the rcrolving magnctic ficld. If it s11011Id rotate at the same speed, thq
I
Alternating-Current Motors r i ~ o l r i ~lirlrl i rotor :IIIII 1111 r r i l l : i f i i .
~ g n-o~llrlnot cut across tllc ficl~l ~ )tllc
t
! Alternating-currcnt motors may be diviilcd into two general types: r ~ ~ n ltlicu
il he induced in the rotor. The difference in the speed of tilo
induetiwi and syncl~roni,us no tors. rotor and the spced of the rcrolving field is termed "slip" and is generally
csprcsscd as per ccnt slip.
The s l ~ e i dof the revoking field c:in br c a l r ~ ~ l : ~ twlirn
i ~ r l it is re>lIizc(I
that tlic electromotive force passes through il eau~pletccycle for ew,+
pair of polcs per revolution. Hence, the spwd of the revolving ficld is-

where f = freqnency in cycles per second

I
I' = numhcr of poles

,,:
This spec11 is tennrrl the syncl~ronousspced of the motor. The actual
rotor speed of an induct,iori motor is this synchronous speed corrected
for sliu.
(ion dip
I Actual speed = (synchronous speed)
,
I The squirrel-cage induction motor is unsurpassed in sturdiness and
i economy through a wide range of horscpo\vers. B y altering the design

I of the squirrel-cage rotor, principally hy changing the locatii~nof the

rotor bars xitli respect t o the periphery, it is possible to ohtain motors

Fans
e n i e r n p motor1 i1 miill varying characteristirs, from low t o high torque, and from I m t o
high slip. I n general an inriuct,ion motor ~vitirnormal torque and norn~al
darting current is used. I n starting large cquipnic~t,l~articrllarlyq u i l l -

I
mcnt under load, such as coinl~ressor,-,it is often necessary to specify
I~ightorquc, lo^ starting current mi~tors. I n this dcsign a higher resistive
~liaterialis used in the rotor bars. I t is important for the project engineer
l o realize that there are a numhcr of induction motor types manufactured
and thc electrical enginccr should be permittcii to specify thc type which
has the best electrical characteristics for tlie job.
Wound-rotor induction motors are sometimes used instead of tlw
I squirrel-cage rotor. h wound-rntor ~ n r ~ t oisr composed of insulated coil-:
arranged t o form poles on the rotor and the same in number as on the
stator. This motor can be started with low current by adding external
revistnncc t o the rotor circuit. I n this eamc manner the speed of the
motor can be controlled down to about half its normal value. The
I voan(l-rotor mi~tor,hoa-ever, is inorc expensive than the squirrel-cage
354 Project Engineering of Process Plants
type; and is, therrforc, only used on systems rvhich ~vouldrcquire un-
acceptably high starting currents.
Thc stator of a single-p11:ise induction motor can only havc one winding
and thns t h r magnetic field does not inove, although tile polarity changrs.
If the rotor in suc11 a motor is turned 11). hand an11 made to cross the
magnetic ficld, rotation will then procepd automatically as it continues
to cuc across tile magnetic ficld of the stator. Hand-starting is. of cmnw,
nut ilesirahle an11 a u t ~ ~ r n a t imeans
c have been designed. The nlost
common means of starting the single-phase induction motor is en~ployed
in the split-phase motor which is equipped ~ v i t han auxiliary n-inding
locatkd t o differ in its magnetic position from the main winding. The
main or primary winding and the auxiliary winding prodnce a torquc
on the r o t i r npon application of current, causing tlrc rotor t o nlovc. As
tlic rotor attains normal operating specd the nnxiliary rircuit is n p m c d
Several different designs of split-phase motors are ~ n a n n f a ~ . t n r e d . ~ ~ l l . "
I t is intcrrsting to not? tli:it in polppl~aseinduction motors the rnt~ition
of the inotur ran be changed i ~ yinterchanging tlie cunnectiuni ti1 any
two of thc terininals. A single-pliase in~,tnr.on the otlwr h a n k vill rot:itr
in tlir direction in which it is started by thc anxilinry st;lrting devirc.
To changc the rotation of a single-phase motur requires a change in the
starting device.
Single-phase motors are most frequently used in small horsepower and
particularly fractional horsepower applications. Although polyphase
fractional horsepower motors can be built more cheaply and are of simpler
construction, it is often not convenient t o bring polyphase current t o loea-
tions requiring small motors. A small pump or o t l ~ e rstnall rnachinc may
be needed in a remote portion of a plant. In such a case single-phase
current used for lighting in that nrca is usually availnl)le and the inotor
may he connected to existing lines ~vithoutthe added expense of installing
three-ptlasc powcr lines.
Synchronous Motors
.is the namc inq~lies,the rotor of a syncl~ronuusmotor rotates a t the
same speed as the stator winding field. The magnetic field in the rotor,
therefore, must he induced by means other than crossing lines of flux
created by the primary or stator. Thc rotor field rurrent is generated by
a small direct-current gcnerator called an exciter, which is either aepa-
rately driven or directly connected t o the synchronous motor.
A synchronous n ~ o t ~isl r started as an induction motor. The excitation
then begins, and the poles of the rotor move in step with the revolving
time synchronous speed is reached.
armature field a t ~v1.1lich
The speed of a synchronous motor dcpencis upon tlw frequency of the
powcr supply and thus provides dependable conetant-speed service. This
Motors and Turbines 355
constant speed, lion.ever, is not its greatest advantage. The p r i n l a r ~
advantages are:
1. They can he constructed to operate a t very IUK speeds ( h e l o T ~
500
I . ~ I I ~ and
high efficiencies nnd arc, thcreforr, uwful for operation of slolv-
I
moving machinery sucli as reriprocnting con~press~~r..
2. At lolv speed ratings and a t high Iiorsepo\\-el ratings t l ~ cc<,st
synchronous motors is often leas than induction motors.
3. A synchronons motor ran be designcd to operate 11-ith a Ic:rrlin~
uower factor which is advantageous rdwn the inductive load in a plant
is large. The lrading pmvcr factor of the synrllrnnmls motor tcnds to
cancel tlie lagging power fartur of t l ~ rinduction motur.
Starting Alternating Current Motors
Sinall single-plia.se motors are invariably started by applying fllll
~ o l t a g cacl.osa the line. A11 squirrcl-cage induction nlotorr can he startell
a t full-line vnltagc. Standard or cross-the-line manual or n~agnetically
operated starting rrluipinent is manufactured for this vl.vic,,. Lon. spcrd
synchronous motors are often started under full-line voltage, but higher
speed synchronous nmtors are preferably started on reduced voltage to
lower tlic current (Iran-n from the powcr circuit. Hesist;~nceand autu-
transformer reduccd-vnltagc starters are used for snrh ccrvicc anrl are
:rlso nsed for starting squirrel-cage induction motors w11en it is dcsirnhlp
to reduce the starting current in urder to avoid affecting uthcr loads on
the power circuit.
MOTOR DESIGN AND SELECTION
Classification
The National 1 l c r t : l ;\Ianufaetnrers .4ssociation"a rl:is:ific~l
ir~otors*in accordance v i t h n~ecl~anical
protection and mctliods of cool-
ing as i o l l ~ ~ v s :
Classification of Motors According to Mechanical Protection
and Methods of Cooling
Abbrwinted list appiicablr lo proreis plants. lldapted from rtandards of thc
Sationsl Eleetricd h1:muiacturers .\ssorintion.~
I. Open machine
.hopm rnachint, is orir having ventilating openings 11hirh pcrniir p:l..:axe of
external rooling air ovrr and around the windings.
8.Drip-llror~frn:~rhine
A drip- roof machine is an opm machine in vhich thr w n t ~ i a t ~oprnillgs
n~ a1.r
* For brevity several lrw inryurtant catcguriss h a r e been omittebfrom t h e NkZRIA
list.
356 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors and Turbines 357
TABLE 16-1. Relative Costs of Motor and Control Enclosures*

termed :iirtialit.
.\. Tr~tnllycnclosed non\rntil:itcil ~ii:iri~ino
A totall!- enrlosrd noslrentilatrd n~:irliinei i n tot:iliy cii<~lwrdii~:~<.Iiit~c n-llich
i: not c q i ~ i p p ~Em
d corrlii~~ by nnc:ms cstiwxd to thc i.iidwing parts.
B. Totally rnclowd f:m-cooled m : ~ c l ~ i n r
A totall>- ~ n c l o ~ r Snn-roolr.<l
rl nr:~r,hineis 3 tot:rlly mclosr,<lmacliini, crlitipli?il
for estcrior cooling by means of a fan or fans intrgral with the machinr IIII!.
external to t h e rnclosing parts. h i v i n g u n i t s locaterl in(ior,rs n-it11 n o iiaz:~dori. : l t l i ~ i ~ ~ j iI)TOIIICII~
hv~ van
C. Eq~lrlsion-proof mnchinc use t h e drip-proof motors a n d s a w c m r i d c r a b l c nionc3y.
. i n rxplo-ion-proof nlacliin<: is a totdly enclosrd ni:rchine ,!-hose enrlosurr is
~ l e s i ~ n e:~nd
d ronrtructed to n-ithstnnd ;in explosion of a specified gas or mprlr I i r i ~ p fe t i q ~ l i a ~ i z tehse desirability of locating s t a r t e r cquipincnt r c u ~ o t c
n-hieh inny occllr n-itliin i t and to prcvmt the ignition of t h r sperified p i or f r m n liaz:~rdous a r e a s or i n specially ventilated rooms t o avoid tlic use of
v:ipor sl~rnn~nrling thc machine hy qi:~rki,flashes, or explosions of the spwiticd cxploiion-proof s t a r t e r s a n d c o n t r d l . Tile reason f o r t h i s c a n b e rurdily
:as or vapor wlfich mny occur within thc marhine casing. seen i n T a b l e 16-1.
I).Il11,3t-~rploiion-proofmachin,:
A 1111st-r.;plosi<~n-proofmnrhine is :I totall!- encloscd machim, \\-liosc cnclw!in: H a z a r d o u s Locations
is dmianrd mid r o n i t r ~ ~ t csod :IS not to cause the ixnition or rzplusiou nf :111
ntnhieut ntnlosplierr of thr specific dust, and d s o n r ~ tlo r:i!w llie i g ~ ~ i t i oofn the T h e X a t i o n a l IClcciric Code' l ~ a sdrfincd various 1i:izardous Iocatiiins.
d u n oil nr around the iiinrhine. h l o t o r s a n d control equipment a r e ~ n n n u f a c t u r c df o r t h e variou; c l u s c i
E. Water-proi~fmachine of hazardous Iocatiuns listed I~elo\~\..
A rater-pnmf marhine is a totally enclusrd maehinr so constnicted that it will
rxelude \rater applied in thc form cf a s t n m n from a hose, excrpt that lcnkanr
may rlccrlr around tlie shaft provided it. is prevrnted from entering thr oil
rcwn.riir and prrivision is mad? for mltomntically ilminin: the niarhine. The
n m n s for automatic draining may tie 3 check r:tlrr or n t:~pperlliole a t the
loa-cst p;trt of the frame d i r h will srrve for :ipplicntim of a drnin pipe.
C l w I. Highly intI:umiihl~~ g : ~ sor v:1por-i.
Totally Enclosed Motors in t h e Process Plant Uivisim I . II:~z:~rdorls: ~ t ~ n o ~ p l i te1i.t
~ r r s continr~o1~4y or ran ocior i l ~ l r ~ u g
I i r o p f ' h a s presented a n intcrcsting t a b l e ( T a b l e 16-11 showing t h r course of norinnl o1,cr:ltion.
relative costs of e n e l o ~ u r e sf o r motors a n d controls. T h e differential Division 2 . Flnnnn:rble liqniils bandled and processed hut norninll>-routint~~l.
hetsvrcn splash-proof a n d drip-proof m o t o r s is relatively sninll a n d of Ilivision :i. L o c n t i o ~ ii~h e r e iqit;ible deposits of paint m i l otlirr fini-lies
r.:m ;~ccr~mul:itr.
little conscqucnw in snrull motors. Tlir s a m r r a n h c said in r a m p a r i n g
C1n.s 11. Comhuatible dust.
tllc tutall.5' cnrln-c,l :LIIII tlir ~ [ I ~ S ~ O L I - J I I . 111uti~r.
U U ~ Uirision 1. U w t sllrpmded in xir curitiiiuuu.~lyor dixing rottrsc of normal
In llrocess 111a11ts having it ~. ) r.c l ~ ~ t i d ~ ~ u. i l l~az;r~.rlous
~
nce a r r a s it lia. oneration.
o f t e n h e n found advantnecous .. t o s t o r k onlv ex1110sion-proof nrotors. Division 2. Suspension of dust not likely but idlere drporits oi d w t can
I W I I ~ a ~ lw~ ixniteil
l h>- sparks.
T h i s proco~lurc m a k e s ;ill niotors esrlialigca1)lc t l ~ r o u g h o u t t h e plnnt.
C'la-3 111. L'mribustilde lilhc. ur il>.ings.
n l d avoids uuiieccssary a n d dis;istrous errors. C e r t a i n plants, l ~ u \ r c v e r ,
l)irisiou I . 1.ocations iu s-llicli ignit:~l~lc fihrc. :,re 11;1a,llr~d
ul- u a d
 Motors and Turbines 359
358 Project Engineering of Process Plants
these ratings go u p to 75'C. Yew types of special purpose motors are
i i 2. 1.ocati0w in n-hich rnsi>- icniriblr films xrr stored. i n d a t e d with silicune tlasc niatcrinli and tun be opcratcrl rvitIl ],iglles
I l ~ l ~ ~ i p n ifor
c n t thr-r tbrw rl:i.z-e- of :~tmn-idiert.sran he tested and nppruvccl
for t h fo11o!\.ine
~ iltmo~pherict y r s : temperature rises. Operation of motors for proli~ngcil perioils above
I 4 . .itrrwphrrci rontninin~;icet?lrnc. tlir, nornial rated liorsrporwr \\-ill produce tcunpcrature rises in tlic
Group B. Hydrogen or mlini~i:~ctnrol gas. abiive the guilrnnteed wlhr-ahle; anrl. tlicrrhy. i ~ o l . t c ntllc life or c i ~ , ~ ~ -
G r m p C. Eth!-I ether rapor. plctely destruy tile ~ ~ s c f u l n e sofs the motiir.
G r D. I , petroleuiu, n;~phtlin, ;tlcohols, lacquer-solvent, \-awrs, Most niotor manufacturers will he producing niotors to confo~.rnto
aceton<,,natural IS.
Group E . Xletnl 1111st. tlie revised S E X 4 Standards of 1952. Cbnngc t u the new cloign rl~oulil
Gmnp F. Carbon black, coal or rohr dust. be complete late in 1955. Tliesc new designs xviil he m ~ a l l e rin size for
Grortp G. Grain d w t . a given liorsq)i~a.cr rating.
I t is possilile from this list to d~.cidetlie g r w p i n h w11icl1 a l ~ n o e tany TABLE 16-2. Suggested Motor Voltage Ratings*
nornlally occurring iiazardous rxlnterial \\-ill fall.
~ ~

Motors pon-rr Motors

Mechanical Features
Nominal my- D. C . or Poly- 11. C, or Motor
Tlie highly coinpetitire field of motor construction has produccd e m - systrnl voltnge rlhm 1 ubase phase 1 ~jlia?,, 11ors~:pm~er
tiniious iiill~ru\wiirntin iiioiirr design. A typienl modern niotor is illns- 110 11.5 ITp to 5
tvatcd in Fig. 16.5. I n a~lditionto tlie electrical icomponenti already diu- 110/%?0 115 ITp t u 7,;
cuisecl~the shaft ~vliiclicarries tlie rotor is supported b y benrings niounted 220 230 1/, to XIO
in t l ~ eend d~icldb. Thpse hearings r a n Ilc oil-lubricated sleeve-type or 440 . .. % to 1,000
grr:iic-l!ibrirated hall bearing. Ball hcaringe a r e partirularly popular 550 ... %to1,000
l~ecauieof the small a ~ n o u n tof maintenance required and the inherent
... .. . 50 and larger
.. . .. . I50 and largrr
c l w n l i n e i ; ~associated with sucli bearings. Electric motors a r e direct- ... .. . 250 and largrr
ronneeted to nioving inaehinery, such a s pumps and centrifugal c o n - .. . .. . 500 and larger
pwssor.; b y means of a flexible coupling. Belt, gear, and chain drivcs a r e ... ... 1.000 mil larger
also availablr. I n additiun, t,liere a r e gear ~ n o t o r a~ v h i r hhave integral * Reprinted by permission, Kropi; Virtor J., C'hem. Eng., 68, KO. 7 . 123 (1051)
gears h i l t in tlie n ~ o t o rhousing. These gear motors can be designcd for Xote: Thrse are prrniiisibk horsepo~r-rrratings for indic:itrd r-d1:igrs. Selrr-
r;irial)le specd. tion of motor voltage drpends on motor costs and the partirulut diitritxction
system. A tgpiral a4rction for a plant having 120, 460, 2100, and -1180 fealers
Motor Ratings and 13,800 prini;~ry roltngr might hr:
Horsel~ower,tlie niost iniport,ant rating of a motor, represents t h e Motor Horsepower Motor Voltage
niutor's ~ O I T - Poutput.
~ Standard horxyowcrs have been specified b y Fractional 110 singlr-phnse
X E l I A a u lh,],~ 2 , ? ~ , ' A ; , ~ h , ~1,/ ~ 1%,%, 2 ,,3%
, 5 , 755, 10, 1 5 , 2 0 . 1-1.50 110
25, 30,40, 60, 75, 100, 125, 150, and 200. ( I n t h e fractions1 sizes 1/4, */", 15~1000 23M) or 1OO0
1m and larger 13,200
and :we the most con~nion.) I n addition. tlic motor speed in rpm a t
full lo;d aml varionr percentages of full Imd, tlic voltage, full-load am- Selecting Motors
p r a g c , number of phases, a n d frequency of alternating current should Although tlie selcction of a motor for a given servicc should be hanrllrri
also he stated. by a competent electrical engineer, it is necessary t h a t the project engi-
,.
l b c thernial characteristics of a niotor a r e also important and appear neer supply adequate information so t h a t the electrical expert can reach
on the nameplate of all motors a s a n allo~vahlctemperature rise above intelligent conclusions. T h e operating characteristics of the innrliinc to
the iiiiil~ient tvmper:it~~refor cuntinuous operation. T h e ambient tem- be driven must bc clearly outlined. Tlie horseporver, the speed of rotation
pernturc fur ~ i i o i tgeneral purpwr nrotor. rlioukl not exceed 40' C , and (rpm) and speed variations. if required. a11 n u ~ s tbe specifie~l. I n a d d -
tlie usiuil wlli~rabletenipclwtuse rise is 40C'. Totally enclosed motors tion, the possildity of overload, the variability of loads, the ~iiagnit,urle
are rated for a temperature rise of 65'C and with special insulatio~i
360 Projed Engineering of Process Plants
Motors and Turbines 361
AC Motors DC are based on combined experience uf a number of plants and call be
-
E
, termed values in general use.
.1 iliacussiun of thc proper motor for rarioui: applications in yrocei:;
plants is a lcngthy and involved one, and generalizations are dangerous,

Fig. 16-7. Single-\-rlacit:- stngc impulse tw1,ine. IKcprinlrd hy pwmi.sion. 11. T.

ICcnt, .lfeciionied i3nginrei.s' Hmdboolr, Vol. 11, 12th Ed.. John n'ilry 8- Soria
(19501.3
Fig. 16-8. Two-drcel turbine showing stationary guidc buckets. (S;me rricrrncc
as 16-7.)
Fig. 16-9. Rp-cnlry nozzle. (Samc refel.cnct. as 16-7.1
Fig. 16-10. Ilelir:\l flow stage. (R:~rncd e r e n c c :IS 16-7.)
Maqnetlgfull or reduced voltoqe.
Wound rotor Mrmud, ssml-moqnetlc or full mnqnetlc with secondary resistance.
i1 not i~n~xwsihlc~, I<r11pS,7 I i ~ ~ v c v cII;W
r , [ ~ r ~ w c ~an
~ t ien~t el r w t i y c11;irt
Synchronous Mmqnetlc f u l l a reduced voltaqe. \rhic!i is I~cll~fu!
in unrlrrstanrling si~nlr.iif tile murc c o n m m applicntions
Slnqle phase Mrmud or m q n e t l c full voltwe.
in process plants for the various motor types (Fig. 16-6).

Fig. 16-6. Typicnl prucem plant nroior xpl,lic:h>ns. [Reprinted \>y permission. STEAM TURBINES
Victor J. I<t.opl, Clwm. Eng., 58, Xu. 7: 123 (19511.1
Classification
of starting torquer. and if intermittent service is anticipated, the frc- Turbines Inn? he broadly cl~issificdinto t x o ~ul~divisions based on tlic
qucncy of starting sliould he given. The a t m o q ~ h e r i cconditions nntici-
~lioclcof tra~iimissioni d Iirnt energy into ineclianical encrgy. T h e in~pul.<c
pated including the possibility of Iiazardous or corrosive gases should be trwhinc l ~ r i ~ d u c emi~vcllieut
s oE a rotur hg tlic E O I T ~ i,f r;teanr impinginp
defined. on the bucket or blade. The reaction turhine is caused t o revolve by tlic
T h e elcetrieal engineer must also he provided rvitli s complete dcscrip-
m w t i o n of stcam issuing from jrts attaelied to a revolving d i s k Tliere
tion of the pou-er supply, power costs, and a list of other po~verusers iu
~xre ni:~n>-~ ~ x ~ t ~ t<,[ i i ~wlvrl ,i ~I I H L ~ W d w s i f i w t i ~ n i . 'UI(, f u l I , > ~ $ i tl,ri<>f
~g
the plant so t,l~a.tan intelligent choice of control equipincnt and motors l i s h g r r ~ p r w e ~sui~ir,
~ t s of tlic, tiiore it~ipurt:~ut types.
can he made for maximum economy and maximum poxes factor. The
choice of the proper voltage to bc applied to a given motor is a n impor-
tant one and a. suggestion of desirable motor voltage ratings bas hccn
presented by Kropf" and is reproduced in Table 16-2. These suggestions
 362
Project Engineering of Process Plants
in F i r . 16-7. Full ~,xpansionof the steam takes place in the i~oszlc,and
thc revolving tmckctr: rrccive the .stcan1 without further 11ressurc dn,p
and transform the kinetic erlcrgy into work.
(bj V E L ~ C I T Y - ~ ~ ~ TURBINE.
~ ~ ~ ~ : S IDn Eurder
D to use more efficiclltly
thc available thermal m w g y , velocity compoiln(led turhines have brrn
rlcwlnperl n.11irlr rcdircct the ateam issuing iron1 the first roll. of bu~.kcts
inti1 a second and evcn third row of moving buckets. In this manner ~ u o s t
of the velocity of the steam is dissipated. The re-directing of the stcam
can be accomplished in several ways. Stationary guide buckets may he
used as in Fig. 16-8, or a re-entry nozzle (Fig. 16-9) or the helical-flow
"age (Fig. 16-10). The lattcr design employs a specially constructed
~vheclwith semi-circular buckets cut into the rim of the wheel. The
-ttmn expands in the nozzle and enters the semi-circular bucket, makes
I.
n c ~ ~ m r ~ l180'
e t c turn in the hucket, and then is redirected hy the reversing
chamber into subsequent buckcts.
Reaction Turbines:
Actually a practical true rcaction turbine is not manufactured. In
fact, thc insistence on a rigid definition of impulse and reaction turbines
is not advised since t h r last stages in multistage impulse turbines produce
m a l l amounts of reaction. What is often referred t o as the reaction
turbine should more properly be called the impulse-reaction turbine.
The "reaction" turbine is constructed of rows of moving blades attachcd
to a wheel or rotor and an equal number of fixed blades attached t o the
casing. The fixed hladcs act as nozzles. I n passing through the fixed
blades the steam nndcrgoes a prcssurc drop; and, therefore, an increase
in kinetic energy or velority. I n entcring thc rows of moving blades an
impulse is produced just as in the impulse type turbine. These mo\,ing
blades. i~orwver,are designed so that a pressure drop wilt also occur :is
the stcam passes through the hladc passages, producing a reaction. The
turbine is thus driven hy a cou~hinationof reactive and impulsive forc~,s.
Uoht turbines are of the axial-flow type, that is, the direction of r:teanl
flow is approximately parallel to the axis of the turbine. One notahlc
exception is the Ljungstron~turbine, a reaction-type with radial flow. It
is noted for high capacity and efficiency.
- densing units. Condensing turbines are dcsigncd for steam pressnrrs LIII
Single a n d Multistage Turbines*
Single-~tagcturbines ate built in sizes up to 1500 hp in speeds ranging
1ti1111(iM) to ilround 7000 rpm. T l ~ e yarc1 invarial~lyd~signedto opcrat~,
as n o n c u n d m r i ~ ~ngn i t anrl Irnvc become particnlarly popular for many
Motors and Turbines 363
process plant applications. One of the advantages of a turbine is that
i t p r ~ d u e r ~[.lean
s lo~r-rrpressure steam n-11icl1IWI bc e ~ n l ~ l o v as
c ~ llroccsE
l
h a m (heating, etc.). The well-~lrrigncd plant, therefore, car1 elnllloy
a number of single-stage turbine. as pl~rnpdrives anrl at the ~ a n l etilnc
~ m v i d ethe nccessary quantitics of low pressure pnmaa stcall1 fol. use
throughout the plant.
T l ~ emore expensive multistage turbine is generally necdcd on large
loads, fur which case the steam economy is an in~portantfactor. Tl~esc
high-efficiency turhines are then often operatcd as emdensing units for
driving generators and large centrifugal cornpressore. In p o w r stations
many ingenious means have heen devised for ot~tainingn~axilnnmsteam
economy fur each unique situation. A straight condensing cycle can bc
cu~l~loycd, or a feed heating cyclc in ~ h i c hsteam is w i t h d r a ~ wfrom the
turhines a t various points for heating feed r ~ a t e r .
Extraction Turbines
I I ~ ~ d e rboiler
n plants produce extremely high-pressure steani. and it is
necessary t o reduce the pressure of the stram froin the i~i~ilers 1)eforc~
piping i t t o parts of the plant for process use. Extraction turbines prove
extremely useful for this purpose. Steam is withdrarvn automatically
from these turbines a t intermediate stages for use as process steam. The
remaining steam passes from the exhaust of the turbine t o s condensing
system. B y this means it is possible to generate large quantities of poi^--er
and a t the same time provide the required amount of process steam at
several pressure levels.
Turbine Application
Koncondensing single-stage turbines make up the largest group of
turhines for process use. They are gencralip designt.d to o p e r ~ t rat steam
pressures up t o approximately 600 psi and a t exhi~ustpressures from 0 t o
100 psi. Special noncondcnsing, so-called "supcrposcd" turhines :~r,,
available for operation at steam pressures up t o 2000 111 and exllnl~st
pressures up to 600 ib. These turhincs havc prove11 particularly :idran-
tageous for power stations in which high-pressure stcam is ~ ~ r o t i u c e ~Tll.i ~ ,
lower-prcssnre stcan1 can then he uscd in the standard ~ n u l t istage con-
to 900, and in some cases 2000 psi \vith exhaust conditions a t 28 in. oi
mercury vacuum. These units are most frequently used for large-scillc,
industrial power generation and for driving large compressors and pump^.
Mechanical Features
A typical lnnltistage turhinc is shown in Fig. 16-11, Casings are 11uri-
zontally split with the steal11 inlet nod outlet in thc lo~vcr11:11f for e;lsy
364 Project Engineering of Process Plants

s i r i r i n g T,mv pi,,wllrr r:lsiugs :rrc r.onstr~~?trd of cnst il,r>n :III<It l ~ c

Ilighcr pressure nriits are Built of s t d The rotating elmlent is often
railed the I\-heel. The xi-heels :ur kcyrrl intrr the .shaft and must h r rarc-
il~llyhalaneed to avoid excc~sivevibration. The blaclcs on the n.hecls arc
usually made oi the hig11-gmrli alloy utrr.1, rcrtain ili the stainlrss strcls
heinp the most popular. Fltirnate choice of blade material, oi couvsi:.
rlc~~ends upon the tcn~j)eratnrcoi the stpau~and 11l:ldc ,lccign.
The shaft in nmst stanclard units is forged carl~on.steel \ d ~ i < >isl oftc::
~
~nctallizrd$7-ith an alloy snrh as a stninles. ~ t c e l: ~ r n ~ uthe
a i packing glnnr:
to minimize v e a r nt this point. I ) i ; ~ p I ~ r a g m\\-lli(,h
~. makc 1111 the -.la-
tionnry blading of nrultist:~gr turliinci, are grnernlly r~)nitrurti.dof n
qtainless steel. The diaphragms are horizontally split in the sanlc nianncr
n8 the casings and for the same reason.
'l%e nozzle material varies, depending upon the conditions of operation.
('nst brxss and hronzc, moncl; stainlc.?~steel, all have bem n s r d
Wf-i~ilingbc:trings arc providml on small turbine; n-l~ilcforred lullri-
cation drsigns are necessary for the lavger units. 'I'hese hearings are
horizontally split and babbitt-lined They may bc r r m o v d from the unit
vitllout ili.sturl~ing the c:r.sing or rotor. Althougl~the cnd thrust i ~ n:In
inr]iulse turbine is small, a tllrust hearing is ]mr~~icIcii to ni:~intain tllr
rotor in its correct positim. The thrust henring is usually a hall-l)c:win?:
type, although Kingsbury thrust hearings arc also used.
Packing glands are necessary vhere the shaft leaves the casing, and
these are most generally carbon ring glands. Tlie rings are constructrd in
several segments so that they can easily hc rcmorrrl. I n ~nultistagrtur-
hiues interstage glands are also required. These 11111y be cnrl~m-ring
type or Inbyrinth type glands. Since condensiug tur1)ine~opcratc at s1l11-
atmospheric pressure it is necessary t o seal the glands ta prevent air
leakage into the turbine r a ~ i n g . This is most conveniently arconiplislied
hy the use of steam. I t is piped t o the glands and a small amount continn-
ously bleeds into the gland housing.

Turbine Control
The speed of a turbine can be controlled by t,hrot,tlingthe steam t o the
t,urbine or by rontn~llingstcam flov to the nmzlrs in a multist:~geturliinc.
For nozzle control the first-stage nozzles are divided into several groups
cach of which is served by a separate nozzle valve. The nozzle valves are
designed to operate either open or shut (at full-steam pressure) and thns
the throttling action is kept to a minimunl. Nozzle valves are opened
one by one as the load increases, and a t full load all the valves are open.
At fractional loads only some of the valves are opcn.
Tlie adventage in nozzle control is that throttling losses are eliminated.
Sozzle control shows economies on the large multistage maehines in
EXHAUST END SUPPORT
 Motors and Turbines 365
~vhichprolonged partial loading is :mticipated. Most small and me-
dium sized turbines typical of process plant applir:rtions are ilcsigned
for -tcnln throttling. Often, hon.e~-er.Iiaird-~.ontrollcdvalws arp wetl
t ~ ir ~ ~ t - o uexcess
t nozzling so that rnasimun~ fractional load eciinon1:-
n-ill he rcalizcd.
The slxed sensing device, or governor, may be the common centrifugnl
type d ~ i c hconsists of t v o rotating \\-eigl~tsrlirect-conncctcd ti1 tlre turbine
.Irnft or ronnected through gears. The centrifugal forre on the rot;~ring
\wights is resisted by tmsion in connecting spring.-. Tile poritiun of tlrc
\wights is indicatire of the spred: and the movement, therefore, can lrc,
tr;~nsn~ittcd ti1 tlrc tnrhinc-regulating device. I n place of the centrifugal
governor, a so-called "hydraulic" sl~ceilgovernix can bc employed. It
irr~nsi~ts nf an oil p n ~ n pdriven off tlrr, turbine rllaft. ('l~wngrs in turhin~,
speed produce changes in oil pressure ~vlricl~ can he transn~ittcdto tlic
turbine controller.
Tlhr tr;~nsnlissionof the governor signal on sninll t~lrliinesis l ~ ydirrct,
inc3anstlirol~ghlevers connected to the stcan-throttling valve. On l a ~ g c r
turbines the signal is transmitted througi~;I r ~ n a l lpilot valve. Tllc llilct,
v a l w is supplied with oil from ;in nil liump ~vhiclrin turn operates a pistun
to open or close the steam-throttling valve or tbc various nozzle valves if
automatic nozzle control is employed.
I n process plants it often h~conresd ~ ~ i r n l )tloe control o u t k t prwsurc
or differential pressure of pumps and compressors rat11~rthan use tlrr
speed of rotation as the primary control. Irr such rases a dinplrragm-
operated pressure regulator is used. It is c;et h r the required ]irwsl~rc
or differential pressure and automatically oper:rtes the rtr:rni throttling
valve so that the turbine ~villrotate at tbe speed necessary to p ~ ~ I u c c
the desired pump or compressor discharge pressure. A standard ccn-
trifugal-type governor is usually included, liowver, so that it can contrul
the turbine should the pressure rrgulator dtmand excessive spceds.
Emergency govern~irsarc installed on all turbines. Such governors
i,onsist of a ~ ~ c i g l e~:~,rntrivally
it n ~ o r ~ n t cn-hclr
~ l , ii; deigned t,) swing
out by centrifugal furcc at speeds IIL' 10%):rllovv normal. In bvinging out
it t r i p a. dcvicc whicl~closes the luxin steanr v;rlrc and stops tile turbine.

Turbine Colculutions
I n preliminary estimates and eronomic studies and for the comparism
of bids it is often necessary t o cstim:~teturbine pc~.fur~nancc.P:~lcul:~-
tions are sitnplc. TurI!ines operate in the reverse fashion t o eunlpressars
and the same principles apply. A Rankine cycle is assumed for the ideal
case and an ovcrall efficiency is applied to rurrert for actual conditions.
'l'he steam a t its inlet conditions is rspanded i,sentrnpically (constant
ch~triqiy)to tho fii~nlconclition. 'I'11e diffcrcnce in entli:~lpyrel)rtwntr. the
366 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors a n d Turbines 367
tl~coreticnlivork dnnc prr lh cf ~tt~n111.Sinw .\lollit>r diagrams for steanl
are readily avi~ilablc.tlli; rn1cul:ition is 111~wt~.onvenientlyand rapidly
done on a Mollier diagram.
\Vork = H2 - H I Htul Ih of steam (1)
where 1 1 2 = inlet stcam enthalpy
HI = outlet steam enthalpy
H? - HI hp-hr
or
2544 Ib of steam (2)
Tlw reciprocal I I eq.
~ 2 is callrd the tl~cimticaletcam rate or often the
tvater rate. T h e units are 111 of steani per hp-lir. T h e actual steam rate

.-0,c
I Noncondensing
2 Noncondensing 600 psi rn
c
a 30
4 Noncondensing Turbine Steam Press. 200 psi
v
c 5 Noncondensing Turbine Steom Press. 400 psi
0" 6 Noncondensing Turbine Steom Press. 600 psi
20 7 Condensing Turbine Steom Press. 200 psi
8 Condensing Turbine Steam Press. 400 psi

to

Rated BHP
Fig. 1613. Average efirieney of multistage turbines. [Adapted from DeLnmd
Engir~erring 17a,idbouk (104i). 1)cLuvnl Strnlrl Twhine Cornpan?-. hy prt.nrission.1
can he cstiniated by tlic application of a n a l ~ p r r ~ l ~ r i overall
ate turbine
efficiency. steam rate in I b h p - l l r i and the load in convenient unite. This straight
line, ~vliiehis called the Villiam.; line, affords a sinll~lrmeans fur cstimat-
Theoretical steam rate ing steam consunlj~tionfur any loading of a. given turbine when ti?-o valuei
Actual steam rate =
l'urhina efficiency arc known.
Values for estimating purposes arv givcn in Figa. 16-12 and 16-13. Kozzle-governing tnrt~inesdo not produce the straight line rclationsllil~.
' h e s e curves represent typic:~l effirit.nries at full 1,ind and present a hut rather a serics of lVilli;~ms'lines of varying plolles interconnected 11y
correetion factor for obtaining thc (,Hit,ienyy at mr-half loa~i. steps corresponding to each noezlc x-alre o p n i n g . A straight line rela-
It has been observed t h a t t n h i n ~ rontrt~llccl
.~ by tllrottling exhitlit a r . p r d u r c cmserx-ative vaiurs of steam HOW for
tionship, h o ~ ~ c v r \\-ill
lincar relationship between stearl1 consumi~tionin lh per hr (not unit estimating [~urlxrses.
368 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors and Turbines 369
T h r propcrtir.> 111 rrl~:irlst itcam from a turhinc a r r of intered !r11en T h e first con~monuse of gas t u r l ~ i n rin t h e process industries was a s
such steam is to bc used a s process steam. These properties can be con- drive, for air cimprcssora suplilying rcgenrration air to Houdry fixed-
v n i r n t l y e.timatrd knon-ing thp tnrbinc cfficit3ncy by subtracting from bed catalytic cracking units. Hot pmducti of culilhstion from the cat-
the initial stcam enthalpy the actual energy in Btu/lb used b y the tur- d y s t regeneration cycle ~ v c r eexpanricd in the gas turbine. Any surplus
bine in useful x o r k [112 - I H ? H I ' \ (Efficiency)]. Since t h e turbinc p m c r from the turbine m s utilized by generating clcctric povcr v i t h a
cxhaust pressllrr is kno7~-n,thc intersection of the corresponding constant small generator connected to the turbine shaft. T h e use of fixcd-bed
pressure line wit11 the calculated final enthalpy mill yield the temperature
of the steam and thus a complete description.
t ~ he analyzed b y similar methods. Extrac-
N o r e conlples t ~ l r b i n can
tion turbinc~s,for instance, ill exhibit a scries of Williams' lines for
various ~ a l u e sof constant cstrnction fl01v ~ s - l ~ iacrle~ obtained b y adding
the extraction flow to t,he original line for no extraction. Turbines eni-
ploying regenerative f e d ~ v a t e rheating cycles and other similar tech-
niques m a y bc handlcd by making heat balances around each steam user
with t h e aid of a Mollier diagmm.
E X A ~ P LC LA L C U I . .d~ single
~ ~ ~ ~singe
: 350 1111 IS00 rpm turbinr is to opcrare
nonromlenrino ~ ~ - isteam
th at. 385 psig and 520' F :nld is to rshnust a t 60 psig.
a . I'reparr~ a chart shoi~-ingthe steam consumption a t any load.
b. llcterniine the :ir,tnal rzhallst s t ~ a l nproperties-
Inlet enthalpy H z = 1256
Exhaust enthalpy (from hfollier diagram) = - 1115
Total enel.gy 141 Btu/lb
iood in B r a k e Horsepowel
From Fig. 16-12 fnll-load efficiency is 22%
2544
Actual steam rate = = 82 lh/hp-hr
(141)(0.22)
units d e c l i n ~ ~h ~ i. w v c r ,: ~ n d gas turljincs gr:~ciu:~Ilyd i ~ : ~ p p c a r e dfro111
(a)Full load steam consumption = (82) (360) = 28,700 W h r
From Fig, 16-12. half-load factor is approx. 1.17 1)roccis 111i1nts. As ~ilcscribetlh y Millcrl" the Houdry 11r11rr.s~ n.:li unique
in it. t~daptahilityto the gas turhine sinw tlic rcgcneration t e ~ n l x m t n r e
:. Half load rate = (82)(1.17) =- 96 lb/hp-hr
:rnd t l ~ u sthe gas tclnueri~turcto thc t u r b i ~ l c11ad to be m;iintaineil Iwlr~\\-
Half load steam consumption = (96) (g)
2
= 16,800 lb/hr 1100' F I)? :lusilinry cooling t o prevent deactivation of thc catidyst. XI-
terials of construction for turbine temperature v e r c not difficult to fincl.
h uerformance curve or 15-illiams' line is plottcd for this unit from these two F o r t h e ordinary gas turhine cycle, Imwerer, roml~nstiontrmpcr;iturcs
points. See Fig. 16-11. a r c liigli and the gases must be r o i ~ l r ds i ~ m c \ \ - l ~I~cSori.
: ~ t rntcring tlic tur-
( b ) Estimated final enthalpy = 11%- (Hz - H~)(Efficiency) bine. A:: high tciiil~eraturc-resistalltt111oy:: 11cca111enmrc co:ninon. not
:is i n u c l ~rooling n.as required and the dc.sig11 of gas turl~inesI I ~ < , ; I I I I n111r1:
~
Intersection of 1225 enthalpy line on Mollier diagram with exhaust pressure simple. Once again, thcrefore, gas t,urbincs nre bring used in many
of 60 psig corresponds to 390' F or approximately 80' F of superheat. process plants for ccrtain applications in 1%-hichtllcy eSScct c c o n r ~ u ~ i w
co~nparcrlto lnotor us stcam turbine drives.
GAS TURBINES
h simple gis-turbine cyclc is illuslritted in 8 i g . 16-15. 11 cu~lsisisuf
T h e gas turbine produces useful work b y expanding hot gases from a multistage turbine cxpander, associated colnbustion chambcr for t h e
the combustion of fuel and compressed air (see Fig. 16-15). P a r t of the fuel gas, a centrifugal - a i r cornmessor, and a n elcetric ., ecnerator. Com-
energy extracted by the turbine is used t o compress t h e air for the com- pressed air is fed t o the colnbustion svstc:ii and t h c hot iwmhl~stioneases
bustion ort ti on of t h e evcle,
370 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors and Turbines 371
expanding gase.5 j11rt as in a ste:it~~turhine produce rotation of the tur- 3. rtilizing waitr ga.r.5 for p r i ~ l u r t i ( ~ufn poa-er and rolnpressed air
bine which in torn drives t l ~ ecompressor and generator. Separate speed a. hfanufncturinp nitric acid; n-wte pap fro111 tlic acicl absorl)tioll
reducers may he used on earh shaft of thc turbine so t h a t the compressor colunln a t 80 psi:, is I I I Y I ~ Ltu~ 900" F hy cxchnngc n-itlr tltr convertor
and generator niay car11 he operated a t n l a ~ i r ~ i u nefficiency.
i reaction product. an11 t h n esl~:lnilcil in ;I :,:I.< rxpanilcr tltrllinr. Air i-
The stearn turtlinc has proved econumiral as a combination supplier conlpresscd for the l~rocessand electric poi^-er is generated frolll the
of electric puwer and [Irocess steam and as n drive for centrifugal r o n - energy thus recorerc~l.
pressurs. Procers steal11 is removed a t one portion of the cycle. 1x1 a b. Regenerating catalysts; products of conil~ustiunfrom the regen-
eration expand in :I turbine. (li~mprwreriair an11 clrrtrir 1Ion.cr arr
generated.
Compressed
air to users Thern~odynamiecalculations for gay turi)inrs systeuls f o l l i w the snnlc
~xinciples outlined for stearn turbines anid colnpreisors. T h e ~ ~ r c t i c ; ~ l
p o w r consumed by the air conrprf:.ssor ran h r Ijnsrd i,n iscntvupic corn-
pressiun. The gas turilinc,'s tlieoretic:il p i ~ w rproducti~)nis cilual t11 tile
difference in cntlralpy bctwccn inlct :mil outlet gases. ~ I i l i ~II:IS ~ r givc~n
'~~
the following typical efficiencies:
p
C o ~ n l ~ w isentrol~ie
~~or cfficicncy 85
Comhwtion efficiency 98
Power
T u r t ~ i n cefficiency 85 to 90
Centrifugal Turbine
compressor generator H e further suggests us approxin~ations2 111 5% p r e , s i ~ r edrops in the
mixing and combustion steps and a 1 to 3% of turbine enthalpy drop
lost in operation of turt~incauxiliaries.
Exhaust gas to
M a n y ingenious cycles have heen d e ~ d o p c dt o increase thermal efficien-
waste or steam cies. Thesc include generation of steanr frum tlir turbine rliscl~:irgcgases
generation and intrndnction of this stram intu the g:im entering the cinnbu.;tion
F i g . 16-15. Simple gas turbine cycle. system. Nevertheless, cnel.gy calculations becmue nu trrurr diffirult siocr
siuqlle energy halances around each portiou of the e q u i [ ~ ~ n c nare i alw:+ys
possiblf~. Operating tests, I i o w t ~ e r ,must l ~ emade to p r ~ ~ r i c lilat:i
e on
similar manner the gas turhinc has operuted economically as a comhina- tlicnnal losses nnd efficiencies.
tion supplier of electric p m e r and prorcss air atid as a centrifugal coni-
pressor ~lrive. Vhenevcr cheap gaseous fuel is availnhlc such as natural REFERENCES
gas, producer gas, or wastc gases, such as products of rnmhustion from
n process, the gar turhinr should he c~~nsidered.Some typical appli-
cations are:
1. Compressirig of natural gas
a. Pipeline boaster compressors.
-
b. Reinjection of nirtural gas into oil bearing fornmtions.
2. Supplying large amounts of process air
a . Ammonia synthesis; air for production of synthesis gas. 5 . I i r : ~ i t o n ,\Y.J., S l e u n i l'tirbine 7 ' h e w y and Pioctice, 5th E X , Pitman Pul~lisli-
b. Nitric acid ~ n a n u f a c t u r eair
; fur oxiiiatioti of anl~iionia. i n g Co.. S e w Y d . 1948.
c . Tonnage oxygen and n i t r u g ~ nproductiun. 6 . Kent, W . , Rent's .lldia~ti.ol Euyinrcrs' IIandbuok, V o l 11, Jotin TViley B.
Sons. Inc., S e n York, 1950.
d . Catalyst regcn~xration; air for burning cokc from catalyst (at- 7 . KrotLV. J.. Chern. ETin.. Nu. 7.123 (1951).
. .
tractive \\-hen regeneration is rondurtcd under pressure). 8 . Millr,r. B.. Clirm. ISrry., C. S o . 1 , 175; So 2 , 187 (1955)
372 Project Engineering of Process Plants
!,,,. .~[,,t,,+ ~,,,d ( ; c , ~ ~ . , ~ ~S~;~~ wO sI I, : , IE I P , . I Y ~ C : ~ Iwmi:~,..
!I .YE.II..I ,sI,,,,,I,,,.,~,~
twr1.s .lsioeia~ion.S p w 1-OI.~, 1949.
10. Xminn. L . E.. -4. lir1li.1..J . 11. 1,yun;. ;ind I,. H. TFnlpi. .llndwn ' h i - h e r , Jolln
\T-ile>-6- Son-. I n c . 3i.v York. 1944.
11. Shomlts. D. R., C. J . R i i ? :tnrl T. C . Jolrnron. Elccliic .lli,l~min I ? t d i i s l r y . John
Kilq & Suns. Inr. S r w Y o l k 1942.
12. Killis, C. H . . :mil 11. &I. C l i : m d c ~ ~dl..,
, 1izlioduclmy Electrical Engineering,
D. Van S a s l r a n d Co., Inc., S e w Ywk, 1962.

OTHER
PROCESS
EQUIPMENT
In the preceding chapters of this section, equipment common to all
process plants has been discussed. I n addition there is other important
equipment ~vhiclr the project engineer must help select ior certain
processes.
To make intelligent selections the project cmgineer must have some
f m ~ i l i a r i t ywith the theory or c~npiricalu ~ e t l ~ oused
d in design and the
Q kind of information required by the nianufnctnrer before recommends-
tions can be made. Various types of prl~cessequipu~mtare dizcussrd
hricfly in this clrnptcr and reierences for more intensire study are given.
Information required by the vendor is listed for each typc of equipment
considered in this chapter.

AUTOCLAVES
Tlrc sizing of el~cmicalreactors is the specific job of the prore% engineer.
I
Cl~cmiralkinetic data togetl~erx i t h 11tmch scalc am1 pilot plant data arr
- used to determine the size, style, and shapc of a g i r m cl~emioillreactor.
The reactors are then built to order.
Certain processes, especially those requiring batch operation, such as
some polynerization reactions, are best handled in autoclaws. The
~lem:mcl for autoclaves n.it11 attached agitators an11 heat transfer surfactt
has influcnccd sercral n~anuiacturcrsto develop a cornpletc liue of suclr
n t to ofie~.n x~idcrange of standard sizes many of w l ~ i ( ,are
~ , q u i l ~ m rand l~
avnllahlc f r o n ~stock. In the interest of economy, therefore, i t becomes
< 373
 374 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Other Process Equipment 375
n e m s a r y to adapt one's need.< to these standard size autoclaves. T h r
c . Is explosion-proof equiplncnt required?
volunrctric rapacity uf the autoclave must he ~ e hy t the proccss mgineer d . .iuziliary eqnipn~rntrcquircd.
since the autoclave mnnufacturer is n ~ ) familiar t !~.ith the reaction, and e . Loration of equipnient idesrribr).
it is often prefcrslllc to avoid revealing rcartion date o u t d e the company. f. Special attachments required, if any.
T h e autocla\-e manufacturer can and should be asked t o d e w l l ~ pthe
hcnt tr:micr surface, agitator, and i ~ t h e rn~echanicalfeatures. T h e high-
pressure p c k i n g problems, thick-wall pressure vessel design, and fahrica- REFERENCES
t i m n i c t l i ~ ~ rn-it11
l . rnrious alloy*: are all best handled by the n~anufacturer
since his experience v i t h these problems is superior. Autoclaves m a y be
h m l r d 11y hot r a t e r . stcam, direct firing, hot oil, D o r t h e r m , and electric
iirating. Each of thcse systems, especially the direct firing, Dowtherln,
and electric heating, requires considerable "know-horn.'' which autoclave
~ n ~ f i t linvr n ~acquired
s througll many years { l f exlrrricnrc. CENTRIFUGES
I t is necessary to p l r ~ r i d ethe manufacturer ~ r i t hinformation needed
for the selrction and &sign of a n agitator system: the heat transfer aystcm There a r e two primary types of rcnt,rifuges. One m a y he called n
and the vessel itself. Xlanufacturers arc aware of t h e srcrccy nrces:ary centrifuge and tlic otllcr a crntrifugirl filter. Tlic cmtriiugc, effect- >,.pn-
'%-it11somc prowsses, and i t will be satisfactory under these conditions t o ration b y causing a liquid o r solid t o move throngh a continutrus lirjrliii
describe the reactiim in terms of some similar familiar fluid. Pl~yrical p h a w under the influence of centrifugal forre. I n the rentriingnl filter,
~wol~cl.tics. l~oivevrr.should he reasonably accurate. the solid pllasc is supported b y a filtering medinni (e.g., perforated s c ~ c c n i
.Is tccliniques of applied kinetics a r e improved, it may be possible t o and rentrifugal force causes t h c liquid t o pass tl~rouglit h e solid. The
first is similar t o gravitatioiial settling and Stokes' Law can be npplirrl

I
conduct many reactions continuously in "pipe-line" reactorsf which have
heen traditionally carried out in autoclaves as batch reactions. while the second is similar to filtratim and t h e resistance of t h e filter
cake plays a n i ~ n p o r t a n role.
t
Information Required by Vendor F o r t h e settling type machine (centrifuge) i t r a n he shown t h a t
1. Ph!-sical and rhemic:~l properties Q = 2v,Z, where Q is t h e rate of liquid flow, o, t h e mlocit,y of p a r t k l e
a. i)en.ity of wartion mix nt operating conditions. sedimentation a n d Z is a constant for a given style a n d size machine.
b. T'isrrlsity of rcnrtion mix a t operating conditions. Ambler1 has indicated t h a t t h e performance of two centrifuges of different,
c. Toxirity and flammability of rraction mix.
d. Any other facts or description of material (or similar material) that it is size operating on t h e same system will be similar when z7, = r,?. Ilencc
possible to gire. Q I ' Z ~ = Qz 'Z2, a n d t h i s relationship provides a means for cornpuring
! c. IS autoclave is to he used for several iliffcrent rcaetions, give range of small a n d large scale nnit>s. Correlations, holyever, have not haen <.urn-
physical properties. pletely satisfactory, although steady progress is being made in illis firld.
2. Opmating eunditions T h e greatest success h a s been realized in t h c prediction of b w r i ccn-
a . ~ I a r i ~ n n presure
in inside autoclave.
b. Mosirnnm temperature (gire time-temperature cyck or rough limits) trifuge performance from laboratory data. Some encouraging rcsults
Souic idea of rate of temperature rise is necessary for carefd pressure vessel Ilavc been obtained \!-it11 other styles, however, particularly when the
design. small scale unit is operat,e.ed a t a speed such t h a t it produces roughly the
c. T!pe heating preferred. same centrifugal force a s ~ v i l lbe produced by t h e large unit.
d. .Jacket working presure (pressure and temperature of heating medium) Centrifugal filter theory is even less advanced t h a n t h a t for centrifuges
r . Is cooling required? Describe cooling mrdiom.
f. Ikscrihe extent of agitation required. Suggest agitator style preferred. a n d tests on large scale units a r e mandatory unless t h e material t r ~11e
9 . Describe ;luton~atictemperature and presstire rontrol system. filtered is exactly t h e same a s t h a t for sonic successfully operating unit.
3. Mati,riali of construction: Suggest materials based on experience with fluid Even in cases for which small scale test results are not reliable for
to he handled extrapolation, they a r e of value in indicating t h e nature of t h e problem
4. Miscellan~ms
~~~~~

and aid in planning subsequent test on larger equipncnt.

a. List size, number, and preferred locating of connections required
b . Porr-er chnracteristicn. On the basis of the furegoing discussiotl i t mould seem t h a t i t is essvn-
tial t h a t t h e centrifugal manufacturer t ~ esupplied with n s n n ~ p l cof tlrc
*Orifices are installed in the pipe to produce the necessary mixing.
material to he prnccrsed. .I sample size of about 5 gallons for prrliluin;~ry
376 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment 377
small scale v o r k is satisfactory. Later, larger samplrs may bc reqnirecl
COOLING TOWERS
or it may prore clcsir:~I~le to c o n d u ~ ,large
t scale tcsts a t the plant site.
T h e perfor~nanceof cooling ton.crs is based on a simultancons transfer
af heat by diffusion and conrertion. l l e r k e l expressed this fact mathe-
Information Required by Vendor
matically in 1925 nsing the principles of mass and heat transfer. M a n y
1. Physical data variations of his original expression have been presented. A typical equa-
a. Complete an:rly,sis of feed tn rcntrifngal. I tion for a counterflow tower m a y be written as follows:
1. Weight per cent -olids :mil lirluidi.
2 . Cheniical composition of each cnn*lit~lent.
3. Possible variations in composition and relative amounts.
b. Dnisitj- and viscosity of liquid components at operating temperature.
c. Density and viscosity of ired a t operating temperatnre. where Z = height of tower in ft.
d. 0per:atin: temperatnre (marimurn possible aften rlwirablc hrcsusc liig11
tlTnlxmtllre loners r i ~ r o s i t r l C, = heat capacity of t h e water
I, = \\-atcr rate lb,/(hr) (sq f t of t o ~ v e rcross section)
n = xvater surface per unit tower volume, sq f t l c u ft
t = temperature of mat,er, F
q. Fmzility mlcl diapr of pnrtirlri. I / * = cnthalpy of sat,umted air a t x t t r r temperature.
h . Gral-it!. scttlin: ratw. if nrui1:~bIe.
Utu:lb of d r y air
i. hbmsivcnea- of solids.
2 . Opimting colditiun,~ TI = nnthalpy of main mass of air, Rt,111h of d r y air
a. Pmpose of operation: olnrifi~.:~t~on,
irpar:ltion, crj-stal i l r h y h t i m ~:,lid I<, = a n overall transfer cocfficicnt having t,he units
washing, etc. Ib d r y a i r i ( h r ) (sq f t of w t c r snrfnce)
b. Disposition of components and quality uE cach ph:~sc (moistnre content
of c r y ~ t d s purity
, of liquids, rtc.) Since i t is ordinarily impossible
c. Capacity (quantity per hour and per dn>-). t o determine the d u e of a sepa-
rl. If crystals are being separated and are to he ~vashed,suggest \!-ash liquid, ! rately, the combination K,a is 4
>
need for sepsmting from mother liquor, mil purity of crj-stals desired. determined expcrimcntally b y &
I
e . Description of the proposed opcrntion of the crntrifuge in relation to thc
performance n i t m ~ ~ r r n i e n t son
nltirr procrss is helpful.
3. Materials of construction operating cooling to~vcr.;. T h e =
Cmtrifugrs are constrnctcd of certain itanilnrd niateri:ils as listed in manil- I term h ; n contains all the empiri- it
fnct~lrrr'scstalogs. Possible reaetirm of thl: fwd or components of the f e d cnl factors of design. I l l m u f a r - 2 I
wllh :my of these materials should be noted and :~ltrrilatelnaterials anggcated.
1. hfiscellancous
turers h a w obtained rcliahlc -
m
>
o. Floor space available.
r d u c s of K,a from perforn- _a
0
b. Power characteristics and type motor reqnirrd (rxplosion-proof, etc.). ance tests on the cooling ton-ers 5
c
c. Reed for v;qor-tight centrifuge construction if mntrrials handled are they manufacture. W

t ~ ~ r ur
i c fl;~mni:ihlr. T h e integration indirated in thc
above eqnation can be done sim-
__t
I by either graphical or nu- Temperature
REFERENCES
nieriral means whcn a saturation
i . I - Graphical integration oi
1. Ambler, Charles M.,C h e m Eng. P w g r . , 48,150 (1952). (Evnlunlion of ecntl.if- curve of humid cnthalpy versus dtIH* - H .
ugnl pcrio~.mnnecand drscriptiun of one n ~ a n u f n c t u ~C. ~
~ rU ~~ ~
I ~ I T I I . ) temperature is available. Reion-
2. Ambler, Chorles M., Nex Jewry Swtion Meeting, Am. Inat. Chcnl. Enyrs.. M a y this rurvc a straight line or operating line is plotted based on the inlet
5, 1953. (Further craluatian techniques.)
3. Perry, J. H., Cl~ernicalh',igi?wr's Hundbook, 3rd Ed., 992-1013, hlrCra\v-Hill a n d outlet enthalpies H I a n d H 2 as shuwn in Fig. 17.1. Values of
Book Co., Sew Bork, 1950. (Equiprnunt descr.iption.) H* - H are then readily obtainable from this plot for t h e conditions
4 . Smith, J . C.. Ind. E n g . Chrnr. 39. 4 i 4 (1947). (Cmtt.ifu~e s~lrctiontrrliniqurs of the problem and the integration can be accomplished.
m d < i ? wiplion 01' I Y ~ ~ ~ )~ W I ~ I This technique permits determination of K,a for a given t o v e r from
378 Project Engineering of Process Plants
pcriwmancc (lntn, estiu~atiunof ton-cr performanre un(lcr varying condi-
tiuu., un(l calvulation of t(lxcr hriglrts for \ ~ t r i c lK.,a
~ is assumed. T h r
11" - I1 term is t h r driving force and the more humid the air, the closcr
tire oprrating linc mores to t h e saturation curve a n d thus the larger the
ton-cr 1111i.t lie for a given duty.
.?
I Ire use of this siniplc but valuable tl~coretiralequation in design dc-
I E I I I ~ upon
~ accurate prediction of design values of K,a. Only cooling
ton-cr ~unnufncturer::and perhal~scertain operating companies n-it11 large
amounts of (lain on one ii~anufacturer'st o v c r a r c equipped to m a k r sucli
predictions. I t . tl~creforc,becomes necessary to supply tllc manufacturrr
~\-itlrone'z rrquirrments and permit him t o dcsign a unit t o satisfy t h e
conditil~ns of operation. Because of the magnitude of cooling tower
instnllationi, ti1t.i~r~onstructionshould be rcgarrlrd a s a s u h c m t m r t and
detailed specificatiuns should be written covering t h e grade of materials
and x-i~rlimanshilitogetlier r i t h operating conditions.
Information Required by Vendor
1. T>-peof coollng tower
Induced drnft because of the lesser tendency for rrcirculation of disch:~rgrd
air is brcoming the most common. Forced draft, honrver, is more suitablc for
highly corrosive waters since the fan and moving parts do not contact the sat-
urxted rapors as in thc casn of the inilnred draft design. Other types are used
for sprri:d :~pplic:ltions. (See referrnce belolv )
2. Operating conrlitiun~
o. Capacity, gpm of m t r r
b. Inlrt water 1cmpcr:ltnre.
r . C)ut!rT ~ m t e rtelnp~~mtureilrsired.
r l . Jlespn mrbient ~l-et bulb tmlperaturc. The dcsipn ~ r bulb
t temperature
should be selrcted on t h hasla
~ of economici :~ndshould not necessarily be the
liigh<~-t\-:tlue rccurded for the arm. Onr common basis 1s the so-called .5 prr
omt irct bulh This is a \wt bulb temperature d ~ i c his not, exceeded nrr~re
tliarl 5 per cent of the time: elapsng between June and Sr.ptember.
e . h u i l oprrntlon tune (hours)
I. Noisr level of fans ,should br spec~fied.
g. Acwptanrc~trstr s h ~ ~ u lbr
d specified in nrmrdance with thr latest cooling
tm~-ertest procedure of thr ASME P o ~ ~ Test e r Code for atmospheric TTater
rimling equlpmmt.
3. 1l:rtmali of ronstruetion
The type of lumber, filling, hardware, piping connections, basm, fans, and
mntori. These details can ljr. developed in coopration with the manufacturer
bnt should he included in thr specific:~tirms. The term r r i i ~ ~ o o dfor
, instancr,
is not complrtely ilrwriptive. Rrdrwrrd is gradrd in accordanrc with thr'
sprciiic:itions of the California Rcdwml Associxtion and the proper grade*
:nust irr s p ~ r i f i d .
4. M,kccllm~eons
n. S1,:ice limitations.
Other Process Equipment 379
b. Data on prevailing winds.
c. Sketch of apace available for cooling tower indicating surrounding
equipment. sizes.
d. Location of nearby cooling towers.
e. Elevation above sea level.
REFERENCES
1. Baker, D. R., and L. T. Hart, Petruleiirn Refiner, 31, No. 10, 97-10' (1953).
(Theory.!
2. Dealer.
- H. E.. Petroleum Enai., 22. S r , . 3 . p. C-29; S o . 1, I,. C-15; :and S o . 5.
p. C-25 (1950). iDesrl.iptive.)
3. Kern. D. F.. . . 563-6W. McGrarr-Hill Hook C o . . Smv
Process Heal T1-nnsiei. PP.
York, 1950. (Theory. calculat~ons,and equipment deseriplions.)
4. Perry, J. H., Chemical Enginecv's Handbook, 3rd Ed.. 789-iYi, MeGmm-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1950. (Charts for estimating cooling tower size and inn power.)
CRUSHERS AND GRINDERS
Classification of equipment has always bcen considered a primary step
in the systematic study and understanding of any ficld. Often, however,
classification becomes m i r e of a problem than undcratanding. This i-
true in the case of crushing a n d grillding equipment. For marly years
grinding e q u i p l e n t has hcen classified in accordance with the type of
product. B u t hammer mills, for instance, can hc applied successfully t o
production of all types r ~ product
f such a s coarse, fine, and s u p t ~ f i n e . T h e
project engineer, instead, needs a descriptiun of each typc of grinder
currently manufactured including information on its field of application
a n d its advantages and disadvantages. Such information is f a r more
helpful t h a n some ponderous attempt to classify rquipmrnt.
Empiricism reigns supreme in t h e field of crushing and grinding. T!E-
oretical equations for calculating power requirements a s propo:ml by
Rittinger a n d Kick have proved f a r less accuratc tllan thc more recerit
scmi-cmpirical correlations of Bond and Wnng.2 Although effort is hein::
made t o develop basic grinding theory, the ultimatc selcction of a crushrr
or grinder for the grinding of a given material depends upon test ~ w r k
or upon plant uperating data on the same 11r similar material.
Since no single cmnpany manufactures all types of crushing and grinding
equipment, a manufacturer should not he expectcd t o give an unbiased
recommendation of thc typc equipment to employ for a certain problem
It is necessary, therefore, that the cheuiical cngincer make a preliminary
selection of a t least several types of grinding machines before making
detailed inquiry to the n~anufncturcrs. T h e e q u i p ~ i e n tmanufacturers
should then be permitted to conduct tests on the material to be crushed so
t h a t thc most favornt~leoperating conditiuns can be determined for the
particular type grinrl~r. Smitlr"r:is prepared a must helpful rrport t o
aid t h e cngineer in s u c l ~p r c l i m i n ~ qsclections.
 !
380 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment 381
I
T h e particlc size of feed and product, capacity, and the size d i ~ t r i l ~ l ~ t i o n 4. 1 , l . I . II,,;,cI. I ! , I . 8 . I s 1 3 1 ( r n lI.,, nl gri,,<ling ir,.I,.
and other physical properties of the product irlust be known bcforc i ~ t - niqnr~drwrihcd.)
5 . Pirct. I-:cigar J.. Chmn. E n g . Progr., 48, 56 (19531. (Kerirr of theol.ctieal derel-
tempting preliminary ielection. This infor~nation,together v i t h morr.
opmlms.)
detailed d a t a as o u t l i n d heloy, should he furnished the manuf:~cturcrto 6 . Smith. Jdian C.. Chem. Eng.. .iB, S o . 6, 151-166 (1952). (Description and sog-
aid in the final selection of a unit. Saluples of materials t o be groru~i~l p,..tioni to aid in preliminary grinder scle~.tion.)
sllould he sent l o t h e manufacturer. A five- t o twenty-fivc-pou~ids a n ~ p l c
is required for niost pilot plant units. If a larger scale test is t o Le madc, CLASSIFIERS
a t least 100 puunds is advisablc. T11c n ~ o s tiniportant application of classification equipmrnt is in closed
circ~litgriniling where t h e ohjcct is to scparnte finisl~cd~ ~ r o i i u c~ t~ I I tliv I I
Information Required by Vendor 111:1tr>ri:11TT-I1ir.11 rcv~uirrv f u r t l ~ e rgrimliug. S I I ~ I a11plir:1tim*
I :tw l ~ , . < t
1. Phyiral data <lrvr~lopulin i,onjunotiun ~vitlrthe selection of a grinder. Tit(, grinr1l.1.
a. Description of m:~teri:~l to be handled. n l a n u f a r t l r r c arc prepared to suggest equiprnrnt t h a t is hest a d r i l ~ t t ~tol
1. Chemical proprrties. I tlicir units. T e s t s in the field of ore and mineral dressing give detailtd
2 . Simil:rrit?. to othcr ~vcll-kno~~-n
m;~tcrixls. j information on classifiers.
3. Size of piecrs.
4. Hygroscopic, rorrosirr, infl:mmablc, tosic, etc. I CRYSTALLIZERS
b. Bulk ilrnsit,y of fwd (indirat,e density <lrt~rniinationniethod).
c. Bulk density oi finidled product (indirxtr dm-it>-~1etemiin;itionmethod). I A >upcrrnturated solution liiust, be formed in order trr produce r ~ y t n l i
d. Sievc analysis or particle size of deireil groduct igivr Ion-rm and up pi^ fro111:I given solution. This supcrsnturatiun can bc pro~lnccdlry waling.
limits) c ~ n p o r a l i u nrif the solrent, srtlting rlut (:ulrlition of n fi~rcign. ~ ~ l ~ . s t : ~ n r c
e. Per ccnt moisture content (if other liouids Dresmt in the nl:iterial. rime 11-11iclic;lucrs t l ~ cni:ltcrial of interest to erystallizci. or :I coml~irl:ltionof
and give percentage). t l w c ~r~etliod.;.Iinon-ledge of tllc solubility tempcraturc rel;~tion.slrip~
f . Solrents for nlatcrid being" ground. Smcest solvent most desirable for
cleaning rquipmmt. air1 greatly in t h e selection of thc general typc of cry~tnllizinge q u i l ~ m m t .
g. Abrasire properties. h rclntively flat solubility curve indicates evaporation while a rapidly
2. Operating conditions rising (with t e ~ u p e r a t u r e ) curve indicates a straight cooling type of
a. Feed rate (minimum and maximum). crystallizer.
b. Operating temperature (mximrun ;md minimum; list teniperntures a t i
Couipletc solubility d a t a for most w l l - k n o w n con~poundsliavc been
~rhichmaterial melts, decomposes, or r1ni1ergoc.ssomc othrr nnn:~ntcd chmgc)
c. Can mntcrinl be ground wet'! published, and cxpcrimvntiil x o r k is being done in orctcr t o bcttcr undcr-
d. Is drying permissible before grinding? stanrl t h c rncrh:inism of crystal fomiation. Such information lias aidcll
e . Is heating or cooling of material :dlorvable? i greatly in improving cryrtallizer design. Crystallizer operation, Iiowvvr:
f. Type of clasification drsircd aftcr grinding.
3. Materials of construction
i docs not consist merely of the formation of crystal nuclei. Simult:ineon.
formation and growth of crystals is colnnion to industri:il c~ystallizcrs,
Suggested materials for corrosion wsistnnce should be given. In supplying
this information it should hc rimembered that thrsr, m3tcri:iii must also be and these l~rocersesare f u r t l ~ e rco~nplieatcrlhy diffusiunal resistanre.~.
resistant to abrasion and eroiiun.
4. Misccllaneons
a. Poxr-cr supply.
I Tliesc several r a t e processes have also been studied but s u i t a l ~ l yacc~lr:lt(,
r:~lcul:ltion of the rate is not yct posril~lc.
This lack of reliilblc r a t e d a t a malics it nccessnry, vrl~winllybccnusc
b. S l m r limitations. of the m a n y different crystallizer rlcsigns, t o design and select crybtallizers
c. Drscription of proposed location.
d. Safety precautions now in effectif matenal is hazardous.
1 largely a n t h e basis of laboratory tests a n d performance ilata. Such test?
i a r e particularly important \vlicn trace impurities are suspcctrrl since
REFERENCES
1 crystal forliiation and g r o x t h m a y be strongly affected b y small amounts
1. Bond, F. C., Trans. A I X E , 193, 484 (1952). (Theory.) I of certain impurities.
2. Bond, F. C., and Jcn-Tuug \Vang, T r a m A W L .I n s l . M h ~ i n gM e l . Engrs., 187, 871
(1950). (Theory :md cn~.rclntionsfar power czlimntion.1 Information Required by Vendors
3. Erickson, Henry W., C h e m . Eug. P ~ o g r . ,38, 63 (1953). (l)cscri~,lim:iml selcc- I , Ph!.sieal and d~emicalproperties
tion.)
I a. ('hemicnl composition of feed liqlror tracc impurities
382 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Other Process Equipment 383
b. S d ~ ~ h i l i ttemperature
? relations. and recommend the design and size most suitahle. T h e potrntial pur-
r . 1Tr:it (if rrystallizatiol~: sperifir hrats of sohltion, mothrr liquor :1nd
rrystnl-. ie~ith;iil,y-coneel~trntion diagr:im dr~irableif nrail:ihle). chaser, howcrer, must make some preliminary deci~ionson the type dryer
d. llcn4ty of fwd :~n,l~n~othm liq~mrs. desired.
r . hiling piiints of S r d and mothrr liq~mrs. l f a r s h a l l a n d Friedman2 have prepared a n outstanding section in
f. Tosirity or flamm:~hility, Perry's Chemical Enginee?.~ Hnnrlhook. They g i w a tabular classifica-
2. Oprating conditions tion of commrrrial dryers. Thcir detailcd d i r r u s s i ~ ~ nof
s dryer types,
a . \Yri?;ht of feed liquor per unit time.
b. IYeipht of crystals to he formnl. design, selcction, and test proce~inresaid greatly in the preliminary dryer
c . Fred tenipimture :~nd final de-irrd liquor temperature and crystal J-irld. selcction. An example of dryer selcction is also given.
d. Desired rrl-stal siar and sizc dictrihntion. (This may hr some tnlly
optimum value or ma:- rlepmd on the wishes of the buyers of crystals, whethcr Information Required by Vendor
thrw ivi~hesa r logical~ or not.)
e . O p r a h g hours pvr day. 1. Physical and chemical properties
f . Sn?- special reqniremmts for finished crystals cho~ddbe stated. a . Description of material (chemicd name, rharacteristirs xhen iret and
3. Xitwials of con~tructiou dry).
S11:gest lnw possible nlaterial~to rmdor. b. Size, shape, and size distribution of particles.
4. hli.~cellnnrons c. Density (bulk and true) of w t , commrrrially dry, and boue dry m:+terial.
a . Stpnm prt+s,ire :and trmper;ltllre (npproximatr cost). d. Toxicity, flammability, and corrosive nature.
b. Coding water. e . bloisture content of feed (give bas>. and methud).
1 . Source. f. hfaximum moisture content nf pr~lrhlrt igirr :1nd mrtlmd).
2. Ttmpenrt~~rc. g. Shrinkage and decomposition tendencies of iliatrrial, if kno~vn.
3. :Ipprosimntc~ cost. 2 . Oprrnting conditions
c. Other cooling mrdia available. a. Feed rate.
d. P o w r supply. b. Continuous or hatch operation.
c. Honra operation per day.
d. Treatment of material before and after drying. (Will some "before-
REFERENCES treatment," such as forming rr-rt material into pellets bc prrmissible?)
1. Perry. J. H.. Chrmieol Enginper's Hnndbook. 3rd Ed., MrGraw-Hill Rook Co., e . Estimatc of probable drying time.
New Ynrk. 1850). (Throly and apparatus dcsrripiion.) f. Maximum drying temperatnrcs perniisible (~vhen~s-etand d v ) .
2. Tliompson. -4, Chi,,,,,. Eng., 67, S o . 10, 125 (1950) (Description and sel~ction.) g. If hot air available, rr-hat is maximum trmperatnre and hnmidity?
h. Fresh air supply (temperatun, rxnge, hruwidity, xnd cle:dinrir).
i . Room temperature (range)
DRYERS
j . Feeding mechanism iby n~anufaetureror p ~ c l ~ ; i i ; edescribe).
r,
T h e theoretical aspects of drying h a w received particular attention ic. Fuels available.
in recent years, and tlle d r r e l o l ~ m e n t sresulting have aided greatly in the 1. Steam (pressurr and trmprmturei
understanding of drying f u n d a n ~ m t a l s . T h c unique dcsign features in- 2. Cns (prcssnre, grarit5-, hrating value).
3. Oil (gravity, viscosity, and heating r d n r ) .
herent in the m a n y different typcs of dryers, however, make i t mandatury 3. Materials of construetion
that the sclertion and final design of a dryer be based on tests made with Specify where possible in coopiration with m;~nufncturer.
experinlcntal dryers t h a t simulate the q m a t i o n of the plant-scale dryer. 4. Miscellaneous
It is necessary, therefore, t h a t samples of the material to be dried be sent a. Space available (drscribe or r~rovidrsketch).
to the m a n u f a ~ t u r e r . T h c sizc of t h e s a n ~ p l crequired will depend upon b. Floor loading.
c. Type of automatic controls desircd and ~ h furnishes.o
t h e type dryer and t h e nature uf t h e test. A large sample is usually d. ~ & r rsupply.
preferred. c . Motors and starters (type ;and !rho f,~rnishrr).
Drying theory has becn most hclpful in t h e correlat,ion of test data. f. !Tho will fnrnish air filters and other xccessnrie.5 (i1,wify)
T h e transfer unit roncept has heen adapted t o thc design of several dryer
types, Dryer tests are requircd in such cases for thc determination of REFERENCES
drying rates and u p t i u ~ u noperating
~ conditions. T h c manufacturer of
a given typc of dryer is the moat logical p a r t y t o make the dryer tests 1. Friednrnn, S. J.. l l p a i i r < g ond I'c,rfilrrtirq, &, Yo. 2 . 96110 (18.51). (D1.ycl.srlw-
tie,, ,II.O(.P,~LII.P.)
384 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment 385
subtracting from the total cost tlie estimated r:~lue of inatrrials nrccssary to
make the individ~~aloffering compatible n.ith the arbitrarily chosen base design.

Information Required by Vendor

EVAPORATORS 1. Phy:.ic:d and chemical proprrtics of thin and heavy liquors

o . nr;rr~ptint~oi mntcrial to be e\.:iporated (ehcinicnl analysi? including
I n addition to the three so-called standard evaporator designs in11111riti~s prr~-ntj.
b. Boilin. points.
(natural-circulatio~~,forced-circulation, and falling-film typcsi tlierr
c. Ileneitir.
a r c nunicrous spccial designs which are built t o 01-crconle certain unique d. \~isr,ositi?s(:it several trmprmtures).
problems. e , I'm rtwt soliils.
Tlic coniplexity of the heat transfer p r ~ ~ c e sins boiling and t h e variety j . Frx~mingrh:~mcteriitics.
of merhanical design features make t h e dcvclo]xnent of throrctical y . F1nmm:ihility and toxicity.
h. Nature of solids.
iuctliods for estimating overall heat transfcr ~ d l i c i c n t sfor evaporation
2. Operating conditions
difficult if not inlpossihlc. A l t l i o ~ g lmethuds
~ for approximating t h e w a. Quantity of thin liquor per unit time.
coefficients have hccn developed, previous experience and tests on pilot b. Holm operation per day.
scale units represent the only reliable means for obtaining design coeffi- c. Temperature of thin liquor.
cients. Here again the burden of design rests ulwn the nianufacturcr of d. Higl~esttcmpemture that liquor mn be heated rrithout causing unfnror-
the equipincnt. able results.
e . Quantit>- of solids to br srpnmtrd pcr nnit timr: or uuit nmount ui f e d
T h e average chemical engineer is f a n ~ i l i a rnit11 tlie heat and material 3. Materials of con?trnction
balance calculations necessary for the design of a multiplc effect cvap<l- In the evaporation of many mnterinls rert:~inmetals are not unduly corroded,
rator. If he as not too fascinated b y the clever algebraic manipulation but they contaminate the prrduct sufficiently to render their lile inadvis:~hle.
possiblc in sonlc of these problem solutions, he m a y have noticed t h a t the The manufacturer should be given such iniormation psrticularly r i t h regard to
overall coefficients for each effect tiere usually called "typical." B u t the behavior of iron or steel. Suggestions of suitable materials should be rna<ie
!>-hen possible.
reliable not "typical" values of thcve coefficients a r c absolutely necceeary 1. .Miscellaneous
and no :Iinount of calculation can improve tlie eval~oratordesign if inac- a. High pressure and exhanst steam available at site.
curate hcat transfcr coefficients are used. 1. P r e w m :mil ten~poratnre.
If i t is a t all possiblc, the niam~factnrcrshould l)r supplied with mough 2. .ipproximate cost.
sample to conduct pilot plant e n p o r a t i o n tests, purticularly if t h e 3. Restrictions on use if any.
1. T:ltiinnte we of evaporator condm~ate.
cvaporatiun proLlcm is nen-. b. Cooling nater.
T h e task of t h e project enginecr in evaporator design becon~csone of 1. Tcnlprr;tture (m:~rirnrm~ nnd iniuimlm).
evaluating t h e recommendations of various lnanufacturers on a specific 2. Sourer and drscription.
evaporation problem. I n a n y such evaluation, t h e basic problem is one 3. Restrictions on uue.
of interpreting all quotations on a coin~nonbasis. T h e following suggrs- c. I'orr-er supply.
d . Spare nvnilnblt. (provide plot plan).
o ~aly hc of help in sucli a n analysis.
tions of itcnls for c o m ~ ~ a r i s m e . Special equipment preierences soeh as types of pumps, drives, auxiliary
equipment, and valves.
1. Utility requircnieuts (steam, power, cooling, water).
2. Evaporator type and size of each etfect and details of matrmials of REFERENCES
constrrlrtion.
3. Totnl hmt tr:~nsfcrsnrhce. 1. Coates, J., Ciiern. Eng. Pwgr., 6/,. 25 (1049). (Estimating required area, capncity
4. Pumps, c;rpitrity :ind type. and s t m m t.erpilmnents a i multiplc pffect evaporators.)
5 . .4ccessories, size and type, materials of construction. 2. Iicl.n, D. Q., Pioceas H e n t 'Z'mn~jci, ~~~~~~~~Hill Book Co., S c w Pork, 1950.
6. Code construction (ASME, TEM.4, etc.) (Calculntians.)
7. List of all materials furnished bv vendor including.. . ~ i.~ -i n instruments,
g, 3. I,indscy, E. E.. Chent. Eng., 60, No. 4, 22; (1953). (Evaporator types, ndrun-
stnlctural steel. tnges and di.-ndrantag~s.1
Y. Cmt comp;lriaoiw; place e:lch offering oil :ui ~ r ~ u abasis
l I I :~drliug
~ to or 4. Starrow, J. .A,, Ind. Chsmisl, 24, 311 (1948). (Cnl,:ulation%)
386 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Other Process Equipment 387
b. Chararteristirs of elrctric porr-rr, rr-ash ~ a t e r .: i d steam nvnilnhle :it
FILTERS plant d r .
Filter ~~iiinufactnrers n ~ a i n t a i n ~vell-equipped laboratories t o study .lir filter. require -p?rinl rrrnsiilerntinn. Of p:~rricnlar importnnrr is ;in
r u t o m c r ~irohlcr~isand to dctcrminc cnginerring d a t a for design. T h m - analysis of partirle ,size distribution of solids in the :iir or gas to hr f i l t t v i l . Sw11
:in annlysis rrquire. careful trrhniq~~ra rincr psrrirle iizri are small. Air filtrrs
ever possible sarnplcs of the mnrrrial t o l ~ efiltrred slioulrl be sent to t h e
can be employed in r ~ m o r i ndust. ~ above :~plin,xin~ntd:-0.2 nlirrunr nhile
tnannfacturrr. \Tit11 apprmimately 5 g d l o n s of samplc, bcncll-scalc smaller sizes i n l l r t hc handled by elertroit:ltie prwipitators.
studies can bc m:~clc\\-it11t c ~ filter t leaves ollernting under vacuum. T h e The purity of filterrd air or gas shorild hr q e i ~ f i c d .Test', wl~rre~ m s i l h are ,
filtration eharactcristir~s elucidatrd b y thcsc tests usually can 11e in- strongly recornmrndrd brca116eof the many rnriahle- rrhich rannot br predir.ted
terprctcd in tcr~ii; of pcriornxmce of the various filter types so t h a t a
size and style of filter (.an l ~ ererommended. Leaf tests in unusual filter
problems sometimes shmv need for further pilot plant st,udies. I n such
casc.s larger s a ~ n p l c sarc r ~ q ~ i i111r ~ l on actual pilot scale filters. If
r ~tests
more con\-rnient. filter m a ~ i u f a c t u r e will r ~ make t l r c ~ csnlall scale filters
a\.ailahlc ti1 tlie c u ~ t o i n e ra t the ulant site on a loan basis or for a nominal
rcntnl fee.
T h e majority of ur,liiliiry f i l t r a t i ~ ~problen~s,
il I i o w ~ e r can
, 11e resolved
b y inerely supplying the w n d o r with certain pertinent d a t a as outlined
belo~v.

Information Required by Vendor

1. Physical data
a. Urserintion of material to be filtered (chemical composition, of liquid
and solid induding pW).
b. Per cmt cakr: forming solids in slurry. HEATERS AND FURNACES
c. Density of solids. Design of a lieater or rracking furnace requires thorough lino\vlerlgc of
d . Density of elear liqni,l at sevpral temper:it~~res. hcnt transfer, fluid flo~v,and prol~ertiesof inctals m d refractories at Iligli
e. Filtration temperaturc.
pressures and t e n q ~ e r a t n r r s , Smue years ago tlrc inajority of t.he direct.
f. Y i ~ c o s i tof
~ filtriite and slurry (:1p1xnx.) at filtration tmmp~ratnre.
g. Ilcwription of solids. fircd heaters were uscd t o enp11Iy heat for crudr distillation unite, and
1. Sm~ily,gmnular, cryst:~lline,slimy, elc., prrcentage of each t,ype. the design v a s c n q ~ i r i r a l . As the use of these heaters expanded and ap-
2 . Screen analysis of dry solid. plications ranging from distillation tolvcr rchoilcrs to rcartors hecanic
2. Operating conditioms widespread, a stronger theorrtical basis f o r ~ l r r i y u v a s developed,
a. Ouantitv to be filtered ner unit time.
especially in thc calrulation of both thc inrlixnt and convcl6on section
b. Operating time per day-.
c. \Thich nortion of slurrv is to be recovered lfiltrate, cake or both)? heat absorption. Furnacc design has. therefore, l ~ e c o n ii~ ~ .specialty.
d. Cake rl'aracteristics if available. Furnace manufacturers maintain a staff tlii~tspecializes in furnace design
1. Is washing required? and ci~nrtructiun. Sonie sn1a11 f~lrnitcesrim be huilt a t tlie i'i~(.toryand
2. If ~wshingis rrquirrd, vhnt is minimum purity permissible? shipped complete to the plant sitc, d i i l e the largcr designs r n w t be
3. Most wash liq~iidbe iiolatrd from filtrate? erected on the job.
4. Give cmcking tendency of cake during washing and drying.
r . Uescribe most important goal of the filtration and l i t s~condarygoals. T h e engineer responsil~lefnr selecting n f u r r ~ a c eprofits frmn knu\vledge
(Ez31nple: n n s i n n m filtrate rlarity.) of f u r n a w design. Perhap:, thc nus st 11elpful paper (111 tlris sr~lijcctis that
:i. hIat,eri:~lsof const,mction by Rickerman.:' H e pre~t,ilts:I good rle~criptioiinf lieater types and out-
ilny rsperirnces rr-ith mctnls ;ind othrr materials in handling the slurry should lines in simple terms thc steps involved in c n ~ ~ i l i l ~ f ut vm w ~ I w i y n ;\
trr, shared rrith thr filter m:m~fuctorer.
1. Miscellaneous usrfol bibliography is givcn.
a. Konnal barumetric prwsure. I n the development of cracking furnaces or a n y other furnact: in wllici~
 \
388 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment
a rhcniical reartion occurs, the process engineer si~ouldrlctcrn~inetlrc zizr
and length of tube required t o produce the reqnircrl reaction a t a q ~ e c i f i t d
Ilcat flus.
REFERENCES
F a i r and Rase? have demonstrated the method for eurh c a l c ~ ~ l a t i o n
hased on the principles of chemical kinetics. T h e furnace rlesipnrr I . l i r ' m I ) . Q..Pi-ocen Hcnt Ti-orialcr., M~.Grna--HillBook Cu.. S e w Yolk, 1950.
conq~lctcsthe 17-ork h y 11roviding the ~uechanical aspect; of tile design 2 . T;iil. ,I. R . . :mi H. F. R a w f'hr,,,r. E u g . P;ogr., SO, 415 (1954).
3 . 10,~Ir~~m~;in. J . H.. 7'mma. A n , . S o e dl?clz. E , i g ~ . .67. 531 (1954).
I 1 a 4 on tire required llrat flus and tclnprratnrcs. Tlri- n.ork incl~~rlr.
S w :+I-,, t ~ i t ~ l i o ~ r a
at,~m
h yd of t l ~ k>m+icIc.
sclectim and location of t u l ~ e sand burners, selection of n ~ : ~ t e r i a losi con-
stvuction and structur;d design.
MAiERlALS HANDLING
The a ~ i i m ~ofr ~information
t required b y the n ~ i m u f a c t u r wvaries sjnlc-
n-hat depending on the cu.4onwr. S0111c plant> 11refcr cert:~in l ~ n r n c r 'Tiit> .r:trcity and high cost of l a h during World TVar I1 created a
wvolution in the materials handling field. Hundred? of n w and ingcnions
designs a n d header :rrrungemcnts, for inst:irr~.e. Sncli lneft.renrc5 shonirl,
of ~ I I U I ' Z C ,hc c l i w l y stated during the cnrly i ~ q u i r >>tag?
- to :~voiilc11stl:- i l ~ v i r cwcrr introduced. and the proper aelcrtion and application of inate-
dr~laysa s the project proceeds. rials 11;wIling equipment has become more coniplex. One univcraity is
Oils for ~vlrirhgeneralized correlation^ are availnblc nccd not l ~ c<lc- non- offering a degree in materials handling cnginccring. I t is s d v i s a h k ,
scribed a s fnlly :I- nintrrials for ~vhiclilittle puhlislicd 11nt:i has apl~rnrcd. tl~er[sior(,.t h a t thr. projcct engineer seek tlic as&:inrc of cunil~anyrepre-
wnt:rtives trained in t h e field of materials Irandling. A general knowledge
oi tlie c<luilmient, lio~vcver,is necessary in order to expedite tlip rliscur-
Information Required b y Vendor
i o u nit11 ~~i;inut';ictr~rrr':. rcprcscntativcs. Sinne knoivl~dgecan he gain14
1. I'hyiienl : ~ n dchemical properties of c11:~rgr and product by s t u l y i n g i c ~ - c ~ rof
a l the refcrcnces listed bclolv.
a. . h ~ l y i of
s m:rterinl eh;,rged and prorh~et(distil1;rtionan:llysi-j. A dctniled -tuily should be n ~ a d eof conveying hystems t o be lucatrd
b. I)rnrit>- or API gmrit?- at 60' F. (Also de~wityat othcr trmpcraturcs,
if :lv~d~lhlc.) in ~ ~ ~ r c l r o o and
s c - shipping departments for finished goods. T h e l a y i ~ u t
c. Tisro4ty int several tcmperatirrrsi. and lion- slrcct for aurh aysteni; should be studied with tlie manufacturer's
(1. ~1d1~rrrl:rr \wight of vapors at inlrt and outIr& roginccr so tlrat thr. most efficient arrangenient can he r l e ~ i r c d .
I , . Cukinz r11;rmrtrrLtica of chnrgc. I1:inufacturcr's literature on conveyors usually wnt:iiiir s~~ggcstiond for
2 . Oprmting conditions t l ~ csrlectim of standard conveyor types. Special designs nlust he sclr.ctrci
a. ('112rpe r:,t<,.
b. Ink~ttcmpcr:itnre :mil prcwlre. 11y tile ~ n a n u f w t u r e r . I t ~vouldyeem desirable t h a t tlie final selectim of
c . Outlrt trrnper~tnreR I I , ~ prc-me. i,ren a stniulnrd iloign be proposed by t h e manufacturer sincc lie k n o w
d. Pcr crnt rnporizrd i n inkt : ~ n doutlet. hi> ~ i l n i l m ~ v n11et.
t T h e printed methods for selcctii~n can rnsily i ~ c
e . Stntt, ninsimnn~alloirable prcierirr drop. mi-intcrl~rrtcdby the occasional user.
f . Maximum :illowablr radiant hr;it tmwfer mte. \ \ k i t lins been said ahout conveyors hold? equally \\-ell for oilirr
rj. F ~ ~ r n n c dut?
r (BtuJhr ;ibsorboll.
11. 1Iini1111mvclocity of Horr. (if i n ~ l ~ r ~ r t : ~ ~ l t ~ ~n;itcrialsl~andlingc q u i p ~ n t ~ n tI. n all cases tht: purcliaser slrould s1111ply
i. F I I ~rompltT<~
; 1lmcri11tion (:~n:rly~i. uf g:(,- c I w i r : ~ ~ l ~ ) . cm~lpletrinfor~n;ltion; b o u t tlit, naturc of tlie 11111tt,rialto be l~ar.~lled, it.
1. IIrat content ( l o w r 11rxti11gv:~hw). wigl lit, tire esnct purpose of tlic l~andling.a n d tlic proliwed layout sIro\v-
2. l'n.rsr~rr~:at iurn;~ee. ing free spare available.
3. Tiscnsity (oil). T h e int'ori~intion required by a vendor of conveyors will serve a s an
4. Dmc;ity.
.5. Trmpcrature. illustration.
j. SILWIIprwure :rt f ~ ~ r u : ~ r r .
k . F u r ~ ~ a cefirirncy
e ilcsired (give e s c w air on wllirll b a d ) . Information Required b y Vendors of Conveyors
Duty 1. Physirnl and cl~emienlproperties
Rtiicieney = - X 100 a. Size and size distrihution imasi~nunil~nmpsizes in inches)
Heat libeluted by Rre! b 1loisturr content.
c. ?'imlwr:~tin.r. -
d. Uensiry uf ~~~ntcrl;rlil~nlki u d r ~ (le~lsity).
d
390 Project Engineering of Process Plants
e . .ihrasiveness, chemical reactivity, stickiness, etc.
f. Ability of mat~rialto withstand conveyor action.
y. Corrosire nature.
2. Operating cornlitions
a. Trmperature and humidity in conveyor area.
b. Maximum rate material is to be handled.
c . Length and location of conveyor including sketch shoving proposed path
of travel. Indipate adjacent equipment.
REFERENCES
1. &,oi;Irl X o . 2 of Lihi-ary of Knumiiow, Materials Handling Institute, Pittshl~wl~,
Pa. (1953). (hlcthods for studying and valuating materials handling problems.)
2. Mallirk, R. \V.,and A. T. Goudr.eau. Plant Layout Plnnning and Pruclicc, John
Wiles & Sons, Inr., S c ~ v1-ork, 1950. (Inelodes section on materials handling.)
3. .Uode,,r .lIute,-iols IIundlirig, 8, So. 6. 58 (1953). Pnpvra presented on couvryul.
application nt Conwyor Institute, Univ, of Ill., April, 1953.
4. Mi11 and Puctoly, B, Xo. 1, 82 (1953). (Selection of monorail systems.)
5. Pallet Patteni Selection, Materials Handling Labs., Inr., 795 Boylston Street,
I3oalon 16, Mass.
6. Stockcr, Harry, Xoten'aLs Handling, Prenticr-Hall, Im:., New York 1951.
i . Stnihc. H. I,., Chem. Eag., 01, RTo. 4 , 195 (1954). (Report on conveyom and
ric\-ntors, de~igninlo~mation,npplieation, aud election.)
MIXING EQUIPMENT
T h c proper selection of t h e size a n d style mixer most suitable for a
givcn service requires laboratory study. A complete description of the
matcrials t o he mixcd must be given t o t h e manufacturer so t h a t synthetic
mixes can be prepared. Better still a n actual sample m a y bc provided.
T h c past five years havc seen rapid development of mixing theory.
Following t h c principlcs of dimensional similitude, small scale rnixcrs can
11e tested undcr conditions dynamically similar t o those required for large
scale opcmtion. Scale-up of power requirements, a n d impeller and t a n k
size can be made with confidence.
T h e prucedurc for mixers involving liquids is typical. Preliminary tests
a r e niadc in a small glass beaker (approximately one q u a r t ) using a scale
model of a mixer. Optimum power requiremcnts a n d impeller types and
position are then selected. F o r simple mixing problems, scale-up of this
information to the final plant size is possible. W i t h more complex
problems intermediate scale-up t o pilot p l a n t equipment followed hy
additional tests in large tanks yield more reliable d a t a on impeller
diameter and power requirements.
Information Required by Vendor
1. Physical data
a. Completr drscription and wmght per cent of each component in mix.
b. Viscosity and dmsity of each liquid component.
Other Process Equipment
c. Viscosity and density of mixture.
d . Solid comlirment description.
1 . Particle sisr and distribution (sirre analysis).
2. Density of d q solids and settlrd sh~rry.
13. Settling vtlocity.
4. Xature of solids: soluhle, ~ ~ S O I I I I I I cr!-stallil~e,
I~, light ill iwigl~t.c~tc.
P . Voaming tenrienc>- idrwribe).
2. Operating conditions
a. Purpose of mixing: dissolve solids, blend liquids, disper~ftgas i n liq~~i,ls,
suspend irrlids, ctc.
b. Type of agitation required (violent, intemiediatr., or mild).
c. Type operation.
1. Aatrh (give typiral maximum, minimum, and normal batch sims :and
time aroilable for mixing each batch).
2. Continuous (give flow rate).
d. Vessel description. Supply a complete vessel drawing showing all
dimensions, type heads, and operating and design conditions.
3. Materials of construction
Sugpst materials most suitable for those parts of the agitator that will contact
the mix. The mare possibilities given, the greater freedom thr rnanufactiirrr
nil1 have in selecting the most rconomical and mechanically sound matpri;rl.
4, Miscdl:~neous
a. Electrical power characteristics.
b. Type motor required (splash proof, tatally enclosed, explosion proof, etc.)
c. Space requirements if unusually limited.
Certain special information is required for solid and paste mirrrs such as
knraders and millers. This information includes the abrasive ;and shearing
properties of the matcrials, a sieve analysis of the solid, quantity of liquid if
any to be added, and the amount of heating or cooling required. -4 description
of the purpose of the mixing, such as the dispersion of pigments, is also
necrsary since this governs the type mixer and blades.
REFERENCES
1. Bautlms, R. D., Chpm. Eng. Pi-ogi..,48.211 (1952). (Mixer installaiiorl and muin-
tpnanrp.)
2. P ~ r r y J.
, H., Chemicol Engineer's Hnndbook, 3rd Ed.. 119&1231. iLlrC~.mr-Hill
Book Co., New Ywk, 1950. (Mixer t,ypes descrihcd, tables giving prefewrd mixw
typps 101. variow mixing jobs.)
3. Rusbton, J. H., C h e m . E7tg. P T O ~ T47,
. , 485 (1951). (Pilot plant. mixing data arid
scsl~-upinwredure.)
4. Rushton, J . H.>R. D. Bout,roa, and C . W. Selheimer, in Encurloptdin n j C h c m -
ienl T e e h n o l o g ~(Kirk and Othm~r-~ditors).Vol 9. 133-166, Intcririmrr Enryrlu-
pedia Iud.. New York, 1952. (Equipment description and application inrludcs solids
and pastes.)
5. Rushton, J. H. and J. Y. Oldshne, C h c n ~Eng . Progr., .jB, 161 and 267 (1953).
(Review and theory and spplirations.)
SEDIMENTATION EQUIPMENT
A simplc laboratory settling test in a graduated rylinder will often
indicate t h a t the separation of large quantities of liquid from a slurry
392 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment
c:rn hest he accomplished by a conil)ination of settling nnd then filtratiou
T h r test n-ark needed for the proper selectim of mlimentation erpiipmt~nt. Information Required by Vendor
Ii~~wevcr, must go f a r hcyond such laboratury settling tests. Settling 1. Physical and chrmical data
problems though seemingly simple can hecoinc very complex hecause of a. Complete description of feed and analyeis, including pH.
b. Settling rates if an rail able.
the many factors involved. These include the marked effect of equip- c . Tosicit?, H:unn~ability,atid mi? utlier h;izi~rdousproperty.
ment design on settling a n d t h e many physical and chemiral fartors n-hir.11 d . Quality mil consistme!- of proclucts desired including wight ratir~ nf
affrct settling characteristics of a given slurry. liquid to solid in nnilrrHon and maximum permissible sulirl-. in clear liquid.
Tile observations uf Coe and Clex-enger in 1916' are valid today. Tlicy e . 1s rlr:~rliquid to be wed?
observed sex-era1 settling zones which, for a continuous t h i c k c n ~ r niay
, l~c /. 1- i~r~drrflon- to he used?
2. Ol~i,r:itineconditions
described from top to bott11111 a s a rlear zone, n zone of fced consistency.
o. Frrd rare.
an intermediate zone, and finally a zone of compression. T h e settling b. 01rratin? 1eliilx~t.:itIire.
rate of the niaterial representing each of these zones r a n be iletermined c. Shm~1~1 l w i t be i.,m-er~rd?
experimentally and the area required for each zone cnn he calculated. (1. 011t(Ioorur i~i(loorqwr:itiou.
T h e following expression is used t o estimate required areas for con-
t i n u w s thickeners. This equation is simply a material balance.

S(F - I ) )
AR =
P
where A = area required, sq f t
R = settling rate ft,:hr
p = density of liquid, lb,/au f t
F = weight ratio of liquid t o solid in feed
D = weight ratio of liquid t o solid in underflow discharge
S = weight of solids treated pcr unit t,ime. W h r

Coe and Clrrengcr2 also described a method for cstilnating the rolunw REFERENCES
and thus t h e height of a thickener from settling t,ests made in a graduated
cylinder. The rolume can be cstimated from the retention time necessary 1. I(row\-n. G. G. ct nl. i'nll O p e r a t i w s , John \\-ilcy & Sons. Inc.. Kpw 1-01k1950.
2. Cuc. H. S.. and G. H. Clevmgel.. 'l',.ons. Am. I i i s i . .lliriiw . l l c l . Eugrs., .Ti, 356
~ I produce
I the dcsired underflow consistency. Similar and n x ~ r ercliahle
teats on pilot plant scale equipment have been d e r i m i , but the principles
are essentially t h e same.
hltliough these techniques are simple, t h e settling rates and required
retention time must he determined experimentally. Such experimentation
involves small scale laboratory tests followed b y pilot plant operation rln
equipnient of the type selected for the particular job.
I t is highly desirable to conduct these tests using a n actual saniple o i
the feed rather than a synthetic one. Small quantities of a niaterial t h a t
v i l l alter the properties of the suspended solids can have niarked effect
on the settling characteristics (c.g., w t t i n g agents). Such materials iuight
be overlooked in usual analytical procedures. Sedimcntation equipment
manufacturers maintain extensive laboratories for testing c u s t ~ ~ m e r ' s
samples with their equipment. I n addition they h a r e extensive files of
data on operating units.
 Piping Design 395
also used, chiefly for drainage as is the practice today. Cast iron pipe
\%-asin use in the sevetlteentlr century. Some of the original cast iron pipe
laid in those early years is still in use today. Lead pipe was also exten-
sively used in ancient times. It was perhaps the first pipe made from
nietal.
t the turn of the t ~ v m t i e t hcentury steam p o w r n.ns ~vellalong in its
ilevelop~uent. The earliest pressure piping practices were developing

PIPING DESIGN
Any book i n project engineering of process plants would be incomplete
vithout a chaptcr on piping. At the same t,iule it n u s t be understood
that complete information on any single phase of piping u-ould in itself
fill an entire book. The information included therefore is general. It is
hopcd that it will create interest, and serve as a starting point for addi-
tional reading in the listed references. An attempt has been made t o cover
briefly only those practices, materials, and accessories most used in piping
for process plants and the several utility services generally found in all
plants.
I t is believed that no other single industrial product has had so much
to do n~itllthe progress of the human race as does pipc. Conduits of one
kind or another for t,ransporting water were ell known and used in
ancient times, perhaps centuries before the beginnings of recorded history. Fig. 18-1. Piwring rvlimlriral hilkt in manr~fnrtr~reof wamles4 pipe. !Smarlrss
The reciprocating steam engine was developed t o provide a means of Strrl Institutp.)
reuloring seepage water from the mines of Cornwall, England. Aside
from the development of the engine itself, therc is no doubt that much t o meet the needs of steam power and various hydraulic operations. Im-
ingenuity was requircd to provide some kind of pipe which uwuld with- pri~vementsin pipe manufacture continued, hut each manufacturer fol-
stand the ilydr~ulieheads. Pumps or other devices for the movement lowed the requirements of his particular customers.
of water had been in use for many hundreds of years previous to the devel- I n contrast to the early nlcthods of pipe manufacture, pipe today is
opmcnt of the stcam pump. I n 1581, Peter Morrys, a Dutchman, installed made by a nunlber of different processes and of such ~ ~ i d e lvarying
y
:I watcr-driven pump for the 1,ondon Bridge n'ater Works, to increase materials as carbon steel, alloy steels, brass, glass, plastics, and rubber.
the London water supply. This device was built almost entirely of wood. The several steels and alloys steels are the most cornnlon piping materials.
Paddle wheels located in the water of the Thames River provided power. Their manufacture into pipe is accomplished either by forming flat plate
Rotation of the paddle wheel shaft was converted to reciprocating motiou to a cylindrical shape and welding the seam using one of the several
by wooden toothed gears and cranks, connected t o a series of pistons, welding processes (butt, lap, resistance, fusion, and spiral] or by pierc-
each acting independently as a pump. ing a heated billet which is forced through a pair of revolving rolls a s
M u c l ~of thc piping in these early times was h o r ~ dfrom logs or con- shown in Fig. 18-1. This piercing operation produces a seamless pipe
strurtcd of W U U I ~ ~ Istaves
I siniilar to barrel stavcs. This pipc g a x very which is specified, because of its greater allowable stress, for a majority
good results. Various types of terra-cotta or other clay products were of process plant operations especially a t high temperature and pressure.
394
396 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 397
T l ~ ei~ietliodi. ..i~~iiI:~r i r c.C:IIIII~W
10 tlri~tL I . Siu~ t 1 1 ~ i i : ~ n n f t i r t ~of ~ tuhi:: TABLE 18-1. Abbreviated List of Some Standard Pipe Sires
except t h a t tubing tolrl.aniw arc marc rigid.
Snrninal Schedule Outiidr Inside TTcight.
Starting in the t~venties a number of interested consulting cnginecrs size, in. number diameter, in diameter, in. Ib, ft.
together n i t h various users' and ni;~nufnctnrrrs'enginer1.s began tlrr task
of standardizing the inany codps and 11mctices then in exi-tm~,t'. T h e 96 -10 0.405 0.269 0.245
80 0.405 0.215 0.314
C d r frw P r r i s n r r 1'ipinC4" ci\-r-s a bI~orl,lwcril~iionof this n-crrk 'Tihi,
. ' it will lw rc,ferr!,,l to in t11i.s i,li;il)t,w. ~ 1 IN?1 : ~ l ~ ~ ~tol i:ill
( ' ~ l c , ~:IS ul x 40
80
0.540
0.540
0.364 0.4%
types of pil~inginstnllations. cxci.11ting erl.t;rin stwlll g('nt,r:ltillg 1)ij)illg 0.302 0,.i:35
: ~ n dpiping govcrneii 11y v a r i o n ~ITS. Go\-rrnnlcnt s1wi4ficntiuns. T h e
?4 40 0.675 0.493 O..iliX
~ d t i m a t egoal of tile ctnun~itteci\vorking on tlic codes \\.ill he thc inclnsit~r~ 80 0.6i5 0.;(23 0.730
of all p r a c t i c e and acceptance of tlie Code hy all gov".mlental agencies,
invluding mnnieil~;~l. stat? ;111<ifc~leval,as a ri~ritroilinginstru~nontfor :111 ?4 40 0.8-10 O.(i22 O.R.51
piping. I t s d e ~ ~ , l o ~ ~ha; ~ i ~11cm
e n t of i~icalcul;il~lr .srrvice t o industry. 150 0.840 0.5-1li 1.086
160 0.840 0.4M 1.301
I t s ilse. ~vliilenot ~ n a n d a t o r ya t present, is ~vidcspreatl in the proress
industriv-. 9i 40 1.050 0.824 1.131
SO 1.050 0.742 1.471
TRADE PRACTICES 160 1.0,iO 0.614 1.03i

Pipe Sizes
1 40 131.: 1.040 1 .ti79
80 1.315 0.957 2.172
Pipe and tubul;lr l ~ r o ( i u r t m
s a y be ol~tainerlin a ~ ~ - i variety
dc of sizes 160 1.315 0.813 2.84-1
and ~naterials. Sinre carbon steel, or simply steel pipe: iz in more general
use than the many alloys and otllcr nlctallic or plastic materials, most of 1% 10 1.900 1.610 2.718
80 1.900 1.500 3.632
the trade practicrs are b a d on steel pipe sizes, eornlnouly notell :is I.P.S.
160 1.000 1.337 4.866
or Iron Pipe Size.
Pipe is sized according to n nominal figure, n.hicli only in the large size? 2 40 2.375 2.0li7 3.653
ithove 12 in. referr to an actual dimcnsim. Thus. 2 in. I.P.S. pipc. Ilas an 80 2.375 I .$l:3!) 5.022
outside diameter of 2.375 in. and its inside dianletcs rnny vary fro111 2.157 160 2.3i5 1.689 7.443
in. to 1.503 in. arcorcling t o the rcquired wall thicknrs;. "Pi11e" r c f w s 3 40 -,.ah
-,
3.500 3.068
to the 24 nolliinal 11ipc sizes fro111 i n to 30 in. ordinarily listcd fo? 80 3.500 2.800 10.25
c ; ~ r l ~ osteel.
n (See Tahlc 18-1.) I n tlrtw sizes there arc some 200 or 160 3.500 2.624 14.33
more T-nriations in thickoras, of vllicb perhaps 100 are rarely if ever
4 40 4.500 4.026 10.79
qw14ied fur process piping, or ;rrr unol~t;iinablcexce~ltby s ~ i r r i a lorder.
80 4.500 3.8213 14.99
S o m i n a l pipe sizes listed in T a l ~ l c18-1 a\)ove :'/u in. a r e the sizes ~ n w t 160 4.500 3.438 22.51
generally used in pvocess piping. 'rlie list is incomlilc.tc; 1y2in.. 2!$ in..
3% in.. 5 in. sizes are also ar;tilnblc. hut selrlon~used. Tlie sizes 11rlmv 6 40 6.6'25 6.065 18.98
'/Z in. arc used in instrun~entatiunpiping. and a t times fur snlall ilmins. 80 6.625 5.iIil 28.58
1 60 6.625 5.189 45.30
T h e snialler 11ipe sizes arc not nard for proccai; piping even \vlrelr flov
rates permit. Kccause of their structural u-raknesa continnour s n p l ~ ~ r t 8 40 8.625 7.981 28.56
or added intermediate support is required. I t is also necessary t o pro- 80 8.625 7.625 43.4
tect s~ilnllpipe during tlic construction period. I n addition, tlie small I60 8.625 6.813 74.7
opening is much more suhject to closure by scale or foreign matter. It
I n the stainless itcclt, vast irun, and n ~ m f t ~ r r o n111ittesi:ds
s there arc
has beconle cornmon practicc to specify heavy \vnll pipe (Scliedulr 8 0 )
i n n n n ~ v r ~ b luthcr
c sizes :md tliirknesss. Since t l m c ~ n a t c r i a l sare not
for all sizes below t o 2 in. in order to assure good structural stability.
398 Project Engineering of Process Plants
uscd t o the extent of carl~onsteel, rle-cril~tive inforumtion will not be
included; however, the references completely ccver most of the ordiqiry
materials.
Tubing is nianufactured in even-numbered outside diameters x i t h
various wall thickncsees and close tolerances. I t is often uscd for piping
and is always specified acci~rdingt o the exact outside diameter (within
tolerances). Its wall thickness is sonlctimes specified by a gage number.
Tubing of the same dimen~ionsand spccifirations as pipe may be oh-
tained, but generally the major purtion of tubing is uianufacturcd in sizes
below 2 in. diameter. Tubing is avnilahlr in a niuch greater nunihcr of
varying rlianietrrs and \\-:ill t11irkne;sca than pipc sinre it has a x i d e
use in conduit services other than for the conveyance of fluids.
Schedule Numbers
Table 18-1 is a condrnsed version of a list of nominal pipe sizes.
Ouly a portiun of tlic rsiigc of thiek~icssesor weight* and nominal sizes
arc included. All rolurnns are self-explan:~tory except that titled
Schedult~Kunibers. The rcl~rdulcuurnber is an approximation of tlic
cxpression:
Schedule number = 1000P/S
where P = internal pressure in psig
S = allo~r-ahlr!\.orking stress in psi
This expression is based on the a c t m l formula used for calculating required
pipe thickness.
where D = outside pipe diamctcr in in.
t = thickness of pipe in in
C = corrosion allolmncc ill in.
The schedule number is thus a rational cxpression t h a t is approximately
proportional to the ratio of the working pressure to the allor\-able stress
and also the ratio of the corroded thickness t o the diameter.
Before the use of schedule numbers the ternis standard, extra strong,
and double extra strong served l o dcsignatc pipc ti~icknesa. Sizes
through 10 in, in schedule 40 arc tlic same as stnndard m i g h t and
sizes through 8 in. in scliedule 80 arc the same a s the former extra
strong. Double extra strong pipc sizcs hav? b c m discontinued in some
sizes and schedule 160 is nscd instead. The older designations are
gradually disappearing front use.
Piping Design 399
Materials of Construction
'There a1.c over 150 different materials .specifird hy the American
Society for Testing .\luterials ( T I for use in the inanufacturc of
pipe. These inrlude carhi~nstecl. alloy utccls. 2nd a vide selection of
nnnferrous niaterials. The .WT\I and the ASLIE (;\nicriran Sot,iety
of Xechanical Engineers)" h:srr provided an invaluable servire in prc-
paring detailed ~pecificationsfor thc bewildering array uf niaterials that
are available.
It xvould seem that steel will continue to bc the most important piping
material. Tlie usual severe service conditions of prcssurc and tempera-
ture encountered in process industries makc its use mandatory in tlie
majority uf 11rowsies. Plastic piping materials, horevcr, are making
spectacular gains in low prersurc and low temperature scrvicer. I n
the four-year period from 1950 tu 1954 the sale of plastic pipe increased
from ?I n~illionto 30 ~nilliul~ i~~uui~d::
a ?car. Pulyetll~leue,i~r~lyvinyl-
chloride, polystyrene, cellulose acetate butyrate, and styrene-butsdiene-
acrylonitrile have all hrcn used with considerahlc success for ~ ~ - a t eandr
many corrosive chen1ic2tls. Polyvinylchloridc and polystyrene valves
and fittings wliicl~sell for less t l i m some alloy steel valves and fittings
are offered by several inanufacturers.
Plastic pipc can be installed with the minimum of effort. The light
rreight and forming properties of plastic niake it easy t o handlc and its
use should he considered whenever cconomical. It would be futile, h o w
ever, t o give a cost comparison of plastic pipe since the picture is h a n g -
ing rapidly in this nerv industry. The enginccr should maintain an open
mind and cvaluate each new develop~ncnton its merits. Tlie industry
is developing rapidly and as soon as badly needcd standards arc estah-
lisi~cdfor plastic pipe and fittings consuniption nil1 increase trcrnendously.
A riuruber of other piping materials have proved unusually valual~le
for corrosive services. Thcy include rubber-lined steel, lead-lined steel.
and glass pipe. Tliesc can rvithst,and higher pressures and temperatures
than most plastic pipe and h a r e the advantage of years of successful
applications in many services.
The ASTM specifications provide thorough descriptions for each type
of conventional metal piping material including the process of nlanufae-
ture, chemiral coniposition, tensile properties, bending properties, and
required testing procedurcs. Careful reading of these specifications will
aid t,he designer in selecting the lnost suitahle material for a given service.
The follo\~-inggeneralizations. ~villserve as guideposts in the evaluatioli
I I ~steel piping materials described by tlie ASThl.* For the many
* A d a p t e d by pelmisrion, Piping Engirwering, 2.011 Tube Turns, I n c , I.onisville,
Kentucky (1947-53).
400 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 401
q ~ e c i a lp r d ~ l c ~in~material
~s selection, howe\-er. conipct,ent metallurgistr Abbreviated List of Pipe and Tubular Materials
TABLE 18-2.
must hc consulted.
3Iaterial ASTM sper~firat~on Cltin~atetensile strength
I. Pn,i,rs; Seamless steel (die011 killed) .\-I06 Glade .1 48,000
A . Open hearth and electric furnare grades are suprrior to Resemer because Seamless steel (silicon killed) A-106 Gmde B 60.000
of the better quality control possible. Seamless steel A-53 Glade -1 48,000
B. Deoxirliz(d (or killril) carboll steels are of more uniform structure and Seamless steel A-53 Grade B 60.000
arc brtter for rold or hot forming than open (or rimmed) steel;. Setln~lesssteel A-83 Grade A - boiler tubing-
C. Silicon killed steels hare higher creep strrw than aluminum killed steel?. Seamless stecl A-110 - restricted use
D. Steels oxidized !\-ith both silicon and aluminum are preferred for lon- Lap-irelded steel h-53 45,000
temprratnrr senice. I3utt-welded steel .I-53
11. Chrmical composition Electric fusion welded steel .i-I55 Grade C45
.4ffects corrosion resiitance, weldability, forming properties, strength, and cost Electric fusion welded steel &I55 Chide C'50
.i con~pluted i s c u s s i o n ~ o ~covrr
~ l d the whole ficld of m~tallurgy. Some generalisa- Electric fusion rveldeil steel .\-I55 Grade ('5.5
tions of value are: Electric resistance welded stcel A-135 Grade A
.4. H i ~ hcarbon and manganese. 5:lectric resistance velded steel -1-135 Grade B
1 . High tensile and yield points at moderate temperature.
2. Lei? weldable and less ductile. 1
Pipe cannot be specificd completely b y ASTM nun111crs alone. I L is
B . Silicon.
1. Increnscs rrsistance to osidntion. to bc hoped t h a t a t some time in t l ~ cfuturc specifications for carbon steel
2. Improve. sulmro inipaet strmgth. 11ille m a y become more specific so t h a t a single numbcr will be sufficient
C. Phi~sphoro~~s and sulfur; objectionable except in small amounts. for a colnplete specificati~~n..is a n illustratim note A S T I 1 A-106. This
D .Molpbdenum and tungstcn; promotes high temperature or creep strmgth. is seamless pipe specification. thus, i t is unneccssary to consider different
E. Chromium. classifications such a s butt-xelded or lap-~veldedn h e n specifying A S T M
1. Inhibits graphitization.
2. Produms resistance to certain corrosive agents such as sulfur compounds. .I-106, but it is still necessary t o specify the grade.
3. Strel \r-ith ehrominm and mol?Mmum combine the features of high Usual carbon steel pipe specifications for process x o r k a r e ASTM A-53
creep rt.sistnnre with resistance to high ternprmtnrc oxidation and corrosion. or A S T N A-106, t h e latter of ~vlrichis only manuiacturcd a s seamless
F . Sickel: makes steel tough, particularly n t snbatmo~pherictemperatures. pipe. These two specifirations in ~ e a m l e s spipe arc crsmtially the same
G. Nickel-clirurni~imalloys.
except ASTRI A-106 is subject to lnore rigid certification of the com-
1. High erecp strength.
2 . Corrosim resistance to a number of agmts. l~onentsa ~ l dn i c t l ~ ~ nf
d sn ~ a n u f a c t u r e . S T 3 1 A-106 is q~ecifiedfor s e ~ c l . c
3. Colmnbiwn or titanium net as stabilizing agents in these alloys by service conditions for ~ d ~ i ccarhon h steel is satisfactory and for piping
preventinp carbide precipitation a t high temprmtlms. requiring spccial bending. I t costs 4 to 7% murc tlian ASTM .i-53.
4. Molyhdenun~enhances corrosion resirtance of these alloys. A t times neither ASThI A-53 nor A-106 pipe are rcadily nv:~ilable in
111. Tensile prop~rties;a compnrison of the te~rsilestrengths and yirld points sizes hclon. 2 in. I n sucli cases ASTM A-83, which is a t n l ~ ~ ~specificn- lar
specified is an aid to the meaaurc of quality.
IT. Test8; the types of tests and the requirements of the tests give evidence tion, is specificd whcn smaller seamless pipe is rcquired since it has prop-
of the suitability of the material for a g i r w wmire. crties similar t o both A-53 a n d A-106.
A. Hydrostatic; safeguard against defects. M a n y process piping fabricators stock only ASTXI .I-106 This prac-
B. Check analysis and tensile; assurr conformance to physical and chemical tice reduces inventory and eliminates thc possibility of installing lnn-er
specifications.
C. Bending; suitability for bending operatious i n d i c a t d
- grade piping in high pressure service.
D . Flattening; indicates suitability for forming and checks qualit>-of srams T11cw ;ire a number of piping .pccifientions t h a t are un(lesirab1e for
on nelded pipe. 1m,eess Aui,ls, but wlricl~iuay be acrtytable for utility scrrict~r,suclr a s
low-pressure air, exliaust steam (15 psig and b e l o v ) , water, and low-
Table 18-2 gives a list of some of t h e types of tubular products used pressure condensate. Cast iron pipe and fittings are restricted to l o n -
in process piping. This list is similar t o lists found in the Code except pressure and temperature scrvice by tlrc codc. Therefore, cast iron piping
that it larks a tabulation of allowable s t r e s ~ r sx h i c h vary according t o materials are only uscd for certain utility servires.
tcmperiiture. AIL,y .tccl. nonfrrri~ri-. nn<l lilastic pipr have l m o l n e rtantlarcl for
402 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design 403
certain services. I n lmusual or unknown scrvicrs it may he neccsiary
to develup the application of these materials by lahoratory tests. I t is.
of course, ncarly always possible to select alloy pipc 71-hicli will last many
y a r s under corrosive conditions. The cost of alloy pipe, however, is far
greater than the cost of several replacemcuts by carbon steel. Searly
all processes are subject t o obsolescence. It, is obviously wasteful t o use
costly materials with unlimited life in processes m.hicli are suhjrct t o
frequent modifications. I n certain processes, hoirerer, it is necessary t o
use alloy m:~terials t o protect product quality. ( h ) 90" Street Elbo~r.
The selection of materials must also be infl~lencedhy fabrication and
erection coats. Therc arc many inexpensive materials which could he
used, but the methr~dsof fabrication or the costs of installation may
render thcir use impractical.

PIPE JOINTS
For many ycars tlie only practical n~ct,hodof joining steel pipe w\.as by
connecting threaded pipe ends with coupliiig.~or other thrcnded derices
such as fittings, v:dres, and unions (Fig. 18-2). Improvements in thc
welding of carbon steel by oxyacetylene or other flame n-clding processes
and later the shielded-arc electric welding proccss reduced labor and pro- ( d ) Clors ( 8 ) 900 Elbow (1) Female Union
vided a completely sealed and niucli strongcr j o i n t . " L k t present,
threaded pipe joints are usually limitcd t o pipe sizes 1% in. or 2 in. and
M o w . Larger pipe is joined by flanges a t joints that may requirc dis-
mantling. All other joints in continuous runs of pipe arc welded. The
flanged joint consists of two flanges, a gasket or device serving thc same
purpose, and t l ~ cnecessary 11olts or bolt-studs.

Threaded Joints ( g ) 45' Elbow ( h )Tee (i) Coupling

Joints in threaded stcel pipe arc made by unions and couplings.
Unions serve the same purpose us flanges in the dismantling of pipe.
TTeldcrl joints may he made in the smaller sizes but are usually not
economical or practical.
I n some services I~ack\vcl~Iing or seal welding is requirctl after the
threaded joint has been madr. This is done for scvere high-pressurc
services or for fluids difficult to contain such as certain gascs which diffuse
t~hrouglithreaded joints. Seal welding may distort tlie fitting or acces-
-I
w r y if care is not taken in the procedure. Thrcailcd joints which are t o
he seal-wclded should be ma&-up witliont ~,onvcntional pipc joint
lubricants or compounds since m o d of t l m r rnatcrinls afTect the welds
adversely.
The "Railroad" type milleablc-iron, or "Oil i~ii~lleable" union as i t is
smietiult3s called, is rrtrnsivcly used for ~ I e r : tt~.llli~eraturean11
pressure services. Forged steel unions, because of t l ~ e i rgreater strength,
are uacd in all process services (below 3 in.) requiring high pressures or
Flp. 18-2 Screwed pipe fittings. (Courtesy oi Crnnp Cornpnny.)
temperatures. These unions have accurately machined sealing scrviccr
(ground-joint) and do not rrquire gaskets (Fig. 18-2). Some ground-joint
unions have a soft mctal (brass or hronzci scat ring held securely on one
side of the joint facing. Unii~nsso equipped can hc taken apart and
reassembled many times rrithout dcstroying their effectivencss. Com-
position or fiber inserts are manufactured but are unsatisfactory nlicn
the joint must he disassembled a t frequent intervals because these inserts
are usually damaged in the operation.
The pressure and temperature ratings for small fittings are given in
manufacturer's catalog~.7.'3,2Q,31,32
Flanged Joints
Standard forged steel flanges h a r e been conveniently classified as ASAt
150 lb, 300 lb, 400 lh, 600 lb, 900 lb, 1500 lb, and 2500 lb. These ratings
* Ameriran Standard8 Bssoeiation.4
404 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 405
are nominal service pressure ratings. The 150 lh flange, fur inst:rnct.. is
suitable for scrvice a t 150 psig and 500F. The other ratings are for
800' F for raised face and 850" F for ring-type joints. Maximum serl--
ice pressures a t other temperatures are given in the C o d e i q o r each
flange type and material.
S S T M cpccifications for forged steel flangci are A-181 fur general
scrvicc, .%-lo5 for high tempcraturc m'vicr. and ;\-I82 for alloy .;tcel.
Flanges arc manufactured for all the nominal pipc sizes in .several diffcr-
ent general types suclr as ~velding-neck,slip-on, lap-joint, socket-!vclding.
and threaded flanges (see Fig. 18-3).

Welding-Neck
The welding-neck flange is probably the lnost widely used type. Its
installation is Icss costly, requiring only a single r e l d . The rvelding-nerk
is stronger than other flange types because it.; integral long-tapered hob
provides d d c d ~ e i n f o ~ c c m e n lI.t is nicd [or 111ost~ e v r r el)roc~.i-.st.rvi~t,s.

Slip-On
The lehs costly slip-on flangc is also ~ ~ w l d et do tllr l)il,c. Slignnient
prior to welding iu greatly simplified l)ecausc the flangc slips on t r ~tllc
pipe and is thereby automatically held in thc proper position. Two melds
are requircd for the attachment of a slip-on flange, making installation
more costly than for the welding-neck. Costs studies by pipc fabricators
and construction companies, however, have inriirated that the installed
costs of slip-on and ~vclding-neckflanges are equal. Slip-on flanges are
reconnnended only for moderate service conditions.

Lap-Joint
The la])-joint flange is uscd with a stuh. A singlc \veld joins the r;tul~
and pipe end. Lap joint flanges h a r e sonw ad\-antagc in fal~ricntion
since the flange proper is free tu rutate. Tlic bolt lrolrs, tlrrrrfore, do nut
need to be carefully aligned during fatxication.
-1further use of lap-joint flanges is in alloy or nonferrous pil~escrviwr;
or corrosive srrvices in n'llicli all mnterials in contact with the fluid 1nns1
be capable of \vithstanding the corrosive conditions. TI-it11 I:tl~-jui~~t
flanges it is pussible to utilize a stub fabricated from the higher quality
material required to withstand the service and a relatively incspcnsivc
carbon steel flange, thus effecting a ct~nsideral~le saving.
I n the process plant it is frequently desirable to diiniantle equipment
for inspection or cleaning. The lap-joint flange is sometimes w e d sinc~,
disassembly is somewhat simplified with the loose flanges. Alodification?
of the lap-joint flange have been uscd for joints in piping m a n u f a c r u r ~ ~ ~ l
fro~lrplastic or other nnnferrous materials, without sufficient bending
406 Project Engineering of Process Plants
strmgth for flanging. In tliwe applications tlrc flange is m n e t i n ~ cron-
~ The \r-elcling of cart-iron in piping srrviccs has only limited application.
structed so that it. ran hr installed back of the flarr~ltwd of the llipe.
The socket-\velding flange is very similar to the slil,-on flange. I t has
proved popular for small-size piping operating at high premlres. r n l i k e
the slip-on, t,he pipe fits into a recessed portion (socketl of the flange.
The inside of the flange and pipe thus present a smootll uninterrupted
surface.
Threaded
Threaded flanges are used for services that rannot be welded. These
inrlude cast-iron piping, certain high pressure alloy piping that cannot
he conveniently heat treated after field welding, and small piping 12 in.
. h e n work must be done in a hazardous location and
and l ~ c l o ~ v ) K
w l d i n g is not permitted, threarlrd flangrs may be used. I n general.
I~i~\vever, threaded flanges are t o be avoided unless absolutely essmtial.
Lens
I n high-pressure work, a joint known as tlie "lens" joint has been
successfully used. The pipe ends t o be joined are rnarhined to a concave
shape, and a convex ring usually of thc same material as the pipe, is
placed hrtwcen these ends. Flanges are screwed loosely on each section
of pipe, with the pipe protruding. When the flange bolts are tightened,
compression is exerted between tlie tnw pieces of pipe and the ring or
lens. Threads on the pipe and the flanges are awally very roarsc so that
thc flange is not "tight" on the pipe. This joint Ira,* ~ o m eof the advan-
tages of the lapjoint Range in that tht, flanges are not fixed in position
and are not an integral part of the pipe.
Cast-Iron
Two flange ratings ior cast-iron, 12.5 lb ASA and 250 lb ASA, have
the same drilling (facing and bolt, hole circle) rcspertively: as the 150
lb and the 300 lb ASA stecl rating. Cast iron flanges are manufactured
in accorrlance with ASTM A-126.
A raised-face steel flange is never joined against a flat-faced cast-iron
flange since the shoulder caused b y the raised-face portion of the stecl
flange can centralize or overstress the cast-iron flange. As the strength
of cast-iron in bending is limited, failure could occur by overtightening
the flange bolts. The Code and manufacturers of cast-iron eqiupment,
therefore, recommend that the raised face on steel flanges be ground off
or that flat-faced flanges he utilized wherever steel and cast-iron eqaip-
:nent are joined together.
Piping Design 407
Though it is under closely controlled conditions, the costs are
prohibitive. Hence, if cast-iron Ranges are used with steel pipe, they
are all%-aysthreaded.
Flange Facings ond Gaskets
-1tight mechanical joint in piping could not be effected without some
plasticit,y of the membcrs to be joined, since obviously if both faces of a
joint Tverc equally unimprtwionable only perfect machining or grinding.
could effect a sealed joint. I n order to close the joint without extensive
niachinirlg and 1)ulirliing, gaskets are used. Thc gasket nrust he of a
material \+-hie11d l u-ithstand service conditions and yet he sufficiently
plautic to deform under soft eolnpression so that all interstices arc closed.
All of the AS;\ flange classifications may he obtained raised-fare.
male-and-female, t o n g u c - a n d - g r o ~ ~ ~ring-joint
e, or flat-faced facings
(bee Fig. 18-4). The n o s t common facing is tlic rsiscd-face. Th? ring-
joint has a wide use in certain severe serviccs and is the niost, expeniive.
There arc icvcr:~l stand:ild types of n~achiningavail:lhlc for the portion
of the flange in contact with the gasket. For ordirrary services the ser-
rated or sn~ootli-farefinish is satisfactory.
may he obtained in a wide variety of n~aterialsfor practically
m y type of service. Ast~estoscombined wit11 otlrrr materials is perllaps
tht. I U I I S ~ common gaskcting material. Ring-type joints employ metal
rings that arc softer than tlie flange material.
Special Flanges
Many special typrs of flanges have been designed t o meet particular
requirements of a single industry. These include certain flangcs common
to oil fields2 and atnnionia fittings. The latter is a tongue-and-groove
type, with oval, triangular, or square flanges. I t s a s devclopcd carly in
the century for alnnmnia refrigeration c o q ~ r c s s i o nsystems and continues
to be used by some portions of that industry even tlil~nglr standard
tongue-and-groove or ring-type flanges vould serve equally well. Special
flange? such ah tliex shr,uld 1112 aroi~ledin \lruce.-s plants. They have
no particular advantages and only complicate \varcllol~sing.
Bolting Practices for Flanges
Two general types of hits are used for flanged joints. The innst com-
mon is a modificaiim oi the mtlinasy cnrhon stwl m:wliine hrlt with a
square or Iicxngon Iread nnd a hexagon nut. 'l'he other in the $11-called
I~oltstud. It consists of a fully tl~readedstud with ~ T ~ 11cxagur1-headed.
I J
rn~ts.
As piping pressures aud temperatures increase, carbon steel l~oltscan
408 Project Engineering of Process Plontr
Piping Design 409
no longer meet the stre% requiremcntz and alloy steel l,olt~must be used.
At the present time there are four ASTM specifications for carbon steel
bolts and studs, twenty for alloy steel, and twelve for nuts. Vogrin
et a130 indicate in their study of bolting practices that ASTN -4-307
L a - Grade B carbon steel bolting should be used for services to 450" F . Above
RAISED FACE UPPED JOINT 450' F alloy steel bolting materials A-261, A-354, and A-193 in a numher
of different grades are recommended for temperatures up t o and above
1500F. For low temperature services helo~i--20F, A-320 is r e c ~ ~ ~ n -
mended in seven grades t o -300F.
Vogrin recommends Class 2A fit for bolts and 2B fit for nnts in nonhigh
temperature bolting. For high tempcrnturc bolting, Class 7 fit for the
bolt and Class 2B fit on the nut is suggested.
Table 18-3 summarizes present piping bolting ,,--Tubing
practice.
URGE MALE AN0 FEMALE
Miscellaneous Joints
4 compression type fitting is often used for
joining 1 in. and smaller strrl or nonivrrous tnb-
ing (Fig. 18-5). I n prwess plants these fittings
are primarily used for instrument tubing.
There are n u m e r ~ ~ uother
s methods for joining
pipe, such as the solder-joint ~vhic11is naed in
plumbing, the leaded joint for cast-iron piping.
and thc integral flange sometimes used for cast Fig. 1 8 5 . Flnl.cd fitting.
URGE TONGUE AN0 GROOVL
SMALL TONGUE AND GROOVE
and other formed materials. The leaded hell and
spigot joint for cast-iron piping is still employed ?xtensircly in inunicil~al
services such as water piping, gas piping, and wxcrs. h M t e d n ~ e c h a n -
cal joint for cast-iron pipe is heronling popular sinrc it requires less
labor for installation than the leaded joint.

PIPING FITTINGS

u tions and can be obtained as tees, ells. reducers and pipe-caps (Fig. 18-61.
SMALL MALE AN0 FEMALE
Fig. 18-4. Amcncan standard flange farings. (Courtesy of Ladish Company.)
Welding Fittings
I n welded piping systems now naed in nearly all process installations,
butt-rr-elding fittings have been dc.vcl~ipedt o rerh~rc the necwsity for
bending pipe. Welding fittings are manufactured under various trade
names.i3,?5.2fi The fittings conform t o standard pipe sizes and specifica-
Yearly all such fittings are seamless and have standard dimensions. The
center-to-face dimension on all long radius 90" veld ells, for instance, is
1y2 times the nominal size. This standardization simplifies design and
construction.
An ingenious prowss is used for tht. manufacture of the various hends.
410
Project Engineering of Process plants
Piping Design 41 1
Seamless pipe cut to a predeter-
mined length is forced over a spe-
cially designed mandrel shape so
as to produce the desired bend.
Careful control insures uniform
wall thickness, smooth inside wall,
and no rcsidual etres~es.
All welding fittings are finished
d l 1 beveled edges so that full pen-
ctration velds ;ire assured when
joining the fitting to the pipe.
Fittings are a ~ a i l a b l ein most of
the same materials utilized for
pipe. Each fit,ting is stamped with
an idcntifying marking, and all
nonalloy steel fittings are painted
to prevent corri~aionin stornge.
For reasons ( i f cconumy many
users restrict the use of tees. In-
stead pipe can be carefully cut and
the branch connection welded into
place. This method is morc eco-
nomical for small branch lines
rounecting into large pipc. Costs
of rtwly-made tee* and conetruc-
tion of branch connections in the
field s h ~ l l l dbe compared for each
,ioh and policy outlined for their
use in the piping specifications.
Flanged Fittings
Cast-steel, forged-steel or alloy-
steel flanged fittings are produced
in nearly all sizes and have the
same ASA pressure and tempera-
ture classifications as flanges.7.31
Flanged fittings are used only
when maintenance requires ire-
quent disassenlbly sillre additional
flanges, bolts, and g;i-lids arc ex-
pensive and suhje,.t to leaks. .kc-
412 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design 413
on the pipe iteclf. Since all valves abol-e 2 in. vill nur111;llly bc flangcd.
'There arc a nulnbrr of jointi: for cazt-iron 11ipe. T h e most wirl~.l?:
the joints a t these valves can be used for clisassembly. It is, therefore.
used in process plants a r e hell anrl spigot, nrechanical flange. cnmpression,
not necessary in most cases to provide a number of ~clditionalflanged
fittings unless frcqucnt disassembly is anticipated. I t h r e a l c . T h e characteristics of thesc joints are hriefly outlined i r
Tahle 18-4.
Screwed Fittings TABLE 18-4. Cast-Iron Joint Types
Screwed pipe fittings are obtainable in nearly all materials and styles
( ~ i jg-21.7.1:3.29.31.32
~ . lhwril,tim~ ' k g
I:su;~l Ikmnrks
Srrc\vcrl fnrged-strel fittings 1inl-c a v i d e llse service
in procesz applications zince they arc satisfactory for high trmpeiaturc 13ril--htrpcil end reccires .Jute twine T'n(1el.- Fluids must hl,
Rell :nn<l
operation and \\-ill p r o d e an c r t r a safety factor in cane of fire. spigot stl.niglit hliigot end to and le:ril g m m l wet so that
forin jniot water piping jut? re~nniw
CAST-IRON PIPE AND FITTINGS u p to 200 espt~nderl
psi. I-nder-
Cast-irnn pipe, valve*. anrl fittings are generally usrd fur undergr~r~rucl ground gas
utility wrvircs such a . watcr, air, fuel, a n d sewers, and drains operating piping below
a t Ion- prrisurel and tcuq~eratures. 10 psi
X l t h ~ ~ u pc:~st-iron
li plweded .tee1 a > a piping inaterial by srveral ll~tn-
.\lechrniical Straight portion of pipe Rubber orC+asl~iping Wthstanrls
illwl ?.car.>. ~ t : ~ n c l a r d i z a t ihas
~ ~ tnot
~ yet bcen aacour~~lished
a s i t has been tylre fits into bell-shuped end rompusi-at moderate rihrntion :~n,l
for strel piping and accrsrorics. Changes in t h e val.ioni codes and siec fitted with a gl:rnd tinn pressures. and ezpnnsiot~
spwifications h a w had to bc d o ~ vbecause of t h e v i d e use and long life n-hieh tightens ugninst .Usu n-ater
of cart iron pipe ill nruniripal installations. gasket piping
r>
1he codes or spccific:~tionscorering cast iron p i l ~ eand fittings include Flange ASA flanges Class 25, Standard Above- .ibovr-grouud
125, and 250. Integral gaskets ground vatel. linrs awl
thure published l ~ yt l r Au~erican Standards A s s o c i a t i o ~ ~i.iSh),4 t h e
part of pipe or serewxl for flat- waterlines, lm--pressure
American K a t e r K o r k s Association (AWWA) ,E t h e h n ~ c r i c a nGas Asso- to pipe face and low- gas
,'
ciation ( A M ) and tile L-.S.Govcrnn1ent.1 1 Aanges pressure gas
Vntil 1922 cast-iron pipe was cast in stationary sand mol~is(pit cast).
Compl.ession Plain cnd east-iron pipe Rubber Gas, oil, nud Perniits
Sincc then most cast-iron p i p has been pmduced b y the centrifugal c a d - coupling is held together by a n-nter expansiou nnil
ing process. I n illis process n ~ o l t e niron is introduced into spinning molds. coniprrssion type contr:irtirrll
Because of t11c centrifugal force: castings produced are denser and stronger cuupling
t h a n those made b y the old pit methods. Thre;~cled Scl.ea-ed couplings Sone iYoncl.iticnl Threaded type
T h e SMTh q m i f i c a t i ( ~ nfor cast-iron pipe cover* pit-cast pipe only similar to steel pipe wiste and compression
and is, therefore, obsolete. ('cntrifugally cast pipe, l~ccauseof its denser couplings n.;~t,erlines joint also
n\.aila\>lr
structure, need not bc ai: thick a s pit-cast t o tiithetancl a given pressllrc.
Until recently userr specified cast-iron pipe on the hasis of Fcderal C a r t - i r m jlipc for process fluids such a s gas or oil nlllst have positivv
specification M'W-P-421 for centrifugally cast pipe. I n 1953 the ASA ;ittarhmcnt betr~wenjoint sections or it will not nrect Code rrrluircments.
published specificatii~n,~ for centrifugally cast iron pipe.4 These specifi- h large numher of joints are required for cart-iron piping sinre veldi in::
cations are based on the latest experimental evidence accumulated by the is not pussible. .\Iaintenance and installatim costs, thlwfore, are higher
AWt.l, .4GA, and ASTM. They t a k e iull advantage of the s t r e n g t l ~ for east-iron systems. This disadvantage together ~ v i t hthe service linii-
of centrifugally cast iron pipe a n d should be used in all specifications. tations imposed by the Code (not pernritted above 400 psi a t 300'F belon:
Cast iron fittings may be specified as ASA or A T V A fittings. T h c -43.4 ground and 150 psi a t 300" F above g o u n d ) restrict the use of cast-iron
specification A 21.20 is for short-body fittings 3 in. through 12 in. These pipe in the process plant.
fittings requirc less laying length than the more familiar AWWA fittings.
T h e AWWA ~pecificiltionfor fittings, d l i c h is still in use, covers fittings VALVES
f n m 4 in. througl~60 iu. T h r .i\VTV.i type fittings a r e tllc only available Thc valve, which is the most important piping accessory, is nvnilable
l ~ c l lnntl . q ~ i g dfittings i r ~5izl.s nl~ovc12 ill. il: n ~ a t e r i a l sand designs of almost unlimited varicty.*~'.1~'-'~~2"~2!'~31
" Oni l , n ~ , ~ i i ~ ; i lir.:,>.
~iim~ \.illiO1l.
(.l,ll~l,illcl ~ ~ d v m .
tlliilll~iill~l~re~~.-i
414 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 41
Plant warehousing and maintenance are greatly facilitated, however, if A
thr types of valves stocked are kept t o a ~ninimum. It is t~spcrially
econornical to rtan~larriiaein the smaller sizes hy selectins a on+ or two-
valve design \\.hicli will satisfy a11 servirrs :inticip:~ted.

Classification
NU1
Valves nstd in process piping may
Wheel be cl:~ssifiedas gate, globe. plug, check,
and cmtrol valves. The service con-
Siem ditions of inany of the more common
Packing
types of these have been standardized
Nut as well as the face-to-face and flange
Glond dimensions of flanged v a l v e s . 4 ' , l V n
gcneml, ho~vcvcr, rcfcrcnrr must be
Packing
inadc to inanufacturer's ratnlogs fur
c ~ m p l e t c sprcificatims and descrip-
Stuffing
Box
tionz of a givm rulvc. Thrsc ilcsorip-
tions togcthcr 15-itl1 pul~lisl~wl ~III~EZ
Bonnet and stanclanla for valves2.*' ',1".'7.2s
will aid in the selccti~mof tht. inost,
suitable valve for a given service.
Disc

Body Nomenclature
All gate
- and d o b e valves have two
Fig. 18-7. Valvc pmts (Conrtc~yof
similar basic parts, the body and the
Crane Company.) bonnet (Fig. 18-7). The body con-
tains the orifice, the part ~vhichcloses
the orifice, and the necessary flanges or screwed openings for connection
t o the piping.
Thc bonnet is the upper part of the valve joined t o and closing the
body. It contains the gland, supports and guides, the stem, and valve
wheel or closing device. There are three types of valve bonnets (Fig.
18-81, The screwed bonnet is the most inexpensive a s well as the least
reliable. Tight sealing of the stem requires screwing the bonnet strongly
against the neck nl~iclioften causes distortion of thc valve ncck. The
union bonnet is designed t o provide a n easily disassemhled valve. The
fluid pressure acts to seal the joint more tightly. No distortion occurs
even upon repeated disassembly and reassembly. The bolted-flanged
bonnet has a bolted packing gland and a large stuffing box. It is the
sturdiest design and is used for most larger process gate and globe valves.
I n such installations it usually has flanged ends. The importance of the
method of attachment of the valve bonnet is indicated in paragraphs
309(d) and ( e ) of the C0de.4~
41 6 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Tlic valve stem r11isc.- and lo\\-crs t l ~ cplug or gntc \\-l~icl~
orificc. Tlic gI;11111 .i the lu~ckedjoint t l i ~ . i ~ u gn-liii.11
l~
P:l~lde\>v : l l v ~ ~rrinilr
: in .~iiall sizes o n k , li:lve a bellon-: tyjle att:icIilneut
d i i c l i eliniinntcs tlic pucking gland.
Piping Design 417
clo-cs the Tlic v n l x -c:it is that portion r ~ ftlir orifice \vhirl~is rlocrl hy thc 11111g
tlri, s t c ~ i~I:IY-P*.
~ or gate. Valves may be fl~rnisheil~ i t integral h seat- or rcnewahle yeate.
1-alve trim is thc term applierl to the materials r~liicl-Iform the seat,
plug or gate, and the stem.
Valve ends are dcscril~rd as s c r w c d . flanged. or r ~ e l d i n g Screwed
ends arc the cheapest and are more rapidly in.~tnllcdin t h small ~ sizes.
They: ho\wver, always ronstitntr a potcniinl sor1rr.c of lrnkagc. Flnnged
cnils ~ ~ r o v i da estrong leak-proof joint, and cvrv tl~ougli1110rr costly. tlicir
reliability and superior strength makc tlicir u w almnst mandatory for
I:irge process ralres. \\'?liling ends are u ~ e only ~ l for spccial installations
requiring absulute insurance against leakage.
Gate Valves
The gate valrc (Figs. 18-7 and 18-91 is the most commonly used valve.
Fluid f l o w discrtly through thi! gate valve axial to tlie piping (Fig. 18-10)
Tlir valve consists cwmtially of n sliding plate or gate set in grooves. The
111:itc is niovcd directly across the orifire and is closed b y means of a
rhrmderl stem rotated by a hand ~rhecl. Tlie gatc m a y be 71-edgc-sl~aped
SII t h a t i t n-ill seat tightly against the sides of grooves, or it may consist
of two plates expanded against the sides of the grooves. Gate valves,
liowever, are generally used a s block ralves for isolating equipment or
lines, or in iull open or closed position serviim. They ale rarely used for
throttling, for if thc valve is kept in tlic partially open position, the
l~oltornof the gate becomes eroded. Throttling service is usually re-
5trictcd t o the more easily controlled glohe rolvc. Since the orifice is
approximately concentric and the flow is axial t o the piping, gate valves
Ir:~ve a lower pressure drop than glihe valves.
Globe Valves
T h glohe r a l r c (Fig. 18-11) is different from the gate valve in that
the globe-valve orifice is arranged perpendicular to or on an angle to
tllc :rxia of flo~v. Closing is acwmplislied by a disk or plug attncl~edto
;t sccni vlrich may be rotated t o opcn or close the circular iirifice. Fluid
Hm~ingthrough the valve must make approximately a 270" turn t o r r a d i
thc orifice (Fig. 18-10). After passing through tbe orifice, i t turn; aliotlicr
270" to re-enter the original flow line. Pressure drop through tlic glohe
valve, therefore, is niucli higher than through thp gatc valvc.
Glohe valves arc preferred for throttling services, and are a l m o d always
used if tight shut-off is required. Because of the circular construction
of the seat and plug of a globe ralve: i t may he more precisely ground
or "lapped" to provide a tighter seal than the gate valve.
Large size glohc r a l w s are ordinarily niorc expensive than large gate
valves. M m y users purchase gluhc valres only in the small sizes, 1% in.
418 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design
420 Project Engineering of Process Plants
u u
Fig. 18-11, Cast steel globr v;rlrc, plug-type disk. (Conncaj- oi Cnine Cu~npany.)
fuuctions not unly as a v d \ - c but d s o :is il 90" pipin:: 11vnd. Flo\\- (mters
the bottom of the w l r e , pishe. ulnrurd througl~the orifice. and t u u : 90"
tu leave the valve. Since bends in piping s!.stem itre subject to greater
strains than str~light-runsof pipe. :inglr r a l r o s are not. nscd rxtcnsircly.
'1'11~ Y-valve (Fig. 18-101 is .imilnr lo o glnhc r a l r r in throttling r11n1.-
:!cleristi~syet ~)rovi,lvsllow arc1 c~~tnl~:tr:~l,lv lo ;L X:I[Vv;~lve,
Piping Design 421
Plug Valves
T h c 111ugvnlvr. or cock (Fig. 18-12'1 as it is s o n ~ e t i m rrnllrd.~ is tlir
xncestor of all ralves. I t xvas developed froni the XT-ooden spigot. Its
~uutitandingfrature is d i l l its simplicity. \\'lien the valve is open. fluid
flon-s 1,arallel t o the pipe all tlrrouglr a plug bored the same size as tlrc
1,ody r~rificc. Flow is shut-off hy rotating tlie plug 90' so thnt the orifice
in t l 11iug ~ is turned past the body orifice. Certain phtg valves h:iw :r
~ c n t u r i - t y p ebody orifice so t h a t pressure drop is much lo=-er tlrau for
any other type of valve.
Plug valvcs nray he obtained in materials suitable for high tcnipera-
t ~ ~ r r . they
-: h a r e been usctl in services 1111 t o 1200nF. For light hyrlro-
c r l j o . a scrviccs. and for many corrosive services the plug c w k i.
usually selectedl since i t may be niannfarturcd in nearly any t y l ~ cof
~natcri:d
Th,,y ;lrc, ]rot n- conunonly used ah the gate ralx-e. Some arguu~cnts
against their use for all process work arc: (1) The possibility i1f the plug
'.freezing" open or clu$ed; i 2 1 no visual eridencc of tlirir i~eini:11pc11.?ncll
as ~ v i t hthe rising-stem gate valre; ( 3 1 tlicy must Ilc lul~ricnte(lto ~ I J I I I -
pletely real in somc scrrices;* (4j in the smaller sizes more rigid s u p p r t
must be provided t o operate the plug. X a n y adrersc criticisms of thrre
valves, ho~vever,can hc traced to faulty maintenance.
.\lodcrn plug valves l ~ a r ebeen designcd t o insure ease of movenrrnt
and a r~oiitivescal. Lubricated plug cocks. for instance, employ a semi-
solid lubricant which is injected hydraulically. It is possible to lift tlic
\.alve l'lug soine\~hatby rotating tlrr l u h ~ i c a n tinjection s c m - , and thi*
; i d o n forces thc lubricant under the valve plug. Since the plug is taprwil
it is free as ~0011as it is movcd. Larger sizes of plug r a l r e s h a w a grar
:ind wl~cclfor manual operation. The smaller sizes, 4 in, and helo\\-, are
operalrle by a lever \vrcneh.
Check Valves
C'11~~rh
valves (Fig. 18-10) prevent "backing-np" of fluid in a line. i e . .
revrrsal of fl<w. Lift. check and .\\-kg check vulvcs are the t x o m a j t ~ r
typcs. The lift check is provided with n 1~811or guided phrg \vl~irhis
lifted hv the passage of fluid in one dircetion and is seated upon a reversal
of flow. The lift check is lnost often used for sizes 2 in. nud snmll(.r. I t
dues not have a great tendency to slam and is, therefore, specified for
services having irregular or frequent reversals uf flow. I t is installed
su tlie direction of lift is vertical.
The swiug check valve is more frequently used. It produces less
Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 423
resistance to flow and is spcrified for sizes larger than 2 in. Frequent,
fl(m reversals prodr~cc a "ch:ttt,cring" in .swing v a l r w whir11 can hc
:~llcviat~il
hy tlrc USI, of s r i n ~
vnlvcs rqiripl~c~l ~vitll:tn ni~tsiclclrvrr nnd
wciglrt. A lever is :ittnched to an ~ r t t m n lrnntinuntion of tll? Iringe.
A weight, the los sit ion of n.hiclr v:in l ~ crh:mgcil, is :itt:dird to the lever
so the sensitivity of the valve ran be v a r i d Tn this m;lnner r h t t r r under
low velocity flow renditions and ~lrockon rloiing ran 111. :~voiilril or
reduced. The outside lever can also be used to aid in relcwing the disk
if it becomes stuck.

Control Valves
Control valves are fundamentally similar to the glohe valve. They
arc made in all the ranges and materials found in gate 11rglobc valves, but
the "trim" and bodies of control
valves have liieher
., nualitv. sucrifica-
. Pressure
tions than ordinary valvcs.
The diaphragm control valve is
the most widely uscd. It is opened
or closed by a stem attarhrd to a
plate or diaphragm which forms the
movable side of a chamber (Fig. 18-
13). The force required for move-
ment in one direction is produced by
air pressure in the chamber, and in
the opposite direction by a spring.
Movement of the diaphragm and
thus the stem causes the valve plug
t o open or close the valve orifice.
The air pressure on the diaphragm
is controlled by the primary eensing
instrument.
Control valves may be obtained
either n%h double-pork or &h a
single-port (see Figs. 18-13 and 18-

orifice. Governor Company.)

Thc double-port valve gives a bet-
tcr control range for larger flows. A further advantage is the small force
necessary to move the valve stem. The pressure d~ffercntialacross the
bottom port is opposite and approximately equal to that across the top
which enables movement of the valve stem with the minimum expenditure
of power.
424 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Tllc single-ported valve i.5 less contly and i.5 saticfactnry for noncriticai
rontml wrvircs. I t provides a tighter seal than the double-ported valve.
There are several inner valve designs. The inner valve illustrated in
Fig. 18-14 is designed to reach maximum capacity after only a small
Fig. 18-14. Body of single-port control valve. (Courtesy of Fisher Gorcrnor
Company.)
movement of the valve stem. Such a characteristic is most desirable for
quick open and shut service. The parabolic inner valve in Fig. 18-13
gradually increases its flow area throughout the lift of the stem, producing
an excellent throttling action. V-ported inner valves of various designs
produce similar desirable characteristics.
Control valves in the larger sizes or in high-pressure or high-temperature
services are practically always specified with m auxiliary or booster
devicr called a positioner. This device continues to add or reirrwe air
Piping Design 425
from the valve-operating tiiaplir:tgni, forcing the valve stem to movc
to the precise poeitiun required by the control instrument.
Control valves are used for presure contrul as w l l as flow control.
Many pressure controllers enlploy the fluid being cuntrolled as an actuat-
ing ui~cdium. The sen3ing elmlcnt in thii t y l ~valve is located at the
\.all-e and usually consids of :r dialil~rag~n or other ~iressureactuntcd
device. I n pressure reducing scrvicce thc rlil,cct c~innected.diff?renti:ll-
pressure valve is often uscd. This type control vnlve balances the t ~ v o
wit11 a spring
fluid ,lrcs,mrcs, onc on e;1c11 .ill,. of :r ( Y ~ I I ~ ~ iliil~il~riipln
I ~ I I
wllicl~ can be adjusled to tl11, ~ l ~ ~ . s i r~liI'Sw~~~ti:il.
td
426 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 427
they are safety deviccs which protect hfe and property, they must be
TABLE 18-5. Steam Trap Characteristics
constructed of t h e finest materials for the service.
Operation Features
1. Inverted Steam accumulates in in\-erted bucket F u t , low steam
T h e ahove descriptions include the basic t,ypes of valves manufactured. Ilucket causing it to float by increasing the loss, simple, must
Tliprc arc. 1 i o a c ~ - c rcountless
, variations of each of these types manufac- I ~ u r ~ y m cofy the bucket. Xovcment of he pmtected from
va11.e lever attached to bwket cluses irerzing
tured for special scrrices. A listing of miscellaneous process equipment discharge valve. Entrance of n1ol.e
and manufacturers in a general industrial catalog22 shows over 150 rxlnrlerisete causes bucket to sink dosing
specific typca of 1-alves. E a c h of t h e w types can be obtained in scveral vnlve
different materials and each can be obtained in a large number of sizes 2. Open Bucket floats with open end up. 0per:ites \\-ell
and prcssurc-temperature classifications. There a r e over twenty major horket Condensate fills bucket causing it to sink under fluctutrting
manufacturers of the common types of valves exclusive of the manufac- and open valve. Steam pressu1.e disclrar- 1o:ids
t u r w s of specialty items. These manufacturers of common types of ges condensate out discharge pipe in hwket
which causes bucket again to flm~tin
valves produce coinpctitive products, t h e specifications for vhich arc remaining condensate
ci~ntrolledhy cithcr manufacturing standards or b y t h e various codes.
One publicati1m10 enahles the engineer to compare all manufactured 3. Piston- Inverted bucket tmp which oprr;ttrs n Gond for vwy high
operated pilot valve which in turn operates :I 1:wge oap:wities (up to
valvcs on a n equivalent basis. piston valve 300,000 11) 111.)

MISCELLANEOUS PIPING ACCESSORIES 4. Thcnno- Vwlve attached to hellom cwituining Cannot freeze.
static volatile fluid. \Vhcn steam contacts Yrr>-~ a p i d;ti7
I n addition to the nccessary pipe, valvcs, a n d fittings for transporting bellows, increased vapor pressure (if fluid \.enting and bigh
process fluids, a number of othcr items are required, which m a y be causes expansion of bellatis and closing condensate capacity
classified a s accessories. of discharge port
5. Liquid Similar in principle to No. 4 except Cannot freeze.
Condensate or Steam Trap exptmsion expansion of a liquid (oil) is used to move Cnntinur~us
T h e condensate t r a p , often erroneously called steam trap, is uscd in valve ~liscliargea t an:
desired temperature
s t e m piping systems for the removal of condensate which accumulates
as lipat is lost from steam. T r a p s a r e located a t low points or pockctn 6. Ball float As condensate collects in trap body it Discharges
in steam piping, a t regular intervals in extended runs of steam piping, ciiufies a ball float connected to thr condensate
discharge valve to raise and close the continuously at
a t steam-driven cquipment which could be damaged b y condensate, and
vl~lvc steam tcmpernture
:it steam-hcated equipment of all types. an,] nitlrmt shock.
Tlrc ideal t r a p must remove condensate a n d air from a system with
negligible loss of steam and a t a rate of removal such t h a t the operating 7. Imoulse Onr ivorking part, a valve. .It r l r near Cann-! f1.eez.e.
ste:m tempel.:<ture, cr~mlcnsatethat liar Vw>- sm:tIl and
equipment will perform a t peak efficiency. collected in a chamher during disrh:irge light \\-eight. High
I n Table 18-5 seven popular t r a p types a r e listed. 4 brief outline of flashes and the increase in pressure closes capacity to size
the operation and distinguishing features is given. Fig. 18-16 illustrates the discharge valve ratio
the most widely uscd trap, the inverted bucket. It is not possible to give
exact recommendations for t h e use of each type. Stearn pressures, corro- helpful charts and design procrdurcs n h i r h are time saving and are bnserl
sive conditions, and individual plant experience a r e important criteria on considerable operating experience.
fur the a~lectionof n t r a p type. I n specifying t r a p s for a projert a list of all the traps is usunlly
T h e reputable inanufacturers are prepared to recommend the use of I ~ r e p a r c don a dra~r-ingor other reproducilile f o r ~ n . T h c list includrs a
their traps fur services in which they will be successful. These manufar- detailed d r a v i n g of one or more typical t r a p installations wit11 a list uf
t m w a should he consulted f o r assist,ance in t r a p selection. M a n y publisir t11e nrrcssary valves and fittings for each type of inrtallation. Numb<,rr
428 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design
?..
for idcntificntion mrl ~n:itcrial,llrrrsurc : m I Row s j w i f i w t i o n ~a r r a 1 ~ 0
given. T l ~ cli.5t is w e d for (1) material take-off of all tllc snail v a l v e
and fittings required for trap installations; (2) procurement operations;
s n d for ( 3 ) an in.st;illntion guide. T r a p nulnhers arc used in identifica-
tinn, both on piping drawings and d i ~ r i n gwarehousing and erection.

Expansion Joints
, .
1 l ~ cinnnufnctured expansion joint is used for tlrc reduction or elinlina-
ti011 uf s t r ~ s s e sand for o v e r c o ~ ~ ~ excessive
ing vibrntion. Exarllples ( ~ fthc
t \ v < n~ m t cunlmon types, the slip-joint and thc packlcss-joint are shon-n
in Fig. 18-17. Each of these joint types is madc in a variety of styles
Fig. 18-17. Eqmnlion joints. (0) Piston-l.ing rxp;insion joint ! i n t c ; ~ ~ . ~ lguided);
ly
arid inatcrinls t o fit elrery need. T h e slip-joint has a stuffing hox to pre- ( b ) p;~rklrsscxpnnsiun joint. (Courtesy of Adsco Industries. I n c )
v m t lenkagr; and, tl~erefore,requires more maintenance than the eorru-
gated linckless joint. T h e slip joint simplifies expansion calculations installrcl positiun, cold d i n ~ e u s i ulioi
~ ~ ,imsitiuu, hut d i t i i t ~ l s i o ~axial
~ , deflec-
hcc:rurc its lcngth of travel is fixed. tions, and estimated cycle periods frul11 hot to cold.
The ~ ~ r e s s u rtemperature,
c, and movement in each expansion joint must If a numhcr of expansion jirints are to he installed, procurement is
11r carefully inyestigated and specified. T h e specifications nluet i n ( , l ~ ~ d r si~nl~lifitdI)? :I iI~.:twingnllirli ~ . l ~ i ~1 1\1 v1 , sv:wio~i.. t y l ~ joints required
clwription I I flnid! ~ nlaximum pressure, m a x i ~ n u ntemperature,
~ cokl or
in t\vo or luol,e vicws. A t:il~ul;~tionon tile d r i ~ n i ~libts ~ g the joints by
430 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design
number together with operating data. Using this drawing t h e manufae-
tnrer can prepare his proposal with a minimum of written information.
T h e data requested from the manufacturer should include recommended
joint type and material, magnitude of forces necessary to compress,
extend, or cause axial movement in both hot. and cold positions, a n d

Adjustable Adiustnhle Unde~.groundClamp

Clevis Hnnger Swircl Type with Lugs
Hanger

(a) Stt.ucturnl Steel Pipe Supports

$+ Preferred Member
( b ) Pipc Shoe
6
Clip Ring Split Ring Split Ring
with Socket
Split Ring
with Rneklc

Pipe Shoe7 Guide

Pipe Clamp Adjustable Pipe Clamp

Pipe Support lsteel) Pipe Clamp
(c) Guide for Pipe Shoe ( d ) Mcthod for Restrlet~ng Vertical
Mob ement
Fig. 18-18. Pipe supports and anchors

niagnit~lricof lnngituiiin;+l forrrs eaused hy internal p r c s u r c . Thcec

data should he added to the expansion joint list for use in piping stress
analysis. Pipe Roll Stand Adjustable Adjustable
Roll Stnnd Roller Hanger
Pipe Hangers and Supports Fig 18-19. Manufaetu~cdhangers and supports (Courtrsy of Elren Mctnl Product.
I n earlier proresr 1)iping installations nearly all piping was hung by Company.)
means of clalnps a t t a r l ~ e dto nlds or chains, to provide greater flexibility
Since t h e piping is laid across t h e supports i t is simpler t o hold t h e pipe
or freedom. This m c , t l ~ uof ~ l supl~ortis still used for piping installed inridc
b y devices called ahocs which rest directly on the structural members.
buildings. I n the inoiiwn process plant, Ilo~i-ever,most equipnicnt is lu-
A n inexpensive and simple shoe, such a s s h m n in Fig. 18-8b, m a y bc
catcd outside and piping is run on structural steel supports (Fig. 18-1%).
either a tee beam or the more coiliinon split structural H or I beam. It is
432 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Ilnneccssary :111<l wu:illy ~mrlwirableto attarli 11iping ircurely t o ea1.11
structural support. .It each alternate support or each third or fourth
support. depending upon the line size, a guide is usually provided as
shown in Fig. 18.18~. The guide permits movement in a fixed direction.
A sim11le method for restricting vertirai movement is shown in Fig.
18-lad. The field fahricatcd shoes, anchiir, anil guirlcs illustrated arc
wually rhrapev tliar~zimilar mnnufacturctl equipment. Llanufactured
11;mgers. ho\\.ever: a u c l ~a. those shown in Fig. 18-19, are Iws expensive
than field-fabricated hangers.
Piping Design 433
By setting all pipe in any layer at a fixed B.O.P. elcmtion, practically
all shoes except the guides will be the s:me height which grc:~tlysimplifier
their installation. Further, a constant B.O.P. elevation fixes the position
of the horizontal structural member of the pipe support ~ ~ - h i csimplifies
h
design and construction.

Fig. 18-20. Spring lrnnger nnd typical installations. (Courtesy of Elren Mrinl
Products Company.)

Hangers are best suited and most often used for supporting pipc insirk
huildings. Honevcr. horizontal structural memhers are used for sup-
ports inside buildings n-hen large numbers of lines are run side by side.
Field fabricated shoes are used in preference t o hangers for outside
installations because the shoes are easier to install and ran bc more
readily protected from corrosion by painting since all surfaces are
accessible.
Spring hangers such as shown in Fig. 18-20 are used both indoors and
Fig. 18-21. hlanufsctu~.edline blind. (Couhsy of I I m m r Valves, Inc.)
outdoors on hot piping installations. Tlicy are the least expensive and
most reliahle type of flrxihle pipe support available. Line Blinds
I n designing pipe supports it is usual and good practice t o set a specifir
bottom-of-pipe (B.0.P.l elevation for all pipe run a t the same relative T l ~ cn ~ ~ n u f a e t u r el di r ~ c - h l i ~(Fig.
~ d 18-21 ) is u s d to seal d f 3 line or.
elevation. The ~vordelevation is intentionally used since the dimension yicce of equipment. It l~ruvides:t inure pusitive :~ndreliable seal than a
is measured from the bottom of the pipe t o grade. When shonn on draw- e o n v c ~ i t i o ~ ~valve
a l and is vnluablc wl~rwportions of oprrating systems
ings as 125, for instance, the number 125 indicates that the piping is 25 ft must be isolated f o r maintennncc .. putyoscs.
ahore nominal area grade set arbitrarily and for conrcnience a t 100 ft. I t is more costly but 1110r(~couvtwie~~t tllal~the c ~ n ~ e n t i o homemade
~~al
spect:irlc or figure 8 bliirtl \ v l ~ i r is l ~ :I 111rt:~l
11l;itc in the sh:il~cof :I figure
434 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
8 with a hole the size of the line on one side of the 8. The line is sealed
by inserting the solid portion of the plate between flanges. This is accom-
plished by partially unbolting and springing the flanges apart after first
draining the line. With manufactured line blinds the line is sealed merely
by manipulation of levers and a l~andwlleel. The spectacle plate is re-
leased and clamped as rlesired by means of a mrlvahle hub which is con-
trr~lledby a hand wheel-operated worm and ring gear.
Other Accessories
There is a wide variety of additional accessories and specialty equip-
ment used in piping. hlanufacturer's eatalogs'~31 should be studied for
a cornplete description.
PIPING LAYOUT AND ARRANGEMENT
I n the layout or initial arrangement of piping for the process plant the
designer has six related problcms t o consider.
1. Process requirements
2. Transmission of excessive stresses from piping to equipment, and
tlie transfer of vibration from equipment into the piping system
3. Economy
4. Operational accessibility
5 . Xnintenance and replacement
6. Excessive stresses in the piping system
1. Process Requirements
Except for some particular "process reasonu* the hest arrangement is
not always accomplished by connecting directly from one piece of equip-
ment to another as shown on a flow dia,grain. A study of any process
plant piping installation will show that essentially all the piping is
arranged t o run in definite patterns, always changing direction wit11 a
90" turn, whether the change is in the same plane or in a different plane.
When hundreds of lines must be routed t o various portions of a plant, it
is essential that this orderly arrangement be used. Routing each pipe in
a straight line ~ v r ~ u lrreatc
d a confusing and impractical arrangement.
Since all equipment is suhject to snnie kind of mechanical maintenance,
and inspection and cleaning, it l m s t he accessible. Safety demands that
certain equipment he located a t a particular point or as distant as possible
from other equipment.
The simplest piping arrangement is made possible when the equipment,
is locatril in parallel rnws or in some other rectangular pattern. Identical
or .;iinilnr process equipment. suc11 as pumps. vwsela. or heat exrl~angcrr.
is usually grouped in conrccutive rows. The location of power-driveu
A pemliarity dictated by the process
Piping Design 435
equipment sucli as pumps in a group simplifies power supply and control
systenir and thus reduces costs.
Connecting piping, as f a r nr is poasil~le:is aln.ayr run overhead in racks
above the smaller equipnient ~vhicliis located nrar grade. The primary
purpose in elevating piping is to provide clearance a n ~ n n dequipment.
I t is usual practice t o group nll parnllel piping in a bank a t the same
elevatirm changing elevntion when dirertion is changed. I n this manner
space is provided for connections t>et~vecnsucccvsivc layers as veil as for
remora1 and maintenance. Care must bc cxcrcised, hon.ever, to avoid ele-
vation changes which create pockets in lines rvhcre liquid can accumulate.
2. Transmission of Stresses and Vibration
The transn~issionof strehaw from piping to equipment can be eliminated
by tlie installation of n~anufactnredexpansion joints in such serx-ires as
steam or exhaust connections t o turbine3 or other steam-dviven equip-
ment. The possibilities of cimosion, erosiun: an(l cyclic >trcraes in 1)rocesa
services, h o u w e r , often limit the w e of mect~aniralexpansion joints. Frlr
these reasons the piping designer nmally attempts t r ~eliminate piping
stresses on equipment i ~ y roper piping arrangement and the use of
supports and anchors.
There are two reawns for eliminating stresses a t piping connections.
One is t o prevent the overstressing of the tlody of a machine or valve to
rvhich the piping is attached and tlie other is to prevent misalignment
of equipment parts causcd by differential nioren~ents. XIanufacturers of
equipment will not recognize any guarantee if a failure can be traced t o
external stresses.
Vibration in piping is usually encountered when piping is connected
t o moving machinery. Proper use of supports and hangers or rihralion
dampeners will eliminate most cyclic vibration. High-frequency villra-
tion caused by high-speed niacl~inerysuch as centrifugnl cornpressors can
be relieved by applying fixed supports. The correct location for these
support,^ may be determined by experimental application of weights
while the machine is in operation.
3. Economy
Cost considerations are often overshadowed hy process requirements.
A capable layout designer, hr~rwver,xvill avoid wasteful use of fittings and
supports. There are no precise rules wl~icti can be set down as each
system will vary, but the best economies in piping are usually obtained
by simplification of the piping specification.
4. Accessibility
Valves and other appurtenances which must be used during operation
and/or which require periodic maintenance must be located in a con-
438 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 439
l\lanufactured cspansion joints are not extensively uscd in I1roces.C costly. Several short methods of piping stress evaluation which utilize
plant piping. They are used for utility piping and in process applications charts for the more common factors are offered.ls.31 The simplified
where piping size or space limitations would render changes in confignra- methods, hu~vcvcr,are not completely acceptable to all designers. Even
tion impractical or costly. the more rigorous or formal calculations depend upon assumptions, some
of which are admittedly questionable. The designcr, therefore, can only
COLDSPRISCISG expect to err on the safe side regardless of the method used, the degree of
Forces generated by expansion are caused by movement of piping a s error increasing n-ith the more simplified procedures. I t would appear that
its dimensions change from atmospheric to operating temperatures. One analyses which err on the safe side and yet permit the piping configura-
method for decreasing the final intensity of stresses in the hot condition tion t o remain within reasonable economic limits should be acceptable.
is t o cut the pipe short and spring i t into place while cold. This springing I n order t o illustrate the variation in strcsn with configuration. the
produces a tensile stress on the system which changes t o a compression results of a calculation on an expansion U-bend are given in Table 18-6.
stress in the expanded hot condition. Both of these stresses will have a
lo~r-ervalue than t h a t which would occur if the pipe had heen cut to exact TABLE 18-6. Variation in Stress with Conflguration for
dimensions for the cold condition. an Expansion U-Bend
This tcchniquc of installation is called cold springing. It is discussed
in paragraph 620 ( e ) of the Codc nhich defines thc limit of stress rcduc-
tion to be assumed when pipe is so installed. The Code rule applies to
actual erected lengtl~i.. For this reason when pipe is being shop fabricated,
corrections for tempcrature differentials b e t m e n shop atmosphcrc and
crcction atmospllere 111ust he made. These corrections are required when
alloy ur stress-relieved pipe is used since these materials cannot ordinarily
Total Pipe
be reworked a t the point of erection. Whcn ci~ldspring is practiced,
actual ficld measurements of the space for any given piece of piping
Length in ft Stress, +
(L 2 H )
Case L II IV psi in it
should be made.

Design Calculations for Expansion Stresses

The piping code liar set permissible or maximum stress temperature
relationships for each acceptahle pipe material specification. Chapter 3
of Section 6 of the Code composcd of paragraphs 61-20, inclusive, con-
tains various rules, limitations, and requirements for piping stress cal-
culations. Paragraph 620 ( a ) states in part, "Formal calculations shall
be required only where reasonable doubt exists as t o the adequate flexi-
bility of the system."
Methods for analyzing stress of piping systems are not given in the
Code. It functions more as a guide toward good practice and is not a
complctely specific instrument which covers in dctail all possible con-
ditiuns of piping design. The rcrponsihility for proper interpretation and
application of the rules remains with the designer.
The presently available comprehensive methods of piping stress
analysis* are extremely rigorous and, therefore, time consuming and
*One excellent method has been developed which is readily adaptable to high
speed computing machines." This reference is also a good source of information
on all problems oi piping flexibility.
Basis
(a) 6 in. Schedule 80 pipe, APML, Grade C
(b) 000" F operating temperature, 250 psig operating pressure
(c) Allowable stress = 19,300 psi
(d) hlaximuni expansion a t 70" F is 4.72 in./100 ft
(e) Maximum allowable cold spring permitted hg Code is used
( f ) Rends are 90" butt-nelding, long-radius elbom
(g) For simplification guides were not considered although such n. bend would
require guides
Case 1 shows a n S value of 20,990 psi nhich exceeds the allowed 19,300
hy 1,690 psi. Both Cases 2 and 3 are well below the allo~vahlex i t h an
increase of only one ft in H for Casc 2 and an increase of line ft in both
H and W for Casc 3. Casc 4 shows a decrcnse of 4,200 psi hy the addition
of two ft to H only.
Thc changes in pipe length cause an increase in piping matcrial cost of
approsinlately $6.00 for Cases 2 and 3 and $12.00 for Case 4. The total
cost for installation of t b r examplc run of piping would be very close t o
440 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 441
$2,000.00. The possible increase is less than of for 2 an113 i~ud d y = T dS' - dF (for an irrevers~bleprocess such as fluid flow) (3)
less than 1% for 4. Since design costs are approaching $5.00 per manhour
of design time (including the costs oi engineering, drafting, and 01-erheadI . where S = ent,ropy
little if any saving can he made hy extensive computations for siiiiplc I.' = irreversible energy losses called friction
problems such as these. Substituting 2 and 3 in 1 t,he differential equation
Generally design organizations utilize curves for the calculation of
stresses in simple t--bends so that the proper configuration can easily be
determined. Reference 18 includes a tabulation giving the relative
accuracy of various methods applied to tcn configurations. It is recon- is obtained which can be integrated t o give
mended that this table he studied in detail.
Refercners 2, 18. 34 are particularly recommended for those interested
in the various mcthoris of stress analysis. Reference 18 is incouiplctr
for ,111 crmfiguration. at this vriting, Imt, the tables of rnluer rrpeatedl>- Eq. 5 is a basic expression for the morli required t o move a unit. mass of
nred in c~~mputationr ~vhiehare given eliminate uiany of the simple or fluid between two points. If the specific volume u is constant as can be
basic computations and :we thus vcry effective time savers.
assumed for incompressible fluids (liquids). t: dP becomes v(P2 - P I ) .
SIZING PROCESS LINES
The sizing of limes for a process plant requires the selection of a h e
Basic Equations size and then the calculation of t,he expected pressure drop for the proposed
Tbe overall energy balencc is basic to all fluid flow proble~ns,and it ib line. In such calculations sections of lines before and after pumps and
compressors are most conveniently considered separately (suction and
helpful to recall the principles of thr first law of tbermodynnmics. This
discharge lines). The work term then becomes zcro for the section of line
Ian states that the total ainuunt of energy entering a systeru must be
being considered since the device adding work t o the system is not within
equal to that leaving a system. Thc expression of the first lay, neglecting
the boundaries of the energy balance. The equation for pressure drop
surfacc, magnetic, and elci:tricnl energy: can he w i t t e n in differential
iorin as follows for one pound of fluid flowing, calculations then becomes

where V' = internal mergy per lb of fluid The velocity terms (kinetic energy) are usually very nearly the same
and the expression (uz2 - 2 1 ~ ~ ) i 2 can
9 , be neglect,cd. The acceleration
P = Dressure: #r'sq ft
v = apecific volume, cu i t &
due to gravity in most locations is approximately equal to g,(32.17) so
that g, g, is most often called unity. Hmce, assuming an incompressible
u = velocity, ftisec
fluid or an average specific volume, eq. G becomes
Z = height above a datum in ft,
g = accclcration due to gravity, ft sec2 u(Pl - P?) = Zz - i l + F (7)
g, = factor to convert poundals to lh of force, lb-it,'#-sec2*
~vhere~(1'1 - P2) is the "head" change in ft-lb of iorce!lh of mass
Y = heat added to system, Htuilb
or ft-#,.lb, betveen points "1" and "2".
TV = vork done by system, ft-//%*
Z2 - Z1 is the difference in height betxeen points "1" and "2".
The expression Pv is often called flow xork and represents the amount The units are also ft,-#/lb since g!g, does appear
,.
of erlerby required to force an element of fluid i~it,oor out of a system.
l w o additional basic concepts of therrnodynan&s may be stated as
although numerically it is unity. Zz - Z1 is often
referred to as static pressme.
follo\rs : F = head loss in ft-#!lh due t o friction.
dU'= T d S - Pdv (2) I t may seem to t,he reader a t this point that undue stress has been
*For convenience use $f t o represent a pound of force and lb for 21 pound of mass placed on the background to the simple equation for pressure drop in a
442 Piping Design
Project Engineering of Process Plants

process line. The time is justified, however. if it serves to prevent the

confusion t,hat so often results over the term "head." I t has been shown ssauuanon an!wan
ahovr that rq. i was derived from an energy balance based on a unit mass
(one lb) of fluid floving and that, the energy terms appearing in the h a 1
equation have the units of ft-lb of force per lb of mass (ft&#jlb)and not
simply f t as is often mist,akenly assumed. An awareness of this fact
prevents ncedless confusion especially in converting to other systems of
uds.
The estimation of the energy lost due to friction F is the major task in
calrulating pressure drops. Experimental evidence from the studies of
the drag exerted by the walls of a condnit on the fluid flowing has yielded
the so-called "Fanning" equation:

where F = friction loss in ft,-#/lh

.I'= proportionality constant called the coefficient of friction
L = length of circular conduit in f t
y, = 3 2 . l i ft-lb/(#)
L) = inside diameter of pipe in f t
B y means of dimensional analysis the friction factor f has been shown
to be related to the Reynolds' numher, D u ~ / and ~ , a dimensionless factor
called the relative roughness, r, being the depth of irregularities in the
pipc. hIoodyl"as determined the relationship experimentally and the
results of his work arc presented graphically in Figs. 18-23 and 18-24.
These charts permit the estimation of the friction factor f , for any size
pipe. I t is to be noted, however, that the data are for clean pipe since it is
impossible to present in any logical manner the effects of the many types
of scale that develop in process lines. Such deposits, however, can in-
crease the ultimate in-service pressure drop over that for clean pipe as
much as tenfold.
For some reason that is not completely rational, the Fanning equation
has been presented in a number of forms. Most of the variations can he
traced to the definition of the friction factor f. I n some works it is defined
such that it is one-fourth the value of f presented here. The final value
of friction loss will, of course, be the same if the proper equation is used
with the correct friction factors intended for that equation. Because of
this confusing situation, it is best to use only friction factor charts that
indicate the definition of the particular f value being plotted, otherwise a
considerable error in the calculations (fourfold) may result. Since the
cliarts of lloudy have been sclected as a standard hy the Hydraulic
Institute, it is good practice to use these charts and thus Moody's form oi
the Fanning equation.
 Project Engineering of Process Plontr Piping Design 445

Losses in Fillings

Pipe Diameter D, ft Eq. 8 permits calculation of friction losses in straight lcngtlis of

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20 25 pipe. T h e various hcnrlt;. fittings, and ralvcp a h requirr c o n s i ~ i ~ w t i o n .
One of the siniple>t mctlio~lsfor esti~nntingfriction losses for valves and
f i t t i n g is to add tn t h r nctual l m g t l ~of straight pipi- an alnin~nt nf
ptraight pipe t h a t ill producc :I frirtirm loss iquiv:dmt to tlmt n-hi141
would occur in the fittings and ralves. h mean* of e~tim:rtingt11c-r
lengths published hy the (:rani: ('innlxniys somr y w r s ago an11 n n x iin
wide circulation is given in Fig. 18-25 This chart i* entirely satisfactory
for the usual estimates in proccss plalit c;dculations. Fur tnore ; ~ I : I Y I ~ I I ~ I ~
iriforniation reference should he made t o thc Staltdards IIE the Hydr:ruli~.
I n i t i t u t t ~ . ' V t is reawned tliat the friction loss in fittings ronsnmrs n
portion of the kinetic energy of the fluid entering tlic fitting.

where trl = velocity of Ruid upstretm~of liLting

li = cmpirimlly determined consinn( for thc p:~rti(.ul:ir littir~p:
called the resistance cocfirient
Values of I< for various valves and fittings are give11 in t l ~ cStanilnrils I I ~
the Hydraulic lnstitutc.

Line Sizing Techniques a n d Criteria

Fig. 18-24. Relstivc r u u g l m s .
ASME, 66, 671 (1Y44).1
Pipe Diameter, in.
LKryrinled by pemiisaiun, L. li. Moody, l ' w r c a
The method of sizing process lines inwlves a technique familiar t o
cnginccrs. : I line size is assunicd and the prcssuri2 ilrop is calculated. If
the calculated pressure drop is s a t i r f a e t ~ ~ rtlie
y , assumcd line size is used.
The problem then becomes one of deciding ~ r . l ~ is a t a satisfactory pres-
sure drop. If too liigli a pressure dro11 is iised, primping cilstr can hecomc
excessive. If too lo\\. a drop is used, cost* of pipe, valves, and fitting;
beconre too high. This suggests a n eeonmnic balance bct~vcenmatcrial
costs and pumping costs. Having unit costs for these two itenis, it is a
simple matter t o develop a general equation fov total cost and solve for
the m i n i ~ n u mby differentiating and equati~igtu zero. Charts for deter-
mining the "economic" line size can then be constructed. M a n y sucli
charts havc been presented. but sucli a n approacli rcprcsrnts a dangerous
ovcr siniplification of a mucli more complex prohlcn~. JYlren it is realized
tliat Inany process lines do not inrolve ~ni~ilping. p o w r costs are not
nlxays well known or realistic; and most process lines represent a unique
situation, i t is understandahlc that, generalizations repalding the cconmni~:
size are very often 71-orthless.
J l a n y operating and design firlnl: 11ave prqjared t a n d a r d s \ ~ - l i i r l ~
 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design 447
~ p c c i f ya l l o w b l e pressure drops or reasonable veloc~tiesas guides in the
sizing of process lines. Somc typical standards are:

Reasonable velocity .4lloaable pressure drop due to

(Tube Turns Co.) friction
Pump discharge d/2 + 4 Ft/sec 2 psi/100 i t
Pomp suction One-third thc above 0.5 ft#/lh per 100 ft
Steam or vapor *d in 1000 ft/min 0.5 per cent of line pressure per
100 ft
Gravity flow of liquids - 0.2 f&#/lb per 100 ft
Water lines 5-7 ftjscc -
* d = inside diameter of pipe in in.
Thcse and other similar rules-of-thumh have proved helpful t o engineers
for many years. They have, however, often been given thc status of
natural laws and thereby caused more harm than good. Seither the
reasonable velocity method nor the a l l o r \ d ~ l epressure drop can yield
the exact economical pipe size for all cascs. T h e velocity method does
not allow for changes in fluid densities, and the allowable prcssurc drop
mctlrod does not recognize t h a t the economical pressure drop should be
greater for small than for large pipes. Neither method allows for varia-
tions in material and polver costs. Despite tlicse objections, line sizing
based on such standards is valid in the majority of cases. Although in
many cases i t may be argued that overdesign results, i t should be realized
t h a t standards after long use become such a part of an organization t h a t
the overdesign t h a t results is unconsciously expected.
It is impossible t o make u dctailed cconomic study of each line in a
process plant in order to select the proper size nor is such a study nsnally
justified. There are certain cases, ho~vevcr,particularly in the sizing of
more cxpensivc alloy lincs or Iargc carhon steel lincs for which dctailcd
study may he justified to aid in deciding bct~vccnt ~ possibleo line sizes.
A short-cut rnethod has been prescntcd21 for rapidly estimating the
costs of process lines so that values for trvo possible sizes can hc comparcd
rapidly. Should a large difference in cost be indicated further detnilrd
study, using costs peculiar to the particular situation, will be justifieti.
If the difference is small, thc larger size \ d l aut,omatically be accepted.
T h e data are givcn in Tablcs 18-7, 18-8, 18-9, and 18-10 and an illustra-
tion of their use is given here.

Pressure Drop in Gas a n d Vapor Lines

Moat process lines which carry gases and vapors are short and do not
Fig. 18-25, Resistance of valves and fittings. (Courtesy of Crane Comi~any.)
vary enough in elevation betrvcen the terminuses to justify a coniirleration
of static 11ressure i:hange u r rhanye in ,tensity. In such rases a n arerage
dcnrity is assnmed based on an estinlated average pressure, and the
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design

TABLE 18-7. Pipe and Fitting Prices*

TABLE 18-8. Flange Prices*
Rase price: Carbon Steel .\ST11 106 Grade .I u r equal $0.105 per pound
Base \\-eights: (Based on cnrbm steel pipe)
Rase 1'1.ices
(Basis: 150 lb AS.4 RF Welding neck A S T l I .\-I81 (upproximately 40djlb)
Size Cost, $
2 3.5
2
3
'2.M
4.33 -, --
3.65
.i),
5.02
10.25
3
4
5
6.5
4 5.61 10.71) 11 0%) 6 9
6 0.29 18.97 28.55 8 14
8 13.40 28..55 43.40 10 20
10 18.76 40.48 .54.i0 12 35
12 24.20 53.60 65.40 -.
14 X.70 55.00 7!10 Rating Factors --
\Idtiply by
16 42.10 03.00 82.80 Rating, Ib Raised Ring typc
18 47.40 71.00 93.50 face joint
20 52.70 iX.tj0 104.l0 1.0 1.5
24 03.40 94.60 125.50 300 1.22 3.5
600 4.3t 5.01
L,,jD, equiv:ila~~t 900 5.5t 6.51
length to diameter 1500 9.0t 9.51
E'ittitrz.s ratio
I
90' elhorr-, lonx :i~lils l ~ w r;idius
t 13 Flange Type Factors Multiply by
Tees. Sidl sizc outlet 2.1 Velding neck 1.0
Tees. reducing outlet 2.6 (12" and below) Slipon 0.65
2.1 (14" and above)
180" bends, long radius 3.0 llaterial Factors hlultiply by
Reduce1.s concentric 0.50 Carbon steel ASTM .I-181 1 .0
Reducers, ercentric 0.60 4-6 gel. rent clrrome. 35 per
Lap-joint stub ends 0.80 cent hIoly (:\ST11 182 F5) 3.509
Stainless type 316 5.0 g
.\Iateri:d Sactws for pip? and fittings Alultiply by
Carbon steel I 1 *Reprinted by permission-Raw, H. F., Petralciini Refinpi-, Sz, Y o , 8. 141-144
4-6 per cent rhrotue. 5; per cent Aloly 3.25 (1953).
Stainless type 304 10.2 i Use 4.0 for sizes 2, 3, and 4 in. only.
Stainless type 316 16.07 I Usc 4.5 for sizes 2 in. and 3 in. and 5 ior 4 in
* Repl.intrd by permission-Rase, H. F., P e t ~ o l e v r n Refix<',., 82, No. 8, 141-144 S For 150 lb and 300 lh welding neck only.
(1953).
 450 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design

TABLE 18-9. Fabrication and Erection Costs* TABLE 18-10 (continued)

hlultiply carbon steel ciicts of Material Factors Multiply by

Fabrication Costs pipe, fittings, and flanges ti!. Materials
5 per cent chrome
hlatrrial .%- oer
. cent moiv 1.25
Carbon steel Monel 2.1
All nickel and nickel allolz steels (18-8. Monel) Stainless steel, type 316 1.7 (I50 lb only)
5 per cent chrome (no nickel) and higher steels 2.5 Cast iron (125 lh) 0.45
~~ ~~

Erection Costs Valve Type Factor Multiply by

Approximately equal to cost of fabricated carhon steel pipe; i.e., material cost Valve type
of carbon steel pipe, fittings, and flanges plus fabrication cost. This also applies Gate
for alloy pipe installations if no field xelding is required. If field eld ding is re- 1.0
Glohe 1.2
quired, the following lnultipliers are suggested for application to the cost of an Check
equivalent carhon steel system to allow for special f i t u p and field stress relieving. 1.0 for class 150
0.70 for all others
Stainless steels 1.5
446 per cent chrome 1.2 ILLUSTRATION-EST~~IATION OF h GI\.EK LLSE.* Determine the erected and
dclirered cost of s &in. Schedule 40, I30 ib AS: rating (RFI, c:lrbon steel
*Reprinted by pcmlission-Kase, H. F., Pelruleurn Kcfiner, 52, No. 8, 141-144
plunp discharge line which is 323 f t long and is composed uf 12 flanges, 16 meld
(19.53).
ells, 1 ter, 1 check valve, and 2 gate vnlrrs.
a. Pipe aud fittings (See Table 1&7.)
L,
- equivalent length, ft
TABLE 18-10. Valve Prices*
D'

Base price 325 ft pipe 325

(adjusted) cost 16 ells (16) (1.3) (6) = 125
steel 150 ib O.S. (1)2.1)(6) = 13
and Y. gate valve Total: ft
70
85 Total weight: (463) () = (463)(18.97) = 8780
120
205 Cost: (8780) (0.105) = $922
290 b. Flanges (See Table 18-8.)
400 (12)(9) = $108
530
c. Fabrication (See Table 18-9.)
Rating Factors hIultiply by Total cost flanges ancl pipe = 922 108 + = $1030
Rating, Ib Raised face Ring- type
~- jolnt
. Fabrication cost = (1.0)(1030) = $1030
(See Cast iron below) d. Erection costs (See Table 18-9.)
+
Cost = 1030 1030 = $2060
e. Valve costs (See Table 18-10.)
2 gate valves (2)(205) = $410
1 check valve (1) (205) (1.0) = -205
$015

*Reprinted by permission-Raac, H. F., Prli-oleurn Refiner, 32, No. 8, 141-114 *Reprinted by pcrmission-Kahc, H. F., Pelroleam Refiner, 32, Nu. 8, 141-144
(1953).
(19.53).
452 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 453
w i b c pipc. valrcs. fitting?. ! ~ n dpiping a p l m r t e n a n c e ~for car11 antici-
11ated type ui wuvice :mil \\-it11 piping drawings constitute n rompIetc
descril~tionof tlir pil~ings?..tem.
IS tllis lin? ,\-we crmstructetl of Solietlulc 40. -1-1; pet. wnt ehrolne-moly wit11
:3OOii I1T.1 rhmme-moly flm~ges,the cost n.o~~ld he c:ilcul:itetl 11)- wing tlir :rpImr- T h e first step in writing piping specifications is the preparation of a
printe factr~r.;. list of all the prwc-;i nncl utility fluids in tile plant. T h e list d~onlciinclurlc
:I description of each fluiil. its prc,rsurc. temperature. and an? service
peculiarities. Careful study of this list h s e d on a knon.lcdge of the
?. (11~)(2..ij = z..jxo propcrtiei of piping nlatcriak a i \\-ell a* the operating conditions n-ill
+
d. 1030 10:N) = 2.0fiO rcrcal certain c;~tcgoriesur rxnge. of servicc conditions upon ~vliicli
r . Gateb: 12)(205) (l.i)(l.25) = 872
Chrrk: (1) (%O5)(l. i )(1.25) = 436
specifications can be 11nscrI.
Tot:~l ?51O.%iO Therc ;ire t v o extreu~esin q~ccifirntionwitin:: t h a t ~ h ~ ~ be u l;rvoidrd.
d
h ~ e p a r a t especification ran III, ronceivahly 1%-rittcnfur I::I~II fllriil : ~ u dfor
Y 111nn11erof SIIIIIII q ~ c r a t i n g1.anges. T h c s:~vingin purcl~a*e11rice>I:IIV

friction p r w w r ~,lr1111 > i* ~ ~ a l r u I : ~:IS

t e ~for
l i ~ ~ e o ~ ~ r [ ~ r i ft -l ?u i l~~l l~~. , c w r , is q ~ c n tnlany t i ~ n c sover hy thc ndiltvl c,l?ri?:il, cnginivring, :in11
\\.11cn t h l ~ r c ~ s u drop r ~ ! ib I:lrg? ;IS i n l m g I ~ I I I . ~ ,: I ~ . S ~ I I I ) 11i I~~
L IO
II I I construction cost- rausrd l ~ ytoo ninny sl~~,rifiratii,n?. Tile otlrcr cxtrernr
:ivc'r:igc i l ~ ~ n s i ti-y not v;ilirl. TIII.1wc-snrc 1lr(,11ran Ire written nrglwtin.: i- preparing only unc or two speciiicati~~ns v i t h i n n t ~ r i a l sliatcil t h a t call
static head, n.ithst:lnd the most c r e r e operating conditions. All tile 1r.s x v t w
scr\-ices will illen. of course, hr m ~ r cth8o adequnlrly s e r w d , \vliicl~
~ v o u l dhe costly and actually ~ a s t e f u l .
Sollie o p t i ~ n u nnumber~ of categories ahout m i d x q betvcen thesr t\\-\-o
extrernes Innst be found. .1 careful study must he m:rclc for ear11 project
to d c t t v ~ ~ ~ it rhr ei ~optilnum. .If e n cxtril r e e k s rpcnt ,In thc l~rcl~:ll.atiim
of piping .;pecifications early in thc project 1r.ill produce great savings in
tinw and erluil~mcntcosts.

Nomenclature
.is explilincri in Chnptcr 5 it is convenient to dcsignatc <me11 fluid by
smne letter rymhol and e:lcll category or q~ecific:~tionby :I convcnic~nt
s y n ~ b o l . T l m e symbols \\-it11 thc line mnn111.1. comprise tlic coinpletc
clczcripti~~n of cach section of piping for use on the niec11:inical in How
where P = psf
diagram, piping drawings, m a t e ~ i a llists, and in n.arehousing n i ~ c r : ~ t i r ~ n s
I, = i t of pipe
rll~ringconstruction.
1 r = I13 S C I ~
1-alvcs n k o are descritld by :I nnnil~rringF ~ S ~ C I I tI .is w u a l liractice
I J = insiclc dialnt:tcr in it
t r ~includc in the piping spccificntions a typical valvc and catalog nli~nbcr
H = 1341
1'= " I t wit11 the n - u r d ~"or equal," im~netliatelyfolloring tlrc nanle. This i b
follon.cd b y a valve number. Use of the r a l v e nullher on piping dm\,--
\Vhen it is nut possihlc t o neglect t h e change in pressure causcd b y ing* rednccz the size and conlplexity of notes on t h e draxing. Furtlrer-
diderences in elevation a s in deep gas \\-ell-: nlure co~nplcxcquutiotls rcsult. more, the same number is used in tlic lists or hill;: of material and
Solutions h v e been presentcd,G.'2.'9 but the process plant wlrlun~ purcl~aseorders. T h c manufacturer also places the valve nulnbcr on a
presents sue11 problems. t:ig :itt:~cl~cd to each valve, enabling positive identification during storage
a t the jr~l~sitc.
PIPING SPECIFICATIONS
\\'hilt or a f t e r the piping specification is c a r :I v;11vt, list i:i
Carcfnl\y prepare11 pi11ing s1~tTific:1tionsLIW r q u i r m l for the s ~ ~ ~ r e ~ ~ f ~ l l n l ~ ~ n w i ~c ,~r :~~l li-t ~ I I ~ : I ~ ~I ct . i. , ~c o n ~ n ~ o11r:wticc
n to h \ v S : ~ t ~ - t o - i ~ i v , ~
cconuniic d~higrr:lnd ~ ~ n ~ t r u ( ~oft ipnr ~ ei c - sp l i i n t ~ . Specili(.i~tiun- ~ k - d i n ~ e n - i ~ ~and
n s oI11er p ~ w i n m td a t : ~F U ~ :I> I AS.1 flange l.ating< O I I the
454 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 455
v;llvc list. This list aids design-drafting since it providrs in a single piping spcrifiration and as a guide or cheek l i d for those preparing
compilation all pertinent data for use on the piping drawings. spccifiratiuns and not as a recommendation of specific items. Indeed one
of the no st unfortunate practices in enginccring design is the copying of
Specification Preparation ~pecificationsused on previous projevts, hiaterials and eqnipment mllit
I n order to more fully explain the technique of specification preparation he evaluated fur each joh and a rarefully ronsidered decision made on
an exanlple of a typical specification is given below. It is preceded by the basis of facts a t the t i ~ n eof design.
tlie reasoning 1%-hichusually accompanies the selection of materials and
specification categories. Flange a n d Bolting a n d Gasket Selection
Table 18-11 presents a summary of the fluids to be considered together 150 111 M A flanges and flanged fittings, according to .4SA BIG-5 of
v i t h their service cunditions and letter designations. the Code, will be satisfactory for all the services in Tehle 18-11. except
9,HA: H B , and H C for w-hich 300 lb ASA flanges are required. F is also
TABLE 18-11. Summary of Fluids for Example Piping Specification ~ i t h i nthe 300 lb ASA limit, which allows pressures of 340 psi and 300 psi,
Operating rrspertively, for 750 and 800" F. Raised-face flanges can he uscd for all
Fluid pressure, temperature, of these services. For service H C , however: although operating a t no
desienation S c n x e and fluid pig "F higher temperature and pressure than HB (300 psig and 800" F. Maxi-
HC Hydrocarbon - mumi. ring-type-joint flanges (RT.1) will be specified since t,his srrvirr
HR Hyrb~ocarbon 250 800 is for heater cross-overs, for wliich a t times operating temperatures m a y
H.1 Hydrocarbon 250 750 Maximum
be morc severe. Tlie R T J flange facing (Table 16 of tlic Codc'~permits
H Hydrr~carbon a teniperature of 850" F and a service pressure uf 300 psig Thus a safety
6 Stetmr
Steam. exhaust margin of 50 psi and 50' F is provided.
Steam, condensate 15 240 150 lh .4SA flanges will be used for services A, AC, F, and C since this
Air, utility 100 Ambient rating is the lowest nominal steel flange rating. AC, which is dried air
.\ir, instrument, dried 50 .\mhient
50 Ambient for instrument services is often run in galvanized piping utilizing s c r e ~ d
Fuel, natural gas, dry
Caustic 50 Ambient malleable iron fittings and flanges. I n this servicc galvanized piping will
Instrument piping Rltnie as line services be used; however, all fittings will be forged steel and all flanges will he
TTater, fire protection cast steel bcrause of the possibility of fire. For the same reasons servicc
\Tater, process cooling A, utility air, F, fuel, and C, caustic, will also utilize steel fittings and
Water, utility 75 Ambient
40 Ambient flanges, hut, the piping will not be galvanized.
Water, sanitary
Service I N , instruments, must have tlie same specification as tlie procesi
The numher of specification catcgories has hecn restricted to five, line when in contact with the process flnid.
11, 3 , P, 9, and Z. This mas made possible by specifying certain items,
surli as bolting, according to tlle class of fluid. Further simplificat,ion Gasket Selection
\ma acconlplislled by careful planning so that the specifications have been Compressed asbestos ring typc gaskcts will be specified for all s c r r i r r i
limited t o four types of flanges, twu types of bolts and five types of pipe. except S, HA, H B , and C. F o r these inore severc services corrugated
I t is a t this point t h a t the procurement sertion of an organization can iron, double jacketed, asbestos filled gaskets will be used. For HC, a
be no st helpful in kceping the project engineer aware of changes in avail- ring typc joint flange facing has been specified, thus oval iron ring gaskets
ahility of materials. Before the specification is completed the engineer are required.
should determine if the materials specified are available, otherwise t h e
xill he wasted later in deciding upon substitutions. It may be desirable Pipe Selection
in wine cases t o list alternates for materials of uncertain supply. T h e thickness required for pipe in each service can be determined from
T h e example specification should not necessarily be interpreted as a thc equation presented previously and recommended by the Code
recrnri~nendationof certain types of valves, fittings, or piping materials. +
[ t = ( P D / 2 S ) C ] . Reference t o Table 21 uf the Code indicates t h a t
T h e specification is written in a complete form as an illustration of a ASTM .4106 is satisfactory for services above 800' F. Tlie allowable
456 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ntrrsn f o r G r a d e h a t 800" F in 9300 psi nnrl i;cIrc.il~~lc 80 p i p n.ill 11r
satisfactory. Schedule 40. .ASTlI A106 is adequate for HH a n d H A
F o r all other services except TI'S ( a n d where cast-iron pipr i; sprrifird
in W s e r v i c ~ s )t h e lees expensive s e a m l e s . X S T l I A53 G r a d e A pip? d l
be specified. F o r service \TS, sanitary w a t r r , ASTAI .I-120, whirl^ i- a
11.~11algnlvanized pipe sprrifiration, \\-ill ire ~jlecified.
Pipe 2 in, anti b r l m - , fils all ~ c r v i e r rc x r e l ~ t \YS,will IIC s e a ~ ~ i l c s .
l e .ST11 9 - 8 3 . Schedule 8 0 l ~ i p eis used in t h e smallt,r size.
S e h t ~ ~ l u80
tu provide structural s t r e n g t i ~ . A t t h e time of rvriting ASTAl A-83. tl~ougli
~ m r crw t l y (it is m a d e t o conform t o t h e more exact tubing specifi~,;itim
was inucli easier t o obtain t h a n .ASTI1 .&-I06 or 4 4 3 .
F o r s~u;tlI air piping used in instrument a i r trnnemission lines :); in.
0. I). soft annealed copper tubing a n d compression t y p e nonferrnua
fittings r i l l 11e specified.
Typical Piping Design Specifications
1.000 G e n r i d
1.100 Unsis of Design
The de$ign, fabrication, and erection of all piping nnd ~cccisories~ h : dconfirm
to prnctices specified in the Code ior Prrssure Piping AS;\ U.'3l.l-l!lji, or l:lt?-t
iswe rhcrrof, and to the drawings nnd the following specific:itions. All rrfcrencca
to the code herein shall be understood to refer to the above ASA Code.
1.200 Definitions
The terminrhgy used throughout this specification and on the dmxings will
hc in g e ~ ~ e r that
a l conforming to currmt trade pr:rctires.
dnc/tur. Point uherc piping is fixed is callr4 thr, xnclior point. The ~ i w i w
attached to pipe or the conlplete strncturr if it serves the singlc purpose of fixin?
the pipe is calleil an :~nchor.
Bleed. .A small valve provided to draw off liquids.
Uli~td. A plate sized to be inserted in a flxnge to isolatr n portion of n syitcrn
Bloc/: T'nl~,e. h valve furnished to shut off a srpar:ite system The tcnu is
loosely used x i d may be understood to mean m y valve which is wed for shut-
off service rather than for throttling.
B.O.P. Bottom of o~ltsideof pipe. Used for pipe $upport loc3tion.
Control Valve. Any one of n number of different types of valves, remotely
opcmtcd from sonw type uf instrument.
Directions. The Plant Xorth direction sho~rnon plot plans and other ilr:~\~incc
mill serve for orientation of equipment.
Drip-Leg. A . rertieal section of pipe located in 11orizont:~lpiping to deHect and
"catch" co~deniate.
F I V . Field Weld.
Grudient. The siiccessive drop in elevation of piping to insure gravity flow and
drainage.
i d . D r r i c ~contrdling the direction of piping move~~ient
Hanger.. .I roil :,nil clzmp, a chain, or a spring device wrrl for snpporting
pipe is called n Ixloger.
Piping Design 457
L i n r .1 pipe m n from one point tu another. The ile.ip:ition. Tine Sumhrr
is a niunh<,r :111d s!-tnbol appearing on the piping drawings 1,-hirh idrntifies the
pipr :icci~rdin: to sizr, proce~sfluid, :enera1 loention, and ~prrifir:it,on.
P . E . Indicates plain-end. Used to differentiate between thrcadrd-rnd pipe
and mill cut. A procurement term.
. The dcsignatiun P.S. is used to indicate Pipe Support, which -npliurt inxy
be one of the above anchors, guides, or shoes or several rtmbined to farm tlw
support
R o n P i Pipe f i ~ r n i ~ h rind r:~ndrm,]lot c i ~ t lrngtlis*
,
Shoe. Dcvire iwlcletl to or clnmpeil to :J pipr ~liir11liru\-icle<n l ~ m s i n .
I S.P. Sample point. .I sm111 valve wit11 necw.s~ryp111ingto ~ K I T T .::~n~plw.
-
S p r r The line specification.
Spool. A short pirce of pipe provided n-it11 Ilntrw~.(Thr: tern, is also u s d
to indicat,, pirees of iabric:itcd pip,,, bnt a llicce of fnbriratd pipe dew not
niw.iaril? alnnl-s 11;ire flmoe; on c:~rI, rml. Lists of sparil nrmbrrs :rrc called
spool-slieer~. These nre often wed :I? notitiration to n fabricatur that he ma>-
proceed with f:rbricntion, i i . , receipt of the spool slicet releases all the listed
>pool.. I
S p u l S t i n i b e r . A mmher identif~-iug:I lliece aE fabricated pipe.
S T . Strain trap. I:sunlly srhri~i:itically indirnted, but understood to n1ea11
I rhr tr:ili and neces~asyvalrinp :md piping for by-p:ie;ing in nnrrgrnries.
i ~ .4 pr~rfnrnted
. metal shrct trmpornrily pl:icrd in n fl:inged joint to
iirulect equilment iron1 foreign nvxttrr in initial operation. Permanent strainers
I shall also be furnished xhrrc indicated.
I
1.300 Line Snmbering System
.
,lhr: S d l o ~ ~ i nnumbering
g system shall be w r d as line identification on pij~ing
appe:l~.inpon How shcrts nnd piping drai~-ings The complrtr lint. nrnnber shall
I ronsiat of llir follon-in: components, :I? illustmtrd: 4-Ilh-101-11-The first
! ni~merulis thi, nominal line tizr. The HA de.ignntr,. the service; the 100, thr
:ire3 nrnnber, nnd the RZ rlr-ipnatca the piping spwification npplic:rhlr.
Line numbers ~ h 1.11:inge:
d ( 1 ) K h ~ nsix. I.~IRII:~..; ( 2 ) n-hrn sl1rr4ic:itirm
d~anges;(.3i when bmncheu leave original line; ( 4 ) n.biwi-er an additional line
numbrr rrould simplify the engineering and dr:iftin:.
i
1.100 Lirte Sizes
Piping shall br sized in accorrlane? with best cnginrrring ~ m o t i e efor prrsrnrr
drops ronsi-tent xith proper oprrntiun of erluipmrmt. In genrrd thc Sollorrin:
limit:rtion shall appl:-:
1.401 Sizm .?k in., I$!( in., 2% in., 3% in., 4% i z ~ ,5 1 1 1 , and 7 ju. ~ 1 ~ not 1 1
i
be wed.
1.40'2 I)rnins, m n l ~ l r and
, rent lines ahnll be 7.i i n niininirun imlws o l h e r ~ i s e
nuted. Drnins for hot piliing sh:rll be not iris than 1% in. nonlin:d s i x .
I 1 . 0 Exr.q,t for inztri~nwnt tninm~isionlinri, pillin~run on suliport shall

458 Project Engineering of Process Plants
not be smaller than 2 in. Smaller sizes may be used for short runs less than one
support space in length in special cases.
1.401 Underground lines beyond process area limit^ shall he 3 in. or larger.
S a n i t a n water ( K S ) may be 2 in. minimum. Certain utility lines may be smaller,
but must be considered as sprrial cases and approval secured.
1 jOO Genrral .Votes on P i p i q Design
1.501 Aboveg~mmdLines
.ill process and utility lines within the process area and all yard lines outside
from the process aren except ~s-nterlines, sewrr lines, :mil ccrtain designated pomp
and compressor line; shall he run ahovrgruund on concrete sleepers, or overhead
on structural ~ t r e lsupports.
1.50'2 ilwangement of Abolteground Lines
Aboveground lines running in the s a n e pl:ine shall be arranged so that the
bottums of the lines, exclusivr of insulation, are a t the sanir devation. Sufficient
height milst be allowed to clrar the insulatinn of insulatcd lines, and this height
ahall govrrn the d c w t i o n of uniiwulated lines as w l l .
1.503 i?le~,ationof Aboz,eground Lines
K h r n pilring is run in parallel groups, one rlev:~tion shall be srlecterl for linrs
runnitig to Plant R ~ t and h South and anothrr r:kwition for lines riinning East
and West. If piping is run in "hanks" or l a y r s un pipc supports the clear
dimmyinn brtwwn bottom of pipe in one layer and top-of-pipe in adjacent
layer r11:ill be three times thr mminal diameter of the largest pipe in either
group, plus twice the ertrnsiun of a flange beyond the outside diameter of the
largpst pipr in rithcm adjacent layer. Lines shall orrlinarily change elevation
whr~1thry rhunge direction, except a t the discretion of the designer in special
rases and for nboveground linrs not. running in a bank of piping. The dimension
of cle:~mnceslid1 he the same as that given above. The largwt pipe sizr in the
hank ~11:ilInln-;iys govrrn for rlearanrrs. (Plant North is an arbitrary direction
set on Plot P h n i for nrirntation prlrpmes in all ~ w r k . )
1.504 I<leuation of L'nrleryr.ound Lines
Changes in directioll of :ill undergronml lines, except sewers and drftins, shall
be nccomp:inird 1,)- :I change in elrratian except in the caw of linrs 24 in. and
o w r . .ill imdi:rgmrind piling shall be arranged ns far ;ASpnssihle for free drain-
ing to snmr lnrv point. Access shall be proridrd a t drainage points.
1.505 I,ocation of Valves, Use o/ Chain Operators
Ilii~phriigmcontrol valvrs, motor oppratetl valves, special manual control valvrs
. -
and lubricated d u e cocks shall be located so that thn-" may" he r ~ a d i l yncressible
~~~
from platforms, when elevated, or at grade, when possible.
The .same \\.ill apply, in grneral, for block valves, check valves, etr., unless
adjustmrnt of the valve is not. requirrd during operation in rrhich msr extension
strms or rhain oprrators shall be wed. Seven feet-three inches ii'-3") is the
maximum distanrr the center of valve wheel ma>- hr located a h o w the oprratin:
I r d 11--itlrrrutt h r use of a chain opentor or extension. Chains shall rrtend to
~ v i t h ~three
n Spet I:(') of the platforms, from which the r a l r e will bc apemtrd.
Ver rri rhain oprratcil v:dves, howcver, shall br kept tn a miuimum. Val\es
requiring extensions, stems, or chain operators shall he noted on drawings. Keach-
Piping Design 459
rods or ~xtrnsionstems, fipld fabricated, sh:~llhe prnvided for vnlre.< 1% in,
heion- rathrr th;m ch:iin 5,-he&
1.506 Oueihead Clearance
Ovcrhead lines running from vessels or other elevated equipment to steel pipe
supports or to cuncretr deeprr.? shall have a minimum r.lear:ince nf 2 3 0" .~hov,.
p h n t roadways, and railroad (rails). Y-CY' shall he the mininnlm piping clenr:~rrer
above \ralk\vays and platforms and above grade in the immrdiate pruicsa an,:i.
1.507 Bent Pipe
Pipe shall not be bent to a mean radias of less than five (5) times the nrrrninal
pipe zize. Exceptions, when ncrrsrary, shall he accon~plishedb>- mrma u i .sIlrir.i
radius welded fittings. Such special fittings shall be noted on arr;lngeirrnt
drawings. .4 minimum straight run equivalent to two or mar? pip" iliametrrs
should he allowed betrreen t v o adjacent pipe bends ~vhereverpwsiblr. Carbon
strel pipe 1 in. and below may be cold hrnt on hrnding m;~clrinr-. .illuy pipe o r
other pipe subject to cold w-orking strrssrs sh:d he considered :u spwtal :ind
shall he bent arrording to specified pruceilures.
I..%% Angle T'alu~s
The use of angle vnlveu shall be avoided.
1.509 Drains, Vents arid Test Openings
Drnins shall be provided a t low points and vents a t high points. Thr drain
and/or vrnt shall consist of a 6000 lb forged sted pi111. coupling iwldid into
the line, a short schrdule 160 nipple, and a 5i in. Gate V:ilrr in a c c o n l n ~ i with
,
the line specification. I n hot process lines the drain or vrnt shnll not br lrss
than 1% in. nominal pipe size. For these connections a hexagon shaped t l i r t d d
steel plugX shall be madc-up into the valve. All snch plugs shall rztend :it lmst
3 in. beyond threaded portion.
Teit connections ur threadrd connrctions for future use it, pil~ingor vrs.vl-
shall be fabricated the same a5 drains nnd vrnts n c r p t valve ma>- Ijr, omitrr<l
and connrction plugged. Shipping plugs shall he rrmo\~rdfrom wch connwrinn-
and replaced with hexagon steel plugs as noted above. Phlgs for insulotd
equipment shall be fahricatrd to extend beyond insulation.
1.510 Service Co~mectionsorid Utilities
% in. hose (manufacturd, heavy) connections for steam, air, and m t e r shall br
ii provided a t convrnirnt points in the process area for genrwl iltility p~~rlioir...
Utility lines a t vertical vrsiris are to be run nilj:~cmt to v e s d i ;ind outside oi'
! insulation but not outside of tower platforms.
- 1.511 Connections for Pressure Gages and Pressure Instruments
Connrctions for pressure instruments to indicate or n ~ o r dpump dischargr
preisurrs, shall he located in the discharge piping between the. pump Hnnge, nrar
the pump and the first valve. Other points shall be noted on draivinga ~lli,cific;tlly.
All such pressure indicating or recording points shall he nccebsihlr. Teit point;.
may be accessible by ladder. Bleed-off valving fur preiwlrc inctrnmrnt:itt~~t~ an
' T h e plug consists of a piece of carbon steel hexagon bar stork tlrrmd~dwit11
ordinary pipe threads on one end. So called threaded bull-plugs often rmsh iitls.ing
liglrlming, damaging Lhe pipe coupling or the thrmds.
460 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Ii,d 1i1m ~1i:iIllw pmvi,lml with :L ~ I O L I I ~I11,rk
P 1 1 ~ 0~ t l w s ' l :ind I d m l ~ : t l n
I w : ~ t ~brtwtwi
d t h r tn-o hlucke. Instrument, hlred sizes nced not folIo~!- (Ira111
a ~ r~r ndt ~ising,bnt any hleed piping for hot serrirw rhall be not less thnn
'12 in. nnmin:il sizr and shall hr nrranprd so that a rod may hr drixen up t h ~
w l r r :iiui fitting. I3let.d pipinp fur hot fll~idsxliirh 111:1y i g i t r "11 expninrr t o
air i h o ~ d dhr i ~ ~ p p l i ewith
d :L >implr pipc <milroolrr 1,-ill1 u-ntvr j:tr.krt. I i I r d ~
from orcrhr:~d l i m p nnil from pnpr EIRSSPT shall hr piped t o prnrle or nr:lrwr
opm drxi~icrxcrpt t h t tlw < ~ m<)f l SIIPII ldwd p i p ~ n gsli:~Il hr I ~ ~ I I I frmu
? IIK
primiiry or .srcold:ry bleed v;dve.
Talring armngenienls for instrumrnt crinnertions d l be shomi on initrumrnt
connection drt:iil h w i n g s .
1 . 1 2 Tlzei.,no-~cclis. Test Ti'ells, Orifice Plnnges, .lliscdiun~o~rs I,,strmnrnis
.\I1 temper:lturc il~itnimentpoints and orificr flangi. lowtioni sh:lll Ili2 1111te~I
on pipin: rlr?\\-ingi The nrrrwary fittings ;1nd ;~rmngrment.;hall hr i h o \ ~ non
instnmcnl ,wheilr~le; ~ n <iwtriuuent
l inst:~ll?tionilr:ii~in:;.. .\I1 irwh init:l11:1tiolis
rh;rll hc Iicld f:~l,rirntni, unless otherrrise noted. Orifice fl:~ngrsshnll bp loc:ite<l
in the exact position -horr-n on dmrr-ings. Thermo-\velis shoidd be accessil~lrd1e11
pr:~ctical.
1.513 Stram Traps
Typical aml spi,ci:d itenm trap nwrmblie: shall he shorrn iu detnil on " S t m n -
Tr:ip S c h i ~ l u lL)r:ln-inK"
~ : ~ n diilrntificd by thr trxp imnrhvr. T h r +:i111 tr:111
location will bc s1iorr.n on liping dmn.ings by s y m h d and numbrr.
1.511 I?rpmxion I,onps
If itrrss<w p r o d ~ w i lb?- vxpnnsion or contraction of pipins cannot he rrdncrd
to the allrnv:~ble li~nitsof stress as defined hy the Cork, by c h : ~ n p ~ins d i r r c t i o ~ ~
or c l e ~ r t i o n ,espnnsion loops rhall he providrd. Snrh loops, ior pipin:: 6 in.
and :,hove shall hr fahricnted from w-rlding fit.tings. Cold spring slioll not hc
,,.wl.
.\I1 espan;ion loops shall in general be in a vertical plane, rathrv t h horizontal.
~ Ste:mi ronnrrtions from ste:nu hntderq to cquil,mmt d r i r r r i rhnll he provided
Loops nmy he hung dormward fnm supports, and romplrtcd\- fnbric:~trdfnnn
rr-elding fittings, i.e., two OO' mid ells-one 180' m l d fitting, or f o ~ 90" ~ r long
-
rnrlins vrld ells. Expnniirm loops shall he rlrsigneil for a niaxiniitm stress of only
-
,a:& of that allr~n-rilby tlw cwle imlvr thc .seriicr.
1.515 Piping at P i m p s , Compressors, a ~ l dTurbines
1.5151 P i m p s
Chcck vnlrrs shall he provided in discharge lines of all erntrif~~pal piimps
nptrmmu of first block valve.
1.3152 Tnnporary str;iinrra shall be hbricated from mnchine perforated
s h w t m ~ t : d not lrss th:m x6 in. thick for piping u p to 8 in. nominal size :?nil
not less than $& in. thick for all sizrs above 5 in.
1.5153 P u ~ i ~ pand s piping shall he so arranged that minimom clearancr
hrtiwrn projrctions of adjacent pumps or machines shall be 2' G". The niinimimi
o p ~ m t i n gaide, \\-hich shnll be a t the driver end, shall be 5'0". .4clcquate
cle:imnw shn11 be provided for the r i t h d r a d of reciprocating parts or parts
which require horiaontal ~rithclmrrals.
1.5154 Suction and discharge piping shall be arranged in aecunlnnce ~ i t h
Piping Design 46 1
t h ~"Stnn~lnrils of the Hydraulic In>titute." Watcr pumps shall be installed
~r-it11Hoarlcd sitction.~5s-hererer posihle. Otherwise, foot valves and ejector or
injector -\items 41all b r provirlrd.
1.5155 Hot pipino connectione into eqnipmrnt such as pumps and turbmcs
shall Ije nrrangcd and anchored to eliminate all podsible piping stre% being carried
into ~irachinr.
1.5156 Piping crlnnectioni. to equipment shall not IX run h o r i ~ o n t n l luver
~
or acrws equipment. E q ~ i p m m tn111.t he left clear for reinrxd h>- e n u o or
nther m:iintmanee r q ~ ~ i p m r n t Scr
. 1.603.
1 S l 5 i 1.nbric:lting ;ysteni, gliind-swl, :d i m d l watrr rooling piping illall
bc shm~-r-nin detail on drawings to a\-aid possible ronnection errors,
lL515' Con~pressors
C o m l ~ r r ~ - opipinp
r clinll be :irmnped tn avoid uxccscive or cyriic vibration.
Sec 1.5157 far i,ibric:~ting oil :ind o-:itt,r - p t e n ~ s .
1.,5E3 7'7irb~ws
hl~rhnniciilezpnniion jointi ih:111 he j,roridwl ill a11 e z h ; ~ l w-team
~ and 1iX.r
steam lines connecting t o cquiptncnt. See 1.51,R for lubricating oil and i,--aier
systrmi.
1.516 S t m m Ezhniist mid C'o~iricnsutcLitips
All secondnry or satomtrd stc:im piping :~nd rrhaust steam piping shall be
run ~vitlra pradient. Drip-legs 11-ith rteam traps shall be provided in this piping
nt all junction points and other points cnnsiderril nrrcisarl-.
Steam traps shall he provided in d l vertical expansion lool~i, The discharge
fro111 all steam traps shall be run t o the nearest conden~atereturn header csrrpt
:IS r~otrrlon draxings.
X r i n str:r~ndistributiou hmdrrs shall he run with a gr:~dient,and drip-IF:-:
sh:111 hr prnrided for e o n d r ~ ~ w rrmoval
tr
with a pxtr rnlvc loc;~trrlin a horizontal run at the hca<ler, and a glohe v:~lvr
xljacent to the driver. Thii r:~lving shnll he in n,klition to m y eo~rtrolmlvr..
Esh:mst 8tr:im connections : ~ tthp driver shall hr prorirlrtl with a gat<: vnlvr
:~~lj;wrntto thc driver. S o block valrc shall lrr proridwl a t exhaust s t r i m
he:idcm '/'z ill. minimom nominal pipc iizc romlcn-ate I h - - o f f connections sh:dl
be provided in buth steam and eshirust connections at equipmrnt and run to the
nmrrst open bus drain. Such lines shall not be submerged in liquid or run to
bottom of t h r drain box.
l.(i00 I~'abr.icatW,narid Fittings
1.601 S i m p and Fie& Fabricated Pipe
.Ill pipc 4 in, and abovr -h:~llhe shop f;~brir:ltnl,utilizing velding fitting;.
(On foreign projects it is oitrn rconomicnl to shop fabricate (rveld) pipc rloyn
to 2 in. size to save C.S. expatriate labor.) .ill 3 in. piping shall be firld
fabricated utilizing melding fittings. A11 2 in. piping (2Y; in. when I I S P ~ and )
m a l l r r sh:lll be field fabricated, utilizing screwd fitting?. I n certain cases Ern
2 in. piping only, mlded joints may be more prartiral than scremd. Where
welding is to he utilized it shall be clearly noted, (for 2 in, piping only) on
: ~ i .ill. ql\-:nliznl pil,iug shall he run ;crt,ned So d d i n g rhall LM
prl.fo~niedun galvaniactl piping.
462 Project Engineering of Process Plants
1.60'2 Changes i7r Diwcfio,i
1.0021 Change. in <lirrction of all screwed piping shall be made with pip?
bends where possible (we 1 5 0 i ) : n t h ~ r \ v i ~ use
e , scre~wdfittings, or ad noted
above in 1.601.
1.6022 Changes in i l i r e t h n of welded piping shall ordinarily be made
with sr:imlctrs bnttwelding rlboxe. Bent pipe may be used, depending on the
specification, the service, or the application. See 1.507. Pipe bends in piping
6 in. and above sl~allbe considered as special c a e s and must be authorized.
1.603 Flanged Fittings and Spools
F1angr.d fittings shall be kept to nn absolute minimum. Short flanged spools
isee 1.200) for piping 1 in, and abovr -hall be provided at each piece of equip-
mrnt for rrrnoval purposr. At pumps and turbinw the spool nay be eliminated
if valving or rxp:~nsion joints provide removable pieces of piping. See 1.5156.
1.601 Redticem
Changes in ~ i z rof x r e ~ ~ - elinr.
d shall be cffrrtrrl with forged step1 (only)
icrewed reilucing fittingq esceljt at .srrriyrd rontrol vnlres xherr ixagrd nipplcs
iseamless only) may be used For flanged or welded lines seamless buttddin::
reducers shall be usrd. The use of reducing sere\<-cdtees shall be limited to side
outlet reducing only.
1.605 Branch Connectors
Rranch connections in shop fabricated piping may be madc x~ithoutthe use
of buttrveMing fittings when properly reinforced according to code reqniremmts.
Rutt\vclding fittings shall br wed for branch connections in field fabricated
I l e l lines. Flanges shall he provided for the rednerd connection near the
branch.
Manifold connections may be made bj- mcans of 6000 lb forged strel couplings
\vrldcd into the pipe. 8 1 1 such connrctions must conform to code practice.
I.argr size (above screrred) piping may be n-elded directly into headers for
manifolds. Threacl-end nipplcs welded into pipe bosses shall not be used.
1.606 .Va.rimum Length (Shipping)
Yo shop fabricatrd intcgral piece uf pipe shall rsceed a maximum length of
-10'0", nor a midth or height excerding thc limits of n nine (9') foot rectangle,
regardless of whether this limitation is indicated on the dralvings. Field melds
shall he undrrstoud to be required whenrrrr the pieces exceed these limits.
1.607 Cormection Fla7,ges and Blind F l o ~ ~ g e s
Flangrs shall be supplied in piping outside the process area limits only at
selected points and shall be on~ittrdor kept to a minin~um. Flanges in steam
piping systems particularly shall be kept to a minimum. All piping run as
headers shall be terminated by blind flange.
1.608 Buttwrlding Elbows
Buttwelding 90" elbow shall be long radius type. Exceptions, where necessary,
shall be noted on arrangement drawings.
1.700 Testing
Piping Design 463
1.701 Field Trsting
After rrrrtiun but bdnrr appliration of ininl;ltiiin, all linen shall be given a
I,\-iirostntic t r 4 :is follon-s:
1.7011 Ex11 w r . r i u l ~ d piping ~ I ; I I I he tested hydrostntic:illy 3t a p r e w r r
equal to twu (9tin~rsthr lowest prim:~ry-rrvicc pressnrP rating nf thr fittings,
wives, and flmgcs in the line, hut in nu case less than one and n n d ~ a l ftime.
thr iictn:d normal vorking 1resiure. (In certain 11ydroc:irbon and chemical
processes all witer mnst be removed frun~any part of the proers y s t r m before
operation. Such processes cannot be twted 11-ith xater since the romplete re-
moval of the nater from the iyitem could not be effected \rithont ili;asirmhly
thus nullifying the test. Son~rother ntwptable process Hr~idnmit he used for
testing. Air may not he used since it d l also leave m t e r nr lihrirntion oil as
a contaminant. Such reqnirements m w t be developed early so th:it the fluid
d l be available.)
1.7012 The trst pressure must not be greater than one-half times the
maxim~lmallorvshle \vorking prrsure for the pipe or as determined in acconlance
vith tcsting rrquirem~ntsin the Code.
1.i013 The twl prtwiirc niust not he grratrr than the maxinnrm allonahl~~
pressure for the rwakest pirw of erplipnlrnt installed in thr line and incliiild ill
the hydrostatic te-t. In ~ t w r : i l ,ru:i,im q n i p n m t such :is vessels, e x ~ h : ~ n p w ,
pumps, mil compressors -hall b<,isolated from pipe line hydrostatic test. When
necessary for practicability, exchangers and vessels may be included with the
connected piping, provided the piping test pressures are xithin the allowable
cold pressure limits of the eqnipmrmt.
1.7014 The lowest hydrostatic test pressure shall be 100 psig
1.7015 The follorving equipment shall he exch~dedfrom thc g m ~ r a lhydro-
static test, bnt shall br tested with cornprersrd air ( : i d soup suds) ;it pressure
rqml to the allo~vabl~ working pressnre of the rqniprnmt and linrs or equal
to the maximum comprcsaed :xir prrswri., rvhidlrrer is the luwer.
1.70151 Instrument Air Lines
1.70152 .4irlinrs to Air Wotor Oprrntrd Valves
1.70153 Pressure Parts of I n s t n m m t s in GRSor Valmr Scrvice. All other
pressure parts of instrnments, ho\vcrrr, rhall br whjerteil to tln: general hydra-
static test, exccpt ~ v h mtrst prrssurc c s r r d s normal working pressure, in ~ ~ h i c h
case the instrumrnt shall tic isolatrd.
1.70154 Plant Air Lines
1.70155 Plant Fuel (::IS L i n ~ s
1.7016 Relief valve? d1:111 be exrlndrd from the general hydrostatic tests.
- Blinds shall be instnlled betwren the relief valve inlet or outlet and the section
of pipe being tritrd.
1.7017 f here the test is to be made wing m;itrr or othcr Huid, all air shall
be vented from the lines as Huid is zdrnittcd.
i 1.7015 Thr! piping and equilxnent being subjected to the hydrostatic test
I shall be maintained under pressure for a sufficient length of time to permit
thorough inspection for leaks and defects.
1.7019 All underground pipe anchors for bell and spigot elbows and tees
shsll he completed previous to testing, to avoid the possibility of I h n i n g out.
464 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design
I .iOL'O Slroi, 7'catinq
1.8016 Bolting
All Hanged, shop-iabrieated, carbon steel piping for foreign shipment shall he
hydrostatically tested before shipment to trice the prrisnre corresponding to Alloy steel holt studs, see 1.901.
the 43.4 Hange rating of the piece being rested. All alloy or heat treated shop 1.601i Guskets
fabricated piping shall be tested in the same mannm whether for foreign or Asbestos filled double-jacketed corrugated iron, except for Specs. .4 and SC
domestic use. sheet asbestos ring gaskets dlall bc wed.
Carbon steel pipe fabricatcd x~ithoutflanges will li,r sr~hjwtto ficld test only
after errction, and thr shop t r d will br waived 1.80181 Gate Valves
.ill shop tests shall hr p ~ r f o r m r din the preirnw of and be nitnessed by the 1% in, and smallrr. 600 lb STTP forged carbon strrl screwd, in,<idescrrw
purchaser's inspector or ilclrnated rcpresentatir-e. stern, union bonnet, 11-13% ellronie st:iidr.;r strrl rrilu i \ : i S i . For Sprc.
1.5000 Pipe Specificatimis .4 and SC, see rlniler 1.SO:Bl.
2 in. and larger. 150 lh A s h standard rait carbon steel, Hanged, O.S.&l-., I l -
1.8010 Specifiention >I
Thii sperifieation dial1 :rppl\ to the follno-in: srrvicr~:
13% rhrome stainl~wsteel trim;
sre I.S0:3Sl.
x6in. raiscd face ( T l ) . ;Vote: For Spec SC,

ISOIS" Globe Vaives

1% in. :ml cmaller. 600 lb SWP forged carbon steel scren-cd, inside scrmv stem,
union bonmt, 11-13% chrome stainless steel trim 1V3.1). Xote: For Sncc. .-\

230 psi :xt 1 0 0 ~F 2 in. and larger. 150 lb AS,

I50 11.4 at 3 X ) ' F
100 Psi at 75OO k' (Mazirnnm)
Xote: Use Gate Valves for sizes above 6 in.
1.8011 Pipe
Seamless carbon steel, random lmgthi, P.E. for F ~ Z ~2 Sin, and hrlor, bevelled 1.80183 Check Valves
for welding 3 in. and above, conforming to ASThl Sper. -453 G r : ~ k-4, latcsl 1% in, and maller. 600 lb STVP forged carbon steel scrcwed, horizontal, piston
revision. type, 11-13% chrome stainless steel trim (V19). Kotc: For Spec. -4 and SC,
2 in. and smaller. Schrdnlc SO. (May he ASTM-A106 or -483 if -453 i- see 1.80383,
unavailable.) 2 in. and larger. 150 lb .4Sh Standard cast carbon stecl, flanged, %G in.
3 in. through 10 in. Schrdnle 40. r a i d face, swing-type, 11-13% chrome stainless steel trim (V3). Xotr: For
Spec. SC, see 1.S0383.
IS012 Flatigrs
Forged carbon steel, 150 lb AS$ rvrlding neck, x6 in. raised face conforming
to .4STM Sper. 8181, 1:itrst rrvision, Class I, 0.35% maximum carbon. sot^,:
1.SOIS-I Plug Values
% in, Size. 2000 lb \TOG forged carhon steel, screwed, lubricated p111gu r h
Uorr! of all weld neck flanges to br the smie as the I.D. of pipe vith \!-llirli nsrd (T110).
1% in. :ind smaller. 300 lb WP cast c;trbon steel, screwd, wrench o p i ~ a t e d ,
1.8013 Fittings lubricated plug cock (V58).
1'/~ in. and smaller. Srrcrwd typr, 3000 lh CWP forged carbon stcd. ,;
2 in. to 6 in. sizes. 150 ib ASA stnnd:lrd cnst carbon s t t d , H:~ngeil, % it].
2 in. and larger. Butt~t-eldingtypc, seamless carbon .tee1 conforming to ASTM raised face, wrench operated, hbricated plug cock (T54).
Spec. A231 and A106, lateut. revisions, Crrade -4. Inside ili;tnir~t~,rand x i l l
thickness to he same as pipe with which nsrd. 1.SO"O Sprcification N
2 in. and larger. Flanged t)-pr, 150 lh AS.% stanilanl cnst carbon strrl, :q6 in. l'hls spccificatim shall apply to services S, H A , H U , HC SOU lb pmcrss oil ard
raised face. vapor, 2l.i lb stearn:
Cast Steel Flanged Fittings. Do not ordinarily use. Rating: 300 psi @ 100" F
1.8014 Unions 3i5 usi (ii 500" F
300 psi 750" F
1vi in. and smaller. 2000 lh CTVP forged mrbon steel screwed, ground joint,
integral steel seats. 1.8021 Pipe
? in. and larger. Use Hanges as apeciiied above.

IS015 Bushings and Plugs

. Seanlless carbon steel, random lengths, P.E. for sizci 2 in. and below, bevelled
for w41ling 3 in. and above, conforming to ASTI1 S p w :\lo0 Gr:dc. .A. 1xte.d
I.~\.~.-LoI~.
1% in. and smaller. Steel hexagon bushings, and steel hexagon barstock plugs. 1 i I : I l r S c l ~ t ~ l ~SO.
dc
Use reducers where rednetion is more t h m two sizes. 12 111. m d larger. ll.:ii3 i n Wall.
 Piping Design 467
466 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2 in. t o 4 in. Sizes. 300 lb .4SA standard cast carhon steel, flanged, 1/16 in.
1.8022 Flanges m i 4 fare, rvrench oprrated, lubrirnted plug cock (T591
Forged carbon steel, 300 lb ASA welding neck, $i6in. raised face, conforming
to ASTM Spec. A181, latest revision. Class I, 0.33% maximum carbon, except
for HC, use RTJ Flange Facing.
Note: Rore of all d d neck flanges to be Fame as thc I.D. of pipe with which
naed.
1.8023 Fittings Rating: 125 psi (3 150" F
Note: All pipe and fittings for \VS service shall be galuniaed.
1% in. and smaller. Scre\ved typr, see 1.8013.
2 in. and I n r ~ r r . Ruttiidding type, Cer 1.8013. 1.80311 Pipe Above Grnde
Note: Cast Steel Flanged Fittings: do not ordinarily use. Seamless rnrbon steel, random length^: P.E. fnr sizes 2 in. and hrlorv, berrllrd
for wdding 3 in. and above, ronforniing tu .4WM Sprc. -453, Gmde :\, I;itr-t
1.8024 linions
revision, fur a h o w grad^ 11% only. For 15-S wr .4STM .I-l.'O g;ilranirrd.
1% in. and smaller. 2000 lb CKF' f o r p d rxrhon steel screrred, see 1.8014. 2 i n am1 smaller. Srhrill~le80, except for 1T.S which may b<. Schedule 40.
2 in, and larger. Use flangri :id qiecificd above. 3 in. thnl 10 in. Schcdde 40.
12 in. thru 20 in. Or375 in. d l pipe.
1.8025 Bushings and Plugs
24 in. and above. 0.250 in. wnll, eramleas or meld.
1% in. and smnller. Srr 1.801.5.
1.8026 Bolting 2 in. and ~ n u ~ i l e rSame
. RF nbor-e, except g:~lmnizrrl.
Alloy strcl 11olt stwls, c c 1.901. :j in. and abo1-e. st iron, pipe, mcchamical joint in accordance ivith hS.L-:\
21.6 or S, Class 2".
1.802i Gaskets
.4sbestos Gllrd tormented iron, e r c c ~ tfor Spec. H C which shall be 90 Brinell 1.8032 Flariyes
Soft, carbon steel, octagonal, ring. 150 11) AS.& standard forged carbon steel, l/lsin. wlding nrck, raised face,
cxcept to be plain fare \T-hrreconnected to plain-faced cast iron ~ a l r r s fittings,
,
1.8028 Valves and eqnipment. Flanges shall conform to .4STM Spec. -4-181, 1ate.t revision,
Class 1, 0.35% maximum carbon. For stet4 pipe only.
1.80281 Gate Vnlves S o t e : Rore of all veld neck Ranges to br same as the I.D. of pipe ~ i t hw11ii.h
1% i n and smaller. 600 lh SWP forged carbon s t r d srrrrr.rd, i n 4 r m e w stmi, iwrd.
union bonnet, ll-l:i% chromr st:nnle>- steel trim (V3.3)
2 in. and larger. 3W lb AS:\ Standard Cast carlwn steel, flangnl, O.S.&Y., 1.80331 Fittings. above grndc
11-13% chrome stainless stccl trim, % , in, misrd face (V4). 1'4 in. and smaller. 30Cl 11, stamlurd mdleable iron, screwrtl. Galvmizrd f o r
WS u p to 2 in.
1.8028'2 Globe Valves "11. :and larger. klr~ttweldlngtype re:rmless c:irbim strel, ci~nforniingto ASTAI
1% in. and imnllrr. 600 lb S1T.P for& <.arbon strel i c r r ~ w dinsiclr screw S p r c A231 and AlOG, Iatwt revision, Grade -4, a t same 1.1).and thieknrss ;is
stem, union bonnct, 11-13% chrume st;iinleii stwl trim (Y34). pipe with which used.
2 in. and larger. 300 lh AS4 Stnnilnnl c a d cnrbon steel, flanged, O.S.&l-., ? in. and larger. Flanged typr. Class 1% lb ASA standard Cast Iron.
$is in. raised face, 11-13% chrourr stainless steel trim (V5).
S o t e : Use gate valves for sizes above 6 in. 1.80332 Fittings to size required, below grndu
Class 150 mrchanical joint fittings having the same laying dimcnsions as AS:!
1.80283 Checli Valzws Class 125 standard flanged fittings.
1% in. and smaller. 600 lh SWP forged carbon stwl wrrrr-eri, horizontal, piston -
typr, 11-13% chrome stninlws steel trim iT.19) 1.8034 Unions
? in. and larger, 900 lb. 4SA Std. rnst rarimn itrrl, Himged, N6 in. raisrd

1
1% in. and smaller. 300 lb standard malleablr iron, screwed, ground joint,
iacr, swing-type, 11-13% rhrome stainlrzs rtrrl trim (V61. brass to iron seat.
2 in. and larger. Use flanges as specified above, or merhanicnl joints. On
1.80281 1'1~0 l:al~,es raqt iron pipe in acrordnnce r~-it11AS.4 A 21.11.
% in. Siap 2000 lb \TO(:, forged carbon strrl, z c r ~ w d Inbrimted
, plug rock
(V110). 1.8035 Bzrshixga and Plugs
1?L2 in. and smal1t.r. :300 lb 1T.P cast cnrbon stcel, s c r e w d , w e n c h operated ! Hrmgon steel bushings and hesagon steel plugs. Usr reducers where r e d u r t i o ~ ~
irtbrmtrd plug cock ( V S )
468 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 469
is mnrr than tn-n ;iaei. ?;OI(,:.ill cl~angeifrom m-t. iron to stwl ,.llnll be r(Fvrtr,cl 3i n .I . a n r F :I . I I A t a n l r l s t iron r o t a :
by a fl:inped cast iron it11b piece eonnertrd to a mechanical joint. Ule either xrerl-ed or flanged as required.
Note: The us? of cast iron Hanged fittings shall be kept to a minimnm.
I8036 Bolting
1.8044 i n i o m
Stsndard carhon stcrl square hmd machine bolts with semi-finished steel nuts
for steel piping. Bolting shall be supplied rr-ith cast iron piping in accordance 2 in. 1 . : I . 2W0 ib CWP forged carbon steel scre~red,ground, joint,
with AS.4 A21-11. intrgral stcel seats.
R in. and hrger. Flanges :ire perrnivihlr ns sprrifird obove.
I S 0 3 Gnshcts
x6 in. thick crmpressed n~hestos. For raised-facrd joints. Use ring gasket- 1.804.i Bi~shinysmid Plirgs
in. and :mailer. Steel llr~sagonhiwliin:~, and steel 11ez:t~onIx~rstorkpin:?.
for raised-faced joints and inll face :;iikets ior phin-faced ioints. Plain com-
position robber gaskets shall be supplied x i t h ca-t iron pipc. Use reducers xhere reductim is more th:~n trr-o size;.

1.8038 Valves 1.8046 Bolting. Carbon steel m:ichinr, hrilt.2. -pi. 1.901.
1.50381 Gate l'olvea 1.8047 Gos1:ets. ?Il6 in. ron~prrswila s b r s t o ~gasket.
1% in. and i'tnallrr. 1% ih SWP b r a s , screwed, rising -tern, inside scrcw
1.SO46 I'al13es. See 1.80:38 for f i l w Specific:ltinns.
(V47).
? in. and larger. 125 lb hS.i stnncl:~rtle:w iron, Hanged, O.S.&T., bmss trim; 1.8050 Specification Z
and s t n u (w6). This specification bhilll apply to instn~rn?iltscr\-icrs only:
2 in. and larger. 125 lh 45.4 stand:~rilcast iron, flanged, 0.S.R-1'. (fire service Instrnnlent Srrrices Rating, see Linl Scrrii.cs.
donble-di-b, nonrising i t r m , bm*.~trim, m y 1 ( V I l T ) .
1.8051 Pipe
l.S03S'! Glohe T'alws
Instrummt 1e:rrl linrs, or line? rv11ich carry f l o i d ~to and from inqtrnmrnt
1% in. and smaller. 250 S W P hrars, acrewed, rising iteln, m i o n bonnet (V51). elements shall be the s:lrnc spr,cific:ition or l,ctlrr, than the line wrriic? fro111KII~I,II
2 in. and Ltrgcr, Use gate valves. instrunlent line originntes. Srhcdnlr 160 uipplrs J u l l hr used up t o first blork
valve where any danger of physic;d dam:ige to pillin: is possible. Extensive
1.80383 Check Valves
runs of small sized lines shall hr avoidcd, lalt n . 1 wi.rss:in-
~ ~ i.trnrtr~r:d support
1 in. 2nd imallcr. 250 lh S W P br:w s r n w r d , horizont:ll piston type, Xi- nlr~stbe provided. Instrument 1,iping of p r o r v s fluids meceding 25 f t most be
Alloy sent. :ml disk (Y101) authorized prior to installation.
2 in, and lnrgcr. 125 lb -1S.4 standard cast iron, flangrd, sning type, Imss trim
(V25) 1.805? T~tbing
I SO384 Fire Hl/drants Copper t ~ h i n gih:ill he nsed for air tral~smisiion lines. .ill tribing ?hall be
in. O D . 0.0X'' Kall ASTM, B68, nonar~rnirnlrokl dr:t\m, v;rcmm annealed.
Two hnsr conneetir~n,p h n t type hyilrontq ( V F ) .
1SO53 Fittings
F1:irrd-type fittings shall be i~srilfor :ill cr1ppt.r tubin: lines.
1.6054 Values
Vidving n s r d in instrnment lead piping i11:dl be of the samc specification as the
1.8041 Pipe origin at in^ line specification.
S e ; i n h s cnrbon steel conforming to :\STY1 S p c r -153, C,r:idr A, lateat reriaion,
galvanizrd. .4STM-AX3 nrrcpt;lhle for 2 in. :ind .smaller.
? in. and smnller. Schedule SO.
3 in. thru 10 in. Schedule 40. 1.9010 Alloy Steel Bolting
Alloy steel bolting shall be provided for serriccs S, 8 , H.4, HB and HC and
1.SO42 Flm~yes shnll confornl to ASThI-.41'33, Grade B7, CI:w i fit for bolt, Clnes 2B fit ior
Cast iron, 125 ib -45.4 scremed, flat face, galvanized. niltr, ~71thtwo (2) henry series hexagonal nut? each. S u t s shall conform to
. S T 5 1 Spec. -4194, latest revision, Class 2H, oil qiwnched, hot forged. .411 other
1.SO42 Fittings bolting shall conform t o ASTWA307 with Claw 2A fit for bolts and 213 fit for
2 in, and smaller. Srrer~edtypr. 300 lb standard malleable iron, galvanized nuts, excepting bolting fumishrd by pipe vendor for 11' services, which shall
screwed, meet M i - . V ' l . l l requirements.
470 Project Engineering of P r x e s s Plarls
Piping Design 471
1.9020 Clenmnp a ~ t dp a b ~ t l w ( b ) .121.61953 Cast-Iron Pipe Centrifugally Cast in Metal Molds for Water
19021 After erection all lines shall b s cleaned ~ n t e r n a l l rby cirndation tr; or other Liquids.
remore :ill dirt and o t h w iorwgn matter bpforr thr, plmM h ~ , e l i loperntion ~ (el A21.8-1953 Cast Iron Pipe--Centrifugally Cast in Sand-Lined Molds for
C u r sh:ill lw taken t o t h o r o u p h l ~ clran :ilr hne.. t<, i r ; ~ c t ~ ~ a tdiaphragm
eil Kater or other Liquids.
control V ~ I . C S , hefore they are connmted, and niter ronnectlon up t o last fittine; id) .421.10--19.52 Sho1.t-Bodr. Cast-Iran Fittings. 3" to 12".
before initniment o r valve. ( c ) .A21.11-11153 illrr,hanieal Joint for Cast 11.on Prersurr Pipe and Fittings,
1 9 0 2 :ill underground (buried) shop fabricated stecl pipe 3 ni. thru 10 ir. Sperifirttion for.
siae shhll have e o a t i ~ gon the outside only and v r a p p i n g applied xs follows: ( f ) B16b-1044 Class 250 Cast-Iron Flangfs and Flangcd Fittings.
a. Clean by sandblasting. ig) B16.1-1948 Class 125 Cast-Icon Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
h .4pply one coat of bitu~nasticprimer. ( h ) B16.3-1951 Malleable-Iron Scmred Fittings, I50 lh.
c. Apply first coat of bituniastic enamel. (i) R16.4-1949 Csst-Iron Srrpacrl Fittings. 125 and 250 lh.
(1. Apply second coat of bitumastic rnar~iel i j ) R16.&1953 51ccl Pipe Flangcs and Flnugrd Fittings.
e . Spirally xmsp one layer of 1.5 lb asbestos felt ( k ) B16.+1951 Stwl Butt-llblding Fittings.
f . Spirally wrap on? la:-rr of 60 111 Krnft pnjler. ( 1 ) B 1 6 l G 1 9 3 9 Fnrc to Fnce Dimension of F c ~ o u sFlanged and Welding-
End Valves.
19023 ,411 underground ( h r i e t l ) steel pip<, sh;i11 have ~ n s i d eand outside ( r BlG.11-196 Steel Snekel-Welding Fittings.
c l ~ u n n iand wmpping applird o i follo\~s: ( n ) B16.1S1847 B i n s or Bronze S<:rencdFittings, 125 lb.
Slic~cificatiosisInside (for 12 in. a i d a h o w ) (0)B16.17-1949 Brass at. I3ronsc Scrpwrri Fittings. 250 lb.
n. Clean by sandbl;isting. ( p ) I316 19-1951 M a I l ~ a t , l ~ - I ~ .Sc~e~r.ed
on Filting*, 300 lh.
b. Apply one coat biturnastic p n m e r . ( q ) B16.20--1952 Hing-Juint Gnskctr and Ct.oovus for Steel Pipe Flanges.
c Apply one heavy coat hitumnstic enamrl. ( 7 ) B16.21-1951 Xonmr.l;illir ( : a r k ~ t sfor Pipe Flangvs.
'ip~cificntsonsfor coating a n d wrapping uutside cjf pipr: sh:~ll he same as inr [.*I 831.1-1951 Code for Prcsaore Piping, including s u p p l r n ~ m t ,U31.L-I855
:ii n , thru I 0 in. siae as specified abo\-r, 1W22. arid B31.1.8--1'352.
19030 Ftreproofing ( t ) B36.1 to 36.26 ASTM Iron and Stecl Plpe S1wr.ifiwtions neceptpd as
American S1und;rrds.
Pipe s u p p o r u carrying main steam hesdcrs o r hydrocarbons through arras
5. .American \Tatel. TTorks .Assori;~tion,521 5th .ire.. S e w Yolk. K. 1.. Standards.
subject t o fire hazards shall he fireproofed t o the point of t h e cross load beaxmy
6. Clinrdinst, IT. 0 , Oil a n d G u s J u w n n l , $3, S o . 4. 79 (1945).
niembers. or as noted on drawings.
7. Cmnr Company Cat:zlog Y o . 53, Cranp Comlmny, Chicago 5, Illinois.
19040 Steam Traps 8. C r m c Company T ~ c h n i r a l Papcr No. 409, Crenr Comp;my, Chiwgo 5,
Invertrd htirket-type stram traps shall be provided f a r nll srrvices e r c e l ~ i , Illinois.
t h w t ~llnnilling small rl,~antitiwof ~ t m mfur ir-lli?ll w i e ilnpulsr i\-jlr t m p s nlay 9. C I O C ~ PSabin, T. Piping Iin,iribr,ok, 4th E d , H m . . MeC~~.n~v-Hill Rook Co.. S e w
be u a d All l u c k e t type traps s11;11I li:i\-r ir,rnrd o r exst i t r d hudies with Yak 1955.
:illuwablr~ working p r e s u r r of 600 psi m n i n n u u All other traps shnll be steel 10. f i ; ~ i i i r d c u lr r i l w s , f : g o i \ . t h ~ tV:il\rs Co.. 115 \Trsf 7th St.. Los Angelrs 14,
:uid h31.r sen.icc ruting a t least t x o times line pressure. Califomin
11. F d e r ; d Sprcificntiuns, Snp't. of l)ocunrrnli, K;isl~ingtun25, D.C.
REFERENCES 12. Juffe, J., C l z e m Eng., 6fi. SCI. 8 , 130 (1949).
13. l m l l s i ~Cwtalug KO.55. I.ntliri~Co., Cwlahy, Kismnain.
K o ~ P Cerbain
, mnnufneturers catalogs have been included as references to de~crip- 14. I,uBmheimer, Circular KO.552, 553, 555. 1.uhenhrirnm V ; k r Ca.. Cinrinn;iti
t r e information. The omission of othcr manufacturers' prmted information should 14, Ohio.
not. he ronstrurd as a judgment ngmnst it. It would he impasabk I 0 inrludr .I 1 5 Manufactwr~.'FStandurdizatim Soriety of thr Vnlvc nnd Fitting Industry,
complete hst of the many excellent ratahgs available. 420 Lexington Are., S c w Yolk 17, S . B .
1. American Gas .ksoriation, 420 Lexington Are., Xcw YorG. N . Y . Standanir 16, Moody, I,. F., Trri,ii. A m . Slit. M c c i i . Eiigi?... Uli. 671 (1944).
2. American Petroleum Institute, Standards on Pipe, Flanges and Valves i A P I d d . 17. Sor.dstt.onr Valve Ctitalag S o . 10. Sot.dstl.orn Ttilrr D i v i s i m Rockwell Mann-
B, F, G-1. G-2, G-3, and L, API 600 A and If). American Petroleum Institute. farluring Company, 400 Lexington Avp., Pittrhul.gh 8. P i t .
D ~ n s i o nof Prorlnction, 1205 Continental Bldg, Dallas 1. Texas 18. Piping Engirir~rirtg,Tulhr Turn-; R ~ s e a r hStaff. Tuhr Twna. Inc.. Imiisr-illc 1,
3. Amwiran Society of Merhanical Engineers, 29 K e s t 39th SL.,Kew Ynrk 18. Kcntncky (1847-53). S~1.ir.siis f o l l o ~ ~ :
?J Y. 1.01 Codw :and SperiIikations, Snwres of Piping Drcign Info~~rniiliun.
4. Amernan Standards Bssociat~mspecification, Bmerican Standards Assmatmc. 2.01 Pipe h1;ttwinlx tmd Tllivknesses, Pip? hlntesials and tlrpir .Allonable
70 East 49th St., i Y ~ wBork 17, h' Y (A majority of the standards listpd below aro Stresses.
nppror.ed by the A S 1 and published hy the ASME I 3.01 l4'luiil Fluw Fluid flu^ in Pipe.
< a ) A21.1-1935 Compntntiau of srreogtk nod tbtcknesi cf Cmt-Iron PIFP. 4.01 Kr]vmsiun i ~ n dI'lrrih~ltty. Intrudrwlion to thr Piping Flexibility Prohkm.
M a m d for 4.02 Expansion 31111 Flexibility. Z, L, U , and Expansmn li hcnds.
472 Project Engineering of Process Plants
5.01 \ I ~ l r I ~.ruinti,
d Joint Prcpnration for Ruttwlding.
502 Welded Joints, Wclding Rings.
CHAPTER 19
6.01 Mechanical Joints. Standard Steel Pipe E'l;ingei.
6.02 bloehanicnl Jomti. Ratings of 1meric:in Stanilnl.ri Steel Pipe Flanges.
19. P o ~ t t m s n n .F. H.. J . Peti-olermi T e d . , 5, 317 (1951).
20. P o ~ ~ e Talrc
ll Catalog. Powpll Vak-e Co.. K m . Po\\-ell Co., Cineinnab 22,
Ohio.
21. Rase. H. F.. P~.ti.iilciit,iI<rfimi, .3?, So. 8. 141 (1953).
22. Refi,iu,v C o t d o g , Gulf Publishing Co., 3301 Buffalo Drivc, Houston, Trrar,
1854.
23. SlnnrLr~rIsof the 1Jyd,-riitlic lrt.sLil,itc, Hydmnlic Inatitutr, S e w T o k (1951).
24. Standaxla of t h e A S T I I . P w t I and 11, Am. Soe, for Testing Materi:dc. 1916
ilar:? St., Philadelphia. Pa. (1952).
25. T a ~ l u iForge Cdnlogs S u . ,184 and 423, Tnylm Forge and Pipe \!-arks,
Uiicago 80. Illinois.
26. Tube 7'xrn Calrilog S o . 211, Tube Turns, Inc., Louisville 1, Kentucky.
2:. U. 5. Dept. of Commerce, U. S. Commercial Standards and Simplified P r a c t i c ~ s
Her:onimmriations. Sop't. of Dorurn~nts,Washington 25, D. C.
THERMAL
28. U. S. S a r . .
v Soeidivalions. C . S. Saxv. Dr.1,1.. . . am1 .Icrountv,
. , Bureau of Sun~rlies
Kashington 25, D. C.
29. 1.ogt Cnrnpiwy Cnfoloy S o . F9. Hen1.y Vagt Mschine Company, 1,onisrillc 10.
Iient,,rl.\.
~-~~~...... .
INSULATION
30. Vogrin, C. M., Frank C. G . Williams, and Julm S. Worth, . Z l ~ d e m S t d
Ilnlli,~g for Piping nnd Pressure Vessels ASME Paper 52-PET-7, 7th Annual Mcct-
in& liansns City, Xlo. (Septcmhrr 22-24. 1952).
31. 1Volwor.lh Catalog So. 52, Walworth Company, 60 E . 42nd St., New York Thernial insulation, propcrly applied, aswrcs effective operation of
17, s.Y. process eqniprnent and conserves valuable heat. There is always a vide
~ n r i e t yof insulating materials for a given situation and careful considera-
tion niust he giwn to each type so that an intelligent dccision may bc
~narle. I t is not possible to rlescrihe e r w y typc of in;rilnting material.
but several of tlie more frequently used typcs for process plants ~villbc
clcscribed.

INSULATION MATERIALS
Insulation materials can he classified into lour types: (1) fibrous
(2) granular, (3) cellul;~r,and (4) reflective. I n a practical sense, sucli
classifications, ho\vercr. often liare limited m l u r sinre sonle romnicrcial
products consist of a enrubination of several of thwe insulating materials.

Asbestos
Asbestos is a natural-occurring mineral of tlie composition 31\Zg0.
2SiO2.2H,O, a hydrated magnesium silicate. It is rock-like in its natural
state but can he crushed and changed into soft, silky fibcrs. I n this state
it has a texture of ~ o o and
l has, thcrcfore, amazed people d o a n tl~rougli
the agcs, since it does not support combustion. .Me.stos is used in many
forms t o manufacture insulating matwials, rither hy itself or in combina-
tion with otlier substances. By the addition of binders it can be fashioned
473
474 Project Engineering of Process Plants
into paper-like structures, either single flat layers ~ ~ i tthin
l i air spares
het~veenlayers, or as corrugated nshestos paper built up into lnyers. T h r
relatively dead air q,aces $ewe tu decrease the cunrlucti~-ityof the fin-
isbcd insulation. These nibcstr~spaper insulations arc efi'rctive Up t o
aruurrd 300" F'; almve t h i ~temperaturt~the hiniiing n~aterialdecolu~~oses.
Asbestos can be given ;I felt-like structure t ~ ycou~hininpit ~l-itlismall
uarticles of some spongy, cellular material. This fclted ashcstos resists
vibration and witlistandr rough handling and temperatures up to al.uunil
900" F. .ksbestns fibers are used t o strengthen higll-ten~peraturediato-
maceous earth insulation and 8570 magncsia insulation.
Diatomaceous Earth
Diato~naccousearth is an unusual form of silica, having a high mclting
point. 2930" F , and unique properties. It is composed of minute silica
skeletons of diatoms, which were microscopic plants t h a t lived millions
of years ago. Large deposits occur in Califnrnia. A mixture of ashedos
and diatu~naccousearth forms an escellcnt high-teml~eraturcinsulation
1600 t o 1900F) and is mannfactured under various trade nanies.
Eighty-five Per Cent Magnesia
For tcrnpcraturcs up t o aruund 600F 85% magnesia insulation is
perhaps the most popular insulating nraterial. I t is composed of 85%,
magnesia and 15% asbestos. The asbestos fiber provides the reinforcing
qualities necessary t o permit niolding and manufacture of pipe sections
and other shapes. The so-called magnesia constituent is actually a
magnesium carbonate produced from dolomitic linxstonc hy the action
of carbon dioxide on slate dulomite. V7hen properly instslled, 85%
magnesia maintains its excellent insulating properties for many years
and is thus an economical material. It has the disadvantage of not being
able to support any appreciable load.
Eighty-five per cent n~agnesiainsulation is often used in combination
with diatomaccuus earth insulation. h layer of diatomaceous earth in-
sulation is placed adjacent to the hot body and is of sufficient thickness
to produce a surface temperature of 600" F on its outside surface. The
diatomaceous earth insulation is then covered by a layer of 85% magnesia,
which has a lower thermal conductivity value and can be used in the lower
temperature range below 600" F.
Eighty-five per cent magnesia makes an effective insulation mat,erial
because 9076 of its total \.olume is dead air space the conductivity of
which is low.
Mineral Wool
Mincral wool is manufactured by blowing niolten silica minerals into
threads. These t h r e d s can he fashioned into insulating blankets or
Thermal lnsulotion 475
molded into hloikq by adding suitable binding ulatcrials. When a watcr-
proding hinder is used, an effective lov-temperature insulation can be
proilueed, n-l~icliis highly moistlire-resistiir~tand rot-proof. I n this fom,
it is generally called rnincral or rock cork. IIineral wool is also used for
insulating hon~esand buildings.
Vegetable Cork
Saturn1 eurk contains r n m y thousands of ~ c a l r ddenil-air spares. I t
is light. yet strong: it ilws not aiworll vapors nor is it adversely afTectecl
hy r~wtting. These propertics inake curk good for luv-temperature
insulation.
Expanded Polystyrene
Styrene: polymerized and molded to occlude many bubbles of air, forms
a light and serviceable low-te~npcratureinsulation. It has replaced cork
in illany applications.
Glass Insulation
The 1mv tthrmial conductivity, nonconibustil~ility and inertness of
glass are desirable fcaturrs for insulatim. Ilolten glass can he spun into
fihers siriiilar to that of mineral ~\-ouland these fihers fashioned into
blankets, molded pipe covering or blocks. Glass fiber insulation is nor-
mally good up to 600F, althongh sorne special designs withstand 1000F.
Since glass cannot abrorl~v a t e r , glass fibers mol~ledinto bi~anlsserve
as low-teniperature insulation v h c n p r i ~ v i r l ~xdi t h a suitable ~ ~ a r n i - s i d e
v a p r seal (see helun.). Cellular glass i~rsulatingmatcrial is made of
thousands of glass buhbles molded into a rigid structure of extremely
light xeight. This cellular glass material ia suitable for temperatures
from - 350 to f 800' F. I t is available in hlocks and in shapes for pipe
coverings.
Although not a glass, another insulating ~naterialis made of materials
very similar t o glass, called hydruus calciuni silicate. This inaterinl is
effective up to 1200F and is ~noistureresistant. JTbm hlendrrl ~ v i t l ~
small a~nouritsof asbestos fiher, its strength is increased
Thomas and Turner" have prepared a table giving the rharactcriatics
of the a h i ~ r einsulating nlaterials and certain others of coninwrrial im-
portance. This summary, reproduced in Table 19.1, is notable in its
ubjectirity. l'hc use of trade nanies has been avoided.
Reflective Insulation
Heat is transferred across an air space prodnced hy two solid bodies by
rncans of radiation: conrrction, and conduction. I f the width of the air
space is properly chosen and the temperature drop across the air space
 Thermal lnsulation
476 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
TABLE 19- 1 (continued )
TABLE 19-1. Characteristics of Thermal Insulation Materials*
Rcri~t- Rmrt-
%me ancc
\laieriab General formr Strcngth to wafer to vapor Com~mitioo
Hi~'dand.sr,"!-n,gitl~
h$llrrtus tilk I ' r w ~ r dillto p i r r i l l GCIIXILU
~IAI and arcel- Errellmt Fair Long amoslte fibers
tnfrndrrd~ ~ l ~ t i o , I,~I,XL i h t tensile r t r ~ w t h blended r i t h binderr

I I Prwrsed lrlto ppein- ( h o d corwrornue and iair Yodeiafe L m g ammite fibers

lsuperl sulrtion and bluch fimurd n ~ c n g t hIim
; Irlmdrd r l t h binders and
lt"d te..,$ rtrungih dlatolnarrou~rart1i
Hrmiler a d usrd as ininer Sot ruitablr for I d s i n g 212 1900 056 ll5Y 002
Diatmmous \Inldcd and lurnled (:od c o i n ~ m s w e Fair hlud~rato I)irtomar?ous rarth luwc undm 85% magnesia under h m r y load: rws-
earth ~i," ,sr"latlo,,, srg- ~ t r m g t h limited
; nc7- hlcndrd a l t h long a.br -here operrfiur trmyrrs- flcrible
mmts and blocks uralandte~~rilestc~ngth tor fihorr t i i r ~r x r r d i 5idOF.

i.irhtrn.ht, rpri~ipni. .%R will not rrdrt 32 4in n?i

nlld Ai\ll>lr lll~rhanirnlahus" to
l , 1"

Ihsil? shaped m d fitted: Should boprotrctedagainst -PW RW 11 95 0.42 O5:l

do?%,,Ofi1~pe.d on vawr ahranion. Dr.lgn I",rx-
barrier lor ik rnpor resist- "as&,, and contraction
anre: inromhustihle. Bigh
ie,,l,,cTatUI* li,i,it(

Hiqh shrarine r~risfsner: Sot suitalh lor bridginq 70 i 3 W 0 4 W 0.450 0.510

Hydrow >loldrd iornlrd cud eomprerrire and ~ w d Moderate Hydrous calcium sibmte high con,pressirr rtrenqth under heary lord; non-
rllriuln "i,,~insulation, see- fipmral strength: lirn- hlended with long aabes- Hnible
ailirate mmts and blorkr itcd trnsile straneth tos fibers

65% blolded and formed Good eornpmsn~e Fnir Moderate 84% h p d r s t ~ d m a w *

pipe inrulrtion, $8.. strength: limited flex- arum esrbonate
ments and blocks ural and temilestren~th

hlinrral cork Formed piir insubtion Moderatooompessive Good Moderate llincral swl fibers with
for law temp. snd block and tensib strength asphslt hindea

hlineral r o d &&rinid blanket, ate. Moderato c u n ~ r e ~ s i u e Pair Mudemlo hlincral r w l fiben

lor low temp. form"d lllt" pipe isan- and tcllsil~strenqlh ianded
Intion, block m d l a g ~ i r w

hlineral wool b l ~ l d c dinto blocks u,d ~ i ~ i t ~eod~ ~ p r e s s i v e E x r ~ l l r o t )iloderate ! d i ~ ~ e rfibers

al hlended
(or hirhtemp. lagging and tensile strength: r i t h binden
lair naxurai strength

Polmsrane B i d m d nine
iusula- bloderate compressive EIEIIIC~~~ ~xcellent Polyatjrene w t h air
icxpandedi tim strength: fair tmsilr eella
rtrength

Vegctahlc cork \folded pipp insulation. compres.iblo under ~vod Pair (iranulalcd vegetable
blocks. lrgglng and tit- light load, but dops cork honded with
tin$ rovers sunport heavy loads natural pork rosin

Blonldr 11~lonvuticwithout dsrnr~o Each installrtion must DP IN 950 0.50 0.65

Axbritar Dlanketr Fair com,xeaive Fair Pnor .4abedm fiber m4osed curton, d<riglld
stren~th hgarhostra cloth
Flexible, light fibors vill Soft: little campressive 40 1000 0.26
Glass fiberr Fsltodglass fibcr blan. %it, fiexiblo: litflp Good Moderate Felted dssr fibers fabri not break down undermod- strellgth
kc1 with v r r i o u ~type8 ipresrre reiataoce alter cated with metal nmsh erateimpaet; fikre respond
oi lacings application or 0 t h facing
~ ~ to ,ownled rorn1,roseio~

IVilhstands erpanmon sad Soft 50 1ZW 0.35 0.45

Mineral WMI
Hlr,,keta T r i l l , uariou, F u r compreseive Fair Pvor Feltpd minerd am1 contraction
t y y s of lacing5 strength

Fell Excellent e n ~ e i ~ e n cl ov r Requirw r r i c h l vawr Belm 2W 0.25 0.260

Uairfelt Falted inta blanket roll Standard denritp. very Little Little 1W% cattle hair
swngY: heavy deority, rasistsoee re3i3tSiance
very fim
480 Project Engineering of Process Plants I Thermal insulat'mn 48 1

2. C'li~micnlproprrties per sq ft of sliell arcn :mil lirad m a . I f ciic11 v d o r quotes on tlre .-alnc
a. annl!-sii. hasis, the lump-sum prices can then be used with impunity in determining
b. corrr~sirenntore. the lowest hid.
c. cfect of chemic:rlr in pipe or yesel being considered,
3. In-tallation chnrncteristies ERECTION OF INSULATION
a . toxicity.
b. action on akin (does it ~cmtch,etc.). Tkspitr thc wide ~-:wit,tyof i n d a l i r ~ it g~ r r s , most ins111:rtion is man-
c. orer:dI n-or!ability (cutting, xhaping, ete.). ufactured in one or 1rrol.r of tllree i'or~us;i.e!., blocks, blank&, or inolded
sectional pipe coverings. The ~iretliod*of installing these t h e e forms of
INSULATION INQUIRIES AND QUOTATIONS
insulation arc siniilar, reg:irdless of the kind of insulation heing employed
Tlie crcctim uf insulation is usually subcontracted to a, fir111specializing 'T\\-o general rules apply tn all insulation erection. One is that surfares
in such ~ v o r k . T h e subcontractor luust bc clloscn carly in tllc dc\-clol~- sl~ouldbe cleaned th(~rongtrlyhcforr insulating begins. Thc, ot11t.r i~ tlrnt,
mcnt of the prllject FO tdiat his plans m:1y bc dcvclol~ctlin eunjllnctiou if i~lsulationis installed in rc,veral layers. ;ill joints sliould 1,s stiiggcrr(l.
wit11 the priuie contractor. Fig. 9 Tlie staggering of t'he joints minimizes the possibility of heat
At the tinic t h a t inquiries ar? made to tlic inrulntiou contractor the ac- leakage a t the joints.
tual detailcd design of the process plant has not been developed. ITsually
only tlic engineering f l o ~diagram, a plot plan, and perlial~ssereral prc-
liminary elcvation studies have been made. It is necessary, thercfore; Golvonized Lacing
Wire Fastened Between P l a t e Clips Spaced
t h a t the insulation contmcti~rhe supplicd 75-ith a very complcte description at 2'-0" on Centers
of the insdation requirenients on d ~ i c l rlie is to quote. Because of tlir
limited amount of drawings available a t tlic time of inquiry, close cu-
operat,ion betneen the insulating contractor and prime contractor is Vessel H e o d (ToD)
essential.
An insulation inquiry should include a dcacription of the work with Galvanized Steel Bands
reference t o appropriate drawings. Complete insulation sperifications
Block insulation
must a l w be furnished. These shuuld include not only tlrc insulation t o
be used, but also thc n~ethodsof insulation perfcrred. A cleal. description 9; Layer of Finishing
of cost figures desired should be given so t h a t all q u ~ t a t i o n scan be fairly C e m e n t Mixed W i t h
judged. Portland Cement
Fimshlng Cement
A complete list of all lines t o bc insulated should be included mith the Vessel Heod ( B o t t o m )
inquiry. This list sliould s h o ~ vtlre operating temperatures so t h a t the 2'' Thick Gunite
proper insulation thickness, based on thc specifications, can he selected. ( 1 Port Cement 81 3 Paris
Sand I
All otlrcr cquipmcnt, such as vesscls and exchangers, must be adequately
de-rribed, or suitable drawings furnisllcd so t h a t quantity and type id Fig. 19-1. Typical vcssrl insulation.
insulation m a y bc selected. Portions of vessels which arc not to bc in-
snlatecl. sucll RF skirts and ~nanholecovers, s h ~ ~ u be k l clcarly indicatrd. Block and Blanket Insulation
In addition to l u m ~YUUI ~ prices, unit prices' should be requested fur all Insulation furnished in thc form of blocks is extensirely used on vessels.
sizes of pipe. fittings, valves, and vessels anticipated. Close cooperation h a t exchangers, and other similar equipment (Fig. 19-13. One-half i n
\r-it11 the vendor will uiaterially reducc the anlount of w ~ r kinv<~lveilin by 0.020 in. galvanized bands are used fur securing insulation on towcrr,
such :L ~ ~ r o c r ( l u r cT. h e 111lit prires for vesrcl* should be given in priw and heat exchangers. Insulation is held on the top and bottom heads
* L ( e w o s r of the incomplete derclopmmt 01 tlrc plant desigu at tire time of with bands which are secured to studs or nuts welded t o the heads. T o
inquiry it is necessary to pcrlnit t h c insulation runtractor to apply for additional aid in the support of the blocks, steel angles are welded around vertical
fees ii it is agreed by both pmtics llmt thc scope "1 thr project has cllangrd dwing vessels and spaced a t 8- or 12-ft centers. These supports are onc-
n t . . nmit prices tire: oi o s ~in rvali~olingt l w :idd~liwal
llie h i g u , l r i v l o l ~ ~ ~ ~ a The
costa incuwed.
lialf in. Icss than the thickness of the insulation. By terminating the
482 Project Engineering of Process Plants
block a t both en& of tile angle and filling the space with loose mineral
~vool,an expansion joint is faihirmed (Fig. 19.2~.
The r x p a n s i ~ ~joint
n is corrred 1vit11 20-gage galvanizeil iron or I ~ a n l -
1v:irc rlotll an11IIICSI~ wire and then finisl~edweather-tight n-it11 insul;~ting
cement. Aiter the blucks hare been wired in place, wire 111esh (I-in.) is
Outslde of Vessel Shell
lnsulat8ng Black
Support Angle
Hordwore Cloth ( 8"Wjdth)
Loose Mlnerol Wool FIII (I' Width)
k lnsulotlog Block
Weatherproofing Plastic
Fig. 19-2. Typieal expansion joint ior block insulation. (Adapted by permission
Aber Cornpmy.)
stretched tightly around the entire vessel and laced in place. Over this
wire mcsh several layers of insulating plastic (finishing cement) are
applied, which is a combination of mineral wool pellets, asbestos fihers,
clays, and corrosion-inhibiting materials. For outdoor installations an-
other lnyer of 1-in, mes11 is laced in place and followcd by a final cont-
ing of weather-proofing plastic which consists of a special aspiialt
emulsion. .411 openings through the insulation are made ~ ~ e a t l ~ c r - t i g h t
by use of a flashing cement (e.g., fibrated cut-back asphalt).
Hlanket insulation is installed in n si~nilarmanner, vxccpt, tlmt wire
instcad of galvanized bands ran be used t o secure the blankets in place.
Insulating plastic is applied directly over the blanket area, followed by
1-in. wire mesl~to which is applied weather-proofing 1)la~tic.
Pipe Insulation
( I n Fig. 19-3 note staggering of joints.) Molded pipe insulation is
fitted t o the pipe and secured by loops of wire or bands on approximately
12-in. maximunl centers. This wire should resist corrosion or high
temperatures expected in the area. Irregularities which produce gaps
'here the joints butt together are filled with insulating plastic or finishing
plastic. Indoor piping is finished with 6-ounce canvas jacket, which is
Thermal Insulation 483
pasted on the pipe covering. Outdoor insulation is covered with a
weather-proof jacket such as roofing paper or galvanized steel or alumi-
num sheeting.
Valrcs and fittings are insulated \\.it11 segments of blocks or p ~ p cin-
sulation of the same imterial used on the straight runs of pipe. These
segments are wired in place and finished n i t h a coating of insulating
Steel Bcnds Diatomaceous Eorth
Note Staggerlnq
Fig. 19-3. Multiple-layer sectional pipe insulabion
plastic. Fittings smaller than 3 in. arc nsually insulated n i t h plastic
followed by a coating of hard-finish asbestos cement.
I t has been found most eronomical to omit inaul;ition of flsngcs on all
but stram lines. It is so often necessary in process plants to remove
sections of linee for inspection ar rcpair that it is less costly t o merely
omit the insulation around flange.;. and thus avoid destroying the entire
section of insulation a-hen pipe is removed.
Low Temperature Insulation
The principal differencc in the erection of lowtemperature insulation
is that some means of preventing water vapor iron1 entering the insulation
most be devised. Sincc thc inner suriaee of the insulation is a t a lower
ten~pcrnturethan the outer surface, the water vapor pressure a t the inner
surface is lolwr than that a t the outer surface and thc flow of water
vapor is tolVard the inside, where it freezes and causes a marked increase
in thc condnotivity oi the inrulation and also caust,s its deterioration. A
vapnr barrier can he installed t o utinimizc this movement of water vapor.
hlatrrials which serve as vapor barriers include rapor-proofing felt. which
is finished with a fibratcd asphalt sealing compound fdlor~-edby a
weather-prooi jacket. Another successful vapor barrier consists of sheet
aluminum fuil Imninattd betu-cen layers of Kraft paper and finished wit11
a special vapor-seal adhesive. Cork insulation is often finished with
s ~ v e r a lcoats of asphalt follolved by roofing paper \vhirh is applied with
additii~nalanlunnts of hot asphalt. A final laycr of w-eatl~rr-proofing
cement reinforced with wire mesh is then applied over the paper.
404 Project Engineering of Process Plants
T h e foregoing represents only a w r y general and brief description of
insulating techniques. Insulating manufacturers and erectors put~lish
cictailerl qjccifirationz ;md initructions for tile instailation of their
products. These instructions a r e readily obtainable and sl~ould.of course,
t E fdIo,\-ecl.
REFRACTORIES
-4temperature of 1900"F is the t l ~ n s i ~ n u t nh a t a n y of tlrr insulating
materials discussrd c;ln n.itl~stand. h b u v c this tempcraturc it is ncce--
sary to employ r c f r a r t o ~ yniateri:ils, usunlly cast in t l ~ rform of 1)rirk.q:
to c m t a i n the heat in furnaces, reactors, a n d other similar equip~ncnt.
T l ~ rchoice of t h e m i a t economical refractory depcnds on a number of
factors otlicr t l u n lirirc. Tlieac includc t h e pbyaic;il and chenlir.al prry-
crtios listed l~elon.. Fortunately, many of tlic trst.: nrcea-ary l o ew1i1:itc
ruclr propcrtirs h a r e becn stnn~lardizcd t ~ yt h e h ~ n c r i r : m Society for
Tczting I\lnterials.
Thermal Insulation 485
2 . Chrmical properties
rr. Chemical comnnsition: ns :I q.\ ~ a l.i t rcheck of rcfractories it i! advisable
to bnon- tlv rhmuiml rnnlpocitioo oi rnrh hxtrh u w l .
b. Chrmical reactions ~vithrefr:~rtories; it is important to he familiar n-it11
the ilir~nibtryof rencrion; that c:ln nccw hctwrrn refr:lctoricc and iuatrrials
pr?.s?nt in iurnacel. Thr tern1 -lag is n rntllrr all-incl~~iivc term n-lie11 c r r e -
to ilwi:n:~tc the urolt~nirnpuritie- prc.smt in :r futu:~ce,kiln, or rcartor. 'Slir
renetion of thew inrporitir. wit11 the refr:letor~-hrirk nluet he mil-known anll
n reir:irtor!- r n ~ ~ sbet rhown tllnt. rr-ill n-it11st:tnil we11 attack. In additim,
the rr,i.trniw of the rrft.;ir.torie- t u the g:wml.d :itrnwphcrr in 1r11i1.htlir:- will
be esl,wud is rqunll!- as inrlmt;~nt. C:rrbon nlnnoxidr, halogens, znd \-nriow
:ici,l gase: arc known to :rffrct ct.rt:iin reiritctories ndrersely. I t is imprra-
tire that i~ianniacturersbe cons~~ltrd on these l~ml~lrmi;, and it is further
irnportant to rraliae that certain rrfrnetory rnuteri:ils, I-hrn placed adjarrut
to rach otlirr iu funning refractory rwll., ma!- react wit11 mch other und~,r
oprr:iting conditions.
I?cfrnrtoric:s r a n he divided iuto 40, , I I ' I

1. HI:-sical properties
four iuain g ~ ~ o u ~ ~ ~ - a l ~ ~ m i n u - . ~ i l i c n , 'S:lm C o r h d e ' o f f %:ole
silica, basic, aud insulating refrae- 36 105 0 1200PF
a. Specific ~.rariry. I08 @ 2 8 0 0 F
b. Poroiiry; ini1ic:ition of resist:ince to penetmtion by dn:e and gases. 1oric.s. I n Table 19-2 there is rc-
c. Cold strength; indicates ability to stand 1111 under adverse shipping
conditions.
produced a comparison of some of -
the more important of these rcfrne- \
rl. Soitening temprrature: determined by use of thr 131-rometdc wne equira-
torics. T h e so-called basic refrac-
lent method rhich consists of comparing tlic test c:mple in the forln oi n
small cone ~ i t standard
h cones of horr.n softening p i n t s . tories include magnesite, chrome, 2 24
e. Load test; measures the sl~txistancervhich occ1lrr dnring thr sust:iincd and forstcritr. I n addition, ccr- 6
:~pl~licntion of a 25 lb per aq in. load unrirr conditions of operating trn~pcr:~lnri,. tnin special rcfractories such as
Bricks, xuch as silica brick, fail abrnptly at a specific iempernturt!, ~!-l~rr~,a.? ziliron carbide and zircmia :Ira :.
fire day bricks show a gradual failure. listrtl n.11ich prove cconon~icalun-
l6
/. Dimension changes a t high temperatures; ASTM.Ij i n o d e s a method
of determining the changes in dimensions that occur over prolonged hearing der certain rcverc conrlitions.
periods a t operating temperatures. This information is useful in tire design I n Fig. 19-4, t l ~ e r m a lconduc- -6
of f,rrnacri7,. tivitica of various refractories a r r 8
y. T11errn:tl expansion; important in the ultimate planning of f ~ ~ r n adesign.
cr c m ~ p n r e d .It is interesting t o note +
h. Spalling; drfined ns the breaking off of iragments from thr, snrfnce of the striking diffcrcnce between
the rrfractory is an import;int property whirh most he r r m - i h r d in thr
proper design of rrfr:~ctory ~ ~ n l l sThree
. types oi s11:illing or1111r. rl'brrn~:il tl~crnialcondnctirities of insnlat-
spalling is caused by thermal changes produr:rd when beating or ronling. ing Ixick and otlier rcfractorics. o o o o o o o
0
r - F) have the Ion-est reriitmw
Nagnr?ite, ehromc, nnd silica hricks ( b ~ l o ~1200" Insulating brick is produced from , Z ~ ~ Z" z
% " "
to thermal spalling of the common refractories. Mcchanieal spalling is rail-rd r h v s (Table 19-31 \vhic11 a r c Meon Temoernture. "F
hy str%insplaced on the brick by mechanical means such as wcessire espansirn~.
Structural spalling is caused by ch;rnges in the p11yaic:tl properties of one side
of the brick compared to the other, vhich may produce q~ullingdue to unequal
expansion. The ASTMS has outlined tests for determining spalling cbaracter- . .
istics of refractories. ble nlaterials are burned leaving L ' q . w, Xu. 6, 216 (1U53).1
i. Thermal conductivity; this is an important property since it deteriuines n porous structure. Insulating
the thickness of brick required for a given refractory wall. hricks are extremely light in weight and linve a low thcrmal conductivity.
j . Permesbility: the permeability of brick to liquids ;iud giws ib itnllortmt
since :i ~ ~ m b i n : ~oft ii~,~er~~al-ext(~r~lill
~n :ittack by i u ~ u eslag or during the l t ~ ~ ! ndiscuvcries
t n u k e it p o s i \ ~ l et u i,ro<(occ i n d : l t i l \ g bl'icks x\-llirli
use of the refrnctory will produce cxtrtmnely rapid fnilure. witlistand temprratures up to 30003F. It is p o s i b l c thcrcforc, t o ecnll-
 .ur,l! '.,"I
a,,)
OOOP

OOEP

DOPE

OOPE

OOZE-008Z

OOOE

001E-OOGZ

OOZE-omz

Lull&-0062

OOOP-om

Eo=lvSL-ZL
OSEE-CZEE W!SZ.'OZWE

089-009
SLI1
O9Z
CEZ

ooz
a a
488

9' straight
Project Engineering o f Process Plants

QJ
2' split brick
9"
Thermal Insulation

a 0%
9 " end skew 9" rotary kiln

Q
block

QJ k*

Small 9' brick lr' split brick

Qj? 2 w

9'side skew Standard 9'x4Wx2?g

9" feather edge clrcle brick

aa
9' soap
9' arch

Standard 4);'x4' Standard 4 y x Y

cupola block cupola block

9" neck brick

9. key
9' wedge
Fig. 19-5. Typieel refractory brick shapes. (Courtesy of Hmbison-TVnlker Refrnc-
t o 1 . i ~Company.)
~
ornize under certain conditions by employing insulating firchrick
instead of the heavier refractory brick (firebrick) formerly used. I m r
conductivity makes it possible t o use a much thinner wall and thc light
weight permits much more rapid heating and cooling of a furnace. The
use of the insulating firebrick, however, is limited t o situations whcrc
their low mcchanical strength is not a disadvantage and their high per-
mcahility ran be tolerated.
The basic refractories are most resistant to basic slags. Fire-clay, high-
alumina, and silica hrick are most advantageously used in contact with
siliceous slag. Operating temperature plays an important part in the
ultimate selection of a refractory to resist a given atmosphere or slag
eundition.
Refractory brick is standardized in a number of sizes and shapes
Several typical shapes are illustrated in Fig. 19-5.
Installing Brickwork
The laying of refractory brick requires the eerrices of expert brick
maPous familiar with reiractury bricks. Carciul job planning huggests
ordering 5 t o 107i in excess of the estiinated
requirements because of the inevitable break-
age which occurs during construction.
The common methods of laying brick are
illustrated in Fig. 19-6. Tlrc choice of method
depends on the required dimensions and stabil- Course
it? of thc final structure. A typical furnace
19-6. C o m m o n ~ n e t l ~ ~ l s
\\all nornially requires a combination, thc most Fig. of hying h~.ivl;.
common of which is alternate headers and
stretchers. This arrangement pruduces a grentcr structurnl stal~ilitysince
all vertical joilits are t l ~ c r c l ~ofrsct.
y
TIICmost complex phase of refractory brickwork is the c u n ~ t r u r t i mo f
~ w n i n g sin the walls and suspended arches (the ceiling of an enrlosure).
Door widths are best kept as small a s possiblc. Suspended arclics consist,
of special refractory units designed to reccivc mptnl P I I ~ I I I I ~\rllich
~I are
in t11t.11 att:tclir,l 10 a11 wcrl1e;ld stwl flanlcn.urk.
490 Project Engineering of Process Plants Thermal Insulation 49 1
the surrounding air hy a combination of convection and radiation. Eacli
TABLE 19-3. Characteristics of Typical Insulating Firebricks* of these processes can he expressed in terms of appropriate resistances. In
Xormal Approx. Bulk general the resistance produced by the fluid and tlrc pipc wall is ncgligil,lt.
Composition, use limit, $/MI density. cnlnparrd to that of the insulation and can he neglected. The equ a t'loll
Typet per cent " F.t. 9-in. equiv. ll~!ft.~ for heat flow then becomes:
Group 16 15-3i A1203 I600 115 21-3i
30-60 SiO2
ulus Ti02
Fero8, A I ~ .
Group 20 26-38 .U203 2000 125 2645 where R, = resistance of the insulation
45-61 SiOl R, = "surface" resistance of the insulation
plus TiOl,
F e.A". Alk. The resistance of any material t o the conduction of hcat is expressed a s
Group 23 25-42 .i1203 2300 AXIk.4, ~vhereAX is the thickness in f t of the material in the direction of
45-67 Si02
heat f l o ~k, is the conductivity [Btu/(hr) (ft) ( O F)]and A the area through
xvhich the heat is flowing (sq ft). For insulation surrounding s cylinder
such a s pipe insulation, the surface area %tries from inside to outside and
some mean area must be determined. I t has been shorn that this mean
area corresponds to the logarithmic mean of the inside (A.l~) and outside
I
Group 28 45-53 hl?Od 2800 260 45-65 (.4z) surface areas, i.e.,
42-5'2 Si02
~ l u Ti&.
s
Fe?08,Alk.
Others 45 .&Oa 2900 285 52
65 A190- 3000 480 69
where L is the length of insulation in f t and D is the diameter in f t
*Iteprinted hy pwmissioa, Korton, C. L., Jr., Chern. Eng., 60, No.6, 216, 1953. For spheres, this mean area can he s h o m ~to be equivalent t o the geomct,rk
tGroup number is std. A.S.T.hl.classification, indicating normal use limit (X100)
$See note under Table 192.
mean ( \ / A I A z ) of the inside and outside areas.
The surface resistance is usually much less than that of the insulation
HEAT LOSSES THROUGH INSULATED SURFACES and need only be estimated. I t is represented as l / ( h , +
h,).4z, \\-here h,
is the convection coefficient and h, the radiat,ion roefficient. Values of
The calculation of licat losscs tlirougli imulated surfaces involves the
suulrllation of the scvcral resistances to heat flow. I n a given situation
the combined coefficient h, +
h, for horizontal insulated pipes can he
estimated from the empirical equation,'
the terminal temperatures are known. The temperature, for instance, of
tlic fluid inside an insulated pipc and the room tempcrature arc known 561
and the hcat flow can be cxpresscd in a fashion analogous to the flow- of
h, f h , =
(dzOlg)(273 - At,)
electricity.
where dz = OD of insulation in in.
At, = insulation surface temperature minus air temperature, " F
h, + h, = transfer coefficients, Btu/(hr)(sq f t ) ( " F )
where q = heat flow in Btu/hr Values for flat plates can also be calculated. The convection coefficieut
AT = total temperature drop from inside fluid t o outside air for air, h., a t vertical plates can be determined from the equation
KT = summation of all resistances h, = 0.27Ato2$ where At is the temperature difference hetmeen the air
Heat flows thruupli the fluid inside the pipe by convection and by ron-
ductiun tllrougli thc pipe \\.all and insulation. The heat then passes into
492 Project Engineering of Process Plants Thermal lnsulotion

?r
a n d the outaidc of the plate. T h e radiation coefficient c a n he determined Outsirle area - 8.375 = 2.2 sq ft
12
from the eouation:

R,: At, = 150 - 70 = RI

where: el = emissirity of the plate at 7'1 From eq. 3,
TI ahsolute temperature of plate in R 564
=
1'" = absolute temperature of air in " I:
h, + h, = (8.3i5)'J"'(2T3 - SO)
= 1.96 litu '(Ilr](sq i t ) ? F)

T u determine condurtirities a n d the aalucs of h , and h,, it is nvciwnry

t o ;i<sunle the surface tenipcratures of t h r v:~rious laycrs of i n w l a t i ~ m
since contluctirity a n d 11, and h, arc tenlpcraturc dcpcndent. T l u x
nssuniptions can he checked after the heat flow is calculated since the
flow of heat must be the same through each resistance. T h e f o l l o ~ ~ - i n g
example will serve to illustrate t h e above principles.
E x ~ x r r , ~A. 2 in. pipe (2.375 in. OD) carrying an oil at 650F is i n d n t e d
vith an inner 1 a y ~ rof 1% ill. of high ten1pcr:rture indation and an oritrr h y r r
of 155 in. of S5% rungiic& The room trmprmti~rcis XI" F. l~'nlculntr t l ~ c
licnt lrw per i t of pipa Icnpth.
or. Atetnge t e m p e ~ a t u ~=e
650 + (G50 - 300) = 600' F, assumed 500' F
T l i ~ r m dConductiv~tiesBtu/!hr) ( f t )( " F ) 2
Outer layer
Iiigh Timpcr~~ture AT = (138)(1.81) = 250" F
(Dintomnceous earth-
l'enipernture 85% ~1:1gnesia asbe-to$) Surface temperature = 350 - 250 = 100" F, assumed 150' F
100 0.0:i-I
200 0.0~s o m Average temperature = 350 + loo = 225" F. :rssurnrd 250" F
2
300 0.0K 0.056
400 0.043 0.05s T h e relativuly small change of co:ductivity n-it11 t r ~ n l ~ c r a t ~indicate-
irr
500 0.046 0.060 t h a t further c ~ l c u l a t i o n is not justified. T h e value of 138 Btu, hr is
600 0.061
satisfactory.
630 0.0615
S o ~ u r ~ o xAssume:
. OPTIMUM INSULATION THICKNESS
1. Outside nine wall temoerature = 650" F.
Theorcticnlly the determination of t h e optimnnl insultition thiclinrs-
is a, straigl~tfurvarilproccdurc. As t h e insulati,~ntliicknc.is is incr.cawil
4. Outside surface temperature = 150" F.
the costs of heat losses go down R-hilc the inxulation costs go up. T h e
Ensis: 1 ft of length. point a t ivl~iclrnrinimum total cost is rearhed inay he dcscribcd :1s n11
Brel.age area of inner layer optinrum v:rlnc.
M c l l i l l a n i has developed a n analytical solution for this particulnr
optimum by equating the first differential of the expression for total cost
to zero.
Bvernge area of outer layer For flat surfaces
494 Project Engineering of Process Plants Thermal lnsulotion 495
wherc X = optimum insulation thickness in in. :11l fartors rrrnld l ~ rvnlmitul.
r it may IIC 110ssihle to justify cv1.n t l ~ i c k ~ , r
a = y (t - t,).11,'1,000,000 ~ ~ ~ w l i i ttlj~~oi ii~ tlw
g l ~- o - ( , i ~ l lo11tiu1lu11
~~l I I M ~I I V itm~civll:it11,~s.
y = hours operation per year .
.1111. ~.ffvctuf \viugl v?lwity IIV 111,:itl o s s tIir1~1~ig11 i~i..uLiticm is >i rvlativc,lT
.1f = value of heat in dollars per million Utu -11glit 10 to 15%, if the irrsulati~mis rvcll >caIc,~l. The ~ ~ i i r / m i of t y tlir
I, = rust of insulation per sq f t per in. of thickness per year
R, = surfaw resistance, (hr) (" F) (sq f t ) Rtu
I;' = conductivity, B t u ' (hr) (sq ft in.) (' F )
t = temperature on hot side of insulation, " F
1, = air temperature, ' F

For cylindrical surfaces (one insulating material)

-
n-here rz = outside radius of insulation, in.
r l = inside radius of insulation, in.
A plot of these cxpressions for various values of is presented in
Fig. 10-7. Insulation manufacturers and operating compani~s have
insulat,ion specifications TI-hi1.hinclude recommended thicknesses for vari-
ous service conditions. Most of t,hese recommendations Tvere based on
McMillan's equat,ions and xere determined in tlic late 1920's. Costs
have certainly changed since t h c ~and a rc-appraisal is indicated. One
further point about XclIillan's equations is that the expressions for
insulation costs used in t h r development do not necessarily apply t o all
insulation.
[Flat surfaces: cost per sq ft = bz +C
Cylindrical surfaces:
2arzb
cost per linear f t = -- (72 - 71)
12
+C
where C is a constant]
Despite tliere objections, the tahlcs of recommended thicknesses rearlily
available from insulation manufacturers rrprcscnt a close approxiniation
to a "correct" thickncss. I n any evpnt, these thicknesses have become
familiar through use, and drastic changes must be well substantiated
Fig. 19-7. Eronomirnl inw1:itian thickncs. (Reprintrd hy permission, I,. B.
before management r i l l agree. Surh cvidcncc is actually difficult t o MrMiilan. Popcr S o . 2034. .Annual Meeting oi ASRIE. S e w Vnrk, Dcc. 1926; mrtl
produce. copyright owner, Johns M n n ~ i l l eCwparatian.)
The effect of wind, rain, and especially suddcn changes in weather can
be very adverse on the operation of fractionating units. For instance, resistance is furnished hy the insulation and not the .;urfacr rcsistsnre
a sudden change in weather typical of that occurring on the Gulf Coast which is all that is affected by ~vind. The loss can 11ecnme large, h o w
of the trnited States ha?: often vauscd riolmt u11scts in fractionating equip- eyer, should cracks through the insulation devrlop. Bettcr niethods of
went due tr* L~ercasedheat losses through insulatiun. I n such cases if installatiun to prevent losses through cracks arid joints must be devised.
496 Project Engineering of Process Plants
.kltliough the pitilation is ~ o n ~ e w l r aconfused.
t 11sei.s r ~ finsulation s11o11ld
not disregard the processes of objective thinking as nell- situations arise.
CHAPTER 20
e insulating materials, unusual locations (such as extremely cold
climates), and other unique features should be examined and evaluated
as 1nuc11 as possiblc on tlie basis of sound enginccring principles.

INSULATION EFFICIENCY
Insulation efficiency is a term frequently appearing in the literature
:mil in mannfacturers' catalogs. I t is ricfined 11s the difference b e t n w n
the 1ie:lt l w s rllrouglr b n r ~pipe and tliat tliri~nglitlie same pipe when
insulated, diridcd by tile heat lost through tire uninsulated pipe. Tables
of thcsc ctliciencics are reported 11y nlanufacturcrs for v a r i m s sizes and
thicknesses of insulation.
T h e values are misleading, honcver, t o the casual user since they are all
high and w l ~ n tappears t o be a small difference in efficiency of only 27% PROCESS
196 and 911 can rcprcsent :In increase in heat loss of (96 - 94/100 -- 96)
(100) = 5070. H e a t lops tables are n~nclimore useful in comparing vari-
ous thicknesses and kinds of insulation. INSTRUMENTS
REFERENCES
1. A S T M Standards, Part 111, 298, Am. Soc. Testing M~terials.New York, 1950.
2. Grllrr, R. F., Firc-Cloy Brick, T h e i r .IInnufacturc, P m p e ~ . l i e s , ULPS,and Process industries could not exist m-ithout instruments vhich indicate.
S/?rr.ij?crrtioris, Tlnrrnu of Stnud~riisCil.eular No. 282, Washington, D.C., 1926. record, control, and in solnc cases anticil~iitetllc many clmnges tliat occur
3. Jnkoh, Max, nnd G. A. Hawkins, E l e m e l ~ t sof ZZcat Ti.nn.sfer and Znsi~lation,
2nd Ed., John \Tiley and Sons, Inr., New Yurk, 1950.
in a process. Even in processes wliich require nianual control, instru-
4. Kern, D. Q.,Process Hent Transfer, hlcGrawHill Baok Ca.: New Yark, 1950. ments tcll thc operator ~vlienlic should tnrn a r a k e or press a button.
5. ilmitol o i .4STM Stnndnrrl,~on R e f i - n c t o q .lfntrr.inls, Am. Sor. Testing Matc- The adranccmmts in instnumcnt technology l i n w been phmo~nen:il.
rials. 1-cu' l'oli. 1948. I n the late 1930's instrmicnts and control devices w r c relatively simple
6. M d d a n ~ s .TI'. I?.. Heat l'ransmisaion. 3rd Ed., h.leGr.aw-Hill Baok Co., New and a few standard types were used. Any engineer coulil understand
Y o k 1953.
i. hlrhlillnn. L. 8.. Neat T ~ n n s f e rthroztgh Ins~ilolionin t h Modcrate
~ nnd High
and apply tlicn~for most conditions. During and since World JVar I1
l'ciiiji,'mture Fieliia, . h c v Sac. Mech. Engt.s' :mnu:d meeting, Dcc. 6 to 9, 1926. change has bccn rapid and continues a t a n :wceleratcd rate, l'he greatest
8. M o d e m Refrtietuiu Piactice, Harbison-Wnlkr Refractories Company, Pitts- strider were made in the u8c of electronic equipment. The complexitie.~
burph, 1950. of such systems and tlic rapid changes produced by the frcslily stimulated
9. Kol.ion. C. L., Jr., C h e m Eng. 60, 30. 6 , 216 (1953). instrumcnt industry. has r q u i r c d tile creatilm of another group of si~ecial-
10. Karton. F. H., Rc/irictolzes, 31.11Ed., MrGrawHill Book Ca., New York, 1950.
11. Thmuns, R. :and TV. C. T,wner, Ch<.,n. E n R , fill, S o . 6, 221 (1953).
ists. Some physicists, chemical engineers, n~eclianicalmginccrs. and eler-
12. \Tilkeal G. B., Heat Insalatiun, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Xew York, 1950. trical engineers Iraw 11rwlllr instru~lientengintws tllrough self-education
and training by the instrumcnt companies. l'lresc men arc c ~ u p l o p l
not only by instrument companies but also by r,onstruction rind operating
companies. M a n y rcl~ools of chtmirnl mgincering &er courscs in
process instrumentation n.l~icl~ n-ill aid ill trniniug :i(lditio~~:ilclier11ic:il
cngineers for this type of work and nil1 make others aware of the prob-
lems and techniques of instrument engineering.
A11 instrument selection, npplication. and purchniing shonl~lbe dircctcri
hy ;In i n * t r u n ~ m tenginecr. It is inlpussible fur :I ~ ~ r o r c sor
h prujeci,
497
498 Project Engineering of Process Plants
engineer t o keep up with tlie latest instrument developments unless his
entire attention is devoted to this field.
To provide propcr instrrmientation thc instrument engineer must be
thoroughly familiar ~vitliall phases of the proccss, its key characteristics,
and the application or iunction of all the llrorers e q u i p ~ n m t . Conversely
a general knowledge of instrumentation is helpful to the process engineer
and project enginecr in initial development of the proccss.
The purpose of the discussion that iollow is to sl~pplygeneral knowl-
edge of instrumentation. Complete ~vorks on the subject are avail-
ablel,".F.s,g.'O and should be nsed for specific problems requiring more
detailed understanding. Because of the rapid changes taking place, how-
ever, tlle serreral popular instrument periodicals should also be consulted.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
In order to indicate or control a proccss variahle, an instrument must
be rapahle of sensing the change in the variahle. Tlie sensing part of tlle
instrument may be called the primary clcnient. The instrument translates
this primary inipulsr by electrical, ~ ~ n e m n n t i Ic ,I mcriianical
~ means into
a visiblc indication or record. I t may : h o actuate other devices t o change
proccss conditions so that the sensed variable may he returned t o some
pre-determined point,. An instrument, tlierefore, is composed of some
type of pr.imary sensing dcvicc in contart nitli the fluid or substance; an
amplification unit, and finally tlie physical unit which indicates or
records and translates tlic primary sensing ilnl~ulseinto some kind of
poiyer or motion.
Automation or iristrurnentation is, of course, not limited t o these basic
characteristics, hut has been developed t o sense and indicate nearly all
known physical or cllciiiical cliarnrteristics. Tliese include pressure, tem-
perature, density, fluidity, riscosity, color, pH, or coniposition. It is
usually unneecssary, iro\vevcr, to cuntrd precisely cacll process variable
simultanconsly. Orilinwily only several key variables need be controlled
to givc the desircd cnd-produet cliariteteristics.
INSTRUMENT TYPES
Classification
The follo\ving list of instrumentation or control phases is convenient
for discussion purposes.
Primory Sensing Phoses
( 1 ) Flu\\.: (2) tenlpel.at11re: (31 presrnrc; ( 4 ) liquid level; ( 5 ) motion.
Primory Elements, Types
1. Flow; (1.01) meclianical; (1 021 d~ffcrcntial;(1 0 3 ) area.
I
Process Instruments 499
2. Temperature; (2.01I d i d expnnsii~n;(2.021 fluid expansion; (2.03)
tliernio-elwtric.
3. Pressure; (3.01 I in~lllY~oll-t~'~,c;
(3.02) I1ellon.i; ~ n d(3.031 electrical
and diaphragn~electronic.
4. 1,iqnid lcvel; (4.01I iliffermtinl; 14.021 Hont; (4.031 niiarcllaneous
types; (4.04) risual or ninnl~al.
5. Motion; (5.01) tnclromrtric; (5.021 limit; (5.03) counting.
6. Chemical and physical ~ileasurements.
Control Systems
(a1 Manual, ( b ) mccliauicnl, (cj pneumatic, ( d ) hydraulic, (ej elec-
trical and electronic.
Flow Measurement
Mechanical Flow Measurement
Tlie most, elementary form of ri~lumctric measurement consists of
filling and emptying a cb;rmher of k n o w ~rolunie. This type of mcasure-
ment is used in the proccss industries f i r taking inventory of fluids in
storage tanks or vessels. Certain proccsses rrquire manual or instrument
tank gaging a t regular intervals, as a cllcck on other flmv determinations.
The ordinary ~lisplacenientnictcr measures liquids by alternately filling
and emptying chan~berscontained vitliin its 1111ily (Fig. 20-1). The
velocities and pressnre-drqx through the device are utilized to move
the chambers or diaphragms and the connrcteil vitlring. Each cycle is
counted by a series of numherrd gears ~ i h i r hare visiblc. Tliese mcters
are relatirely inexpensirc and give long and accurate service ir-hen nsed
within their capacity rangrs. us illustrated hy tlie residential water and
gas meter. Thc undesirable pulsating effect of the simplest type of dis-
placcnicnt meter is eliniinatcii in those drsigns utilizing a rocking and
rotatory motion. The displacement rncter is used more frequently fnr
nieasurement of total production tlian for recurding instantaneuus flow
rates sincc it is essentially a totalizing device. Most displacement meters
cannot operate a t lliglr pressures and temperatures.
Uisplacenient mcters arc used extcnsirely in hlending and filling opera-
tions when precise volumetric measurements are r e ~ p i r c d . hIcclianieally
linked displacement meters are used in the blending of costly products
sueh a s lubricating oils. hutumatic shut-off meters are used in barrel
filling or container filling operations.
Differential Pressure Instruments
Differential pressure flow meters convert a portion of the pressure
energy of a fluid t o kinetic energy. This is accomplished by placing irb
500 Proled Engmeering of Process Plants Process lnrtrurnentr 501

I-- -
- -
- - 15~1.2 a n I,,: eq,r(wcil ill tt!rnis ul' 11, ol' fluid fion-iugpcr second as follows:

where D I= diameter of pipe in f t

I)? = diameter of restriction in ft
AP = prrssltrc diffcrrntial in 11) per sq ft,
These e~~uations, ho11-ercr. arc hascd on iilml frictionless flow, Actually
> r
frirtional effects consume a port,ion of the pressure rncrgy. l h c most,
convenient means of a l l o ~ ~ i nfor
g energy loss due to friction has been :n
empirically determined const,ant called the coefficient of discharge which
is the rat,io of a c t d to theorrtiral Ann.. The actual flow bhen is:

where C = coeffivient of discharge

1
Fig. 20-1. Nutating-disk displ:mement mctcr. lRpprintcd by permission, G. G. = velocity of approsrh factor
Brown, Unit Operatio,~s,Jolm Kilcy n m l Sons (1050).1

a pipc a constriction such as an orifice, venturi, or flom nozzle (Fig. 2 0 - 2 ) .

If friction is neglcctcd the prcrsure drup across i u c l ~a restriction is related Convenient manuals such as the classic ASI\IE publication, Fluid
to the kinetic energy change ns i d o n - r : 3 I ~ l e r spresent
,~ correlations of C for the various types of orifices, venturi
meters, and flow nozzles versus the Reynolds' number through the restric-
tion. The ratio, C ! d 1 - (D2/D1)4 is often called the flow coefficient, K.
Tahles of Reynolds' numbers and corresponding values of K for different'
whcrc PI = pressure upstwnm from the restriction, psf pipe sizes and 0 2 / 0 1 ratios are p u b l i ~ h e d . ~The trial-and-error solution
P2 = pressure a t the restriction or some predetermined point down- for flom rate or the required orifice diameter for a given flow rate and
strt*am, psf pressure different,ial is made simple hy such compilations. h Itcynolds'
1 ~ 1= velocity, ft/ser, npstream number is assumed and K read from the table for a given 0 2 / 0 1 ratio.
112 = velocit,y, ft/ser, a t rest,rirtion or downstream The values of K do not vary greatly in t,hr range of most industrial applica-
0. = :32.li t,ions and hence the solution is rapid.
p = density of fluid flowing lh,'eu ft It is fortunate that standardization of orifice, rentnri, and flow nozzle
construction was accomplished some years ago. Considerable euperi-
l?xpressing UI in terms of z ~ ?an equation for velocity a t thc point 2 can mental and operating data have been accumulated and generalized correla-
be ohtained. tions of C with Reynolds' number have resulted. These data make it
possible t,o design and operate differential meters without any necessity
for calibration provided the standards of const,ruction and installation
outlineds are followed.
502 Project Engineering o f Process Plants Process Instruments 503
,DOWN STRE4M TAP 11.-1.11,
m
The renturi meter (Fig. 20-20) ha? a 21" or leer angle of appronrll
~vliiclieliminates cavitation. The exit angle is 7" t o 9' so that tlie cxpan-
sion hark to original pipe size is uniform and pressure recovery high. The
small loss of energy due ti1 friction ~vhichis demonstrated by the loxi-
-
pernianent pressure losses ( C 0.92 t o 0.99) is the unique feature of a
renturi meter. I t is used, therefore, in systems for which high premure
losses cannot be tolerated such as low pressure gas systems or water dis-
tribution systems. Pressure losses in water systems involving large f l o w
increase pumping costs considerahly. I n such cases the venturi, though
more expcusive than the orifice or flow nozzle, will be more economical
based on orerall installation plns operating costs.

ORIFICEMETER
Tllc orifice platr is tlie simplest, clicapcst, and most popular rcstriction
for measuring flow. Orifice meters cornpriae well above 90% of inort Section Through
process plant metering installatii~ns. Values of tlic disrhargc coefficient Pipe Diameters Orifice Plote
range from 0.59 t o 0.62 (see published data for tabulationsj.8
Orifice flanges with flange taps are obtainable from numerous manu- (b)
facturers (Fig. 18-3). The orifice plate is held betn-een these flanges
and the pressure connections are tapped into tlic flange body by the manu- STREAM TAP
facturer. The taps are located so that when tlie flanges and plate are
assclnblcd there is 1 in. between each t a p and the plate.
Other locations of pressure taps include vena contractn and pipe taps.
The tlena contractn, downstream t a p location is a t the point of minimum
fluid stream cross secbion (Fig. 20-2b). This location varics with the !
ratio D J D , and n ~ u s tbe rnoved if the orifice size is changed. The up-
stream t a p is placed one pipe diameter from the orifice plate. Venn con-
trnctn taps are used on special installations for which manufactured
orifice flanges are unohtainable or tou costly.
Pipe taps are located so that the upstream t a p is 2.5 pipe diameters
from the plate and the downstream tap, eight diameters. Because of Fig. 20-2. Differential prpssure primary e l m ~ e n t s . ( a ) Vmtori meter. (courtes>r oi
Minncnpolis-Hanc.~v~llR r g d n l o r Carnp;my) ; f h ) wificr rnetcr in-lall:~tion s h m ~ i n g
the great downstream distance, a large portion of the pressure drop across presauw varinlian fnd:tptril frurn Pti,irlornrrilnlr 01 Intr.,i~,,c,il,ilir,t, f o i thi. Procew
1
the orifice has been recovered. This low pressure differential may be an Inti,usIries, b y pfnnissiun, h1innr;ipolis-Honcyrri.ll Rrgolitto~.Compzny); ( c ) flow
advantage for high flow rates. nozzle (courtesy oi Minneapolis-Hunrywell klegulatot. Company).
$
The diffcrential measured by pipe taps represcnts, in addition to a
portion of tlie original diffcrential across the orifice, frictional losses in Flange taps arc hy far the most popular type of pressure tap. Thcy
the length of pipe hetween taps. Pipe taps should not be uscd, therefore, are easily installed and require less space. They are satisfactory for most,
for viscous fluids or fluids with solids in suspension since these produce types of fluids including viscous materials.
large frictiunal losses. Flashing fluids, however, are often successfully The industrially important orifice platc is the sqnare-ccigc~lor sliarp-
measured with pipe taps since the vapors have opportunity t o redissolve edged orifice as shown in Fig. 20-2h. The rli~ilensiunalcl~arartcristirs1 1 4
before reaching the downstream tap. this design have been very cat.efnlly stand:~~~dizcd and cspcri~lient:~laud
504 Project Engineering o f Process Plants ! Process Instruments 505
operating data on numerous installations provide reliablc predictiou data. 111ougl1thr lotal differcntial is reprer~ntedhy tlir ~ ~ ~ o v e l n in
c n lxttl~
t leg-.
Any radical change in the orifice during w e such ns rounding of thc movement in the leg x i t h the float is a function of the total differential.
edge hy corrosion or erosion r i l l introduce serious error. For this reason The range of the instrument is increased by decreasing the diameter of
urifice plates should be constructed of the best material availahlc for the range tube. This causes more movement in the range tube than in the
resisting attack by the flowing fluid. float tube for a given differential.
Orifice installations must be designed with care. Excessive turbulence
a t points close t o the orifice will cause erroncous readings. The published Pressure inlet.
discharge coefficients are based on flow which is rouglily parallel to the
pipe axis.
A definite am~iuntof straight unobstructed piping on either sick of tlic Range tube

m-ifice is nccessary. Sprenkle" f r m l studics of various piping systems

has developed rhnrts rliich give the ~nininiuniallo~l-abledistance that :I
disturbance such as a pipe bcnd can he locatcd up and do\vnstrcani oi
an orifice. These charts have been widely reproduced in publications of
instrument lnanufacturers and should be used in preference t o sonie
gencral rule-of-thun~h.
If because of space requirements the orifice must be located closer t o
a disturbance than the recommended minin~umdistance, straightening
rallw conrposed of a nun~herof aniall tubes nestcd so as t o fill tlie entire
conduit ~ n n s tbe utilized.

The flow nozzle sliown in Fig. 20-2c has characteristics intermediate

between orificcs and venturi tubes. It Ims a gently roundc~lapproach
but an abrupt discharge, and is morc efficient than tlic orifice but less Restriction s c r e w y
efficient than a vcnturi meter. It costs more than an orifice, but less (n)
than a venturi.
The nozzle, ~vhicliis held in place hy standard flanges, is best suited Sealing bellom, /Beam pivot /Balance beam -
for the incasuremcnt of gases containing moisture such 3 s v e t steam.
There conditions cause erosion of orifice plates but do not affect nozzles. PI
pa
-- Pressure
receiver
DIFFERE~TIAL PRESSURE ~IEASURE~~EKT . . . -
Mercury-type (Fig. 20.30) or force-balance type manometers are
used for measuring the differential prcvsnre produced hy orifices, vent,uri (b)
tubes, and flow nozzles.
Fig. 20-3. Differential prcssure-sensing drricrs. (a) Mercury manometer: ( b ) folw-
The differential pressure across tlie mercury ~nanonietercauses a change balance meter. LRcprinted by permission, D. P. Eckmnn, h d u s f n n l Instriirnenlntio,~.
in level in both legs. The niovement of the float in the largcr dinmcter John T i l c y and Son3 (1950)l
leg is transmitted by means of n~eclianie;~l linkage t o a shaft through the
manometer l ~ o d yto givc an external indication. hIovenient of the sliaft The mercury manolnetcr has served for many years as the principle
nlay be uscd t o indicate, record, or control (see Fig. 2 0 - 3 a ) . Certain measuring derice of differential pressure. I t is only in recent years that
type8 of manometers eliminate the shaft extension through the meter body the force-balance or pneumatic-balance type instrument has been intro-
by use of a solenoid or magnet rontnined within tlie manometer body. duced and gained popularity (Fig. 20-3b). The force-balance manometer
The Imger leg wit11 the s ~ ~ i a l l edianietcr
r is callc~la range tul~e. AI- operates by developing a force in opposition t o the differential pressure.
 I Process Instruments
506 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
'I'llis opposing forrc is rreated hy air pres-
sure. .4s P, increases (Fig. 20-3b) the
halance hcam covers more of tlie nozzle
through xvhich air is being lost. This move-
ment increases tlie air pressure in the bal-
ancing diaphragm and causes it t o force
r the beam away from tlie nozzle. An c q u -
,,,, librium of forrcs is estahlished ivhich is
represented by tlie air pressure attained in
the system. This air pressure is directly
proportional to thc differential pressure
and can hc readily transmitted t o a re-
cording instrument with a pneumatic hel-
l o which ~ ~will actuatc a pen t o record or
indicate the flow.
Thesr merrory-lcss mctcrs arc small in
size and simple t o calibrate and install.
T h r y do not requirc seal pots. Unlike
mercury nlai~ometer asseinblies they ran
be mounted a t tlie orificc supported by a
simple pipc saddle and yoke.
MITERING <LO*. Area Meters
Instead of maintaining a constant area
restriction, and allowing the differential
pressure t o vary with flow ratc, the differ-
ential pressure is maintained constant and
the area a l l o w d t o vary in area meters.
The most important type of area meter is
the rotameter (Fig. 20-4). It consists of
a tapcred tuhe and float. As the flow rate
~ i20.4,
~ Rotnmetel.
, with increases thc float moves upward creating
tt.nmmittcr. ( ~ o n ~ ~ t ~ i ~more~~ area
h ~for fluid
~ flow and thus rnain-
and Poster Company.) taining a constant differential pressure
across the flnat.
Using tlie same rcasoning process as in the dcvclopmcnt of eq. 3 and
expressing tlie constant pressure diffcrcntial a c n ~ s sthe float in terms of
the ronditions a t equilibriu~n [ A P = Tit(,, -,)/At] the following equa-
tion is obtained:
W
~ r h e r eTi7 = flow, Ib,/sec
= C,A2
G- P I PIT',
~ ~ C P (-
(5)
(!, = rot,amet,er coefficient of dincharge
p = density of fluid
pi = density of float
V, = volume of float
A, = effective area of float
.42 = annular area between float and tuhe
Since V, = Tl'l/p, (where W, = weight of float) the amount of range
change produced by reducing the ~veightof the float is expressrd hy:
Eq. 6 is based on the assumption t h a t C , does not r a r y and that the
fluid and cffectire float area remain tlic same. Rotamcter manuiartl~rrrs
offer weight cxtensions which can be attached to standard float designs
to increase the instrument range.
The annular area A? varics x i t h the flow rate and is directly propor-
tional t o the height of the float,. hlanufactnrera' data can he used to
calculate height of float versus flax rate curves for rotameters, even for
viscous rnatcrials.
Rotameters are availablc with glass metering tubes ~ h i c hpermit visual
observation of the flnat or metal rnctering tubcs with indicating exten-
sions. Various electronic and pneumatic transmitting devices are ohtain-
ablc for transmitting the position of the extension stem to a recorder or
controller.
A calibration for viscous fluids can hc predicted wit11 grcatcr accuracy
for rotameters than for orifices. They arc satisfactory and inexpensive
for small installations, hut are very costly for extremely large flow rates.
Temperature Measuring Instrument
A uvide variety of telnperature-measl~ringdevices meet the varird n e e d
of temperature, range, and service. Those in use in process plants will be
considered here.
I n Table 20-1 a summary of usual temperature ranges for the more
common instruments is givcn. Tlicac ranges are subject t o change as
new developments appear. Many factors other than range, however, are
considered in tile selection of a temperature dcricc. Tliesc include accu-
racy, speed of response, sensitivity, cost, and corrosion resistance. Man-
ufacturers are anxious t o advise customers on the use and limitations of
their equipment and should he consulted.
Solid Expansion Thermometers
As is well known, all materials change dimension with teinprature. I i
two strips of iiietal are ~vclrlrdtugether, onc having ;I low coefficient of
508 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 509
to time of tlw h i m ~ ~ t a l ldi:il
i c tllcrmolnetcr described above. T h e instru-
TABLE 20-1. Usual Industrial Ronge of Temperature Measuring Instruments
rnent is made rugged by enclosing the thermometer in a metal case.
(Based on manufacturer's data) Fittings make it powible t o scrcv the thern~omctcrinto a pipe or vessrl
Type nmzle. The glass covered scale can he obtained tilted a t convenient
1. Hiti~etallir angles.
2. llrrcor>-ill glass Otlrer t y l i c ~of f l ~ ~ rxlinnsion
i,l instruments utilize a rlorcrl s y ~ t c m . Tlrr.
3. Fluid expansion expanding fluid r.zert5 a p r w w r e on a spiral pressnrc clrmcnt i s p r i n g ~
(a) Mercury
( h ) Organic liquid c;iusing it to uncoil. Tlii; movcll~cntis trnnamittcd to a p ~ nor p11ii1t1.r
(c) Organic rapor-liquid
( d ) Gas
4. The~.n~ocnnple
(a) Copper.-constantan - 300 to ti00 Pointer
(b) Iron-ronstarrtnn 0 to 1400
(oxidizing atm) or Scale
1800 (redurinx :rtm)
(c) (:t11.o111el-:iI11111e1* 600 to 2100
(11) Plrttitiu~li-plnti~ium-rhodium 1300 to 3000
5. I(esid;~~irc
(a) Copper
(b) iYiokel
( c ) Platinum
6. Optical pyrometer
7. Radiation pyrometer
'Registered trademark of the Hoskins Corporation.
~vliirhmox-e across a c:~lil~ratctlscale in direct relationship x ~ i t htem-
expansion (Invar, nliich is iron-nickel alloy I and the other a high coeffi- perature (Fig. 20-5). T h e flnids used arc inert gases (usually nitrogen).
cient of expansion (brass or nickel), the combined strip will deflect i~nclel. liquids (mercury or organic liquids), and vapors (propane, metliyl ether,
the influence of temperature. B y making the strips thin a large deflec- et,lier, or clilorobcnzene).
tion can be obtained which can be used to inovc a pointer and ind'icatc Pressure thermometerr filled \vith liquid or gas must he compensated
tlie tenq~erature. f o r ambient temperature changes. If the temperature along tlie capillary
A very popular dial thermonieter consists of n bimetallic strip ivound end a t the pressure spring is radically different from that a t the calibra-
into a helix. One end is fastened to the casing and the other end t o :I tion point, t h e teml~eraturerradillgs d l be in error since voluinctrir
rod connected t o a pointer. .4s the teinpcraturc changes the movement expansion in these arcae d l be cli:~nge(l. Tu overwme t l ~ i seffect a bi-
of tlie helix causes the rod and attached puinter to move. The dials are metallic strip or a second prcssure spring. witli a capillary (witliout hul111
built in sizes from 1% in. to 5 in. rruming. adinrent to the mens~iringrxpillury can 11c installrd in opposition
These dial thermometers arc lugged and reasunnllly accurate (within to the l~reesure-measuring spring. This arrmgelncnt will cancel tlic
1% of scale) alien properly r l i ~ ~ s c n .The industrial-type rncrcury-in- ambient temperature effcct~.
glass tlierniometers are the mo.!t cconuniical and convenient mrans for Vapor-fillcd s y s t e n ~ srequire O I I such compensation if tlir: liquid lcwl
nonrecording temperature measurement of accessible prneess points. remains in the bulb. T h e pressure in tlic ~ y s t e n imust rorrrspond to tlic
The bimetallic strip instrur~ientis uscd extensively for on-off control vapor pressure of the liquid a t tlie bulb regardless of ambient conditions.
of simple devices such as air-conditioning systems. T h e use of fluid-expansion, pressure tliermometrre in process plants is
very extenairc, l~:wticularly in temperature ranges b e t w e n 0 und 500" F.
Fluid Expansion Thermometers I n order t o keep tlie length of capillary to a minimum, a transmitter-type
T h e most familiar temperature measuring instruuient, the mercury-in- instrument may be used. This instrument is located near tlic primary
glass tl~er~iiumeter,
is designed iur l o i d l y 111ou11tt:d;~j~plirations
siluilar element, and converts the expansion pressure impulse into an electrical or
510 Project Engineering of Procerr Plants
pneumatic signal w1iic.h m a y be conducted to a rentral control house.
Since tlie primary sensing device is fundamentally a pressure instrument.
pressure-type instrnment elements such a s bellows and Rourdon elemmtr
(helix or spiral) m a y he used a s secondary elcmcnts for indicating, recurd-
ing. and controlling.
T h e pressure-thennonieter instruments are relatively inexpensive c o n -
pared to thermo-electric instruments. T h e vapor-filled instrument is tlle
most popular of t h e three types. It is lowest in coat, requires no compen-
sation, and has rapid res1)onse. T h e scale, hinvever, is nonlinear. Of tlie
three, tlie mercury-filled thermometer is the most stable a n d sensitive.
I Process Instruments 51 1
2. -4 third conductor may be introduced into one side of the circuit as in Fig.
20-6a d h o u t changing the emf produced, provided the temperature along
the conductor remains constant
3. A third conductor may he introih~ccdon both sides of the circuit as in Fig.
20-Gb without changing thr rmf produrcd if the intermediate j~inctionsare at
the mme temperature. IThr :~lgphmicsums of the voltages generated by a
number of dissimilar conductors joined together in a circuit is a function of
temperature only.)

Thermo-electric Temperature Measuring Instruments T3 Instrument Instrument

THERMOCOUPLES
T h e thcrmocouple is the most widely used devicc for temperature meas-
urement. Accurate potentiometers make i t possible t o employ thermo- (a) (b)
couples fur temperatures from -300' F tu 3000" F. Because of the ease
Fig. 20-6. Tliermocouple circuits with third conducbor
by which the generated emf rnay be transmitted over large distances ti)
central control r o ~ ~ mthe
s , thcrmocouple instrument has proved convenient
THERMOCOUPLE CO~IBISATIOSS.Tlic conmion thermocouple material
and accurate for modern process control a n d measurement purposes.
combinations are given in Table 20-1. Each pair has particular arl-
As early a s 1821 it was observed t h a t if a circuit of t w o dissimilar metals
vantages in degree of accuracy and range. T h e copper-constantan'
was formed and the junction a t one end v a s heated (hot junction) and t h e
thermocouple is superior in the lower temperature range. Atlove 650" F
other ends (cold junction) were attached to a potentiometer or millivolt-
copper oxidizes rapidly. Below 2 0 0 F copper-conrtantan has greater
meter, a measurable voltage could bc obscrvcd on t h e instrument. This
accuracy t h a n iron-constantan. It produces higher emf's in its range
voltage was found t o h a w a dcfinite relationship* for each pair of riletal~
than the platinum couple and is less costly.
with t h e temperature difference h e t w x n the hot and cold jnnction. If the
Because of their low cost, large mnge, and reliability when properly
cold junction, thercforc, is maintained a t some constant temperature, the
applied, iron-constantau thermocouples arc tlie most widely used. T h e
hot junction temperature can be obtained over a wide range by rncasuring
iron, lion-ever, is subject to oxidatiun and prccsutions must he taken to
tlie voltage generated.
prevent tlris.
Experimental evidence and reasoning based on t h e l a m of thermo-
Clirouiel [ N i ( 9 0 % ) , Cr(l0:;: )]-Alumel [Ni(947$ j , l I n ( 3 7 ) , A1(27%),
dynamics have produced the following rules of practical significance to
Si(lC/r ) ] mas developed b y its nlanufacturer for use in oxidizing atmos-
industrial thermometry.
1)lierer wlicrc iron-constantan proves unurahlr. I t s most important appli-
1. The emf developed by the difference in temperature of two junctions is cations are in the rangc of 1400 to 2300' F.4 A t high temperatures t h e
independcnt of temperature gradients along homogeneous ~ v i r ~bct,wen
s Clrromel-Alumcl couplc is unsatisfactory in rcducing atmospheres (less
junrtions. Heat effects alone will not produce a iwrrent in 3 homogeneous
circuit.t than 2' oxygen).
T h e platinum-platinum rhodium couple is more expensive than the base
*This relationship is not linear but roughly approximated by I metal couples and is used in process plants primarily for temperatures
emi = m A t + n ( l t ) "
above the range of other eouplcs. Platiurnn is subject t o alteration by
where A T = temperature difference hetween hat and cold jnnrtion
reducing ntmosphcrcs and certain vapors, and is inl-arial~lyenclosed in
m and n = constants for pattieular thermocouple
gas-tight wells for protection.
t The wcll-known Thomson effect is used to dcseribe the emi genwated in n Commercial thcrm~,couplea i r e is manufactured tu close tolerances and
homogeneous wire when a tempesaturc diKermre exists betwern the terminals oi will, whcn assembled, match pnblislied t l ~ c r m o c n u ~roltagcs~le to a degree
the wire. The tcmpernture distribution along the wircs, h o m ~ w r ,does not aKwt
the Thamson emf. This emi tog~therwith that cansd by the diKctmm in of accuracy suitablc for n ~ o r tp u q ) o s w l l a t c r i a l s of greater certified
temperature oi the two junctions makes np the total "thern~~c~uple" emf. * Cunatmtau is a cupper-nickel alloy (50 to 65 Cu and 35 to 50 Ni).
512 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
accuracy ior precise work such as research can bc ohtaiued at a l~iglicrcod.
TIIER\IOCOUPLE If-ELLS ASII ISSTRUJIEXTS. Industrial-ty11e t l ~ c r ~ n o -
couples are made in several r a y s depending on tllc type. Chrmuel-alumel
and iron-constantan wires are usually tristed v i t h t ~ v oturns and m l d e d
a t the ends wit11 a d-c carbon arc' using a flux sue11 as borax. The ends
of copper-constantan and platinum arc not twisted but usually just fused
into a round head. For platinum a carbon arc is used and for coppcr-
constantan, a soldering proccdurc. The rotnniunly used \\-ires vary in
size from 0.032 to 0.1285 in. in diameter. Platinun~is usually 0.02 in. in
diameter.
p" COVERHEAD SSTD, IRON PIPE SIZE
Y R O U G H T IRON NIPPLE -STD. PIPE T H R E A D
L E N G T H OF IMMERSION
Fig. 20-7. Tl~r~nocouple
assrmbly. (Courtesy of Minneapolis-Honey\~ellRegulator
Compnny.)
So niany processes involve corrosi~efluids and fluids under pre.& -we
that bare tl~ermoci~uples are scldom used. Instead the tlrermocouple is
inserted into a nlanufactured x~ellwhich is provided \$-it11 fittings for
mounting on a pille or pressurc vessel (Fig 20-7). Instruri~entmanufac-
turers offer these assenlblies conlplete with tl~crn~ocouple, two-holed
veramir insulators ior the wires. ~vell,and ter~ninalilea11 x i t h cover. The
most eoninlon veil materials are cnrhon steel, stainless steels, and chro-
nliutn steels.
The speed of response of a tliern~oconpleasse~nbly (well and thcrmo-
cuuple) can bc increasd and thennocouple errms decreased by using
s n ~ a l ldiameter, thin wells, and couples of lo\\- mass. The enor for tcm-
perature n~eitsuren~ent uf gascs can be further reduced by increasing the
fl[~wrate around t l ~ cassembly and by interposing a radiation screen be-
tween the co~lduitwalls and thc tl~ertnocoupleassembly. I n all cases the
thcrmoconple well nlust make gaud contact wit11 the ~vellhudy t o insure
rapid response.
MEASUREMENT OF EMF. The irrstrulncnts used for rccording tl~ermo-
couple emf's in terms of tc~npcratureand controlling processes based on
the nieasrlrcd tculpcrature arc usually ~ ~ o t m i i n ~ ~ i ~ r e rcircuit.;.
- t y . ~ , e Tire
I Process Instruments 513
mnl of the tl~crtnoc~rul~le ir l~alancedagainst a known emf produced by a
Ilattery across a calibrated slide mire. The battery is periodically and
auton~aticallystandardized against a standard cell.
A number of methods are used for halancing the thermocouple emf and
thus indicating and recording the temperature hy movement of the con-
tact on t h r ~lirlc77-irr. The iimple potentiomctcr circuit can hr i ~ ~ a l l c
t to perform all operations nutomatically. Cnbalance in a galvanometer
may be detected by a continuous system 11-hich rnomcntarily clamps the
g:~lranomett~r pointer in position and thcn moves the slide wire hy means
of :I mutor until lx~lanccis r e a c h ~ d . This type was for years the standnrrl
provess instrlni~ent. Norc recently, h o w v e r , high speed instruments
hnsetl on electronic circuits maintain an almost instantnncous or contin-
uous balance. I n several of thcse the galvanometer has been rcplaecd by
a devicc n-l~ichconverts the d-c thermocouple current t o a-c. This is
follo~vedby voltage amplification and the voltage is applicd t o the motor.
These instruments are rapid, rugged, and extremely accurate. T l ~ c
Icngth of a 12 in. chart can be trarerscd in one second. It has, there-
fore: hren posiilile to offer m r h instrunimts for measuring and recording
a nu11111cr of different te~nperaturcpoints on one cl~art.
The cold junction oi the therniocouple circuit is a t the instrument.
R a t l m than attempt to maintain it a t a constant temperature, an autu-
matic cold junction compensator is provided. This compensator is n
resistor in the potentiometer connected in parallel with the slidemire. T h e
resistor is made of a material whnse resistance is sensitive to temperature
d ~ a n g e s . The change in resistance causes a niovenient of the slidewire
balance pwition so as to compcnsatc for cold junction tcnipernture
cl~anges.
LEADWIRES. Lead mires must be used properly if thcrmocouple mcas-
urements are to he accurate. Llsually it is impractical t o use the thcrmo-
couple xire n i a conductor from the junction all the way t o a remote
recorder. I.eatl vircs which are cheaper and easier to handle are gener-
ally cunnectcd to the heavicr thernlocouple wircs a t the head of the
t~l~ern~ocouplc well, and conducted to the instrument. If the temperature
a t the head and the cold junction a t the instrument are the same, any
suitable conductors can he used. Since these two tclnpcratures arc not
usually thc same in process installations, lend wires of similar thermo-
electric properties t o the tl~crn~ocouple must he employed as lead wires.
Iron-constantan anti copper-constantan of snialler dianicter than thermo-
couple wire are used as lead wires for their respective tl~cnnocouples. The
lead wire material can often he made of rejected thennocouple material
sincc it must only he similar to the thern~ocouplenletal in the temperature
range oi the instrument. Iron and copper-nickel alloy are used for con-
514 Project Engineering of Process Plants
nection respectively to Cltromcl slid Alumel; arlrl copper and copper-nickel
alloy, to platirium and platinum-rllo(li11111.
Lead wires can be insulattd in many r w y ? riqimding (in the atrnos-
phere. Insulation such as enamel, rubher, ashest.os, glass fiber, and eotton
are on the market.
The resistance thermotncter, long a standard means for precise laho-
ratory temperature measurement, is also becoming more important as
an industrial instrument. I t is competitive xvith the thermocouple in the
temperature range of -300" F to 950" F. Although more costly and
hulky, and slower to respond, it has greatcr sensitivity and requires no
cold junction compensati~in.
B R A l D E O F l B R E GLASS T U B I N G -
OUTER B R I I l o E O C ~ B R EGLLISS T U B I N G - VARNISH IYPREGNATEO
VARNISH I M P R E G N A T E D
,MING&HIN
~ 5 8 E S T O SINSULATED
COPPER W I R E
Fig. 20-8. Resistance thermometer assembly. (Caurtcsy of Minneal~olis-Honeynell
R ~ g u l a t o rComlxmy.)
Resistance thermometry utilizes thc increasc of resistance of metals
with temperature. A typical thermometer hulh as shown in Fig. 20-8
consists of a wire-wound resistor 1% in. in length. The Manganin coil
connected in series is used to adjust the temperature-resistance charac-
teristics. These bulbs are installed in wells similar to those for therrno-
couples. Nickel is the most popular resistance element material since it
is inexpensive and has a high change of resistance with temperature.
Platinum is more accurate and can be used for higher temperatures.
The resistance element is made a portion of some bridge circuit such
as a Wheatstone bridge. A direct current is supplied by a battery. The
change in resistance of the bulb unbalances the bridgc, and the unbalance
is detected and corrected in a similar mallner to that described fur poten-
tiometer circuits for t~hermocouples.
OPTICALA N D RADIATION
PYRDMETERS
Radiation or optical pyrometers are used for measuring temperature
above the ranges of other mstruments. Rad~ationpyrometers measure
Process Instruments 515
the total radiant energy coming from a hot ohject by focusing the energy
with a lens on a thermopile ( a numher of thermocouples connected in
srriesi. The thermopile generates an emf proportional to the radiant
energy. If an object being measured approximates black body conditions
mcli as a furnace flame, tlic energy transmitted is proportional to the
fourth power of the ahsolute temperature of thc object.
The familiar manually operated optical pyrorneter compares the inten-
sity of monocliroinatie radiation roming from an ohject to an adjustable
standard source. The radiation from the ohject and from a tungsten
lamp are compared through red filters. The current to the lamp can be
varicd by changing a resistance until thc two images match. The meter
is calibrated for temperature in terms of the resistanec variations.
One type of automatic optical pyronleter utilizes t ~ photoelectric
o cells
to compare the energy from the hot ohject and a carbon filament lamp.
Tlie lamp currcnt is autonlatically varied to bring the two photocells into
equilibrium. This current is then proportional to the temperature and can
YlNDlNG
he used t o actuate a recorder. Tlie instrument is instantaneous and can
rcqiond to a 200' F change in less than :& of a sccond. I t is thus valuable
for measuring temperatures of moving ohjects.
Tlicse high temperature pyron~etersare more familiar in stccl mills,
hut they are used in chemical plants particularly for controlling rutary
kilns and furnaces.
Pressure Measuring Instruments
Bourdon-Type Gage
The simple Bourdon tube and it,? modifications are the most commonly
used pressure measuring devices in the process plant. The Bourdon tube
as shown in Fig, 20-9 consists of a closed hollow metal tube elliptical in
cross section. It is bent in a semi-circular shape, fixed a t one end and
connected at that end to the pressure source. Application of a pressure
higher than atmospheric causes the tube to unwind while a vacuum causes
rontraction. By means of a connecting linkage and a gear and pinion, a
pointer is made to move over a calihratcd scale. An approximate linear
rclationsliip between pressure and scale movement exists over ranges of
moderate size.
The most familiar Bourdon gages are the indicating dial gagcs which
are cheap, rugged, and acrurate (?I$ of 1% of scale range for industrial-
type and '/2 of 1% of reading for laboratory models). They are cotnmoil
in all parts of process plants, and are available in a number of ranges
from 30 in. of mercury vacuum to 10,000 psi prcssnre. Laboratory test
gages rapahle of measuring q i to 100,000 psi are also produced.
Althuugh the simple Bourdon-tube element may be used for moving a
516 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 517
pen linkagc of a recordcr in higher prcssure ranges (300 psi to 20,000 psi), measurements. JIetnl Lcllm!-s and diaphragms operate ~ v i t nmch l~ greater
spirally 11r helically ~vrappcdBourdon elements arc niorc comn~onlyused smn-itivity in t h ~ s eranges.
in recording instruiilcnts particularly for the loxver pressure ranges (0 psi Several 11rlIon.s ~ l e ~ n c narc
t s shown in Fig. 20-10. The higl>crpressnre
ti1 4000 psii. The flat spiral or a helically \\.rapped eie~iicntd l produce acting U I I tlic outside of tile lolv prer$ure i ~ e l l o ~tends
\ - ~ to compress it
largcr ~leflcctionsa t t h t ~irec em1 for a given pressure differential than t l ~ c causing a liointcr tu m > r e l'hc range of the i n ~ t r u n ~ c nist dctcrmincd
aililple Hourdun tubc. Thc NOT-ementis in effect the con~binedaction of I,? tlie stitl'ness of the spring n-hicli is located in tlic scaling 1iellon.s on
the right. IIerc as in othrr iustrumiwts the pen nioven~entcan be linked
CASE
MOVEMENT HOLDING SCREWS
BOURDONTUBE "TO POINTER
POINTER
TIP
CONNECTING LlNK SCREWS
MOVEMENT
CONNECTING LlNK
MOVEMENT SLIDE SCREWS
HAIR SPRING
SOCKET SCREWS

iyz- 12 SOCKET
1 3 PIPE CONNECTION
14 DIAL PIN
Fig. 20-9. Buurrlon tnhc pt.rsan.e gage. (Cuurtes,v uf .Lshcroft Gage Division uf
N a m i n g Mnxn-cll and Muow, In<:.)

a number of sinqile Bourdon elenlcnts cun~icctcdin scries. This greater
movemcnt is necessary for operating t h r ~ u g lauitahle
i mcchanicnl linkages,
electrical contacts, pneumatic systems, and recording pens on contrdlcrs
and rccorders.
Bourdon tube materials used are carbon stcel, stilinlcis stcel. vnriuu:
cliro~iiiunisteels, bronzc, and beryllium copper. The choicc of mnteri:%l
depends on tlic pressure range and fluid being measured. Bronzc tu11es arc
sclccted iiiust frequently for prcssurcs bclo~v1000 psig. High prcsburcs
and corrosive liquids rcquire alloy steels.
For certain highly corrosive conditions it is prcferal~leto isolate ?.IE
fluid from the tuhe. This is accomplished by providing a flexible dia-
pl~ragni~ i t iiicasurcd
h fluid on one side and a realing or transmission fluid
(oil) on tlic other side in contact with thc Bourdon clcnient.
Stcam prersurc gages can be protected from high tcn~pcraturesby inter-
posing tuhing having m e or t ~ v ocoils between the pressure t a p :~ndtlrc
gage. S t c a ~ nconrlenses in this crude atmospheric cooler and is trapped in
the coils. The temperature in the gage is thereby liept bclow that of tlie
steam.
Bellows a n d Diaphragm lnstrumenls
I n the lower pressurc ranges, below 30 psig, and for vacuum, more sen-
sitive elements than the Bourdon type are require0 to 11rot111crri:li:~l~lr
t o pticu~naticur clcctrical systems to affect control of a pri~cebs. Belloiw
elenlents arc used in ranges from 100 in. of n-atcr t o 30 or 40 psig and a t
10 to 30 in. of mercury vacuum.
For the l o m r ranges of piisitivc prcssure coum~unly et~counterctlin
~r~casuring furnace draft,s (0 t o 40 in. of water) a diaphragm clemcnt of
lrntlier or lilastic material is used. It ~ u o r c sxvitli changes in diflere~~tial
pressure across it and thc ~i~iivcment can he tr:ln.;fcrrt!d to :L pointer.
Fur higllcr pressures up t o 5 p i g nlctallic diaphragms ( b r a s or bronze)
arc used.
Manometers
I n addition to the familiar laboratory type manomctcr: cliffcrcntial-
pressure :iier~ury ~iiano~nctcrsand the ~i~ercurylessmano~iietcrs or
force-balance instruments discussed under " F l o i ~Mcters" provide relinhle
measurcmcnt of prcssurc difYcrentials up to 600 in. of ~vntcr. For l o ~ v
pressures one of the sex-era1 bell differential prcssure elenients is often
used. T11csc cle~iicntsconsist of a bucket or bell invcrtcd in a n oil bath.
One pressure t a p terminates inside the bell and the other terminates
uutsiile. TIw bell tllen moves up or don-n d e p n d i u g uu chc ilifle~.ei~tial.
This n~ovement is transferred t o a pen. Many other i ~ ~ a n u m e t eor r
niaiiometer-like instruments are arailable, particularly for the low
pressure range.
518 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Electrical or Electronic Pressure Measurement
STKAISGAGE
The strain gage which has heen used so successfully for stress analysis
uf structural members under load, has been adapted for tlie measurement,
of process pressures and as such is called a pressure transducer. The
force arting on the gage changes tlie tension and thus the electrical
resistance of a group of TI-ires. This change of resistance is proportional
to tlie pressure applied and can be measured by a Kheatstone-bridge
instrument similar t o tlic one described for resistance tliermometers. The
units are built for pressure ranges of 100 to 50,000 psi. They are rugged
and adaptable to process rontrol. The electriral impulse may be carried
great distances t o the recording and control point.
V.icr.rnf GGER
Mercury nranomrters are used extensively in tlle range from 1 mm t o
50 riim of iiierilury. .\I:iuy inrluitrial gage? for high vtacnums del~encl
upon electrical or electronic action. I n the Pirani and therinocouplc
gagcs changes in pressure of the surrounding atmosphere alter tlie
amotint of heat loss and thus resistance of a hot wire through which
current is flon.ing. The effect is pronounced below one mm of mercury
pressure.
I n the Pirsni gage the resistance filament is made part of a bridge
circuit and the change in rcsistancc with pressure is rerordrd. The heat
effects on tlre filament, produced by pressure change are measured by
means of thermocouples. The tempcraturc of the filament in emtact
with the vacuum being measured is compared t o that in a sealed rcfer-
ence or compensating cell. The range of these gages is from 1 micron
t o about 700 microns of mercury absolute.
For pressures below one micron of mercury, absolute ionization gages
are used. One such gage employs a triode tuhe wit,lr constant clectn~n
emission. The atmospliere in the tuhe is the same as that of the vacuum
being nlcr~sured. Current flow from the tube is proport,ional to the
number of ions formed by e l ~ c t r o nbombardment oi gas molecules in
the tube. The number of ions formed is, in turn, proportional t o the
number of gas molecules in the tube which is directly proportional t o
tuhe pressure. The filaments of these gages are damaged by pressures
over one micron. A siliiilar gage using a permanent radium source for
ion produrtion from the gas niolecnles, requires no filament and can,
therefore, operate successfully in tlie range of normal atmospheric
pressures down to 0.1 of a micron of mercury absolute.
Process Instruments
Liquid-Level Instruments
Differential-Pressure Type
1)iffercntial-11ress111.einstruluents are often u s d as liquid levei instru-
nlentr. One side of a manonieter, for instance. can he connected to a
point a t tllr bottom of a vessel and m e a t the top ahove the liquid level.
Differential pressure between tlie t ~ points o is an iniliration of the
liquid level. Pressure on the lower connection includes liquid static
head as well as vessel pressurc. Only one pressure conncction is needed
for open tanks and that at the bottilm. This type instrument is often
used for level indication of fluidized solids when a displarrment type
device would not be satisfactory.
I n order to avoid meclranical problems with fluids which may settle,
solidify, or cause corrosion, otlier fluids such us inert gas or air may be
sloti-ly injected into the vessel* a t tlic t \ differential
~ points. Tire
difference in pressure of thf injccted fluid is e q l d to the stntir prewlre
of the liquid. Simple Bourilon tuhe p r e ~ n r egagcs ran he uicd wit11
some fluids fur indicating liquid level by the sirlire metlii~iluf differrntial
~~ressures.
Float Types
The float or displacement-type liquid lcvel indicator is probably the
most corimiou liquid level instrument. This iustrurnelit consists of a
buoyant float. The device is connected by piping directly t o two points
in the vessel or container. Clianges in liquid level move the float. The
simplest type is a ball float connected by an arm to a shaft extending
through the chamber or vessel slrell (Fig. 20-11). The m i g h t of the
float is adjusted hy tlic use of eouuterweiglits so that it remains in
the half-submerged position throughout its range. Irr this x n y the
maximum amount of liquid is displaced for all positions of the Hont and
thus the maximum powcr is gmerated for both rising and falling levrla.
This powcr is trnnsmitterl through a lever to a direct-connected rontrol
valve and indicator or t o a pneumatic relay \vhich transmits air prcssure
proportional to the lcvel to a recurder or controller. The operating
range of these units is narrow (approxi~nately20-in. niaxinium lcvcl
change).
The displacement-type float, unlike tlie ball-float, varics in displace-
ment depending on the level. A long cylinriricnl float is designed so
that the float lrangs free a t zero or minimum lcvel and is completely or
approximately submerged a t maximum level. Fig. 20-12 illustrates the
*The flow of air cnn l,e eontroilrd h? n ro(nnwter 01. jipht-fwd li~dhle~.
 Process Instruments 521
Project Engineering of Process Plants
of the float tinics thc length of thc float rod. Thc huoyancy of the float
nffrcts the tnngnitude i ~ fthe turning momeni. Thus by proper selection
of float density, ~limensions,and length of the float arm. an instrument
ran he designed for the sensitivity aud accuracy required for a given
job.

2 25"
DlAMCTL9 ~~'wATCR
1A"LONG LlVEL

FILTER-
DRIPWELL
LEVEL

WATER DISPLACED W A T ~ RG~SPLACED

WEIGHS 1 1 0 WEIGHS 2 L B

Fig. 20-12. I'rinriplcs of displacement meters. (Caurtrsy af hlnson-Xcilnn Rrgn-

lator Cunipmy.)

CONTROL T h e range of displacement-type floats is froin 14 in. to approximately

VALVE
120 in. They are very accurate particularly on l u x density fluids.
Their high sensitivity has also made them very popular for interfacial
level control and measurement.

Fig. 20-11. Float-type level eontrollcr and r:tlvc. (Cowl.trsy oi Mason-Trilnn
Rrgnl:itor Company.)
basic principles by a simple demonstration. T h e variat,ion in forre on
a spring scale and the moverneut of the float is illustrated for threr
levels of liquid. If instead of a spring scale a torque tube as in Fig.
20-13 is used, the twisting of the tube is proportional t o the level of
liquid. This movement is made t o operate a pneumatic system which
transmits a proportional air pressure to a recorder, alarm, or controller.
The moment acting on the torque tube is equal t o the dorrnward force
Miscellaneous Types
There are Inany other typcs of level ~neasuriugdevices. A diaphrugm
phced in the bottom of an open tank ran IK urul tu indicntc Ievcl. T h c
~ n ( ~ v e u i e noft the diaphmgni can he balanced by LI force-l~alancepucu-
niatic system and the resulting air pressure used as a measure of the
liquid height. T h e ~ eunits are very sensitirc nnd particularly valuable
for viscous liquids whicl~ dl1 not function well in the float-tgpc
instruments.
. Scvcral clcctronic, cl~.ctric:~l,
,Ll~esccnq,li,y ~ ~ l ~ i ~ t o e l c t .ccll
and r;idiuli~~ri derircs are also available.
t r i c units, gan11n:i radiation, and high frr-
quency alternating current. The transfer of pl~otoelectricenergy, high
frequencies, and ganima mtlietion are all afft~rte(l11y intcrvcuing liquids.
Suitahle scnsing tlcvice~can, t l ~ r ~ . e f n r he e , usrd t o dctcrt tlic position
0 1 a Icvcl :it d l tiuws.
Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 523

Visual or M a n u a l Level Gages

.4 n u ~ u l ~ t .ofr vi-ual ~lrvicesa r c n~:u~rrfartureilfor iniiirating liqllill
level. T h e most ~viilely uscd consists of a glass t u l ~ rronncrtr<l t o a
vessel or container a t its high and low points. F o r tall veiicls a nunibrr
.
of such gage glasses can be ronnrctril over the range to he measured
.l h e s e glasses a r e providctl wit11 prutcctors to prevmt llrrakagc.
(;age glasses for high prrssure are ronstrurted o i a chalnbvr 111ai~11ined
from a solid bar of rtccl. There are two prin~,ip;llstyles. One has thick
plain-glass blocks on both back and front (transparent gage1 and ;mother
has a front glass only. T h e front glass of the latter is cut so a s t o
produce a number o i glass surfaces or p r i s m which reiract the light.
T h c r c f r a c t i ~ ~ofn light is greater ior t h a t portion of the gage contaiuing
liquid and it appcars black while the llortion without liquid is rlear.
T h e transparent gage is used for installations requiring knowlcdgc of
the color of liquid hcing rneasurrd. I n all o t l ~ r rin~tallwtionstlip other
more easily readable refracting gage is used.
Lksigns a r c marketed ri-hich pruvi~lc nrcnlrs for I m t i n g or rooling
the gage fluid T h e heating or rouling inriliun~is con~lucteiltlrrorrglr a
tubc attached to the back of thc gage or the tube may be run tl~rough
the liquid chamber.
High-pressure gages have been used with great success. They a r c
ruggcd and usually excced t h e requirements of thc scvcral codes for
pressure vessels.
Fluats cormected t o a moving t a p e are somctirncs used for uieasuring
levels in large storage tanks. H a n d nicasurenlent is the d i l r s t method
for storage tank level nreasurcrncnt, hou.ever. 1.iqui1i adl~cringto 8
graduated metal tape, d r i c h is lowered by hand into the t a n k , in~licates
the level.

Measurement of Motion

Tachometric Devices
Tachometers of various kinds m a y be obtained for prnctirally any
speed. Those for high-speed ( 7 to 10,000 rlnnl ~ n a c l i i ~ ~such
c a a s certain
turbine generators and centriiugal compressors are usually of the vihrat-
ing reed type. This t y p e instrument is used for indicating prin~arily
because its indicating mcchanism has little or no force output. Other
instruments utilize stroboscopic principles or a driven generating device
which in turn has its emf sensed by a translating instrument t o indicate,
record, or control.
Nearly all high-speed machines such a s turhines are cquippcd x i t h
speed-gorerning devices actuated by centrifugal force. T h e primary
524 Project Engineering of Process Plants
<lc\-icc rotute? at ~ 1 1 1 1 1 ,ilirwt *pee11 ratio wit11 ~ I I Cn l i t ~ l ~ i n c .:b S ~ I W I I
incrcascs w i g h t s nctilatc<li ~ ycentrifugal i o r w q ~ c r a t ca valvc admitting
oil into :I iiyrlrai~lir syFtr111: t l i ~hydralilir .ystwn in tiirn xttuates 1%
~ l i : ~ l i l ~ ~ - or
: t g pisto11-ty111~
n~ v ; ~ l v <rontrolli~lg
~ .steal11 flanv l o thr mar11inc.
On certain units the primary devirr miry be linke0 directly t o t l ~ econtrol
v a l r r , but the h y ~ l r a ~ ~.systrm
lir p m n i t s greater flcxihility. T l ~ coil 11.w1
is taken directly irum thc turbine hlbricating systcni. Such gowrnors
are safety devices l ~ r i n ~ a r i l sinw y ~ i t ha sudden load decrcasc the
machine could easily r c a c l ~crilical slice~ls.
Limit Controls
The limit-typc dcvire is usu;~lly an elrrtrical contact ~rhicli opens
or closes a t preset lilnits. Tlic no\r cilnimon electric eye as used t o
open doors by intcrr~iptionof a heinn of light is a Y ~ I I I ~ Iillustration C of
$1 limit ( l e ~ i c e . Thc i ~ ~ t ~ , r r ~ i l l of
t i ( the
i n light I m n i chnngei the out-put
of a photoelectsir cell: w11icli chnngc can hc risc11 to o11er:itc micro-
s\vitchee and in turn relays.
Counting Instruments
Thc simplest type of totalizing or colmting device is t l ~ ctrip countcr.
A rntcl~ctrotates a nl~mhrrcdclisk onc tooth ur int~,gcra t car11 cyrlr,. Tlie
n m t r o n s e c ~ ~ t i vdisk
e iv in turn niovrcl one integer for each revolution
of t l ~ cfirst.
Physical a n d Chemical Measurements
I n modern process p1;lnts many control laboratory functions h a r e been
displaced by automatic instronients cleeigne~l to measure continuously
the properties of a flii~vingprocess stream. The development of instru-
mental analytical tcclmiques for thc labomtory v a s iollorvcd closely
by modifications o i 1nhor;rtory instrnn~entsior use a s stream analyzers
\vhieh could be installed in t11c plant.
Processes requiring a physical n~easurenrent or a clieniical analysis of
the psiduct arc burdened \vitb a n excessirc time lag \\-l~cnoperators nmst
~ r y changing conditions. Even
axvait results from a control l a l ~ o r a t ~ bciore
though the initial cost limy be high the use of stream analyzers r n c l ~
a s infrarcd spectroplioto~~~ctcrs have prured profitable in poccsscs rc-
quiring rigid quality control. T h e continuous record eliminates time lag
and prevents llroductiun ui large quantities of pru,luct ~v1:ich do not
nlcct specification.
A list o i some of thc instruments used to rncasure clrcmical and
physical properties is given in Table 20-2. These instruments have
been adapted for continuous stream analysis. Some of these instruments
arc costly and in such cases tlic decision to usc tlmn most be base11 on
Process Instruments 525
a rarcf111 ccono~nicstudy. It n-oi~ldhc un\visc, for instance, to employ
a n infra-red analyzes ~ ~ d l c%: n ~lrocc-s temperature at a critical point
I W I I I ~ he stati>tically (,orrelated with pr,~iluctquality.
A list such as that in Tahlc 20-2 i-. subj'ct to rapid change. Eacli
~ i timproved,
year existing i n s t r u ~ ~ ~ rare s a ~ l dncw ones are introduced.
PROCESS CONTROL
General
S e a r l y all process-control apl~licationsfor the process plant inrolve
an adjr~stmentin rate or cllangr in dirwtion of fluid f l o ~T h e elcments
ui control consist of a prilnary or sensing d r r i w , a eccondary clemmt
or translation device, gcncrally lcrroivn :is the instnnnent, and a tliird
elenlent 1rhic11 effects thc cl~angcin strttam l~ropcrtirs. N o s t control
systems utilize pneumatic systcms for operation of the third eleluent.
Batch Systems
Bi1tc11 s y s t m control usually involvc? a simple control 1rhich \\-ill
allow n certain desircd cunditim to I J ~reucl~eclin a nonflow system and
continue to maintain that condition until completion of the process.
.ibatch system may bc illustmtccl 11y ;I stram-jacketed kcttle filled
with a fluid t o be 11r:itetl. Thc controller opens a valvc admitting steam
to the kcttle jackct rdlerc i t is condenser1 giving up heat to the walls of
t l ~ ckettle. T h e con(1cnsate is c~~ntinuously TI-ithdra~vnby means of a
steam trap. \Vllcn the intcrnal fluid re;rches the clesircil temperature tlrc
controller maint:lins thc t e m p e r a t u r ~11y o l i e n i ~ ~or
g closing the steam
inlet ralvc.
Such systems are oftcn used in t l ~ cfood industry when a cooking
process niuet continue for a n cstcn(lcd leugtl! of t i n ~ c . Tlic operator
fills the kettlc and 11uts thc instrument into iq~eratiun. By the use of a
timing dcvire the system can bc made to shut-off a t tlrc end of a certain
period.
If ten~pcratureis not, critical the same type heating can be accom-
plisl~ed by a jacket pressure control which r.ontrols the steam into thc
jacket. Thc ronclensatc trap will ~,imtinuounly\\-itlldraw condensate,
- and thc jacket \rill be held a t t l ~ csame t c l q ~ c r a t a r ea s long as the prcs-
sure is constant.
Location of the primary element in n stirred kcttle is relatively
unimportant since all the fluid must ultinrately reach the same tempera-
ture, a t xliich time the control will close the stcam valve until a
temperature drop is sensed.
Fluid-expansion type temperature controllers are most irequcnt:ly nscd
in such batrll-type proccsees. T h e instrument may or may not 11c
 sq'""la>[ daslnaay azuoll UO!?"![dd" 1 3 a p puinaeaJy XIiL

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534 Project Engineering of Process Plants
opening and air pressure are required t o niaintain tlie telnprrature at the
control point. Clianges in t,eniper:iture cause tlic vtilvc to move tow?rd
open or slint, t l n ~ sreturning the system t o its original control point. Tlie
throttling action produccs a minimum of cycling.
If the process load, Iioxi-ever. increases appreciably r ~ na steam heater,
fur instanre, the stea~iicontrol valve opening rrquirctl to maintain the
system a t the control tcinperaturc must he greater (niore steam is
Process Instruments 535
PROPORTIONAL-RESET COSTROL
Reset is done autoniatirally in the proportional-reset instrument as
illustrated in Fig. 20-16. Tlie throttling action is accomplished in a
similar fashion as deseribcil. Tlie inner bellows is caused t o move by air
pressure on the outer hellow n-lii<.li contains a liquid. When the pen
niuves from tlie set point in a direction I\-liich makes the flapper move
from the nozzle, tlie control valve pressure is lowred. Tlic throttling

throttling
bellows

hmospheric
pressur
ff
, Jeedle valve liqua 11 1
pi lot
reloy
control
valve
restriction/

Fig. 20-16. Proportional pneumatic control. (Cou~.tcsyof Minneapolis-Honeywell i

Rcgnlntol. Cornpmy.) +
filtered
air supply
required). The proportional controller cannot correct for this auto-
matically. I t , therefore, lines out a t a lower equilillriu~nteinperature a t
I i c i thc corresponding valve position is adequate for maintaining
ncht
constant tank temperature. This deviation or offset depends on tlie bellows e q ~ a n d sto lie l e d umlcr tlie lower air pressure, moving tlic inner
width of the proportional hand (larger for wide hands) and the magnitude 11ellow to the the flapper bark to!\-ard tlic nozzlc. The liquid
of the load change. A wide hand setting produces the niininiuni cyclical chamber of tlie two outer hellous (left and right I is con1 ected by nie:tns
/edt
action, but the greatest offset with large load rhanges. The narrow band of a rcstrirted passxgr. Tlir liqui,l r bl t~ a ~ n h eatr tlie n+ IS always a t
has the opposite effect. atniospheric pressure. That a t the @ I S iiiomentariiy below atnii~spheri(..~,
I n order to return the instrument t o its control point tlie relationship
between pen position and valve position (air pressure) must be changed
liquid from the a, tlirrcfore, passc.5 graduallv thrr~ngh to the &
causing the inner hellovs ~ I min.?I hack ton-ard the m. 'fhis movement
so that the valve position for the new load will produce the desired mores the flapper away from the nozzle wnrl fnrtlie~l o w r s tlie valve air
temperature. This adjustment or resetting uf the pen position-air pressure pressure, and the ryelt, of action just dricrihcd is rcpeateri.
relationship must be made manually and is impractical for frequent load Tlic niovemmt of tlie pen away from the flapper will continue in tliis
changes. uianner until the control valve reaches the 11oint a t which t,he pen will
536 Project Engineering of Process Plants
return tu its set or control lloint. Only a( this point 71-ill'the liquid prcs-
bures be equal in ear11 hcllun-5. This re-et action, tlicrefore, ~villmaintain
the process a t the control point ~.(~g:lr~llcss
uf loild fluctu a t 1011.
' of all rontrol instruments. T h e development of such instruments has
PR~I'~RTIOS.AI.-RE~ET-R.~TE COSTROL
R a t e actiou is accomplisl~ed hy installing an adjustable restriction
between the control valve air pressure linc and the throttling bellom. It
has the effcct of slon.ing up the tl~rottlingaction and thus permits the
contr(11 valvr to i~vt.r-rorrcct trnqiorarily for :l drangc irl the controlle~l
variable. Such action pro(lurcs a faster corrcrtion (luring thc early portiun
of a n upsct periucl. I t is llarticularly valuablc for systems having large
lags 11ctx~-ecnc11:rngcs in thc syrtcm and cllanges in the measured variable.
T h e m t c a~.tionmay hc a d j w t ~ dto suit tlw jiro~,(wronllitions.
Sollie pncu~natic control instruments can he adjusted for tlirottling,
reset, and ratc (if response to suit most con~plcxprocesses. Each addition
to the complexity of a n instrument, of course, increases its price. T h e
least costly instrument of good quality t h a t will do the job prgperly is
all that is rcquireii. If on- anii off'-contrd is satisfactory for a noncritical
process strcnm, i t ~\-iluldbe u~icconomicalt o purchase a morc costly
throttling controller with reset and rate action.
ISSTRCMEXTAIR
Clean: dry air inust bc provided for proper operation of pneumatic
systems, antl for this rcnson distribution piping s11n11ld be ecparatc from
plant air systcnis. The ideal systtm has separate air coliipressors, air
receivers, and sollie type i ~ f regenemtire deliydrilting unit. Plant
distributim systtwls for ilistrumcnt air should hc olieratrd at 111~c.ssurcs
abilve 45-50 psi so that distributio~llrcadcrs vill not hc larger than 3 in.
or 4 in. nominal hise. A nsnnl pressure is fro111 75 to 85 psi. Instrument
air pressure within a process :wen need not exccrd 35 to 40 psi.
-4s a precautio~i a g a i n 4 moidure, n drip lcg shoi~ld bc providcd
just hefore the prcssure reducer or area tilork valve. It is standard
practice to provide a scparatc reducing ~:11vcv i t h a filter and drip a t
each instrulrrcnt for maintaining constant air sup111y pre:;. a r e .
S e a r l y :ill maintrnance problems other than mechanical n-ear r a n he
eliminated if the air sul~plyis clean antl free of nloiiture. Distribution
piping should 11e gnlvaniscd and instrumcnt air transmission piping
s h ~ ~ u hel d s ~ n a l l~ l i a m r t c rcolipcr or :ilumimn~~ tubing, usuirlly :% in. 01)
~ n a x i ~ u u ~Fittings
n. 111113 II(, I,riiss or h r o ~ i sflare-type.
~ Several man-
ufacturers arc now pruclucing ni:~ltiple tubing assemblies, encased in
flexiblc armored typc steel ronduit. T h e asrrml)lics save much time in
installatiun and also protcct the s ~ n d tlr l h i n ~rluri~rgronstrurtion. Various
: t i c 1n:tri1 I i I 1 i ~ ~ d r u t~~ltillg.
~ i t i l ~ l ~u ll ~ l e11lu11l
qlcrntors prcfw t11csc 11iatcri:iIs tu cu1q1(~ur ~ I U I ~ I I I I I I I I .
Process Instruments 537
The ~ ~ n m ~ ~ utypc
a t i rrontritl instrulllcnt is p?rhnl>s the most fool-proof
curered several decadcs, and practically all the xell-known instrument
manufacturers offer comparable instrunic~ntrbaecd on reliability, simplic-
ity, ndal~tability,and opemtion. Tile instrument iniiustry is, of course.
by no lncani stagnant. S e w ilrrrlopn~rntsarc ~wnstnntlyhring offrrcrl.
;in11 the instrmnent engineer mnst attempt to kcep abreast of thc whole
industry rather than assumc that only certain manufncturers are capable
of meeting parti~:ularapplications.
Hydraulic Control
Hydr;~ulically operated controk h a w long h e m widely used in some
intlnstri~s. Their use for process cnntrnl, 11o~r.n-er,ir usually limited t o
olicrntiiins requiring consi(lrrah1~pun-er : m l t~t-o-pusitiontype control.
The :~pplication of l~ydraulicsas a wlf-ci~ntainc(lcontrol ~ncclium ~ v a s
extcndcd trcl~rendously during TYorld \Tar I1 The so-called "servo"
systems, \~-hicllare uacd extensirely in airplane cnntrols utilizc hydraulic,
systems for pusitive and instmtalleous action.
T h e components of the hydraulic systcm are a cllsmber for storagc of
hydraulic fluid, a gear or othcr type positive-displacement pump, control
valves, and tlrc poner unit, xvhirh is usually a piston and cylinder.
Generally cach application of hydraulic control llas all these coniponents.
I t \vould be possible t o h a r e a c e n t r a l i d hydraulic p o m r systcm in
vhich the fluid ~vouldbe distrihutcd to cach user, similar t o pneumatic,
rystems. It can be x c n , h m e v c r , that in each case tn.0 sets of piping
~vouldbc rcquired for pressure service to the user and the return systcm
to the central nnit. With tlic pneumatic sj-stem only a single suplily or
conncctiun is required between instrument and power unit. Furthcrmurc,
hydraulic systenis arc generally operated a t l~igherpressures than pneu-
matic systems and thus require hcavicr tubing. \Yhile t l m c arc a number
of uses for hydraulic systems in process rontrol, the charar~teristicejust
i:numerated generally indicatc tllc selection of pncumntic controls. 3-0
doubt as thc application of servo-systems hecomcs greater, the use of
Iiydraulic units will incrcase.
Electrical a n d Electronic Control
ELEVIXICL CONTROLLERS
Thc movement of pressure in,strunicnts, potentiometers, antl other sucli
i n s t r u ~ ~ i e r ~may
t s be utilized to ol~eratc mercury STT-itchesor contacts
placed above and hclmv t11c control point. T h e clcctric signal can thcn
open or close an ele~?ricnlly o p t ~ a t c i lr a l r c (such as a solenoid valve) or
position a reversible motor-operated ralx-e a t the control point.
Some 1iroliortiunal : ~ n d prolii~rliot~nl-rwtcontrol instrmnents have
538 Project Engineering of Process Plontr
electric and electronic means for positioning an electrically operited
valve. These techniques have been d e s c r i l ~ e d . f i . V T h cpotentir~mcter
instrument is best adapted to this type of ciintrol. Tlic m o v r n r r ~ ~oft tiit,
pen is followed by contact with a slitle v i r e resistor v i ~ i r foniis
l~ a l~~idge
circuit with a similar resistor in rontart n.ith t l ~ etravel of the nloti~rvalve.
Suitable relays detect nnllalancc in t l ~ rI~ridge circuit ranrrd hy pen
movemcnt from the control point. .\111vciumt of thc iuoti~rv a l w in the
proper direction is then initiated in such a way that it ba1:inces the bridge
circuit.
ELECTRICALLY OPERATED VALVES
Several types of electrically operated valves are manufactured. The
so-called solenoid valve is perhaps more widely used than any other
motor-driven type. The solenoid valvr is a ~TVIJ-po~itiun unit, operating
either wide open or closcd.
The solenoid valve is often used in ronjunction ~ i t pnenmatir
h sy~tcm~.
admitting or shutting off air-pressure t o p0n.e~units. Sdenoid valves
are very useful in safety applications. If a number of pneumatic systems
are fcd through a common air supply, a two-~vaysolcnoid r a l r e may be
installed in the system su t h a t plant electrical failure will ciiuse the
solenoid t o deenergize and open, releasing air from the system. All control
valves on thc system will then assume an emergency position.
The air-motor on an air operated valve can be replaced by a reversible
electric miltor operating through a gear reduction tu position the valve in
accordance with the signal received. Numerous models are available.
SIGNALLING
Electrical systems are extensively used in signalling remote process
ccnditions or the opcrat,ing position of processing cqnil~rnentby means of
colored lights a t a control center. Liquid level instrnments are frequently
provided with contact switches lvliich indicate process liquid level hy
such means. Critical electrically driven equipment can be provided with
on-off indicators.
The annunciator panel, an early development of low-voltage electrical
signal systems is used for many of the above purposes. I t 11as the favor-
able characteristics of small size, low voltage, and centralization, whereas
the more conventional signal lights consume much more space and in-
stallation labor. Each is usually installed as a separate unit.
The annunciator panel signal system is often used in plants having
involved electrical systems. Failure points are cr~nnectedt o the panel
and faults are quickly located.
ELECTRONIC DEVELOPMESTS
Wherever mechanical movement has sufficient power to operate a micro-
switch or any other type of electrical switch, countless variations of
Process Instruments 539
electric control application are possible. Most of the uses of electrical
systems for prucess control are in on-off services, hut the large variety of
possible use? of electronirs arc only beginning to be applied t o process
ctmtrol. As development proceeds undoubtedly such control methods will
find a wider use.
SYSTEXICOSTROL
The use of electronic principles in process plant instrumentation is at
present limited chiefly to conversion and amplification of 1)rimary sensing
impulses, but system control by means of electronics is on the horizon.
System control in contrast t o point control d l permit control of the
total process. Anticipatory control innst usually bc left t o manual
cl~angessince presently available instrnnients cannot function until some
change occurs a t the primary element. The single exception to this is
the instrument rrorking in conjunction nit11 another controller. I n some
respects this may be' considered anticipatory control: however. it will he
found that the number of variables u-hich can be so contrdled are very
limited.
I n order to 11roridc system control, all considcrrd variat~leswould have
t o be sensed collectively, their relation neigbcd by a couunon instrument,
and changes effected according to a pattern, either [re-determined or
instrument-determined. It is only in recent ycars that such a system
has proved practicable.
Electronic computers will play a major role in these developments.
Such "computer-control," hovrvcr, requires quantitative knowledge and
expression of this kno~vledgcin such a w i y that it can he used by the
machine. I t is surprising but true that quantitative knowledge has been
developed for only a small nunther i ~ fsiniplc processes. Engineering
judgment required in the operation uf so many plants cannot, a s yet, be
reduced to a mathematical expression.
P X E ~ M AVS. T IELECTROSIC
C COSTHOI.
Boyd2 has drscri1)t.d the first complett. refinery n.Iiir11 n.as controlled
by electronic instrnments. He has also co~uparedpneumatic control tu
electrunic r o u t r d T h e n n ~ i ~ n cnif ~ ~ l signals,
e for instance, instead of
being convcrtrd to a pneumatic signal and transmitted in tubing t o a
distant valve may be trnnsmitted after suitable electronic amplification
to the valve as nn clcrtric:~l sigrr:~l. This arrnngement provides much
grr:ilc~ s ~ w i i i \ . i t y . '~'III, ( ~ l i ~ t r i ~ ~ :ol~ Iii~o~t ~
d r u i i i e nair
t piping not only
siuiplifies ii~:l:~ll:tliu~ic h u l r1imin;itcs Llie difficulties caused by freezing
moisture in air lines during cold weatlier.
The installatiun described requires conwraiun uf the electric signal t o
air pressure at the valve ainw motor-11rivcn control valves at this time
are not a s fast as pneumatic valves and gears become excessively worn
540 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Process Instruments 541
nt a position corrcsl~ondingto the control point. B o y i l ~ n g g c s t s . . t l r c or 11:1vc I I : ~ I . - ~ ~ I<( I, ~I ,I v~i Ie1,1\vxr~d
~e ~ t11v , ~ u t s i ~ l e Control-roo111
. cl,~,r>
dcxlolnrient nf hydmnlically operated r a k e v i t h indiridual pumps .and ~ I ~ a n lnot i l i~r.rlin:rrilyI N 11r11vi~lcrIv i t h lock?. Exit dnors fro111tlw area
niot~~r.; actuated 11y the electrical signal. I n this Inannpr the favorable ill Imrli nf 1 l 1 v ~r:rnvl.lln11l~l nl.s<>I,c inrl~~ilcrl.
r t ~ p o n s eeharacteri.stics of the electronic controller could be used. ( ' O I I I I . I I I i o o i ~ -/1o111~1
~i 11:1vi:clir.wliu~~:~I (11. t r ~ f f i , r i -ligl~ting.
~l I.:\;l~l,~iio~~-
proof f l u o r w w l t ligllting fistnrcs :l~ould l ~ ru ~ c r lif tllc crlntrol room is
Control Theory
: n r I to I i t i I l : z r r l o n s a r c . An i n i c n ~ i t yof .XI f t - r : ~ n ~ l l r ~
Excellent tl~eoricshave been del-rioped to d c s r i b e tile nunrerous types
of control s y ~ t c n ~ s At
. t i n ~ c itlic ~ ~ r o j c eengineer
t niay find linritcil
kni~n-ledgeof t h i ~tlieor!- Iielpful in di.wxsioni of iliflicult control p r d -
ICIIIS wit11 instrnn~rntcnginwrr. St,veral works on control tlieory arc
listed in the rcfercnci.~:mil :ire rciwnn~it~ndcil fm engineers d l 1 clrclnical
engineering I I mecli:ulical
~ cngincering Ixickground.

Control Centers
Pncunintic m i l clectrmic iransmission per~nitstllc ccntralization of all
instruu~cnts. I\Inltimillion rloll:~rIlrocrss nniti p r ~ d n c i n glarge quantities
of high q ~ l a l i t yl~rt~rluctc m n o ~ vbe ~ p c r a l d11y n f c c~x p c r i e ~ m dnle~i
~vlio~ c l d o mneed IIIOVE from tl~il~~01nfi1rtah1e surronnilings of a modern
air-conditioned control room. TIIC emtrol 11ou.o IIU hecc~mcnot only
the nerve renter of the process unit but also the show place. Attenti011
is given to the CII~I-cnience :is n.t!ll as alq~enr:mce of hut11 inside and out-
side nf the contri~lIhiiusc :is well as the panel board itwli. Instruurent
~nanniacturivshave rcsl~on~lcd to t i i s trenll m i l arc providing shapes and
stylcr of inilriunmts that produce not only nrcurntc control but also an
:~ttmctivccontrol parlcl. Tyllicnl conlrol 11:11ids ; ~ r cslro~vnin Fig. 20-17.
or inow is illffil~il~tlt.T l ~ cs:lnie intensity slnk11~Ihe provi~lc-~ll ) c l ~ i ~the
i~l
The size : ~ n d:Irrangemuit of eontrd piu~vl-11:~sI I C ~ I I ( ~ I ~ a n g cconsider-
d h 111e:laing control room :Ipllenrnncc ?:In Ile
llallel f<lr ~nnintenancc.
ably \vitll tllc advcnt of gr:lllllic panels (see Fig. 20-17). Tlic graphic
obtaincd with a dropped criling slightly highcr than tlrc c o n t r ~ dp~lncltop.
pancl provides n simplified f k ~ wdiagram of the process. I t s utility,
Space is thus provided for troffered lighting: and heating :~ndventi1:iting
Irowcvsr, is more l~cnefici:rl to uninitiated than ti, cspcricnced process
ducts.
operators, ~ l must ~ uIcnm Lo h n u ~ vall procrss l ~ l ~ a s regardless
rs of cmtrill C,~li,rscliclncs an11 ~nntcrinlsvary with coml1:111y preference. Ceilings
board an.ange!nents. Tlrc rnii..t important cllangi: caused by graphic
for control renters :rrc often constnlctcd of noninilnnnnal~le :tcoustical
panels has heen tlre rcductio11 in instrument size, permitting subsequent
~rrntcri:lls wllicll are usunlly uf :I light color 11ut may he 11:lintrd :IS ~ l e s i r f d
rcductims in control p ~ i e Icugth l and thus control roolns. Tlic trend to
Varions s l ~ : r d ~ofs green or gray hnve l ~ c mused for the ci~ntrolpanrl.
aniallcr sizcs is :llm evident in instromenls not intcndcd for grapliic panel
I n i,rd~.r to 11roviilc n clcan appe:lr:lnce cer:nnii, tilc can he wrrl for
laynuts.
e i l v : I s Flours nrc gmcr:llly concrctc slab n.itl~trrr:lzzo. a q h n l t
I n arranging the contrd center for the process plant there should he
tile. or rublwr tile finisl~. 1t11hhcr tile pri~vi~ics the n~ilst c i ~ l n f o r t ~ l ~ ~ k
xdcquatc apace hel~indthe pancl for instrument maintcnance. h m i n i ~ n u n ~
vxlking surf;~cc, l3utli rulll~crand ; i ~ p l ~ atilc
l t are mucll lcrs expen>irc
of six f t betrwen building wall and instrument is desirable.
thnn terrazzo.
If tlrc proress is l ~ n z a r ~ l or ~ ~subject
ui to fire, lnrge vindow openings
I t is c(nnmon pmeticc for the control building to have a n office for tlre
should I J installrd
~ 011 thc s l ~ t ~ l t c rsi~lc.
c ~ l S111:111 n.in,lons may be provided
chief or shift operator, toilet facilities, a pantry equipped ~vit11a n electric
on tlic side nearcst the prure>s unit. All window glass al~ouldhe shatter-
refrigerator, a sink, and a hot-plate where tlic operators can Tvarm their
11ruof or wire ~ 1 : ~ s-it. least three access opcningr or esits should h r
food (shift ol~rratorsare not urnally permitted to leave the unit I . An
provided in the control ruuni. Door 1lardr~-aresliould bc anti-panic type
anto~nnticallyrliillril KAtrr ~irinkingfountain is aslinlly pro\-iflc~l. A
542
Project Engineering of Process Plontr
locker-room is sometimes included wit11 slio\ver fncilities so that ~iperatora
ran change rlothing a t the proress unit.
Snmnier and ~vinter, air-ronditioned control rooms are hrco~ning
ronimon, particularly in the warmer climates. If air-conditioning is
provided, heating is included in the same system. Ventilation may be
arcon~plishedby duct work i ~ byr fans located in tlie huiliiing wall.;. Duct
~ o r dues
k not greatly increase costs and eliminatcs fan noise. For some
processes the control rooul is maintainrd under a positive liressure,
Intake air is rcceived from an elevated stack and noxious funics near the
ground level cannot enter the room.
I n general the cost of the control room is a very small part of the cost
of proress equipment. Attractive control rooms are good morale builders.
The slight additinnal cost of a clean and pleasant working space is indeed
nell spent.
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
Instrumentation developments are continuing a t a bewildering rate.
Progressive operating companies and instrument manufacturers rnaintain
research divisions conccntrating on thc development of nelv trchniques,
and thc instrument engineer who is responsible for the selection and
pri~peroperation of instruments in a process plant must keep up with these
nev developments hy attending technical meetings and reading journals.
I n addition, discussions of new instrumcnt developments n i t h man-
ufacturer's representatives is a necessity.
A process plant design and construction project needs the services of
a rapable and well-informed instrurncnt engineering group. At present
instrumcnt engineers have various backgr~~unds such as chemical mgi-
ncering, physics, electrical engincering, mechanical engineering. and
diemistry. All havc in common a n interest in precise ruachinery and
electronic equipment.
The organization of a n instrument cngincering group for plant design
project varies in cach company. I n general, howevcr, one engineer is
:issigned rcsponsihility for the instrumentation of a section of a plant or
an cntire plant. This engineer begins his work early in the development
of the plant design. During the process design stage the priiccss cngincer
\ d l seek his advice on phascs iif design which would he greatly influenced
by instrument sclection. Often the design of a chemical reactor, for
instanre, can he greatly simplified by clever application of control
instruments.
TTlicn process design is complete and the engineering flow diagram is
heing developed, all instrumentation including indicating instruments
niust bc deterniincd. This is hest accomplislied by first hrginning n i t h
several work conferences between the instrument engineer, project
I Process Instruments 543
engineer, and process engineer. The project and proress cngineers must
describe the process, explain the customer's thinking on instrumentation,
and indirate the hudget.
I Kno\dcdgc of instrumentation is very helpful to the process and project
engineer in such discussions. V'ith the inforniation obtained from these
talks and subsequent discussions i l f critical control points, the instrument
engineer is able t o determine all the variables for each process unit and
decide which must be controllrd, nicasurcd, or indicnted. Based on his
knowledge of the latest and best instrumentation he can detrrrninc all the
instruments required for the pr(1cess unit.
All of these instruments are then shown schematically on thc engi-
neering flow diagram by means of synlbols (ecc Table 5-3'1. I*:aclr
instrument is assigncd a numhcr ~vhiehis used for identification in design.
purchasing, and construrtion. Instruments are then selected on the hasis
of competitive bids from manufacturers.
hlanufacturers' instrument drawings are used in erection as well as a
limited numbcr of installation dranings madc by thc instrument depart-
ment. These installatim ilrawings usudly include typical installation
sketches for orifice meters, thermocouple assemblies and others. Such
drawings can be used for a number of differrnt types of jubs. Henrc
instrument drafting is not a very Iargc task for most projects. Dra\~-ings
of tlic pancl board layout must also he made since these are designed fur
cacli job using standard pancls which havc been arranged t o suit the
particular conditions.
Items such as orifice plates are lncatcd on piping dra~vings,but in
general fcw detailcd instructions in the form of drawings arc required.
Instrument installation niust he done 11y liighly skilled nien supervir;rd
hy an instrument engineer. Thc dccisii~nson the various details can bc
made nioet ceiinouiically during construrtiun hy the instrummt enginecr-
in-charge. I n this way a c o n d e r a h l c nniount of ci~stlydrafting time is
a~oidcd.
Successful and economical instrumentatinn of a proces. plant rlemands
cooperation hetwcen the process, project, and instrunlent enginccrs It
also requires a mutual understanding of tlic otlicr cngineers' field so that
discussions ran proceed beyond the realm of generalities and so that
cmcrete decisions can be reached. Thc projert engineer can maintain
I n spraking knowledge with nr\v instrument ~ l e ~ c l o p n ~ r nbyt s reading
the hrief accounts dcsigned for such purposer: in journals of rhemistry
and clic~nical engineering. F i ~ l l u ~ i ntheg nlure iirtailrd arrourits in
q~ecializedir~strurncntatiun journals usually proves too nlucl~nf a task
since tlie 11rqject engineer also ruust rrnd thr eurrcnt literature I ~ I
[ ~ r o e e s s ~ cheiuical
s, engineering thcurctical dcvelu~lnlents, and pruccsb
cquilxiient.
 21
54s Project Engineering of Process Plants

REFERENCES CHAPTER
1. Brhar. M. F.. "Handbook oi Meacoremmt and Control.'' Part I1 oi 1mti.w
m m t s ond datonioiion. 9:; S o . 12 (1954).
2 . Boyd D. 11.. Oil arrrl Gas Jui~,nril,63, S o . 2 i , 139 (1954).
. S. and D . 1'. Camphell, Principlrs of Serr;o,nechrrnirmr, John IYilry
3. R ~ . o n n G.
8 Sons. I n e . S e x IYolk.1948.
4. Dike, Paul H.. Thcrmoelectrie Thei-murnet~y,Leeds and Sortlmip Co.. Plr~le-
delphia, Pa., 1954.
5. Eekman, Don:il<i P.. Irtdrrstriul Z~islramrntutinn,John ITiley 6 Sons. Inc..
S e w York, 1950.
6 . Eckman. Dormld P.. P I - i n c i ~ d r sof Indii.diln1 Process C o n l w l , J u l i n Xllry h
Sons. Inr.. S c w I-ork.1945.
7. Farrington, G. II., F~~~idrr,ircnlol.sof A i ~ l u m n t i c Control, Clrnlinlnn and Hall,

Honeqwll Rrgulntw Co.. Induzt~.ial Diriaion. Philad~lphia.Pa.

PLANT
10. Iiajoy, M. H.. 1,td~rstrini Autonintic Controls, Prenlice-Hall. Ina., S e w Yark.
1954.
11. Sprenkie, R. E., Y'rans. A I L C ISOC.
. IIILCIL.Engis., 67, 345 (1945).
UTILITIES
Utilities are as indispensalile to a process plant as they are to a city
and as much a part of plant planning as the design of process units.
The f o l l o ~ i n gutilities will he discusscd with emphasis on dcsign:
Pri~naryutilities
( a ) Water
( b ) Fuel
( c ) Power and process steam
( d ) Storage and m o v r n ~ m tof raw mnteriak and products
Secondary utilities
, ( a ) LIaintenanre facilities
i b ) Plant buildings (other than proccss; see Chapter 23)
( c ) Plant roadways
( d j Railroad facilities
( e ) Fire protection (see Chapter 24)
( f ) Plant seffer systems and \mstc disposal
( g j Plant air
( h ) Plant security

P R I M A R Y UTILITIES
ITtilities nhirh are vital to the operation of a plant are called primary
utilities.
545
 . .. ,., " ., I,,,. . ,,,.. I j;..,,,, ..,,., L.I P , ... ..
,..<..I , " , 8 .
., . . .I I . '1 ."'.[
8
.'I ..',I I .U 1.X.1"~.
L.

a . I.",[
..
I , [ ,.I,,,",.llill.. [ .i %A[.I I 1 ,

..,
. 4 .
. ..,,,,[ ,1. I I.. ...,. _
Ill* ,..I(I,,Z U l 8 l . l I.{I . , ..>"I:[.,

l .mIIII.,.
(1 I.,
- .I .' ,
111.
: .,
I, I.).
8,':
IL
,',
\

. J '
1 ) .,l:llllltl,~.[ll I . . I I 1 1
,,'.'.'".' .,1p.1:.'11
[ .L'l ..,I
..'<[

<uo!iuowr uoic JOJ quoan u n ! w aaa~nrfi

u u ! ~ w [ y~ae1eo3 a;lulaqara oo!1.a3 z u j u q
- 0 , 'uo!;nll[y pee eo!lo[ndoo3 'uo!lurav

.'"'At 10 '3llr,vr(r
a.\!aorioa -.mamu! poe ?ua~uous p ! p o l sppy

8aq qeauapum pu*

IUBWS L[m1"3!1zsd pus s a q ralam u! uu!rono:)

DM u! punoj sa!(!lndul u o u r u o ~ ' 1 - I Z 3lgvj

 TABLE 21-2. Comparison of Water-Softening Processes

Process Method Ileactions

Lime-soda Calcium and magnesium ions precipitated 1. Ca(HC03)2 + C ~ ( O H ) =Z 2CaC03 + 2 H 2 0
by lime and soda as C:LCOSand Mg(OH), 2. Mg(HCO:,)2+ 2Ca(OH)? = AIg(OH)z + ZCaC03
whicharethenremoved by sedimentation. 3. MgS04 + =~ I ~ ( O+ H CaSOd
) ~
4. RlgClz + Ca(OII)2 = Mg(OH)? + CaCL
5. CaSOa + NazC03 = C ~ C O + I SazSO.
6. CaClz + Na2C03= CaC03 + 2NaC1

2. Hot process +
Calcium and magnesium ions p1,ecipitated 1. 3Ca(HCOl)r GNaOH = 3CaC03 3NnzCOs GH?O + + m
phosphate by phosphate and hydroxyl ions as 2. 3CaCOi 2Na3POn= Cn3(l'01)I+ 3Nu&Ox + 2.
+
Cas(P04)1 and Mg(OH)z. C a 3 ( P O ~ ) 23. Mg(HCOJ)2 4NaOH = Mg(OH)2 2Na2C03 2Hz0 + + m
is more insoluble than CaC03. aB
3. Zeolite Objectionable ions removed h r replace- 1. Ca+++ N:r?Ze* = CaZe + 2Nn- 2
0
softening ment with other ions in the zeolite bed. (sudlurn
ae,,lltel
zw
2. Ca(HCO3)%+ HtZe = CaZe + 2H2C03 (cation exrhange)
(Ily'lrogen
.e,~,,t-i

(Acids produced are neutralized by addition of alkali, raw water,

or sodium zeolite-treat,ed water.)

'Ze = Zeolite

TABLE 21-2. Comparison of Water-Softening Processes (continued)

Process Advantages Disadvantages Remarks

1. Limc-soda (a) Best for high hardness waters.
(b) Removes iron a t same time.
(c) Kemoves solids in suspension by
occlrision in coagulated mass.
1. Hot process (a) Greater insolubility of Ca3(POd)2 (a) More difficult to control than Best for boilel. water treatment.
phosphate permits production of water of
"zero" hardness.
(b) Softened water can produce can be a lime-soda process.
( b ) Best for water of low hardness.
I Zeolite (a) Easy to operate and control.
softening ( h ) Produces low hardness waters.
(c) Anion exchange resins available
which in combin,~tionwith cation
resins can produce demineralized
water comparable to distilled rvuter.
(d) Cation exchange resins produce
low alkalinity aatcr.
( e ) Cstinn resins can treat high
alkaline water.
( a ) Does not reduce hardness as Cold process lime-soda softening
much as zeolite process. is conlmonly used for municipal
(b) Control more difficult than systems. The water is treated a t
zeolite. its pumping temperature. Hot
(c) ~)issolvedsoli~lsnotdecreasedprocess softening is used for
in many waters. boiler water treatment. The r m -
(d) Coagulants required for most ter is steamheated prior to treat-
efficient sedimentation. ment. The highel. temperature
(212' F) increases the reaction
and sedimentation, permitting
use of smaller equipment. 2
0
3
zeolite If water is very hard, first stage
5-
deposits if pH is not properly H'
adjusted.
(a) Turbidvatermust befiltered. Alan? new resins available; rost
(b) Treated water often corro- studies must be made by conrpe-
sire. tent chemicnl engineel. and water.
( e ) May be more expensive than specialist to select the paper
other metlrods. Each mise method of treatment. The so-
must t~ studid. dium zeolites :ire rrgenec~ted
( d ) High alkaline nnd acid water periodicslly by h'aC1 brine; hy-
should not he used for so- drogen zeolites, by mid.
diom zeolites.
-
f."
f."
552
I
Project Engineering of Process Plants
c a t metllod fur scale prevention is thc addition of small
quantities of surface active agents to the rvater. These, in effect, increase
t,he solubility of salts in the n-ater by prevcnting precipitation even when
thc salts arc .;upcrsetur:itrd. Corrosion inhibitors such as chromatcs or
m-face actirc pl~osphate?may he addcd to prewnt rorrosion by dissolved
oxygen. Thesr meth& are usunlly adequate f i r <]me-tl~roughci~oling
rvnter systmm.
I n circulating cooling systcms build-up of salt concentration is incri-
table as ivatcr is cvnporatcd in tlic cooling tower. Makc-up ~ a t c re- r
quired t o replarc these and other losses i4'jr including leakage and ~vinii
losses) is small. The boiler water is, therefore, oftcn not diluted s u a -
cicntly to prevent scaling even ~vhcnsurfacc activc agents are used. Khen
this occurs: a portion of the water may be removed for further softening
or for sulfuric acid treatment I\-hich converts calcium carbonate t o t l ~ c
more soluble calcium sulfate. This treated water is then returned t o
the systcm.
Many operators h a r e found it advantageous to use lime-soda or
zeolite for circulating cooling water zystcms. Treated water is tlrc initial
charge to t l ~ ccooling water system and all make-up x e t e r is also treated.
Corrosion i~~hibitors are injected and inhibitor concentration checked
daily.
Demineralized water or condensate must hc used for engine jacket
water cooling systems. The jacket v a t e r is cooled by air-cooled or
water-cooled exchangers and re-circulated to the enginc. Corrosim
inhibitors such as chromates'are used in thc closcd system.
Cooling t o w r v a t e r pumping cquipmcnt should be dcsigned v i t h a
10 to 15 per cent safety factor on capacity. The pump head uiust bc
mfficicnt t o circulate water through equipment and return it to cooling
t o m r inlcts vl~iclr:ire usually from 30 t o 40 ft above grade. All piping
must he carefully checked for pressure drop in any type of closcd circul;~.
tion system.
Electric n ~ o t o ror turbine-driven centrifugal pumps are used. Alternate
polver sources and/or spare pumping equipment are installed because
cooling ~vateris essential even during cmergcncy shut-down of the plant.
Sea n-wter has been ~ l s e dsuccessfully as coding rvatcr especially in
those coastal areas with fresh water shortages. Cathodic protection
systems employing magnesium anodes located in the floating head and
channel of exchangers prevent excessive corrosion, Deposits are mini-
mized hy restricting cooling water temperature inrrcase b c h the point
where tile calcium salts begin to precipitate. I)epo& wliicl~do accumu-
late can he removed by inhibited acid treatment.
I SASITARY \V.Y~Y.R
plant Utilities 553
Sanitary r a t e r muit bc potable and free from disease-causing bacteria.
In n~etropolitanareas city n-attx is usually purrlrnsed for tliis purpose.
In remote Iocatior~sor in snu~lltowns a purtion of the treated ~ v a t e rf r o ~ n
t l ~ cplant softening unit may be diverted for hanitary ~vatcr. Tile treated
~r-atermust be chlorinatcd to destroy bacteria and then pumped in an
independent system.
I Periodic bacteriological tests establisl~the residual chlorine that must
remain in the treated rvatcr after ten minutes to insure destruction of
bacteria. The residual clil(~rincis the11 cl~eckeddaily by a simple test.
Sanitary xvater system': are operated at 20 ttt 30 p i g since higher
prcesures damage standard plumbing fixtures. An elevated ~vaterstorage
tank is usually installed t o insure uninterrupted v a t e r supply.
FIREKATER
The rei~uireu~enta for fire water are intermittent, and it may bc assumed
that otlicr senices will he s l ~ n tdown if necessary to proridc sufficient
ivnter capacity. 21 coolirig tower basin car1 be used as a reservoir t o
llrovide a rclatircly large capacity surge basin, but thc most carnuion
storage for etncrgency water is the standard elevated water tank.
IJnderrvritcrs-approvcd centrifugal fire pumps are uscd t o boost the
rvater prcssure to 150 psig so that the prcssure a t the fire hose nozzle will
be 100 to 123 psig. TKOpumps wit11 a t lcast 1000 gpm capacity each are
installed. Each has a different source of power, e.g., one, electric motor
and the otlrcr, gasolinc enginc. The pump should be self-priming if a
suction lift is rcquirecl.
Firc r a t e r headcrs must not he uscd for other purports. P r o ~ i s i o n s
should he made for emergency connection of the fire w-ater s y s t m ~into
the largest reservoir of n-atcr. Usually this is the ran. n-atcr supply sir~oe
fire rr-ater rcquircs no treatment,. Sen ~ v a t c ror brackish v a t e r is oftcn
used as fire water by plants located along coastal areas.
CTILITY1 v . k ~ ~ ~
Utility n a t c r is used for miscellaneous ~vashingopcmtims such as
clcaning a n operating arcx. I t should hc free from scdimpnt 11ut d w i r ~ ~ t
require any otlicr treatment. Notices sliould bc posted to n-ar11 ilersonnel
not to drink tliis n-atcr.
i
1
I Fuel
! Fuels arc used in process plants for open-fired heaters and renetore,
!
r ~ l ~ ~ n - f ievaporators,
rcd kilns, stcaw gencraturs. g:w turbint~s.:ltl,l i u t i ~ r ~ ~ i ~ l
i twu~huiticin eugit~es. Tilt. wmimnly u.wl fu?l* ::I.Y [ W ~ I . O I N I U I lirluicls.
i,
I
s d,,,
I I > ~ I U ~ : L I g w solid [II,&M',II : W ~ : d :III,I : t t ~ ~~v::>tt,
l ~,~,,,IIIV~S.
554 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Plont Utilities
Natural Gas
Natural gas is the most ideal fuel for the process plant. It requires no
0
W I l l
handling <IT storagc facilitics other than piping and pressure controls.
Gas flames are clean and propagate rapidly, burning satisfactorily at very
low fuel rater.
Petroleum refineries and pctrochemical plants have large quantities of
natural gases availahlp for use as a fuel. Ethane and heavier hydro-
carbons are strippcd from raw natural gas or from gases evolved in
cracking operations. Gas, in addition to its use as a primary fuel, is
commonly used for initiating comburtion in industrial furnaces that burn
other types of fucl. Liquid fuel sprays arc ignited hy gas burning pilots,
and combustion chambers for pulverized coal are heated to the ignition
temperature by gas burners.

Liquid Petroleum Fuels

A a i d e variety of fuel oils are marketed for industrial use. The U. S.
Hurcau of Standards and other governmental organizations hare issued
stan~lardsfor many of the common types. I n Table 21-3 the properties
of some typical fuel oils are given.
The heavy industrial fuels, because of their high viscosity, are delivered
in &earn-heated tank cars. The fuel is stored in heated tanks and in
largc installations circulated continuously between heated storage and
furnace. By t,his means tlic fucl is kept a t the correct tcmperature for
burning and constant pressure is maintained a t the burners so that control
of firing u.ill he simple. Isolated furnaces can have combined pumping
and heating units locatcd near thc point of usc.
The lighter fuels such as kerosene and diesel fuel are used for internal
combustion engines. Gasoline engines ar? rarely used in process plants 1;
:L
0 at i
s -
s
n
except for certain stand-by services, but diesel engines are used exten-
sively. Fuel storage for internal comhustion cngines is simple sincc
the fuels used require no heating other than in the engine. A gravity
head tank is often located near the engine and is filled intermittently from
larger storage farilities.
Jiqucfied petroleum gas is used extensively as a stand-by fuel in areas
subject to intcrrupt,ion of natural gas supplies.

Waste Products
Co~nbustihleby-products of process units may be valuable as fuels.
In some cases, honever, they p r o ~ cmore costly than conventional fuels.
I f , for instance, thc aaste material is a highly viscous liquid, special
pumping systems will he r~quired. In othcr cases, the hy-product may
contain water and corrosive materials. Finally, extensive alterations to

556 Project Engineering of Process Plants
the hurner xyctem itself niay tre necessary tu supply the correct air-iuel
ratio for 1,rupcr eonlhustion of the waste fuel. I f c11;rngr~sm r h n s these
:Ire nrrr.ssary. it may be cheaprr to R-aste the h y - p r ~ ~ d u cint a flare or
hurni~igpit.
I f rpanti1ic.s of waste products Witable for w r hccomc al.xilahir
l~criotlically,it is best ~ I use
I them hy mixing wit11 the regular fuel so that
I l ~ cfuel to tlic furnace d l he const:~ntin quality.
Tlic riiost common vaste or by-product fuels are gases frotn c r x k i n g
furnaces, susar canr waste (bagcssc) and \wad ~vaste. h nutnber of
interesting uses of xastc products as fuels have been made. One refiner,
for instance, uses the products of combustion from ;i regenerator of n
catalytic cracking unit. These gases are high in carbon nionoxidc and
are t~urnedin a special furnace.
Coal o n d Coke
Coal ;in11 coke \\-ere standard fuels for tlic early process industries. Imt
;is oil and natural gas her:uile clicnl~crirnd 11ilx. line5 11-crc cotlstrurtcd
tlie use of tlicse solid fucls 11:~sdecline<l.
The use id coal or lignite continues to prove ildr:lnlagcuus in p1:urrs
located near large deposits. I t is rxl,cctc~l t11:it coal consu~u]~tiim \\-ill
incrcaac as oil and gas deposits are depleted.
Power a n d Process Steam
Electric Power
Electricity is the primary source of power in the process plant. I t is
used for driving pumps, compressors, and other mechanical equipn~eut;
for clcctrolytic processes, beating, instrument power, and lighting.
Electric power may be purchased from a utility company or generated
a t the plant by steam-turbine driven or internal-coiiibustion-wine
driven generators. Unless a process plant is located in an isolated area.
purchased porl-er is usually cheaper than that generated hy the process
plant. Progressive utility companies serving industrial colnll~unities
provide excellent service a t Imv rates. I n order to maintain constmt luad
they also offer off-peak* power a t attractire rates. Under such conditions
it is often difficult to justify the construction of a complete polim plant
particularly when the same capital can be invested in n~lditionalproctw
facilities that yield higher returns.
Onc interesting case of niutual benefit is an agreement h e t w e n s large
wc5t coast public utilit,y and several oil refiners." Tlie utility has ron-
structed p o w r plants adjacent t o the refineries. The refineries sell fucl
*Paver used dwing periods of low residential consumption
Plant Utilities 557
to the utility company and purrlrasc a large portion of the powcr and
process steam generated hy the utility.
I n most rases, hoxverer, proccs; steam is genelatcd hy the process plant.
If tl~cseprocess stcarn rcquiretnents are high (75.000 to 100,000 lb of
stcam per h r j , :111 economic study may indicate that paver should also
he gcncratcil using liigli-11res.ure tl1rbine.s. Exliaust steam removed from
various stagcs of the turbine*: is then used as proress steani.
If electric power needs are r e r y great, such as in electrocliemica1 plants,
p o m r 111ust be generated a t the plant or 11urchaseil fro111 sotr~c1:1rp
hyrlroelectric project. Electrochemical plants limy consume more clert1.i~
pu\\-cr than entire municipalities, and utility companies arc often unn-ill-
ing to increase their po~veroutput so greatly for just one user. Further-
more, a plant-c~xned power gcncrnting facility rd-llen designed for large
p o w r requiren~entscan be operated as efficiently and cl~caplyas a put~lic
utility. I n arcaa 11al-ing Ion. cost natural gas, generators driven by in-
ternal conibustion cngiucs operating on natural gar luay p m r c lcsr costly
than opcration of stenni-drivcn generators. This is cspeciallg truc ~ v l m
direct current is required since I~M-speed,gas-ilri~cn engines cnn 11c
directly connected to d-c generators, A s gas turl~inesarc ilnproved r w n
greater economics niay he possible.
An cconomic study is necessary to select clcetric generating equip-
ment-internal-combustion engine, steam-turhinc, or gas-turbinc.' Each
n111st be studied and compnrcd with the cost uf purcl~asedpower.
Any elect,ric system niust he designed by technically qualified and
expcrienccd persons. I n addition t o tlie funda~nentalprinciples involved,
:I wurliing knowledge of tlie Natural Electric Codel and cornplete famili-
arity ~ i t ~nanufacture<l
h equipment is imperative.
Tlic hasic clcctric system is co~nposedof the poner source, \dlich lnay
bc generated or purchased polver, transformation cquipment, s ~ ~ i t c h i n g
and protective devices, distribution xiring, and the ultimate users.
Fig. 21-1 is a n abbreviated single-line drawing of an clectricsl systeln
illustrating tlic diagraniniatic type of representation used on electrical
drawings. References arc also given to the article in tlic Kational
Elcctric Coilel applicable t o racli piece of equipment rl~onm.
DISTRIBUTIUX VOLTAGES.Purchased power is distributed a t very high
roltngcs and must he reduced to some lower voltage for use in tlrc lilnnt.
P o w r generated b y tlie plant liiust also bc reduced. I n modern l ~ l a n t s
*Internal combustion plants require 24 manhows per 24-iir day. S t m m plank
require 72 manhours per 24-hr day. The rapid development of clcctric power
h i r e d from llrat gencmtrd in atomic piles mny clmnge the cntivr erouonriv
n or 20 yr.
iucture ~ ~ i t l i i15
 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Plant Utilities 559
t l ~ cprcsent practice is to distribute por5-er a t high voltages (4,160 t o
13,800 v ) , and then transform it to lower voltages 1120, 120/208Y, 240,
480, 600, and 2400)' near the area in which it is to 11e used. High voltage
.systems have lower p o w r losses. smaller conduit and rircuit breakers,
and lower installatioll t,ostr,
---
Instrument transformers. current
and potential Article450
Power tranrtormcrr. hrgh voltage. on1 Illled A ~ t ~ c 4l e5 0
Heavy-duty svitcllgcar hest mitcd for illant didrihution systems has
I
been standardized a t 4160 v. I t is, tl~erefore,niorc rconomical to select
P a w r t r a n r f o r m e m hich ~ o l t a g elmed
~ 8 t hno" -
Meter and inrtrumentr
burning ihqusd Article 4 5 0
Article 2 3 0 . 3 8 4
4160 v for primary feeders than 2400 r Systems having capacities up
to 20,000 kvaY may use 4160 v. Above this capacity 13,800 r is used.
SCrvlce entcanre conductors Article 100. 2 3 0
Regardless of voltage levels all distribution systems should have a
Service entrance egulpment - - --
.I ..t.i.r .b -7 2 0
6 circuits or less Par. 2 3 5 1 A grounded neutral to insure snfc operation and ease i l f maintenance.
Oven 6cirru8tr Par. 2 3 5 1
Grounding Alticle 2 5 0 E Q C I P ~ ~ EOPERATING
ST VOLTAGES.The operating voltage ree~~mmended
Furnaces Article 2 5 0 . 4 5 0 by manufacturers of motors and other electrical equipment is given on
Air circuit breakers Article 2 4 0 the nameplate or in operating instructions. The ratings are sliglitly
Article 3 8 4
Switchboards below the nominal distribution v~lltagrrin order to allou- for line losses.
Switches Article 3 8 0
Fuse6 Article 2 4 0 Typical motor ratings are given in Table 16-2 of Chapter 16. Typical
C.p.tit0r~ I CO~~C~~C
III Article 4 6 0 voltages for lnmps are 120 for i n c a n h c e n t nnd 118. 208, 236, mid 26St
Generators Article 4 4 5 for fluorescent.
Batteries Article 4 8 0 C o r n u l ~ . Power may be distributed through the plant by ( a ) open
Feeders Article 220
Lightning arrerte,r Article 280
wiring attached to poles or strurturre, ( b l cable run in metal conduit
Outside wiring between buildings Article 730 above ground, ( c ) cable run in metal or otller types of conduit buried
Tranrformerr, low voltage Article 450
Grounding Article 250 under ground, ( d ) cable buried directly in the soil. M e t l ~ o ~ lIn)
s and ( d )
Salefy switches Article 3 8 0 are avoided in modern plants since they are unsafe and pure a constant
hazard during maintenance operations. Method ( b ) is used for cable run
Panelboards Altice 384
inside buildings and structures.
Lighting b,anch r,rcv\,r Article210
Lighting tixtvrer Aitirle 4 1 0
Cable run underground is laid in light-wall galvanized steel or
Busways Azticle 3 6 4 concrete-asbestos conduits. The conduit is encased in a red-colored
1 concrete enrelope (red pigment added during mixingi t o insure ready
Heavy duty receptacles Article 2 1 0 . 4 2 2
Article 4 0 0
identification of the condnit during m y future excavations.
Conduit runs are located belolr. tlic frost line and spaced far enough
Por>abieaDc4hnCes Articie 4 2 2
apart to allow dissipation of heat, hIaniloles are located a t regular
-
intervals (200 i t maximum for straight runs and 100 ft for runs n i t h
~ a c h i n elighting tranrlormcr.
machine 10011 Arlitic 450. 6 7 0 bends) so that cable may be pulled through the conduit with ease. The
& Motor disconnect
Adele 4 3 0 shorter the run between pulling points the simpler the pulling operation
Article 4 3 0 becomes.
- Bends in conduit should be long radius bends and no more than one
Article 4 3 0 90' bend sbould be permitted l ~ e t w e nmanholes.
MAKHOLES. Manholes must he large enough to enable t ~ v omen ~ ~ 4 t h
ArlicIe 6 1 0 the necessary tools t o make connections and pull callle. They are con-
* 6W rolls is less frequently used than the 0t1m v o l t a g ~ sgiven. 1201208Y is R
three-phnsc four-wire systmm with the fourtll wire gruund~dn ~ u t r a l .
T Line to neutral on 480 v systems. .I scp:unte lighting system is not needed
when lamps of thls voltage are specified.

560 Project Engineering of Process Plants
itructed uf reinforced concrete, and are rectangular or ],ulygonal in shape
x i t h cast-iron pre-cast concrete slab covers. The bottom may he soil or
concrete, hut if the water table is near ground surface. the manhole
Iiottom should be made ~vaterproof.
Ladder rungs are set in the concrete sides of the manhole for access and
11~11iron-. are located opposite conduit mtrauccs for use in cahle pulling.
(':lble racks are also provided.
SI-STEMPROTECTIOS.The plant circuits and equipment must he pro-
t d e d by ilerires u~hiclr open thc circuits under over-load or faulty
conditions so that current will not flow. Tlie power feeders or high
voltage services entering a plant are protected by m a u u ~ l l yor power-
operated switchgear and ilisronnccting (isolating) snitches (sce Fig.
21-11, Reduced voltages froin transformers feed plant circuits each of
n.liich has its separate disconnect (isolating) switch and circuit-breaker.
The disconnect ST!-itch is used to open a circuit so that it can he com-
pletely isolated for rel~airs. They are not oprrating .sn.itel~esdesigned
for opening or closing under load.
Circuit breakers are designed to open a circuit when it becomes ovcr-
luailed due to faulty operation or short circuit. I n this \vay all
equipment in the circuit is constantly protected.
ELECTRICAL EQCIPMESTFOR H A Z A R D OAREAS.
~S Electrical ecluipn~ent,
transformers, and switchgear must be explosion-proof when located in
l~azardousareas. Large switching cquipmcnt and t,ransformers, however,
may often he located outside hazardous areas or in specially ventilated
enrli~suresso that thc expense of explosion-proof construction may be
avoided.
Explosion-proof equipment is designed t o withstand an internal rx-
plosion and prcvent propagation of flame through its openings. Any
flanie generated internally niust travcl through restrictions which cause
extinguishing of the flame. All types of electrical equipment including
telephones and drinking fountains may be obtained in explosion-proof
construction. Vapor-tight equipment r ~ h i c his merely sealed t o prevent
vapor penetration should never be used in place of explosion-proof equip-
ment in hazardous areas.
Steam Power a n d Process Steam
Steam is not only a source of direct power for operat,ion of pumps and
turbines 11ut is also tlic most useful heating medium in a process plant.
Although some plants may purchase electric power, most process plants
usually produce process steam.
A central boiler house can supply steam for tlie entire plant or smaller
(packaged) boilers may he located near tlie area of use. It may prove
economical to provide several boiler houses in large plants t o reduce
Plant Utilities 561
distribution piping costs. .icareful economic stud? sl~ouldbe niade tu
ilett~ruiinethe type and number of l~oilersrequired and the must advan-
tageous arrangement of tlie dirtribution system
I n the initial stages of stcam generation, 17-ater is evaporated and is in
equilibrium ~ ~ - i tthe
l i boiling n-ater a t the pressure of generation. Thi:
mltcr vapor is called saturated steam and any lowering of tcmperatnrc
or incrcasc of pressure n-ill cause runilcnsation to begin. lloisturc in
steam is undesisablc for most use:: and is liarnlful tu equipriient sucli as
turbinrs: thc blades of wl~icharc eroded acrerely by ~ e steam. t
I n most steam boilers, therefore, tlic saturated stcam passes through a
heat exchanger called a superhcatcr which is located in a hot zone of the
furnacc. The steam is heated above its saturation temperature so that,
it will he sufficiently dry to provide moisture-frec steam a t all users.
STEAXGI:SISRATORS
.4 steam generator is composed of a furnace section d ~ i c hsupplies tlie
heat and a boiler section in which the lieat is transferred t o circulating
~ ~ - a tto
e rforni stcam.
Flrmnce. Fuel is l~nrncdunder or adjacent to the boiler aurl t l ~ cheat
of con~buetionis transferred to the druux and tubes by radiation and
conrection. Thc design of the furnace depends on tlic fuel to be used.
Solid fuels such as coal are all fed to the furnace by n~echnnicnlmeans.
These include the folloving:
( a ) Retort stoker; introduces fuel l~eneathburning b ~ d .
( b ) Spreader stoker; distributes coal above burning bed.
(c I Traveling grate.
( d l Pulverizer; pulrerizcd coal is m i s e ~ l i t air and distributed
vertically, horizontally, or tangentially into tlie cmnhustion zone.
l a ) Cyclone; crushed c o d in high 7-elocity stream of hot air i-.iucs
tangentially fro111burner and flows in spiral llatli. Particles form nlolten
slag un wall xliich burns readily.
\\'ails of large coal furnaces arc usually xatcr cooled t o mininiiz~
undesirable clinker foruiation and decrease railiatiuu f r m l the r\-alls.
1,iquid fuels must be atomized so that the drops of fuel r ~ d lburn as
con~pletelyas possil~le. A numbcr of different typcs of burncrs can be
obtained using cithcr steam or mechanical atumization. I n the first t y l ~ e .
stem1 flon.s througl~the nozzle with the oil, i.su::ing a t o n ~ i z a t i ~ ~Inn. tlie
second type, i~toniization is produced by forcing oil at high lir(~ssurc
through a spray type nozzle.
Gas burners operate a t 2 t o 25 psi and are made in a number of styles.
They are usually designed for altern;~tcfucls ipulverizr0 mill or oil1
.\ir- us \v:~trr-wohdSurnnw iv:illa :n.v :11.0 i~~.qtnlltd
i n &is- :LIICI ibil-lirwl
 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Plant Utilities 563
Fire-tube Boilers. I n fire-tube boilers (Fig. 21-2) water circulation,
steam formation, and separation all take place in a large horizmtal drum
( 3 to 7 f t in diameter) situated above the furnace floors so that it will
receive both radiant and convective heat. Hot gases pass over the drum
and then tlirougli a nuinher of tubes 12 to 4 in. in diameter) extending
through the dvunr. Feed\\-ater is inaintained n h o ~ ethe top ro\\- of tubes.
Fire-tube boilers are lun. in first cost and because uf tlic large capacity

Crom ~ e c t i o n of hailer drum

showing water circuiation.

F i g 21-3. Stmight-tnhr. hon-lirildcm type. nnler-lobe boilcr. (Cuu~.l*syoi Com-

bustion E n g i n ~ e ~ . i n p - A l p c ~ . h ~Innt c ~) .

of the drum operate ~ v r l lunder fluctuating loads common to process

plants. They arc, however, limite<l t o lmr capacity (1000 to 15,000 lh
steam/hour) and l o r pressure.; (15 to 250 psig).
Water-tube Boilers. I n water-tube boilers x a t e r and steam flow inside
the tubes and hot gases are directed across the tuhes by baffles. They
may be classified as straight-tube and i)rrrt-tuhr boilers.
L...---J
The straight-tube design (Fig. 21-3) has a drum parallel or transverse
Fk.21-2. Fire-tuhe boiler. (Courtesy 01 Combustion Engineering-Suyjerk~eater,Inc.)
t o inclined tubes (10"). Feedwater enters the bottom of the drum arid
passes down t,he rear header and up the inclined tubes (334 t o 4 in. OD)
furnaces. I n this type direct flame rontact with refractories is avoided
where partial vaporization occurs. Stearn and I-ater then rise through
by locating hurncrs several feet above the hearth.
the front header and hark to the steam drum. These boilers are simple
TYPES OF BOILERS. Boilers consist of surfaces through which heat is
in design, require a :~inimum of space, and are easier to maintain than
transferred and are rlesigrierl for circulation and separation of water and
bent-tube designs.
steam. Tliey may be classified gcuerally as fire-tube and water-tube
Because of the box-like design of headers, straight-tube boilers are
types.
limited t o pressures of 300 to 500 psig. A sectional-header boiler, how-
564 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Utilities 565
ever, can be designed fur pressures up to 2000 psig. Scctional-headers are . h u t h e r type uf iurced-circulatiun design overcomes these disadvan-
made of forged sea~nlesstuhing capable of ~vithstandinghigh pressure?. tages by recirculation. K a t e r passes through a coil in which it partially
T h e tubes in straight-tuhc boilers are expanded into the headers and . nristuae of steal11 and x i t e r disrhargps ill :I ilr1~111
~ a p o r i z c . ~Tlir ill \I.lliCI1
a handliolc must be provided a t encli tube. \\-it11 the advent of efficient ste:m is srpar:~te~lfrom the water hcforc passing tl~rouglia s u p e r l ~ e ~ t c r .
welding tecliniqucs for large drums the bent-tnhc dccign hccaulc pupu1:lr. TYater returns to the ! I U I ~ ) Imrti~onfor recirrnl:~tii,n,
It eliminated the necessity for hanrlhoIes an11 increased the flexibility
possible in rlcrign. 1)ruln; arc n.wl in t h ( w designs to act :is headers
:IS well as repar:ttnr~ for steam and m t e r .
The drums range from 3 to 6 f t in diameter and have manholes ~ v l ~ i c h
permit access fur tube rolling and cleaning.' Tuhcs (2 t o 2% in On)
unust be bent so t h a t t h y may enter the rlrulm pcrl)mriicular t o thc h n 1
surfacc (see Fig. 21-4 I.
Upper drums arc used for steam separation and the lo~vcrdrum (mud
drum) scrwe as a n accuniulator of deposits formed by evaporation. T l ~ c
number and nrrangcineut of drums varies with sparc rcquircmcnts :11rr1
opcrrtting conditinns. Two and thvcc dl.un1 huilcrs are most conniion
altliougli four drum designs Jverc u.;c<l for a numlwr uf ycnri. 11oder11
builrrs are consirnctcd \r.ith tlie irast numher of ~ l r ~ ~ becansc
nis large
high-pressure clrunis are expensive.
The circulation systcrn becomes co~uplex\\-it11 f e r e r drums and many
tube n~rangementsh a r e heen dcvcloped. A typical circulatory syztclii
for a tvw(Irum boiler v i t h :I side and front hcarler is shovn in Fig. 21-4.
K a t e r f l o m from the lover drnm, or upper druln, to the side-nall headcr
and then up thc front or sidc-wall tubcs. Tlic scar tubes feed thc l o ~ w
drum and conipletc the circuit. \Then more than onc upper drum is
used: separate tube hanks serx-c eiirh ilrurn hut conocctions between d r u ~ n s
equalize rvater level and pressure.
Thc outlet 11r11111 is equipped 11-it11baWw to divcrt inconling cold xvater
to tlie circulating .system and centrifugal sepnrators t o rcnlove n a t e r from
the stcam.
All largc high-pressurc huilers arc 11-atw-tuhe t y p e . Since the pressurc
is on the inside of tlic tubes instcnd of thc outside, a givcn tliirkncss and
rliamcter tube can ~vithstanda higlicr presnlrc.
Forced Circulation Boilem. Forced circulation of n a t e r and steam
througli xvater-tube boilers may he uscd instea<l of natural circulation Fig. 21-4. Circulntion pnttwn in a trpirnl bent-tnhe hoilev. lCor~rtesyof Combustion
under the influence of gravity and density changes. I n once-through de- E n g i n c e r i n g - S o p e ~ ~ i ~ eInr.,
.~~t~and
~ , rrprinted hy permission, C. E, Miller, .Ifcch.
signs n.ater is puniped through a continnous coil and is evaporated and Eng., 78, K O . 1, 10 (1951).1
superheated beiore reaching the outlet. Y o drums arc required and largr
savings in first cost arc l~ossible,but tubes are subjcct t o overheating and All forced circulation boilcrs have smaller tuhcs and less heat transfer
scaling in the section where stcam is formed and water storage capacity surfacc for a given capacity than natural circulation. Higher floa rates
is Ion.. and pressure drop. can he tolerated: and the higher liquid and vapor
velocities producc ilettrr lieat tranbfer.
*Cleaning oi boilers by chemical nlcanp is gaining wide ncreptanre and eliminates
the n e d to enter. thp drums for cleaning. Standardized and Pncknged Stemn Generators. The hoiler industry
568 Project Engineering of Procerr Plants
Operating prcssurcs and temperatures for stcam generators vary con-
siderably. Efficiency generally increases with a n increase in prcssurc and
tculperature, but equipmcnt costs also increase accordingly. Ordinarily
generating llressures and tcn~prmturesin tlrc range of 400 psig and 150" F
+uperl~catarc satisfartory for a procccs plant. If stetim rcquircnlcnti for
p o w r generation arc largc, higher pressure generation is usually more
economical. I,o\~-er11ressurc prorest: .team is then ohtainc~lfrom thc
exhaust of turbines operating the p o w r gencrators.
The selection of steam generator and generating pressure depends on
a study of plant requircmcnts and 011eratir.g cost^. Althuugli st can^ gcn-
eration efficiency is of prime importance in tlrc operation of a puhlic
utility pon.er plant, first cost or flcxihility may he the niost important
consideration for a process plant.
STI;..~ GESERITIOX.~UXILIARIES
The modcrn steam generating plant requires a largc amount of auxiliary
equipment. The more i~nportantitem:: are rlisrusscd belo~r..
FEEDWATER THEATISGF~CII.ITIES.The equipnient required for iced-
water treating includes cl~eniicalstorage and hnndling facilities, filtcrs.
x a t e r pumps, tanks for settling and storage, ulixing equiplncnt, propor-
tioning pumps, and sludge disposal facilities.
h large portion of process s t c m in somc plants is returned t o the boilcrs
aftcr having been ct~ndensedin heat exchangers and other users. If the
makc-up required is small, evaporators can bc used to supply distilled
make-up water t o the boilers. Large powcr plants using condensing turho-
gencrators invariably use eraporators to replace slnall v a t e r iosscs from
the system. Partial treatnxnt of the ran. Tvater is necessary t o avoid
frequent descaling uf the e ~ a p o r a t o r .
FEEDWATER E R FEEDWATER
HEATISO( E C ~ S ~ ~ I I ZISII S HEATERS).Stcam
generating plants exl~austm n e heat at Iun. l r ~ e l sof availability such a.
cxhaust steani and flue gases. These niust IIC used for ~iiaxiniumfuel
economy. One user of this heat supply is the fccdu-ater heater. I n addi-
tion t o conserring heatl feedvater heating reduces thermal shock on
hoiler parts and in s ~ ~ ncasesi c increases hoiler capacity.
F e e h a t e r Ircaters usc cxhirust or live steam either on the shell side*
of shell and tube heat cxchangcrs or by direct contact of steam and water
in a deacrating heater.
I n dearrating heaters m t e r is sprayed across baffles or trays countcr-
current to cxhnuat steam. Tllc n-ater is heated and somc steam condensed.
811 uncondenscd stcani and noncondcnsable gases pass to a vent con-
denser which condcnses the stcanl and vents thc gases.
Dcarmtion of f ~ c ~ l ~ v i i~nw1ss:1ry
ter to reduce boiler corrosion. S o u ~ c
* S < X > ~l,,~:,lt.rs
? l,xr,, >l?:,u "1, th l,,hs i k .
Plant Utilities 569
power plants use shell and tube feedwater heaters fullo\\-ed by acparatc
deaerators operating a t subatmospheric pressure. These vacuum de-
aerators reduce dissolved oxygen in the watcr to a minimum.
Feedvater can he further heated by exchangcrs called economizers
located in the path of Hue gasps from the boiler. The most common of
these consists 11f a number of 1:-tube sections spaced closely together.
Fin-tuhes arc used on many designs t o increasc heat t r a n ~ f c r . If w ~ t e r
scales badly, the removable return bends can be installed on one end.
FEEDVATER SURGEDRUJI. Heated fceclxatcr and rcturncd condensate
arc usually accumulated in a vessel n.1iich provides a surge chamher for
the feedwater. Thc deacratiug f e e d ~ a t e rhentcr can be made a part of
the vessel. Such a reservoir is more nccesrary for the process plant p o n r
facility ~ i t hvarying loads than for the steady loads of puhlic utility
p o w r plants.
BOILERFEEDWATER PUMPS. The treated and deaerated feedwatcr is
taken f r i m a feedwater heater or burge cha~uberand 11unipcd into the
steam generator. Feedwater pumps lnay he driven by electric motor
or steani turhine. Generally turbinc drircs are more easily controlled.
1\Iultistage centrifugal pumps are uscd in nearly ail installations and a t
least one spare pump is necessary.
I n larger installation.; several 11umps may be used in parallcl or scries
t o provide flexibility. Sufficient net positivc suction head must he pro-
vided t o prcvent vaporization regardless of arrangement.
FUELSUPFLT. Storage facilities must he prorided for all types of fuels
except natural gas, Manufactured gas, however, sometimes requires a
gas-holder or prcssurc storage system for load surges.
FORCED AXD ISDUCED D R U T EQEIPMEST. The function of the draft
system is t o provide sufficient air for co~iipletecoiubustion of the fuel.
Steam generators may operate on natural draft. induced draft, forccd
draft, or combinations of the three. Natural draft is used for small fur-
naces, and the stack must he designed to dcvelop the necessary pressurr
differentials.*
Practically all largc steam generators, hou-ever. use forced and induced
d r a f t equipment. The forccd draft system injects pri~llaryair ~i-it,hthe
fuel and secondary air into the furnace a t or near the burner openings.
The induccd draft systcm imposes a rcduccd prcssurc on the furnarc by
rcmoving the hot Huc gases through a fan: therehy inducing primary and
secondary air.
Since the air-fuel ratio is critical, fire-box runditions must he closely
*Head available = H ( p . - #.)
l = cllirnn~yheight
1 ~ 1 1 ~ 1 . iH
p. = density ai o~ltsidrair, and
p. = averngc stack-gas dmiity

570 Project Engineering of Process Plants
controlled. Both the forced draft and the induced draft f a n and suitable
dampers can I I ~ .wed for control. Natural draft units n ~ u s tbe controlled
by dampers alone.
AIR PHEHETERS. The incmiing air is frequently furced through air
preheaters to exchange heat wit11 the hot fluc gases. Heat transfer sur-
face may be thin plater or tubes. If preheaters are not used, part uf the
incoming air is often conductrd through channels in the furnace refrac-
tory, sometimes the floor, so that the entering air is heated.
Sool BLOWERS.All fuels deposit noncombustible dust on furnace sur.
faces. The deposits are heaviest for solid fuels and are negligible for
most natural gases. These deposits insulate heat transfer surfaces and
reduce efficiency and must be removed. Soot blowers are locatcd so that
parts of the heating surface on which soot accumulates may be cleaned.
High pressure steam. air, or a mixture of .team and air passes through
tubes having a series of nozzles. As the cleaner is rotated axially, soot is
forced from the heating surfaces.
SUPERHEATERS.Equipment motivated by steam requires dry, super-
heated steam in order t o operate efficiently and \vithout erosion. The
efficiency of stcani generating units with capacities above 15,000 lb per
hour are also improved if the steam produced is superheated. Super-
licaters, therefore, are installed in most modern boilers. They may be
heat exchangers exposed t o hut stack gases (convection-type) or radiant
encrgy from the flame (radiant-type).
As thc load on a boiler is increased, flue gas flow and temperature
increase faster than steam flow, and convection-type superheater outlet
ternpcrature increases. The reverse temperature effect orcurs in a
radiant-type superheater, but a combination of the two gives a reason-
ably constant steam outlet temperature regardless of load.
Superheated steam a t a particular temperature for operations such as
stcani stripping is often supplied near the point of use by heating plant
steam in the convection section of a direct-fired reboiler.
DESUPERHEATERS. Somc evaporators for chemicals which boil a t low
temperatures rcquire saturated steam. If the central steam plant pro-
duces superheated steam, saturated steam can be supplied where necessary
hy means of a desuperheater.
Dcsuperlieaters may be spray-type or shell and tube exchangers. In
the spray-type, pure ~ ~ a t such
c r as condensate or feedwater is sprayed
into tlie flowing steam. Regular rooling water is used in the shell and
tube design since there is not direct contact, between xvater and stcam.
ISSTRUMESTATION OF STEAMPLANTS. Instrumentation for steam gen-
eration plants is relatively simple rompared t o process plant instrumenta-
tion. Controlled conditions are:
Plant Utilities 57 1
( a ) Steam prersure. ( I n certain high-pressure, high-temperature gen-
erators temperature may be as critiral or more critical than pressure.
Temperature rontrnl is not ordinarily important except for large electric
power generation plants.)
( b ) Air-fuel ratio.
(c) Feedwater control.
The action bricfly is a s follows:
Increased demand on the steam rlistrihution system causes a drop in
pressure. Pressure instruments acnsc the drop and increase the fuel flon-.
Air flow control is correspondingly increased by a ratio coutroller wliich
increases the speed of air fans or nther controls which operate dampers.
As boiler pressure drops, steam generation increases, lowring boiler water
l e d which causes the feedwatcr levcl control to admit more fecdmter.
The same action takes place in reverse when steam pressure increases.
Feedwater in-put cannot bc controlled satisfactorily by level alune. h
drop in steam prcssure nil1 increase fccd~vaterflow hccause of tlie rcdnr-
tion in pressurc. If water level alone controls, the feedwater input will
be increased hot11 hy a steam pressure drop and a drop in feedm'ater level.
For this reason differential pressure controls utilizing steal11 generator
pressure and pump disrhargc prcssure are used for feeda-ater pumps. An
increase or drop in steam pressure causes a controlled change in feedwater
punip discharge pressurc t o maintain the same differential pressure across
the feedwater level-control valve.
Steam generator size and tlie type fuel influences the selection of control
systems. Solid fuels rcquire much more complicated control ~ vt ems, ." s
because of the mechanical firing equipment. Liquid and gaseous fuel
systems can be controlled by changing the pressure on the fuel systenl.
I n addition t o the above instrumentation, many recording and indicat-
ing instruments are necessary. D r a f t gages, temperature indicators or
rzcorders, flow and pressure instruments are used extensively. Continuous
analyzing equipment record the conlponcnts of flue gas for the largcr
generators.
X a n y power plants are being constructed out of doors similar to process
units. All instruments are centralized in a control room and controls are
completely automatic so that it is rarely necessary for operators to leave
the control ruuni. There units arc opcrated 11y a small crew and contrast
sharply with early "hand-operated" boilers.
STEAMDISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The piping for steam distribution syrtcms must be carefully designrd t o
insure long trouhle-free operation. The ideal steam system should supply
steam continuousls with the minimum of maiutenance.
572 Project Engineering of Process Plants
I S I I Line yizcs for steam lincs should not hc governed by
presjure drop alonc. Heat losses can be reduced by using big11 velocities,
a,? augge~tcdin Table 21-5.
TABLE 21-5. Conventional Velocities for Steam Distribution Piping*
Steam Rensonahle
condition Yressure, p i g Service velocity f t 'min
Satunited 0-15 Heating 4000 to 6000
(short lines)
Saturated 50 nn(l up hliscell:~neous~ 6000 to 10,000
Superlreated 200 and up hIiscellsneous 7000 to 20.000
* Rcprintcd liy permission, Crane Tcrlmicul Paper S o . 1W (1042), Crane Ca.,
Chicago. Ill.
iThc docity of deaul, in the casr oi builm Imds, should be Ioivrr than 1nl.gc
tnhinc leads hecause of t h r stop-cllerk valves whicli m c necessarily instnllcd ~n
tliese lini,~. A lrigli velocity tlirougli the stop-check rake would eausc an
cxccsairc pressure drop d ~ i r hmay he rletrinrental to efficirnt opcrntion.
I.AYOETo r DISTRIRCTIOSSSSTTX Steam distrihution piping may be
run at grade on concrete pipe "slccpcrs," (ir prefcrxl~lyaborc gradc on
structural-steel or reiniorced-concrete supports. Piping run a t gradc is
an obstacle and must, he run over or nnder roadways, r h i c h creates a
pockct in the line where condensate can be trapped.
Condensate must bc accunlulated a t predetermined points in distribu-
tion piping and a t users, and then discharged continuously by steam traps
into a condcnsate system for return t o the boiler house. The return
piping is most conveniently run near the main distribution piping so that,
steam traps on the main line may discharge into the condensate line. If
several steam systems a t different pressures are used, steam traps can
be arranged t o discharge into each succceiling 1 o ~ r . epressure
~ scrrice.
Condensate accumulation a t points othcr than thosc servictd by steam
traps must be aroidcd by carcful arrangement of valves and piping.$
Branch lines from main headers should rise rcrtically from tlrc top of the
lrcader and then run horizontally as required. Block valves can bc in-
rtallcd in the horizontal run of piping and condensate r i l l thcn dvain
freely on either side of the valre. By-passes aronnd valres should h r
located above the valve and a m a l l bleed installed between the b y p a s s
ralves.
1)rip-legs arc instailed in lung horiz~mtnlruns of piping to acrnmnlatc
condcnsate. They are constructed uf pipe i d pipe raps in two sizes
larger than line size and are w l d c d vertically in thc run oE pipe with
the inajor portion extending helon. the horizontal line. A vertical platc
is installed in the drip-leg tu deflect ste:nll and moistnre into the leg. 4 s
$In cold uliniates frrrring u i i.undcns;~li!trnppwl in lincs e;iuca great d i i i i r u l t i ~ ~ .
1
Plant Utilities
the ~ t e n n lnrakes a 180' turn, the w t e r d r q x out. A steam trap is con-
nect~ilt,i the hottnm of the dripleg for rnndcnsatc r e m o ~ a l .
H r o c s VAI.YES. Block valves are located in all hranch lines as they
I I i n l l c r SniaII i ? i i n or 1 in) I ~ ~ - - ~ i aarPs s cinstalled
~ for
rrarm-a11 ~mqm-csso that a cold line may 11c~ \ - a ~ n np m l gradually bcforc
admitting fall steam Rov. A \)lock r a k e is usually lwatcd at each uscr
:is on added prec:~ution.
Some colup;n~i~~s. Iion.cvcr, install only one l i l ~ ~ cvnlvc
k at the lml~ler
on exliaust stcmn lincs sincc exhaust steam is lcss dangcrous Failurc to
close tlrc lieader valrc, ho~vever,will causc the discllarge of largc amounts
of steam around the area.
IISKLITIOS. Insulation for steam piping, especially main hcailerr,
sh~nilclbe selcrted and designed for long life. E c o n ~ ~ m rtndiezic of upti-
mum insulation thickness for steam lines are usually itmightfor~varclsinrc
costs arc nlore clearly defined. Such atndics should be made for the lnrgr
dianletrr liiit>>.
Internal Combuslion Power
Intcrnal combustion cnginw are uscd in thc process plant as low-speed.
heavy-duty drivers of reciprocating ~ n ~ t n andp s cotnprcssors, and electrical
power generators. Large reriprocating eomprcssors are generally built
integral n-ith the cngine driver-the samc crank shaft is need for bi~tll
p v e r and reciprocating machine (sec Chapter 15). Reciprocating pltmps
arc furnishcd as separate units x i t h p o r c r transmitted through reduction
gears and shafting.
Fuel systems for internal combl~stionengines eliould he designed to
prevent foreign material from entering the cngine. All fuel should he
filtcrcd regardless of origin, and piping follm\-ing the filter shoul~lbc win-
ferrous or stainless st,eel so t h a t scale will not be fomecl. -4 centralizecl
lubricant supply \vith piped distribution for single or nlultiple nlarl~incc
nlso reduces the quantity of foreign nraterials which may be introdnct.d
Particulnr care should be taken ~ v i t hair-intake piping. Generally
these runs are belolv grade from air-intake filter to engine manifold piping.
They are not supplied by the enginr manufacturer. Since thiv piping is
not readily accessible for inspection, treatment and inspection of the
inride nlust be tlmougli prior t o installation. ,411 underground air-intake
piping should be pickled or sand-blasted (or both), inspected on the inside
(most intake piping is of sufficient size t o permit entrance), ilrln~ediately
treated with some rcliablc typc uf rust inhibitor, and thcn paintcll or
enameled. Aluminum metallizing, d e n carefully applied, or light stain-
ie..,>> s.teel or nonferrous lincrs arc also used
Instrumentation for internal combustion engines usnally consists of:
( o j Fuel control
 Plont Utilities 575
574 Project Engineering of Process Plants
level. As a flame arrestor a 40-mesh screen or a purchased flame arrestor
( b j Autonmtic shut-down on cooliug water or lubricating oil failure,
may be used. The latter consists of a number of thin plates installed in a
operablc from pressure eleu~cr~ta and teniperature elenients; audible and
small chamber. Propagation of flame into the tank is prevented in both
visible signals are required hut not necessarily sup11lird hy engine man-
types through rapid dissipation of heat by the metal parts of the arrestor.
ufacturer.
Firc fr~amconnections are installed on all vented storage tanks contain-
Storage a n d Movement of R a w Materials a n d Products
ing flammable liquids. Large storage tank areas can be served by a
central system. Since floating-roof tanks have no vapor space, they necd
Adequate storage facilities for both ralv materials and products are
not be equipped with a pcrmancnt extinguishing system.
essential t o the operation of a process plant. A supply of raw materials
Liquids with vapor pressures above atmospheric must be stored in
permits operation of the plant regardless of temporary procurement or
vapor-tight tanks capahlr of withetanding internal pres.snrc. I n the
delivery difficulties. Storage spacc for finished products makes it possible
pressure range b e t w e n 2-215 psig thin steel similar to that for vertical
to fill customer's orders even in a time of plant difficulty.
storage tanks can be used if tanks are built in the shape of spheres
Liquid Storage (30-215 psig working prcssurc) or spheroids ( 2 3 0 psig working pressure).
For higher pressures, it is more economical to use a number of standard
Vertical, cylindrical tanks are used for liquids which can be stored a t
cylindrical pressure vessels of small diameter ( 3 to 6 f t ) . These arc in-
low pressures. Most such tnnkagc is constructed in accordance with
stalled horizontally and side hy side. Relief valvcs are located on each
American Petrolelm Institute Stnnilard 12c. Altliough this specification
drum and manifolded into a conmoil header.
was developed primarily for the petri~leuniindustry, it consists of an
Tankage for water stinage is nsually clevatcil, and, if part of the firc
excellent set of rulcs for alniost any type of tank. Thc stnndardization of
water system, is de8igned in arcorrlanrr ~ ~ 3 1fire1 insurance codes (see
tank construction techniques and tank appurtenances by this code aids
Chapter 24).
in engineering and procurement. The National Board of Fire Under-
I n addition to flammable and volatile products and r a n materials, many
writers and the National Fire Protection Association also publish rules
corrosive liquids must be stored in process plants. Steel tanks lined with
for storage tank construction." (Also see Chapter 24.)
plastic, rubber, lead, and special brick and other ceramic materials h a r e
The most common type of tank for storage a t atmospheric pressure is
been used successfully, particularly a t lower temperatures. At higher
a cone-roofed tank provided with gage hatch, inspection openings, man-
temperatures alloy steels, or nonferrous clad steels are necessary.
holes, a ladder or stairway, and a vent for maintaining atmospheric
pressure. For materials with low vapor prcssures the vent may be an Gas Storage
open-type sized in accordance with tank area and pumping rate: The
(iasrs are stored a t atmospbcric pressure in wet or dry-seal gas holders.
open vent is constructed of pipe with a large opening around the top cir-
The wet-seal holder is the familiar type uscd for municipal storage. Gas
cumference. This opening is protected from ~ ~ i nand d rain by a cap
is admitted into a tank (holder) vhich is inverted in a water-filled tank.
which directs flow of vapor do~vnward.
.4s gas enters the lioldcr. water is displaced and the holder rises.
Tanks for during liquids with significant vapor pressures a t atmos-
The dry-seal bolder, a morc recent development, is similar to a floating
pheric temperature (ahore 1 psia) require pressure-vacuum (conserva-
roof. The seal hetwccn the roof and t h r tank wall is ~ n a d cby a flexible
tion) vents. These vents open only when the tank pressure hecomes
s y n t h ~ t i crubber or plastic curtain, and tbc ronf rises or falls wit,l~pressure.
exceseively low or high and thus conserve valuable vapors.
The dry seal holder rcquires no heating roils t,o prevent freezing of water
Floating-roof tanks are used to conserve valuable products with vapor
as does the wet-seal and is particularly useful for str~rageof gases that
pressures a t operating tcmpcraturc below atmospheric pressure (up t o
must rcmain dry.
8 psia approximately). The roof floats on the surface of the liquid and
Natural gas and cvcn gaseous prnducts may be stored underground by
thus eliminates vapor spacc. Thc space between the roof and tank wall
pumping thc gas into those underground strata known to be practically
is scaled by a fabric curtain coated with synthetic rubber.
impermeable to gas.
If flammable liquids arc stored in vented tanks, flame arrestors must
High-pressure gas is stored in horizontal cylindrical pressure vessels.
he installrd in all openings except connectinns made below the liquid
Gases such as N,, H,, and 0 , are shipped in gas rylindrrs designcd in
'Air capacity in standard cu f t slrould be at least twire the pumping rate. De- accordance with Interstate Commerce Commission regulations.
tailed venting specifications have been published?:l
576 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Storage of Solids
Solid products and ran- materials are stored in rveather tight tanks and
bins ~vitlisloping liottonis or in outdoor piles. Solid products rliscl~arging
from flakers or dryers are often packer1 directly in l ~ a g sand iiietal or
fiher drums. These bags and drums are stored on pallets in \\-arel~r~uxs
to a w i t sliipmcnt.
Movement of Raw Materials and Products to Shipping Paint
.\loreiiient of liquid and gaseous ra\?- illaterials an11 products ~vithinthe
plant to and from the point of shipment is done by pipeline. Transfer
punilis are gr<~upedtogether to simplify polver distrihution and reill~ce
labor. .I shelter is provided for transfer puinp personnel, but is not neces-
sary for pumps.
Suction and discliarge pi11ing is manifi~ldedfor greatest flexil~ility. This
is done by running all piping entering the transfcr area parallel and a t
one lel-el (12 in. t o 18 in. above griiundi. Transfer pun111 suction and
discharge lines are run above these transfer lines and arc ccinnected t o
tliem by risers. Valves arc located in the conncctiiig risers. I11 this n-ay
a single discharge or auction line inn? be ~wnnectedto a nnmller of transfer
lines and valves can be easily reached by the puiiil) operators.
Some plants transpmt raw materials and products by pipe line. Wllen
this is done local and federal regulations must be strictly followed in
designing and laying the pipe. Land rriust be purchased or leased, but
this land niust be selected &I1 care since the pipe line sliould not pass
near residential or futurc rcsidcntial nrcas.
Lines passing under high~vaysor railroads must be provided with an
external pipe jacket welded to the pipe and ventrd to the atmosphere a t
specified distances from the highnay or track. Evcry other possible
safety precaution sliould be used.
Solid materials are transported ~vithintlic plant by cr~nreyors,bucket,
elerators, chutes, lift trucks, and pncu~natic systems. New materials
handling equipment continues t o be introduced, and the task of moving
solids is no longer a difficult hand operation.
SECONDARY UTILITIES
Maintenance Facilities
Every process plant must have a machine shop cquippctl v i t h standard
tools such as lathes, grinders, and drill presses. Large plants usually have
complete shops for macliine and boiler work, pipe fabricating, inatruinent
r q ~ a i relectrical
, equiplnent repair, and carpentry. Since a large inct,ll:~n-
II,III I : h r r u r w t i w I N , ~ w ~ i n t : ~ i tfor
l ~ ~r(g11:ir
i! sl~u-~low
:ind
~ l relmir of
Plant Utilities 577
uperating unita, the same personnel may be used during operating periods
for regular ninintenanre and for building special equipment.
Small repair jobs can be done a t the process unit. Specially outfitted
trurks and motor scooters carrying tools and siiiall parts arc 11src1 t o
:~ns\\-\-er
cnicrgcncy calls and for making quirk repairs. Nore extensive
repairs can sometimes be liandleil Ixttcr in the sliop and niohile cranes
and smaller lift trurks are wed ti1 transport the equipment ti, the ;hop.
Planning of ~naintmancefa~,ilitiesis greatly facilitated by complctc
spare parts lists and niaintcnrmce instructions from the manufacturer for
tach ~iiect:of equipment. Tliesc can be used as a guide t o the seolic of
mnintenancc work t o he expected in a plant as \wll a s an aid in planning
such \T-idely varying needs as:
a. personnel requirements.
b. quantity and type of machine and hand tools.
c. storage spare for spare parts and nml- ccquipment.
d. salvage area for old equipment and parts.
e . quantity and types of liandling equipment (truck*, hoists, etc.)
Plant Roadways
Iload~vaysfor prorcss plants are designed to permit easy access to d l
porti~insof the plant for inol~ilcservicing equipment, trucks, and fire
fighting apparatus. Roads are located so that each pr0ce.s area is acces-
sible from all sides.
Plant roadxays are designed in accordanre ~ v i t hnsual higliway prac-
tice, and entrances froin public ro:ids ~iinst conforni t o local design
I methods. Reinforced concrete is used for main plaiit roads since mainte-
nance work on con~,reteis nrgligihle. Secondary road.: may 11e niacatlani
or gravel but must be designed t11l~andleloads imposed hy mcli equipment
as travelling cranes.
Main two-way roads should not he less than 20 f t wide. Short cntrancr
roads into process areas may he narrower but must be adequate for trucks
and cranes to pass into the area for servicing.
Railroad Facilities
I Railroad facilities are necessary for shipping and receiving materialn.
Generally local railroails will provide without cost all the required spccifi-
cations and a certain amount of the ncccssary equipn~ent,such as turn-
outs from their system, and in some cases: t l i ~ ymay install sidings or spur
tracks. Before preparing specifications or designing railroad trackage
local railroad operators sliould 11e ciinsulted. There are limitations set
liy local statutes or railriiad operdtors on rail size (xeight per yard), gra-
dients, curve radii, s\r-itch design aud type, and clearances.

576 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Spur tracks (sidings) and switching equipment must conform t o t h c
requirements of the serving carriers. If a spur track must cross a public
highway either the railroad opcratur or the plant owner must ohtain n
formal permit, and foliorv the requirements for s u c l ~crossings.
Railroad trackage is usually laid on ~vuodenties. Tie plates are located
under each rail a t each tie, and splice bars arc uscd t o ronnect rail ends.
Standard gage for C.S. railrontls is 4 ft 8% in. b c t ~ e e ninner edge of rail-
heads. Rails, splice-bars and tie-plates for plant spur tracks can be ob-
tained second-hand and should be used since no high speed traffic is
anticipated.
The rail weight for plant trackage may be 60-100 lhlyd. Rail lengths
vary from 25 to 30 ft. Tie sizes are approximately 8 in. X 8 in. X 8 ft
0 in. long.
Plant Sewer Systems and Waste Disposal
The primary sources of sewage and waste in a process plant are sanitary
waste, prucess drains, and surface drainage. The plant sewer system
no st he designed to conduct tliesc wastes to the disposal system with-
out becoming clogged ~ v i t hsolids or filled with dangerous concentrations
of explosive gases.
General Considerations
Drainage systems for process plants may consist of one or more main
sewer lines with branch lines from each area t o be drained. The elevation
of the main sewer must be of sufficient depth to receive drainage from
any area or from contemplated extensions t o tlie plant.
Sewer lincs are sloped t o provide sufficient head t o produce velocities
of 2% to 3 ft per sec (5 ft/sec maximum). Tliese velocities are necessary
to prevent settling of solids. Contour maps of the plant area are helpful
in planning the location of the main sewer so tlmt slopes can be obtained
for branch lines from all areas.
T o prevent clogging and to facilitate cleaning, sewer lines are run with-
out change in direction between manboles and between a catch basin and
manhole. Clean-out connections should be provided for branch lines not
originating a t a catch basin.
Manholes (Fig. 21-5) are located in main sewer lines a t each change
of direction and a t points shout every 200 ft apart in straight lengths of
pipe. Branch lines (laterals) should connect t o mains a t a manhole when
possible. Manholes in hazardous areas have sealed covers with vents
discharging in a nonhazardous area. Manholes through wbieh flammable
materials pass should be trapped by means of a water seal t o prevent
spreading of fires or explosions (Fig. 21-5).
Plant Utilities 579
Manholes are constructed of common brirk, acid-rpsisting brirk, ron-
crete ~ i t hbrick lining, or plain concrdc. Manhole covers, gratings, and
other appurtenances are usually cast iron.
Catch basins are used to collect surface or process d r ~ i n a g e . Water
makes a 180' turn to leave the catch
basin and t o enter the branch scwer Cover
line. I n so doing sediments are trapped
in the hottoin of the basin. Catch
basins are ronstrurted of concrete and
have east iron slotted covers. c
Rcinforced concrete pipe is the ulost
widely used sewer pipe. Cast iron is pre-
fcrrcd under pared road~\-ays and Smel.,nan ,,c,lp seal
foundations or other structures. Vitri- fol. i.;ol;,tingrrplosions
ficd tile is used extensively for areas in
,\.hich corrosive wastc materials may enter the drainage system and lead
pipe is used for strong acid wastcs. Soil pipc is used for sanitary sewers.
Surface Drains
Rainfall intensity and rnn-off arc the basic data required for designing
surface drainage systems. Intensity is measured in in, of water pru 11s.
and may he obtained from local weather bureaus and the U.S. lkpartn~cnt
of Agriculture. Rainfall intensity varies over the continental U. S.from
0.25 in. in some parts of the northvest, t o 1.50 in. in tlie mid-continent
areas, 1.00 in. in some parts of the cast, and 2.25 in. d o n g the Gnlf coast.
I n the same arcas in t,he northwest annual rainfall may be 40 in., while
some of the arid areas of the soutlin~esthave annual rainfalls of 8 in. with
intensit,ies of 0.75 in. Sincc maximum intensities are more important
than averages, local weather data should he searched for the infrequent
but extremely hcavy rainfalls.
Run-off is the per cent of rainfall which is not absorbed by tlie soil and
thus is the quantity a h i c h determines conduit size. The ~ a l n may
r vary
from 10070 for paved areas or roofs to zero for dry perrious soils, hIoet
of the published data is based on city drainage systmms and ranges from
10 to 7576. Tliese values are used for extremely large acreagcs and are
not of much use as criteria for process plants where high percentages of
total area may he paved or roofed structures. It i8 p~eferahle,therefore,
t o assume 100% run-off for the comparatively small areas served by a
single sewer since often these areas are paved and are adjacent to roofed
buildings.
The run-off in paved process areas enclosed by fir pa all^ may he gov-
e r n d hy fire hose capacity in t h a t area rather than rainfall. Both should
be checked.
580 Project Engineering of Process Plonts
Process Waster
Disposal of process ~vastesis often a difficult problem. State and local
air and streain pollution regulations are l~ciwu~ini: morc strict ;IS poj~nla-
t i m gron-i in indu.;trial areas. Plant operator? are becoming more awarc
of colninuuity responsibilities and usually institute nlorlern ~ ~ a s dispo.sl
te
wetliocls even if regulations do not apply t r ~thcm.
Somc n-astes can be burned provided products of combustion do not
pollute the snrrounding atrniisplicre. Others such as acid and alkaline
11-a>tecan Ile diluted and neutralized, and then discliarged into a flowing
atream. All rue11 w;i;tcs tnwt lie treated and riiscllarged in a lnanncr that
\!-ill be harn~lcssto strcnm lifc. l'rogrr.?ai~-cplant operators niai~rtaina
careful check of strc;un llealtli.
Inert ~vastesor ~vastcsinsolubls or it~lniiseiblcin v a t u can he dis-
charged into the surface drainagp system and rcrnoiml in settling barins
along ~ v i t lother
~ similar cuntaniinants prcscnt in the drainage xvater.
Strong acid stren~nsor extl.enlely riangerous niuti.rial. arc l~refernl~ly dis-
charged into special server s y s t e m for disposal in a separate trcating plant.
Sanitary Wastes
Sanitary wastes must he discharged into a separate sexer systen~and
treated in a sewage disposal plant or in septic tanks. Ordinarily, scptir
tanks are satisfactory for the modcrate sized plant.
The septic tank is a retention cliamber in rvhiclr solid ~vastesare accu-
~nulatedand then disintegrated by bacteria. T h e effluent is a clear liquid
which may be discharged in a separate sewer or in the plant surface
drainage system. Solids arc removed once a year.
Tatilc 21-6 summarizes n t c r usage for various plumbing fixtures.
This information is necessary in sizing sanitary s e w r lines.
TABLE 21-6. Water Usage by Plumbing Fixtures
Rased on 15 to 20 psig nzter pressure
Fixture Gallons per use
Toilet 2.0-3.0
I~rinsl 0.5-075
I.:~mtary bnsin:faucet 2.0-2.5
Shower 20-4.0 igprn rhen used)
Founttin 0.5-0.i5 (guljday/person)
Disposal of Solid Wastes
Wasttt solids wlricll cannot be burned must he liauled to dun111 areas
for h r i a l or be towed t o sea in dump-bottom barges and discliargecl m m y
miles froln sliore.
Plant Utilities 58 1
I n some cases solids can bc disintegrated liy clie~niraltreatment, dip-
polred in rvater, and, after careful neutralization discharged in the plant
selver.
Plant Air
The ~".uwssplant's uec of colupressed air as a p o w r source for purtahle
e i l u i ~ ~ ~ l continues
rnt to incrcasc. .iir-driven tmls arc designed for all
t y p w of \\-ark. They are si~nplcto control and may bc used in hazardous
areas.
A rcrr-ice air systenl, therefore, is usually installed in the modern plant.
Piping is run above graclc along with process piping, and ilutlets are
located in all lrroccss areas. Cuwprcsrctl air m a r he rlistrihutcd ovrr
the entirc plant in a singlc system or may he sul~pliedliy scparatc com-
prrssnrs in each area.
P l a l ~ terrvice air and instrument air (Chtrpter 20) are run in scparatc
systems. 3r.rvicc air prcaturc is ii~aintainedat lo(-125 pxig, rdiile instm-
mcnt air pressure necd not cxcerrl 35-40 psig. Plant serricc air is soul?-
tinlea u 4 in euicrgencics aa R source for instrumcrit air, but it must first
pass tl~rnuglr1111. instru~ncntt ~ i rdryer.
The ~ ~ 1 ausili;tries
~ 1 1 for air cou~pressorinatallations are:
rr. .Iil. cot~~lircsaur:vlertric n ~ o t o rrlrircn or ate;tm-ilrivcu, two-?t:~gc.
rrcil1roc;iting.
b. Air inrnkc filter.
c. Ci~olingv a t e r for compressor jackets, int,er-coolcr and after-coiiler.
11. .Air rweivcr.
e . Pressure control.
Provision niust he madc a t various points in the syatem to remuve ron-
rlensed n~oisturc. Air rcceivcrs located a t each point of liravy lice will
increase systcin volume and provide a separatim or condensation point
for moisture. hloisturc m:~ybc reutovcd manually or by t r a p Traps arc
preferable for systenls in liu~nidclimates.
The air cumpressors for n r r n t r d Illant scrviw air s p t e n i arc tnost c ~ n -
venirntly lorntcd adjacent t o tlic powcc and stcam generating plant.
l'olver-tiouse operators can then check compressor operation periodically.
Plant Security
Prucess plants are surrounded b y fence topped with barbed wire t o
prcvent entrance by unauthorized visitors and prowlers. Legal decisions
which have become part of common l a x nmkc plant ovncrs rca~~onsihlr
ior injury t o pcrsims r~-ithinthe boundaries of a piant cvcn though their
liresencc is unautllurized.
582 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Fences are constructed of galvanized steel wire and are 7 to 10 ft high.
Fence posts are galvanized steel pipe set in concrete.
Guard liouscs arc located at cacli gate and all plant pcrsmncl and
visitors must pass through a gate house. Employees F e a r badges con-
taining an identifying pliutogrnpli. Visitors arc i s u c d temporary badges
and must be accompanied by an authorized employee.
If time clocks are used for employee records, they are located in the
gate house.
Cniformed guards are stationed a t each gate house t o inspect persons
and trucks entering and leaving the plant. Other guards are assigned to
night patrol duty.
I t is preferable to locatc office buildings outside the plant security area,
particularly buildings for sales, engineering, and personnel divisions. Vis-
itors can then be received in a proper and friendly manner and in plcasant
surroundings, conditions which seem t o be difficult to create a t plant gate
Iiouses.
Plant Utilities 583
18. Manual on Disposal of Refinery IVaales, Vols. I , 11, and 111 (Oil, Gas and
Cl~enriciils).Amcririln Petl.alrum Institute, SPWYo1.k. 1115-53.
19. M i l h . C. E.. Jfcrh. ling., 73, S o . 1 . 11 i l Q 5 l ) .
20. Pendct., H., Eleclricnl Engiarcr's H m d b o o k - l i k e t r i c I'uzoer I'olaarc, John
TYiky & Sons, S e w I-wk, 1949.
21, Permutit T n t e i Conditioning L h f n B m k , Tlir Permutit Co., S<mv I-ork. 1953.
22. Powell, S. T.. V o t e r Cwniiifioning f u r Inditstry, hli(:rarv-Hill Book Cu.. N e w
York, 1951.
23. Ryan, I\. J.. Il.ntrr ?'ieolrnt~,it it,trl Piui/icolio,i. 2nd Ed.. >lcGt.am-Hill Ucok
Co., S e w York, 1946.
24. Snlishury, J. I<., Kent's M ~ ~ h n n iEngijleer's
~d H ~ t i ~ d I w o k - P ~ ~l't,li~me.
~er
12111 Ed., John Wilry B; Sons, Kew Por.k, 1950.
25. Sercms, IV. H., H . E. Degler, and J. C. Milps. Slrnm, Ail. m d Goa P ~ , w i ? .
5th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, S e w York, 1954.
26. Skrotzki. G . -4. B.. and IT. A. Vopat, Applied Encugy Cun,!eirior~.McGrarv-
Hill Book Cu., S e w York. 1945.
27. Stoiage, Hortdling ond Csu uj Fla,nninble Liquids. SFP.4 Xo. 30-L. pp.
30-15, National Fire Protection Association. Boston. Mass., 1954.

REFERENCES

1. Ahhott. A. L.. Notional Electrical Coda Hondbook. 7th Ed.. MeGraw-Hill

nook CO.. New I-& 1952.
2 . Rahhitt, 1%.E., Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, 7th Ed., John Wile? B- Sons,
New York, 1952.
3. Betz. H'.H.. and L. D. Betz. Betr Handbook o f I n d u s t ~ i a lTVater Conditioning,
Philadelphia, Pa., 1950.
4. C h e m . Eng., 61, No. 6, 122(1954).
5. Cook, A . L., and C. C. Cnrr, Elements of Ekclrienl Enginewing, John Wiley
Q Srms. New Tork. 1954.
6. Croit, Terrell, Stram Power Plant Aaziliuries and Accessories, McGraw-Hill
Bouk Co., Sew Ywk, 1946.
7. Cubhcrly. R., Chern. Eng., 67, No. 5, 140 (1950).
8, de Lat.mzi, Otto, C o n ~ b u l i o nEagineer-ing, Carnbustian Engineering-Super-
hrates Ca., Inr., Npa Yark, 1948.
9. Elinson, J . It., C h e n ~Eng.,
. 57, N o . 5, 129 (1950).
10. E~.ick.;on,Killiam H . , and N. H. Bryant, Eleeln'col Engineenn-Thoory and
Prnctice, John TYilry 8- Sons, New York, 1952.
, . M . , and J . C. Geyer, W a t e r Supply and Waste-Water Disposal. John
11. F ~ i r . G
Wiley 6 Sons, S e w York, 1954.
12. Flow o j Fluid*, Tech. Paper No. 4M, Crane Co., Chicago, Ill., 1942.
13. Fuel Oils, 5th Ed., Commercial Standard CS12-40, National Borcau of Stand-
trnls, S ~ p t of. Ducuments, Knshington, D. C., 1940.
14. Gordon, D., C h e m . Xng., 67, No. 5, 119 (1950).
15. Guide ior Tank Venlino. ". It. P. 2WO American Petroleum Institute. 50 West
50th St., New Yolk, 1952.
16. H a ~ t .\V. D.. Industrial W o s t e DGnoaol for Petroleum Xefineries and Allted
Plants, Kntionxl ~ r t r o l e u mIiews publishing do., Cleveland. ~ l i i u ,1947.
17. Heuman. G . TT., .Vogtirtic Control o / lndustiinl Motors, John Wiky & Sons.
New York, 1954.
 CHAPTER 22 Foundations 585
li~tingrlore not replwcnt :I ~ysternof c l a d i c : ~ t i o n ,but arrves more as
ionver~ientsnhdiyisions for the di~cursionhelow.

Spread Footings
The footing, d ~ i c his the oldest typc of fo~~nilation.
is the least expen-
I sire type if soil conditions arc fayorable. In simple terms, a spread

FOUNDATIONS
Foundatione for equipment,, buildings, and steel strurtures not only
must transmit the loads to the soil or piling but also fix the sup]iortr~l
equipment in position. For practical purposes it may he said that a11
foundations arc constructcd of eoncrcte or reinfurced conrretc. This ma-
terial is relatively incxpcnsive and may hc formed to ncarly any dcri~.cil
shape while plastic.
In order to attach the equipment directly to a. foundation, nnrllor-h111ts
are cast in the concrete when it is poured (Fig. 22-9). After a curing
period, the equipment is bolted in position. Most equipment is firmly
bolted doum whether it is located on a structural stcel support whicli is in
turn bolted to a foundation, or whether t,he cquipment is holted directly
to the concrete foundation. Large-diametcr, flat-bottomed tanks. lion.-
evcr, are usually not bolted since they may be sct dirertly on ct~nrrcte
slabs or on a preparcd soil surface with no attachment.
foundation
I n some installations small pumps or machines and light conreyor sy9-
tcms are supported by plaring the equipment hase directly on the finishcrl
concrete floor! and by providing expansion bolts which are drilled and
set into the concrete. Fig. 22-1. Sprr:t&footing i u r ;L self-sipporting tower [Rcp~.inledby permission,
V. 0 . _\Iiucl~itll,Petrolci~nrKefinar, O?, Kc). 8. 101 (19431.1
FOUNDATION TYPES
footing as used in the process industries consists of a column or pedestal
The most colrunon types of foundations wcrl in process plants arc r;wt non nu lit hie ally with an enlarged hasc (the fouting) as s l ~ o ~
in nFig.
~
spread foot,ings, mats (or raftsj, massive, and pile ioundatirms. This 22-1. T l x cnlal.gcd portiorr, if properly dcsigncrl, tr;~nsmitsthe i ~ n p o w l
584
 I
586 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations

load to the soil. The more area covered hy the base of such a foundation, turning momrnt is small or negligiblc, the design is simllle. &,"are foot-
the less will be the unit pressure on the soil. ings are used for sullporting equipn~rntand structures, esl~eciallytllose
Spread footings are usually constructed of reinforced concrete. Their with high cross-sectional area t o height ratios.
bases are ideally located a t a depth not 1eps than the normal frost line or
the maximum depth of appreciable soil shrinkage and expansion, which- Mats
ever is the greater. The shrinkage area of many clay soils, however, mav
D u e t o soil conditions some equipment and buildings may require a
be so deep that excavation for
nunher of footings that h a m a combined area approximating that of the
footings proves too costly. In
supported structure. I n surh rases it will p r o w econornical to use a flat
such cases other types of foun-
rcinforced concrete slab covering the entire area. This slab is called
dations may he indicat,ed.
a mat.
The spread footing is used
M a t foundations have been successfully used with conrpressi1)le soil
most extensively for supporting
and when so used are rillled "floating" fuundations. h a-eight of soil is
towers (Fig. 22-I), stacks, and
removed for the mat equal t o thc aeight
tall structural columns. For
of the mat plus the structure t o be sup-
such applications the circular
ported. The entire structure will, there-
footing is the idcalieed shape.
fore, "float" on the undisturbed subsoil.
Tall structures suhject the foot-
M a t foundations are oitcn used for sup-
ing t o sin~ultancousforces due
porting storage tanks. Thc sin~l~lest mat
t o w i g h t and overturning mo-
foundation for large flat-bottomed storage
ment produced by earthquake
tanks tbat do not requirc anchoring is a
F i g 22-2. Distribution oi soil pl.cssure be-
and wind. The unbalanced soil
sand pad about four in. deep. The portion
neath a footing subjcrt to h-ind l u a d oressures ~ r o d u c c dcan in some
of thc sand pad extending beyond the
cases cause areas of zero upu.ard
tank known as the berm should be about
pressure b e t ~ w e nsoil and footing (see Fig. 22-21. Therc is a strong
5 it 0 in. It is usually protected from
tendency for the footing t o crack under surh conditions. Because
weathering by an asphaltic coating. The
of tlicir corners, square and rectangular drapes mark more easily than
surrounding soil must he graded and pre- Fig.22-3. Ring-wall i:onptrrletion
circular shapcs. Since it is p ~ ~ s s i h that
l e the overturning moment can he f m sloragc tank.
pared fur good drainage.
in any d i r e h o n dcpcnding on the uind, tlic circular shape has the
Perhaps the most popular mat-type
further arirantagc of providing siinilar stress distribution for any direc-
foundation for large storagr tanks employs a concrete wall with a mini-
tion of overturning moment.
mum width of 8 in. The tank shell rests on this reinforced concretr
The forming opcration for circular shapcs and the placcmcnt of rcin-
wall which cxtends below the frost line. Four in. of sand contained
forcing steel, hoverer, have always provcd more costly than tbat for
within tbe wall provides additional support (Fig. 22-3).
straight-sided shapes. Parallel rows of reinforcing steel must he cut to
different lengths. The laying of steel of the same length thn~uglithe
renter (radial reinforcement) is possiblc but requires too nmrh space Massive Foundations
tom-ard the rentpr. Octagonal shapes, therefore, have been widely used Machinery such as reciprocating compressors, centrifuges and other
for such structures as tall self-supporting towers. T h e octagon requires similar moving equipment must be supported so that vibration and un-
little additional concrete and equal length reinforcing rods may be placed balanced inertia forces are dampened. Many clever methods have been
perpendicular to the sides. developed for accomplishing this dampening. Various vibration isolators
As new forming techniques are perfected, costs may change. It may, or dampeners employing absorbent materials or springs can be purchased.
for instance, prore more economical t o have standard sizes of circular However, wherever possible, in the process plant heavy or massive foun-
metal forms for self-supporting t,mers of various sizes. dations are used t o which thc machinery is firmly anchorcd. The massive
Because of the sitnple forming operation required for square footings, foundation balances the periodic inertia forces set up by reciprocating
they rcn~ainthe niust generally used type uf spread footing. If the urer- machines as the acceleration reaches a maximum a t the ends of the stroke.
588 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 589
The viIr:~ti,m+p r < ) ~ ~ u 11y
c t ~high
I si)w11 r o t a t h g 111:1~11int~ry
:ire aIx> ~ I I - Rccauic oi strmgtli limitntions m o d pile.. are h t uied as Erii,tion
sorbed by foundations of sufficiently high m a s . ~ r i ~ t l ~than
e r txnrl-hearing p i l c ~ .
A typical mass foundation for a compressor is stmi-n in Fig. 22-4. If Kaw niatcrial for n-ilud pilrs as 10ug a- 90 it v:m hc found in the forest>
a numhcr of machines such as compressors are located topether as in of Washington, Orcgou, aud S u r t l ~ e r nCalifornia, hut is hecu111i11~1e.s

. .
I I
Fig. 22-4. Xlnss-type rornpt.eisnr iomidntion.

a c o ~ n l ~ r c ~I I oO IrI ~ V . 01~:i ~ , l v i ~ ~ l t aUI

g ~:I > li~rgcrc1Tccti~cmass can be ELEVATION
re:~lizc~lIjy tying l l ~ csel~urntec o r n p r e ~ s ~blocks r into :I conmion mono-
lithic mass.

Pile Foundations
Proccrs plants nre often advantag~ouslylocated in coastal areas or
along rivers. Such locations, t h ~ ~ u gconvenient
h for transportation ccon-
urnies, usually have Ion- hearing capacity soils and/or soils suhjert to
excessive settlemmt under load. I n such eases thc fi~undationsdiscussed
above must he supported hy piles as shown in Fig. 22-5.
Piles support the loads on foundations by direct hearing on stable soil
strata many feet helo~vthc surface or hy means of the shearing resistaucc
availal~le. Concrete piles are, tlrerefore, being used more f r r ~ p c n t l yin
creatcd by friction hctvt,en the soil and pile surface. The first type is
proccss plants.
called a point-hcaring pilc since most of the rupport is developed a t the
Concrete is not subjcct to decay or wrrosiun* and vhen reinfurccd i.
bottom or point of thc 11ile. The second is callrtl a friction pile. Vndcr
capablc of carrying large load;. Concrctc pil~,.; are either ])rc-c,;lst or
most conditions, however, such a simple classification is i n a d e q ~ ~ a t eOften
.
cast-in-place. They arc l~roduccclIJ>- cr~lul~anics
n-hicli hut11 mauufncturc
the support is ohtained by a conibinatiun of both effects.
and drive thc pile.
Pile Types
Thc most common type of piles are pre-cast reinfurccd concrete, cast-in-
Cast-in-place piles arc made by driving a corrugated or fluted sheet-
place concrete, creosotcd rvi~od,structural steel meln1)ers such as H-beams,
steel shell us pipe into the earth to the required distance. To strengtl~cn
pipe, and composite wood-concrctc.
the thin sl~clla core us mandrel is placed insidc bcfore it is drivcn into the
Wood piles are the lowest in first cost and for this reason are widely
ground. Then the core is removed and the opening filled ~ ~ iconcretc.t l ~
used. Thc wnod must he thoroughly creosoted to prevent fungus growth.
A number of patcnted cast-in-placc pilc designs are ax-ailahle, somc nf
T o further prevent decay the top of the wood pile must be below per-
which arc tapered (Fig. 22-61. Tnpcred piles are preferred for soils mhicll
manent ground ~ v a t e rlevel.
590 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ha\-e high frirtional resistance, as s a d , since in this type of soil they
produce larger shearing resistances than piles 11aving parallel aides.
PIPE-COXCRETE PILES
Pipe piles servc primarily as end-bearing piles. I n the casting of certain
t,ypes the pipe is withdrawn as the eonrrete is hcing raliinied dom-n the
pipe. A bulb or pedestal may be fortncd a t the bottr1111 of the pile to
increase the load hearing area. This is accon~plishedby applying a large
force on the first few feet of concrete poured.
Prevnst-concrete piles (Fig. 22-6) are made of high-strength concrete
and reinforcing steel. The shorter piles can be obtained with a taper.
They are used in the installations for rrhicli casting in place 1\-onld be
difficult such as locations under water. I n addition they are of great value
for installatims requiring immediate use of the pile as a load hearing
member. Precast and prestressed concrete pile;: are heing used for heavy
industrial plants particularly if the above-grade structure is also concrete.
Sonietiines it is necessary t o use a pile that is strung and can easily
penetrate the most dense suil. Steel structural shal)ra, altliougl~espcn-
sive, meet those requirements and are used for difficult piling operations
requiring lung lengths and Iargc forces in driving whir11 ~ o u l dbreak
weaker materials.
I n certain installations requiring long piles it is possible t o combine
the low cost advantages of wood with the corrosion decay free qualities
of concrete. The wood pile is driven first followed by a tapered cuncrete
pile section which is cast in place. Several types of joints are used t o
592 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 593
inillre a fir111 Imul bcl\wcn concrete and n-u~xltlierel~yescluding n-atcr :~pproximatingthe loads over each area. Soil loading can bc estimated t o
and preventing bending. aid placement of equipment within a n arca in order to spread thc loads
:IF niurli a s l~otsible.
T h e economics 3f equipment location involve the costs of inter-
Compressors and other henry niol-ing machinery produce horizontal ci~nnecting piping, arress platfrlrms. and supporting structurrs. Such
forces. If the foundation must rcst on piles, it is necessary to drive a t studies m a y indicate t h a t the use uf piling xill be less costly than spread-
ing the e q u i p n ~ c n to
t obtain a reduction in load concentration.
least a vortion of the d e s a t a n anele - in order
to resist t h e h o r i z ~ ~ n t forces.
al Piles driven in
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION
this manner are called hatter piles and m a y he
of a n y of the a h o w type% I'm~n~lationconstrwtion operations pritn:t~.ily arc the concern of the
~,ivilengineer. 'rhc project cnginccr, lio\vcvcr. mnrt br f a n ~ i l i a rwith t l ~ r
tcr~ninology.]~rocciiurer,nrid requenre of o1wrations.
PII.ES
MISCELLAYEOTIS
Briefly, t l ~ cinstallation of illreaei ur ~ n a r s - t y p cioinirlxtious consibts of
A n e n w derelopment in foundation in- escarnting t o a firm stratum. setting the rrinforring rtrel in place, nnd
stallation ~vhicli is being used s a t i s f a c t ~ ~ r i l y pouring the initial concrctc m a t rlr spread. For111 work n-hich encloses

n
combines t h c chnractcristics of piling, spre:ld and contains the concrcte v.hile it is still plastic. usually is not nceessary
footings: and reinforced concrete colnmns. f i r the initial pours beloxv grade Icvel. I n atahlc soils thc sides of t h r
T h c method consi.sts of boring a holc to t h e rxravation a r c ~uffirientlyfirm t o form the l~eril~lieral sliapr reqnircd to
required dcpth, then underrcaming a conical contain tllp r o n c r e t ~ . T h e 1~1mp1etedp,mr is l ~ f ro11gl1t xvith rcinforcing
section. After boring a n d underreaming is rod extending abol-c thc concrctc so t h a t ntlditional pours require11 to
completed t h e apparatus is ivithdra~r-n,rein- conrplctc the structnre will be w x n d y bundcd.
Typicalsheet piling forcing steel is lowercd into place and the holc Tlie s u p c r i m p ~ ~ ~load
e i l on piled foundations is rlistrihnted to each pile
srctions. filled with concrete. If soils a r e sufficiently hy means of a rrinforccd mnrrete pile cap, xi-hie11is rast around the tops
stable t o prcrcnt caving, t h e method is ideal. i ~ fthe piles. This type of foundation is instnllrrl by excavating to the
T h e upper ends of t h e cylindrical sections m a y be located below gradc, required pilr-r.al1 d e p t h driving t l ~ cpilcs, cutting OH' the tolls of n-otlll
with stcel exposed for dolvelling into any reqnirrd surfacc structure. pilcs to nlakr thrni e v ~ m ~. c t t i the ~ ~ grcinforcing ?tee1 fur the pile cap: and
Economically, this method has advantages over both spread footings ~iouringn c m r r c t c niasi n-llicli i~ the ililc c;~l>.
and piling, if the soil is stable. hlctal casings can he uscd in nnstable
soils but a t greater expense. Scheduling of Foundation Work
Another t y p e of pile valuable in construction, although not used a s a I n the irlcwi construrtion p ~ ~ ~ ~ g rall i u ui n, d c q y ~ n n doperations should
structural membcr, is t h e shcct pile. As illustrated in Fig, 22-7, these stcel hc con~pletedhefore a n y above-grudc work is starteil. T h r continuation
shapes a r e designed to slide vertically and t o interlock. T h e y arc used of undrrgrt~unrl v o r k after t h rrrctioo ~ i ~ fa t ~ ~ l ~ - c - g requipu~eut
a~le has
a s s t n ~ n g~ v a l l sto hold hack water and shifting soils during construction. Ilegun is cxtrcmcly cwtly. Opening :I t r c n c l ~ .firr i n i t a n r r . :rcrni.: ;L
ronstruotio~i a r w ~ ~ r o ~ l n cI c ssafety Iiuarcl :in0 s ~ ~ i o u s l Iyi : m d i ~ , o l ~ ~
SELECTING THE FOUNDATION TYPE i c r : ~ t i n . I , ; ~ t rcsr;~vntioli. in ;I rr~ngcstril;IW;I 11exrly aln-n>->1n11it h r
It is not possiblc to state conclusively t h e particular t y p e of foundation ~ l u n et ~ yIi;i~iiland the, surfaw ~ o r is k d ~ i \ v c dt ~ ythe intwferen~,e.
? 3

~vhicllshould be used for a each type of project. This decision can h r l h c rcleasc of founrlatiori rlra~\-ingsto the i:rertinn forces sllc~ulcl llc
made only after careful analysis of data accumulated by explr~ration coordinated n-it11 the rrlr:rsc i l f all other undrrground x o r k srleli :IS piping.
of subsurfacc soil. If piling is required, cconomic studies must bc made clcctrical grounding s y r t r n i ~ :mrl
, electrical conduit work.
to iietcrmine the most desirable type.
Subsurface Soil Investigations
Arrrangernent oi equipment over a given area t o meet process conditions
is often a determining factor in selecting the type of foundation. Rough Tlit. hmtl 1~c:iring ~ ~ l i ; ~ r : ~ r t ~ r Oi Fs ttllr
i r s mil 011 n l ~ i c ha plant i~ to he
estirnates of the required spread of the footings, if the soil load hearing erccted shuuld be explored and d c t c n ~ l i n r da t sonie early st:~gc of tlw
characteristic is known, can he determined early in t h c project, b y ~ w o j w t . I n f:lct, s u r l ~ch:~~artvrirtic*. sl~oulcl 11:lvc bccn k ~ w n ~1~t~lul.e
l
594 Proiect Engineering of Process Plonts Foundations 595
purchase of the site. It is impossible to judge subsurfacc conditions by
visual inspection, and competent investigation is usually most economi-
cally acconiplislicd by firms specializing in soil analysis or subsurfacc
explorations. Reliable data permit foundation design and selection to
proceed on a realistic basis.
I n addition to the general characteristics of the underground stratum
more extensive studies should be made a t the specific locations for each
footing.

Borings
The most reliable method for determining the characteristics of the
subsurface soil is from samples of each stratum obtained from borings.
Soil borings can be divided into major or decp borings, which locate the
governing strata, and secondary or shallow borings, which should be made
under each footing. It is sometimes possible t o utilize drilling logs from
deep water wells t o determine the practical depth for the major borings.
Water u-ell logs usually yield detailed data since all n a t e r bearing sands
must be identified.
XIajr~rhorings are made by portable truck-mounted machines. They
may be drivcn onc to t ~ hundred
o fcct deep or deeper if necessary. One
lnetliod in a i d e use employs a fish-tail bit which moves in long vertical
strokes. Wash water removes the loosencd material as in most drilling
operations. As each change of soil is encountered, the bit is removed and
a samplcr driven into the soil nut yet penetrated. The dry samples thus
obtained are preserved in hermetically sealed jars carefully identified for
laboratory investigation. B y noting the numhcr of blows a t uniform
force required to drive the sampler into cacli section of strata, the com-
pactness of the soil is ascertained. Fig. 22-8 shows a typical boring repurt.
The boring oprration must bc disrontinued when rock is reached (nobed
as "refusal" in Fig. 22-8). The extent and character of this rock or berl-
rock can bc determined from core bmings. These are obtained using
rotating coring dcvices similar to those employed in the oil industry.
Extensive subsurface borings are usually mandatory in areas which
lmve been subject t o water encroachment, such as coastal areas, stream
valleyr, and tidal flats. If the area is located in a known st,able region, I
Fig. 22-8. Test boring report. (Courtesy of Raymond Concrete Pile Company.)
not coastal or strcatri-bed, and one or two deep borings show that the
section is composd of stable sedimentary formations or formations over- stratum. The topsoil, or humus layer is never sat,isfactmy for load
lying rock, only a minimum amount of deep boring is necessary. Shallow bearing and must all be completely removed from any area which is t o be
cores t o locate uppermost firm stratum should be taken, however, under used for foundations or is t o be covered with concrete slabs.
each major footing. These shallow cores which can he hand-driven Borings also indicate the location of subsurface m-ater. This infor-
indicate the depth of topsoil or humus, and the depth of excavation mation is of value throughout construction in enabling the erector to
necessary to locate the bottom of the footing on the uppermost frini foresee and t o make provisions for removing water from excavations.
596 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Soil Analysis
Certain soils, particularly clays, require further laboratory tests in
order to more conipletely define their characteristics. Such tests include
those n.11irIi determine density, moisture content,, shearing strength,
particle size, plastic and liquid limit ilrloisturc content range t h a t defines
the plastic state of the soil permitting identificatim of clays and silts),
cocfficicnt of internal frirtion. consolidation (n~casureof the settlement
of a n "unilist~~rhcil"soil sample under specified loail) pcrtue:ihility,
clrcmicnl propertics (pH. roll~~irlwl nature. c t r l , colirsion iresistance t o
particlc displacc~nent),and shrinkage (volunre 111ss due to derrease in
moisture r m t e n t ) . These and other tests ~ v l ~ cinterpreted
n by a com-
petent soil ~ncchanicsexpert proridr accurate predictions of subsurface
conditions for design purposes.
It is possible to draw ssllbsurfacc soil profiles based on these data and
the data oht:~incil f r i m till, boring opcr:~tion Sinre an infinite number
ui' Imrings e:iririot be made n consideral~le;mount of jtdgment is required
in l~rwlir+ingt h r cxtvnt oi ixch f o r ~ ~ ~ : ~am1
t i t mstratum hetween l~orinps.
.\I1 engineers 11.5ing tlrese profilrs should rrme11111crthe limitations of sur!~
interpretation. K o l~rofiloe m be guar:il~tccd.
Soil Bearing Copacily
Perhaps the most i m p ~ ~ r t a quantitative
nt data rrsulting from the sub-
surfare inrestigatiun is the allowable bearing cspai,ity or press11re of t11e
soil in pounds per square foot. This value is uscd in design ralculxtions
as the carrying capacity of the soil. Although the value finally recorn-
~ n e ~ i d c by
d soil experts is based partially un speculation, i t is used
religiously hy the designers. I t is i~uperativc,therefore, that the ~ u o s t
reliahle vnlnc lx,ssiI~lcbc obtained.
1.aboratory shear and colnpression tests often eombincd .r~ithfie111tests
(see wrtion on Drsignj on critical portion? US the site are ncccssary t o
obtain the most reliable bearing rapacitirs. I n r o n e cases it is f a r more
flwirahle and econoluical to estat~li:l~v:~luesnut only f u r diffwcnt ,srctions
of the plot but also for different types of equipment and buildings. In-
ztallntions subject to uccasional heavy lunds can be designed for a lower
bearing value than those upon which a c m t i n u i ~ u sheavy load is impi~sed.
Flexibility in establishing load rcquiremei:ts is more advantageous than
establishing a single safe value for a!! conditions.
D a t a for Piling
Soil analysis data rltiy indicate the necessity for piling. When piling
is necessary decisions hasrd un mil analysis data can bc used to indicate
the type of pile, rnaxin~umload per pile, n ~ i n i m u npiling
~ spacing, and
Foundations 597
I 1 1 l . Tlir ~ w c type l of 11ili11gto br w c ~ ld r p m l . ~~ I I X J I I the depth
ti1 firm btratn, n.l:ether or not the pile d l support its load by skin
friction or point bearing, the t y p ~of soil through n.11ich pile is to be
driven, and the possibility of failure caused by soil or ground r a t e r
conditions.
If the soil chamctcristics arc extremely poor necessitating sheet piling,
load bearing piling, an11 n.ater rcmovnl equil~mcnt.it i . 11~11allymore
wonomical to mbcontrart all foundation n-ork, invlu~ling>ubsurface in-
re<tig:~ti,~n.TIKW~ q ~ c r a t i ~require~ n . q~rciwliaeii*kill :IS ivell :is rpeci:~l
? q u i p ~ i r n n-hirh
t is costly t c rcnt.
F i ~ u n d a t i mprol~lemsare usually diffcwnt for cach locality: varying
n-it11 tlit: type of pl:int, geology of the area, and loild roncmtrations in the
plant. Complete studies and analysis of the subsurface stratigraphy
must be nlnde hy rompetent specialists in the field. For this ~ ~ o r k
experienced loral firms are preferred sinre loi.nl cspcricnce is a n important
factor in ilerclopin~r ~ , l i n l ~rlxta
l r and conrlnsions.
Location of Boundary Lines
T l ~ cfirst field ill~c,rationin 1il:int 1:iyout is thc e m c t lo~.atiunof pro)~i>rty
i ~ rboun~lnry lines, reference;, and cierations. The-c may IIC located
FVOIII monunrents on : ~ ~ l j a c e nproyrties,
t li~cnlhigh\vays. railroads, and
other pcrmancnt ~~icasoralilc lan~bi~:irks,identifial~lt?in the field. and
legally rerordt:il. The p r i n ~ ecurrtv;~ctormay be requested to [~erfornlthis
xvork for the o\vnrrr or the o<rnerm a y retain a local civil mginerring firm
to c l ~ e r krecords, and identify thc l~ounclarics. A t the salile tirue that this
work is being 1111ne.ground elevations should be determined and contour
maps prepared.
Construction x o r k being pcrformcil in a n existing plnnt will not reqnirc
such extensirc checking. but reference points for clerations null definite
11o1111dariwfor tl!e areu ill ~vlrichtllr ~ o r ib k to be ~ I C ~ ~ ~ I shollkl
~ I I ~ CbeY ~
?hon-n on dm\\-ings i u m d l y a plot 11la11) and rcci~riled in field hooks.
The 11ound:trics of n.i1rkl or artla limits in nn operating p l m t m ~ s tbe
rli,:lrly dcfinrvl, since u n d ~wrt;rin ~ conditions labor j ~ ~ r i s ~ l i c t i mdis-
al
~ ~ u t inay
r s arise l ~ c t ~ vthe
c i ~union r c l ~ r c s c ~ ~ ttlw
i n g o\vner's !~crsonnel and
that rel~rcscntingthc contractor's personnrl.
I n imlcr to lucate t l ~ cvarious facilities in the plnnt, the lnaster plot
plnn (see Chaptrr 6, Fig. 6 - 1 ) slioving all tlir nrcns is usually cross-
sectioned by imaginary liorizontal and vertical lines. n u n ~ h r r t ~from l
some arbitrary zero point and located a t regular intervals suclr as loo-,
ZOO-, or 500-it renters depmding u11o1i the size of the project. These lines
nlay be iilentified as Range and Station or Sort11 and Xact. 1Iajor points
such as a. huilding curner or n corner of a particillar area arc tliw easily
identified by sho\ving tllc p i n t by ~ w ~ i r i l i n ; for ~ t r instance,
~~ 5 plus 58.33
598 Proiect Engineering of Process Plonts
1Sart 2nd 5 p111s 25.00 iYorth would indicate a point 558.33' r w t of, and
.525.00' north of the Zero corner. Sorilr ron~istentsy*trm mc11 ;is this
.~1111uld
he wrrl for a project since it specifically ties certain points to the
original datum.
At least two permanent markers must be installed so that dimen-
sioning may be checkcd easily. Such markers or monuments sliould he
located out of the work area and should be constructed in rue11 a x a y that
they cannot be easily dislocated. One siinple marker consists of a sectiun
of six in. steel pipe four to six ft in length, art vrrtically in a concrete
envelope, 18 in. t o 24 in. square, a i t h the upper portion projecting 6 in. tu
12 in. above grade. The pipe lnnrkcr is located so that the reference point
d l fall within the diameter. A picce of 2-in. diameter brass shafting
approxirnatcly 18 in. long is then located as ncnr as po.;.;il~le to renter of
the point, with the top prujccting scveral in. ahove the top of the pipe.
The pipe is then filled with conercte. Aftcr the concrete has set the exact
point can be punch markcd on thc brass rod with the w e of n pli~nihhoh
and transit. To make the marker even more permanent, the upper portion
of the bar ran be tl~readcdand :i 11rasi cap provirlcd to covcr tlir tq,.
The cap is very desirable n - l ~ mtlic marker is n l x to be used as :in
elevation reference.
Tlie arbitrary setting of a plant north, is cqually as important as
elevation and dimensional references. Once the plant north has hccn set.
right-angled arrangements can be used on drawings much more simply
than if a true north location is used.
Elevutions
Bfter dimensional references are located, plant elevation planes mrwt
he set. T h e civil engineering survey report should include s referencr
tc~the nearest U. S. Gcodetic (or other reliablc) survey datum. Thi.
daturn can then bc used in establishing tlie elevation of the perluannt
markers ~vithreferenee t o sea level. For convenience: the plant datum.
however, should be estahlislied with reference t o a low point or t o tlic
lowest point on the project, arbitrarily called 100.00. Thus all elrva-
tions used in engineering the project will be 100.00 or above. The mark-
ers set for dimensional rcfcrcnce can then have an arbitrary plant eleva-
tion, which will he plus 100.00 and a t some later time may be chccked
back to the local datum.
Large projects are usually separated into areas. A normal area grade
or ground elevation above thc plant datum must hc set for each area as
early as possible so that foundation design and field xvork such as rough
grading and other preliminary construction operations can proceed.
Area elevations, or area grades as they are marc conimonly known, are
best developed from project contour maps. The area grade generally
refers to a highpoint in the area since a certain amount of sloping is
necessary for surface drainage. Aftcr the nominal area grade has been
determined, liciglit of equipment above grade can be set and foundation
design can bc completed.
The cleration of equipn~entabove grade depends on process require-
ments, niaintenancc considerations, and possible operating hazards. As
a typical illustration, resscls carrying fluids a t temperatures and pressures
near vaporization must be elevated ahuvc pumping equipment t o give
sufficient liquid head to maintain the fluid in a liquid state. Thus the
type fluid, its process state and the characteristics of the pump, all nlust
he considered in determining the proper elevation. All process pumps or
other me,,l~anicalequipment sl~ouldbe located sufficiently abore grade to
perniit operation, normal inspection, and niaintcnance from a standing
position.
Area grades or cquiprncnt elevations cannot be determined arbitrarily,
hut must he planned ivith carc. Wliile the cleration of foundations
above grade is usually set for process or n~nintrnancereasons, tlip mini-
mum depth helow gradc of a foundation dcpends upon tlie deptli of frost
penrtration or thc <lvptlr ti, firm s t r a t u u ~whi~:l~evcr
is the largcr.
N e e d for Accuracy i n Dimensioning
Tlie largc aniount of interconnccting prefabricaterl piping requires more
precise ficld engirieering and equiprnrnt locatim for process plant projects
than for otl~crtypes of construction. The draftsman's accuracy in show-
ing correct dimmsions on drawings is wasted if the field engineer n~isaligns
or fails to use the same dirncnsions when locating fonndations. S h o p
fabricated pipe is i~suallylirld to close tolerances (l/l in. for some work).
Prefabricated piping niay require lieat treatment, or may consist of
materials which eannut be reworked in the field, thus an crror in equip-
mcmt location of as little as y2 in. can IIC serious. Errors in anchor-bolt
locations on integral foundations for major equipnlent can he even niurc
serious or costly. Usually anclior-bolts for large equipment arc firmly
fixed and held in place by metal or wooden templates, wl~iclireduce the
l~ossil~ilitiyof crror during the pouring of concrete.
Nanufacturers eonwtimes make errors in their preliminary dimensional
dratving or h a r e to make cl~angcsas fabrication proceeds. For this
reason the innnufacturcr nus st furnish his final prints v i t h dimensions
certified t o be wrrect. Experienced erectors will not release foundation
drawings for constrnction l~cforcthe manufacturer's final certified prints
are received on all equipment involved.
Excavation
After the site has heen cleared and graded, and locations of rquipnlcnt
fuundations crtahlisl~ed,excavation can begin.
Exca\.ntioii may be done by machine or by hand. hlachine excavation
600 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 601
is perfornwd I)? a n u l n l ~ r rof types of cquil~nrt~nt the choice of wl~ieh bar.kfilling, inrluding t l ~ ct y j v of pt~r~riissil~lc l~ackfillinaterial, should 11c
depends 111,ontlic soil and 1lc11tliof the ~ ~ x c i ~ v a t Ti ~r cm~ ~ r I for ~ e sc x t m s i r e prepared a t the beginning ui thr! 11roject and specifically followed.
straight run1 of un~lergroundpipilig or conduit a r c often esravated n-itli Backfilling also rcfers to the filling in of excarations with soil after the
trenching machines. T h e drag-line, ~vlii1.11is a .self-propelled crane foundation has been poured. L o n cost grades of sand and gravel are often
iquippetl rvitl~n l n ~ c k c tis . the iiio-t pupnlar iliachine m e t l i ~ ~ofd c s e a v a t i m uscd for this levelling of excarations If Llackfilling materiais are subject
for Ileal-y c o n ~ t r u c t i ~sinre
m the crane m a y also br u r c ~ lfor lifting q u i p - to movernent by ground water, precautions must be taken t o see t h a t they
merit during erection. Bulldozers, rrhich are simply tractors with a l~laclc are contained. either b y the concrete work itself, by sheet piling, or by
i~ttaehedto the front, are extensivt~lyw e d for Ilackfilling and fur c m - s o u ~ eimpervious soil.
['acting I I nirans ~ of othrr :rttaelinient~. Sizes and t y l w of c r r a r n t i n g It is lmor ]".actice to attempt a saving in concrete by placing a footing
end backfilling cqnil~nicntxi;.? ~\-itlitach l ~ r , l j ( ~ . t . on backfilled material or on ilisturtml soil. Drnwings ~ ~ r c p a r efor t l the
.\larliinc ~ w a v n t i n n .I~cing1w.s co-tly tlian h:rn{l c x c a w t i ~ ~ nis, 11w1 i l ~ s t a l l ; ~ t iof
~ ~f n~ ~ u t ~ d a t i sliould
i ~ n ; note t h a t "All footings iliall be carried
e r e p o s i T h c Ilrocess 1)l:rlit usu;~lly consist- uf a nulrrl~cr of t o firm and unili.;turbed s ~ ~ i l ,:rn~l " no ~ l c r i a t i o nshould be permitted
scpuraterl hut conge-ted arcns. It i: ord~naril?-~ i ~ u (11111rc ~ l i econumi~~irl to without sornc import,ant justification.
machine excavate 11 tr1t:rl area to the firm stratum. \vhm a numbcr of Grcat care must be cxcrciscd in making excavations near major footings,
separate small frrotiugs are t o he p o u r c d than to liaurl exr:rvste raclr thougli proper scheduling of the work will eliminate the need for sue11
footing. .Iltliougl~ tliis may require wrtnin arlditional forming. tlir eurarationr.
adrantage of a lwtter r~wrkingspare fur u n f t s m e n r e d u ~ e sfnrm building
titiit, and cost of ~.eii~iorring s t w l pl:weme~it costs. Other i ~ n ~ l ~ ~ r g r o u n c l Form Building
facilities such :is piping :ind piping tlirnst nuchurs. clertricnl rt~nduit;in11 T h e various shapes \vhirh retain t h r cmcrete vhile it is in the plastic
grounding systems can be iustalled s i m u l t a n c ~ ~ u r l thus y , eli~ninatingprac- state a r e called forms. T h e building of thcsc formi is the most rostly
tically ell hand excavation. operation in concrete 1%-ork.
V a t e r seepage caused by penetration 11f the vatcr-table or I I opcning ~ Forms m a y be ronstructed of wood or metal. Metal f ~ ~ r n require ia less
of xater-bearing strata in cxramtiun 1 1 1 1 t x h n sis a cmnnon prohleni in labor than n-ood forms! but foundation shapes must he designcd in
sul~surfacropcratims. If th17 grnrral area 1i:1> d i i ~ . i c n tslopc, rvntcr iuay accordance with metal form lengths and shapes. Metal fonna are sturdy
sonietimer be sealcrl off I I sheet ~ piling on the up~tre:im side of tire a n d last for many years xvit11 rcasonsl)lc care. Wooden fornis m a y be
C T I , : I ~ : I ~ion. used several times, but cleaning concretc from \voo~lforms is costly.'
IIC uu~cleto punqt out s c q -
I n a n y 11i:i.inr ~ ~ s r : r r : ? t il~~~r iui~ - i s i m.~Iior~ld
> Finishing r e ~ i ~ e to
n t a smooth a p p m r a n r c is n costly hand treatment and
:igr water or rnin v a t c r . Onc or In-(1 Ion 11oints \\.it11 ~ I I I I :rre ~ ~ prorirlc,l.
I ~ may be almost completely eliminated \\-it11 metal forms since the form
A thin ( 2 in. or 3 ir1.l scid eoiit of T W I ~ concri~tt~ over the hotto111 of the. surfaces are flat and smooth.
excaraterl area is often ~ f f ~ ' c t i vine stopping xvater seepage. 'l'liis method
is regu!arly used in extensivta cxwvations to imllrorc working conditions Reinforced Concrete
and to avoid cuntaminiltiou if the ci~ncrcte. r n t t a l ) l t , TI-ater-bcaring soils Since concrete is the primary material in reinforced fouildntion e x -
c~rsand soils tlii~tare s u l ~ j c r tto caving r c q u i ~ cr s t r a safcty ~ ~ r r . r : r i ~ t i m * stmction, a brief description ui its co~nl~ositiun
311d cliar:~cteristirs mnst
for tlic ~ ~ r < ~ t r cof t i ~110th
l n [ ~ c r r m n e and l cquil~iiient. Ile included in any dircussion on foundat.ions.
Errors ~ii:rrIc in esc:ix~tion 1icpt11: 11;. tlic acci~lcnt:il ;.e~iio\-:iIof ,soil
~rruundexirting fuundatiuns rcquirc careful rcfilliug. This c~perationis Cement a n d Concrete
ternird l~nckfilling. Heavy gravel or r u l h l e concretc is so~nctimcsuscd Concrete is composed of cement. water, and aggregates, such as sand
fur this 1)ilrl~oscif tllc drptli oI hackfill is not mcebsire. If suil conditiuns and crushed stone or gravel. Cemrnt, a s it,$ neuie iniiicatcs, is the agent
a r e poor and the bearing ralne is l o ~ vtxxcessive , xveights of gruvel and con- which solidifies t h e aggregates into a firm mass. Portland cement. which
mete must be avoided. Ordinarily I~ackfilling~ v i t hw a k cmcrote is the is used for most construction purposes. is composed of essentially four
simplcst and 11i11strcliahle practice. Bnckfilling :In :ire;i ~ v h c r ca floor slab tlasie compounds: tri-calcium silicatc ( 3 C a 0 6 i O 2 ) , dicalciuni silicate
or rvork slab is to he poured sl~oril~l al\vay.< Ilr ~,;irrfullydune and each *Forms rnn he oilrd before using t o incilitxtp r a n c i . r t ~ remoral. V:wious
surcc?iiv~.h y c r of soil s l i o ~ ~ lI)(. < l ~ ~ ~ n c l t~i i~nme p t ~ lSperifirations
. f ~ r silicone U ~ this ~ I I I ' P L I S B .
gwascs h a w proved highly S U C C ~ S S ~ for
602 Project Engineering of Process Plants
(2 C a O M I , ) , tri-calcium aluminatr ( 3 CaO.AI,O,), and ferrites similar
to the aluminates.
l'l~esematerials are produccd by ralcining the propcr cumhinations uf
raw materials containing CaO. SiO,, AI,O,, and Fc. Lump:: or "clinkers"
from the ceinent kiln are pulverized to f m n a dry powdery ~natcrial.
When ceinent is mixed with the p~11wrfine and roarsc aggregates and
water, in correct proportions, it hardens into the solid Inass known as
concrete. The strength and other cl~aracteristics of cmcretc vary,
depending upon the type of cement used, tlie p r q ~ ~ ~ r t i oofn cthe mixture.
the kind and size of aggregates, the quantity of water used in its prepare-
tion, and the curing process after pouring.
While the ultimate strength of cmcretc may approncli 8,000 psi in
compression, it? strmgth in tension is approximately one-tenth of this
compressive strength. I n design, its tensile strength in tension is con-
sidered zero. I t is for this reason that another matcrial must be added
to concrete, t,o provide ~ t r r n g t hill twsion or hending. Steel ~vircsor rods
are embedded in the roncrcte in definite pusitions to absorb r t r e s c s or
reinforce t l ~ cconcrete luass. Tlic design uf rcinf<~rrr.d r<onrrete,tl~ei.efore,
is primarily determination of the requircd amounts and locations of
reinforcing stee1.4.Q
Strength of Concrete
The p1iysici1-chemical reaction between the cement and n a t e r requires
a certain time t o initially sct, and further time t o harden to its design
strength. I n ordcr t o standardize tcst procedures, concrete compressive
strength used fur design is that stress which it will ~vithstandaftcr 28
days. The use of the 28-day time interval is the result of extensive
research. Altliough concretc continues to liardcn the compressive strength
curve flattens appreciably after 28 days for concrete cured in air without
extraordinary curing procedurcs.5
Many factors influence concretc strength; water is pcrllaps the most
important. Rcsults froni many contn~lledtests show that the compressive
strength varies from a rnaximuru of 7500 psi t o a ininimum of 2700 psi a t
28 days for water-cement ratios of 4 to 8 gal per sack, respectivcly.
Curing methods alsu affect strength. Concrete continuously moist-
cured for one year shows an increase up to 160%, of 28-day strength. The
increase is 140% up to 100 days. Air curing (without moisture) produces
a strength of ahout 75% of design a t 30 days. Apparently moist curing
a t any time after a dry-curing period will give a sharp increase in strcngth.
Curing temperature also influences strength. Seven-day strengths of
44% and 6570 of 28-day strength for curing a t 33F and 72"F, respec-
tively, are reported. The Portland Cement Associationj recammends
that tests be run to determine cornpressivc strength curves for 7 days and
Foundations 603
28 days with materials t o he used. Such crlrves nil1 indicate the best
water-cement ratio and possihly thc most effective curing proccdnres.
The ~vater-cementratio, as indicated above, s1111uldbc closely controlled.
This ratio is cxpresscd in gal per 94 It] sack of cement and varies according
to the required strength, the aggrcgatc size and type, mixing conditions.
delivery conditions, and placement conditions. The range is about
4 t o 8 gal per sack. Openly storcd aggregates must be checked for water
content and this water deducted froni the water to be used. This value is
easily checked by drying a mcasurcd quantity of aggregate a t 2003F
and weighing it. Equal quantities of undried aggregate measured and
weighed thereafter will show the approximate 7,-atcr volume per cu ft.
Tircre are a number of high early-strength celnents which advance the
hardening process. The design or 28-day strength r i t h certain mixes,
may be reached 12 and 24 l~oursafter pouring. Since thcse materials are
morc expcnsivc than portland cement and since the increased rate of re-
artion often generates Iargc anionnts of heat ~vhich!nay require a more
costly curing procedure, they are not commmly used in ordinary con-
struction.
Certain additives are arailable for increasing the density, natcr
rcsistancc, surface charnctcristics, and resistance to wear of concrete.
The curing procedure of freshly pourcd or exposed concretc surfaccs is
also very important to the wear resistance and weathering characteristics
of the finished concrete.
Specifications
Concrete strengths commonly used are 2000, 2500, 3000: and 3750 psi
after 28 days. Spccificatiun of strength in effect sets the water-ccment
ratio w.hich must be uscd since this ratio determines tlie 28-day strength.
Ordinarily suppliers of ready-mix concretc are familiar with this mctliod
of specification and will supply concrete t o meet or better the specifica-
tions.
I n urdcr to cl~cckthe concretc strengtl~,samples are taken from each
delivered inix by a testing laboratory in prepared cartons 6 in. diameter
by 12 in. These cylinders are preserved under controlled conditions and
tested in compression, until failure, after 7-, 14-, and 28-day intervals.
For certain types of work it is desirable to spccify n~inimumsacks I I ~
celncnt pcr cubic yard of concrete, and nmximum gallons of water pcr
sack of cement. Thc slur~iptest which is described in detail in 4STX
Designation C 143-39 is often used as a consistency check tcst while
concrete is being poured.
Tlic American Society for Testing Materials has prepared a number of
teats for evaluating cement, ronwete. and aggregates. Three tcsts are
tlie basis for all carefully prepared concretc specifications. The Portland
604 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Cenrent A~.ociation~h:is issued suggested concrctc specifications 21s ell
as 1iter:rturc on tlic proper use of 110th ]il:~in and rcinforceil concretc.
Reinforcing Steel
The liasic strcngtli material used in concrete is steel in the form of roil?:
bars, and stecl wire fal~rics.' The most conrmo~ireinforcing ~natcrinlis
the round steel rod or has. ~ o n n n o nliar 51ircificationa arc: for billet bara.
-4STlI Al5-SOT; rail bars, ASTAI .416-SOT; cold drawn steel ~vire:
A S T N .482-34; and ~veldcdsteel wirc fabric. .\ST31 A1 85-37. Thc *(I-
cnlled deformcd bar 11as forged or rolled surface extrusion.i. For climcn-
sions of deiormation~.see .\ST11 A30.5-SOT. At present only deformed
bars arc used and their sizes are sliecifiecl hy nmnlier ( n i ~ size)
t a(,cording
to I-.5. 1)cliartment of Connnercc Sinlplificil Practice Rerolnlncn~l:itiol~
R-26. The bar number refers approximately to thc numher of
diameter incrcmcnts up to KO. 8 hnr n-hicl~is 1 in. Only three square
!,
in.
har sizes are listed in the recom~nendedstandard, starting a t 1 in.. d ~ i c l i
is S o . 9; 1 5 in., S o . 10; and 1 % in., KO. 11. The smallest bur is a
S o . 2, % in. round. Tlris bar is furnished plain or undcf~irnrcd:md is
sometimes called pencil rod. I t is used for miscellaneous functions sncl~
as ft~rm-ticshut is ordinarily not used for reinforcement.
Strength or stress limits for reinforcing steel vary from 14,000 psi t o
30,000 psi depending upon thc design requirements and the s t t d usc~i.
The usual sjiecifieati~inis 18,000 or 20,000 psi. The various atrcngtl~smay
he found in the above named .\ST11 specifications.
Another c~ininronrcinfurcing material is know1 as wclilerl ~viref:iIiri~,.
This ~naterialconsists of steel wire m l d e d together to form a scrcclr-likc
fabric. The spacing and gage nrust hc sliecificd according to connnerci:~I
practice. A 6 X 6-10/lO, mesh indicates gage wire on 6 in. squares.
Pouring Concrete
After tlrc forms arc built and the reinforcing steel is in place, the con-
crete can he poured to form tlrc foundation. Concrete lnay be nlixctl a t
the point of pour or elwvlrcrc. For :I large lirojcct :I ccntral mixing lilanr
may be prnvidcrl: n.hcrc :ill c~m.rt:teis miscd, :rnd t l i e ~c ~o n v ~ y c dti1 t l ~ c
various puints of use by lrantl "buggies" or by trucks. Ready-mix
concretc is alsu extensively nscd when it is available. Tlris type concretc
is sold ready-mixcd by mixing cnmpanies and is delivered by specially
designed trucks to tlrc point of pow on the project.
The pouring of cuncrete is a relatively simple procedure. The plastic
mass nrust be poured or shovelled into the forms. For large pours (several
hundred cubic yards) or pours covcring a l u g e area metal chutes arc
usimlly prnvi~lcd to cunvcy tlw w t nrnss to the proper plnec. Largi.
buckcts are ~onietimcsused, holding from me-half to tiw cuhic ynrils of
Foundations 605
r,nnrri,t~. T l ~ ceimcrete is poure(1 in the linckct wlricl~.in t ~ ~ r is
n .c;trricd
hy a clan? to tlie necessary point. Chutes must be high enough to pprnrit
the concrete to flow ~ i t hease. I n certain types of n-ork a system of
conrcying chutes or pipes may be provided.
Once the pouring of concrete for any massive slah is started, such as
for a large foundation, it must not be stopped for any length of time. A
stoppage ~ o u l dpermit partial setting (solidifying). The successive ponr
would then not bond properly and a clt.a\-age plane might be produced.
\Vl~envery large pours are contenrplatcd arrangements nrnst be nrad? t o
ininre continuity of all operations, mixing. conveying, and placing.
.is the concrete is poured into the f o r m it is continuously proilileil l ~ y
hand wit11 x ~ ~ o ~ paddles
len or poles so that it fll1~Wintu all tlrc contoul.-
of tlie forms. Pneumatic vibrators are also used continuously during
the pour.
TTater mnet never be addcd after the concrete is poured. The degree
nf fluidity cannot he ar11itr:rrily chnngerl by ndrling n i t e r .sinre this ill
cllange the specified ~vatcr-ccnientratio newssary for the required con-
crete strength. There are, ho~vercr,ievixd additives sold nlrich will
lower tlie viscosity of the concrete ~vithoutr q u i r i n g an increase in tlw
T\-atcr-cementratio.
Curing of Concrete Foundations
I n order t o derel~ipmaximum strength frcsh concrete must he protected
from loss of rvatcr by evaporation and from exccssivcly low or high
temperatures. This is especially true in the first 7 to 10 days.
Concrete can be kept moist by sprinkling, covcring x i t h water, applying
muisture resistant seal coats, and by using moisture-retaining covers sucl~
;re burlap or ci~ttoncloth.
Air around concrete should lie maintained a t 70F or ahore for a t least
3 <lays. I n cold rvcatlrcr it ir sonietilnes necessary t o heat the x a t e r and
aggregates before mixing in order to provide a n initial temperature
snfficient t o prun~otcthe hydration reaction a t a favmable rate. Tlie
fresh concrete as poured, h o v e w r , should not be above 8 0 F sincc the
heat of hydration further increases the temlierature of the concrete.
Escesaircly high temlieratl~rescause undesirably fast stiffening \vlricl~
may produce cracks in tlrc concrete.
I n order t o maintain an atmosphere of 70F during cold xeatlrer it
is necwaary to co~;erthe concrete with tarpaulin. Straw or other material
heneatlr the tarpaulin will increase the insulating harrier. During es-
treniely cold weathcr heat nlust be added in the form of live steam mitliin
a tarpaulin enclosure. This procedure is costly.
Although the strength of concrete increases with curing temperature
up to a certain point (the maximum is somcwlrerc betvccn 100 and
606 Project Engineering of Process Plontr
200FI, tlie cracking tenilency also increases. I t is. tlicrcfore, necessary
to gu:1rd ag:rin?t rxceseively hip11 teinperdtures during hot 71-eather 11y
shading tlic concrete from the direct rays uf the sun and using cooled
inixing ~ v a t w .
The Finished Foundation
After the concrete is cured, the forms are carefully removed to avoid
injuring the surfaces. l'rojcctiune are reiiiored by rhippiiig. Holes may
he repaired 11y chipping out to produce a t least n 1 in. deep rcct;lngular
area. The chipped area is then filled with successive layers of in.
Fig. 22-9. Typical nnchar bolts. LRcprintd by prrrnibrion. Gco. Stevens, Puuxr, 81.
S o . 2, 111 (1947).1
thick concrete. Compressor and pump fuundations must be left rough a t
the top after pouring so that grout ill adhrre to the foundation when
the machine is installed.
During and after the completion of the foundation all anchor bolts
should be carefully protected from damage and bending. For large
machinery such as compressors, removable bolts (Fig. 22-9A) are pre-
ferred. >lachines can then he skidded into position ~vllilethe bolts are
removed, and broken bolts can be replaced easily.
Piling
When piles are required they are driven by a hammer supported on
vertical leads bung on an ordinary crane or a machine made specifically
for pile driving. The hammer is driven by a single-acting or double-
acting steam or air reciprocating engine. The single-acting engine lifts
the ram (3000 to 5000 lb) and allows it to fall by gravity onto tlie pile
Foundations 607
from a distance of about 3 ft. The douhle-acting halnlner aids the force
of gravity by supplying energy on the downward stroke. Drop hammers
are often used for driving light piles. These are simple devices employing
~vincliesand hoists to lift a ram and then permit it to fall again.
The driving of piles is judged by skilled operators on the basis of the
inches of penetration for each blox. They arc usually driven t o a pre-
determined resistance iueasured as the numher of bloxs required for the
final inch of penetration. The last blow in turn is related empirically to
the safe load that the pile may bear.
The penetration of piles thruugh denre strata can be aided greatly hy
the loosening action of a strong stream of water near the tip of the pile.
This process is called jetting.
FOUNDATION PLANNING AND ARRANGEMENT
General Practices
The layout and preliminary design of f~~undations starts with the
arrangenlent of the major process equillulcnt. Pllmps, colllpressors,
vessels, heat exchangers, or uther cquipmcnt located essentially a t grade,
are set on separate raised concrete sections. The base of the equipment
or top of concrete is always elevated a t least six inches above non~inal
area grade. I n general, all niajor equipment ~vlietherhoused in an en-
closure or located in the open, has a separate or independent foundation.
An independent foundation is one that is unattached to the floor or x o r k
area slab and extends to tlie depth required to transmit the load to a firm
stratum when using spread founiiations, or ti) a pile-cap in the case of
piled fuuntlntions. Steel colunin Imse; of structures or structural steel
>upports for equipment (Figs. 2 2 - 1 , 4 and 51 arc set on reinforced concrete
pedestals, exten(ling ahuve :irca. grade and provided with anchor 1)olts rast
in place. The steel structure like other equipment muit he securely fixed
iu pi~sitii~n.The scparate concrete pedestals s u p p ~ ~ r t i nthe
g coluli~ns
extend to ii~dcpenrlent~ p r e a dfuotings or t o a pile cap.
Equipment Drawings
Since equipment varies in dimeniiuns, and foundations cannot be
designed until riimcnsimal data are known, tlir various ~nanufactmers
Impare drawings showing the dimensions of their equipment necessary
for installation. The rnnnufncturcr also utilizes these drawings for secur-
ing approvals from the purchaser. T1iu.s a series of transmittals takes
place as descrihrd in (:hapter 9. I k p m d i n g upun the type of cquipnimt.
several montlis may rlapsc froni the time of onler placelncnt and receipt
of the ~ i i a n n f ; l ~ - t ~ ~d;it:i
r e r ' or
s vcrrdor prints.
Vendor prints are the only reliable source of dilucnsional data and
608 Project Engineering of Process Plants
::ccurattt dimensions are necessary f11r tlic preparation of all inr;tallatioli
drawings including foundatirln dra~vings. 3Innufacturers must. thercfor~,.
certify thc correctness of tlie dimensions on the drawings thcy f w n i ~ l t .
These prints are known as Certified Vendor Prints and gnarantee in effret
that the equipmcnt \rill bc furnished in accordance ~ v i t lthe
~ dimensiorl
sho5~-non the draxing. Although the lower portion of foundatinns con-
rtituting massive pads may be poured, the upper or final portions. n-hirh
contain the anchor bolts and conform to the shape of the equiptn~~nt
(,annot be poured lintil this certified dimensional data is rccci\-cyl. I'll,,
lack of vendor print6 can delay construction as seriorlsly as the delay in
delivery of the cqnipment itself.
Economics
As in most design and planning for plant c~rnstrnction.econornirs is
important. The follol~-ingcost factors must be considered.
Concrete Costs
Cuncretc in its mixed state, ready for ponring or placcmrmt in a form,
1;: :r relatively cheap inaterid costing from $5.00 to $15.00 per 1.11 yrl.
?.
lhese costs, up to tlic point of pouring, depend on: ( 1 ) quantity;
(2) methorl of mixing; and (3) mix specification, in that order. Thcsc
are tlie costs only thrl~ughthe niixing phase. Finnl cost of concrctc n.11rk;
however, is considerably higher, ranging from $40.00 for simple poln-s t o
$200.00 per en y d for conlplex pours. This increase is duc to: (41 nmte-
rial and labor for form building; ( 5 ) matcrial and labor for bending and
placement of rcinforcing stcel; (6) lahor for plncemcnt in the forms,
including vibration; ( 7 ) labor and matcrial for curing prowdure; (81
labor for form stripping; (9) labor and material for cement finishing.
I n items 4 through 9, labor is the governing factor varying from 5 0 v
to 809, of thc total costs. Thc labor costs of form building d l usl~ally
exceed all others.
Cost of concrete foundations seldo~u exceeds $65 per cu yd based
on 1954 labo~,rods. App~.oxi~nately 60% is for Inhor. This figure ~ l l ~ n ~ l r l
not, bc used intliscriniinately for all foundation vork. Tlrc ro.~tper rll yd
for large mats cmsisting of many hundrcds of en yd of concretc ~j-itll
little or no forming ill be much belolv $65. Otllcr factors affecting
concrete labor costs are labor productivity in thc area, climatic conditions.
working conditions, and type of n-ork.
Ready-Mixed versus Site-Mixed Concrete
Certain other basic costs, such as thc source of concretc materials,
sometimes seriously affect foundatiori and other concrete 111:lterial costs.
Illay hc mistvl ;:t the johsitc 111. m:ly
('1lllrTi~tt~ purcli:ts?d rv;r,ly-nristyl.
I n nr7nrly all domestic industrial areas ready-mixed conercte is delivered
to the p i n t of pollr at a fixr~lprirr. Gcncrnlly thc delivcrerl price of
rc;trt>--mirr,l concrctc !!'ill Llc fairly rlosr to the ro.st of plant-mixed eon-
crete ~ r l ~ cthe
n requirements do not exceed 4000 or 5000 cu yd. I n coni-
paring the two the cost of plant-mixed concrete should inrlude costs of
the niixing equipment on a rental basis, material handling a t the mixer,
and conrrete transportation over thc johsite. If concrrtr is to br mixrd
at, tlic site: provisions must bc made for dry storagc of ccmcnt, aggrc-
gate storage. and a water supply. I n cold climates provisions must be
m::dp for heating ~ r n t c rand nsunlly aggregate. Thus if the amount of
concrete r c q u i r ~ dis not n c e s ~ i v c it
, is i~r'nallymore ~ ~ e ~ n o ~ l to
~ i rpur-
:%l
clr;lse concrete mixed an11 Itarc it delivered to the forms.
Forms a n d Dimensioning
Since the major costs in foundation construction are labor costs for form
building, simplification of concrcte shapes and thus fornl n-ork slioulrl
reduce costs. Thus all possihlc changes in snrface whi<>hmight he 111adi'
to cffect small economies in concrete volume should be avoillcd. Flat
panels ;iw less espensive t o form than protrusions, offsets. or any change
in fi~rnlsurface.
The uac of metal forn1s for all flat surfaces conserves both form
~nnterialand labor since thcsc iorms may be erected in about 1 4 the time
require11 for roode en forms and may be re-used as soon as renlovccl.
Furthermore, thc concrete surface nil1 require little or no finishing since
metal forms leave a snlootl~and clean surface. hl(1dular metal forms can
be uscd for practically all types of concrete work, but the dimensions of
the foundation must conform to the form sizes available.
Costs \rill he rcduced if dimensions of foundations are based iln standard
hnnber sizes or standard metal forms. Fractions of inches should be
avoided unless required for anchor bolt dimensions.
Stondardizafion
Furt11t.r economies ran bc obtained by standardizing certain types of
f ~ ~ u n d a t i m sMost
. projects require a nunibcr of squ:~re pcdcstalu for
supporting structural stccl columns used for pipe supports. B y setting
onc stnndard sine for these pedestals and standard anclior bolt sizcs based
on tlic se\.erest serviec, costs of design, drafting, field cngineering, and
iorin building are all greatly reduccd.
FOUNDATION DESIGN
Design Basis a n d Soil Mechanics
A foundation consists of the concrete mass, the reinforcing rod, and
the surrounding soil. Since tlic man-made portion of the foundation murt
be supported and surrounded by the subsurface soil, it is impossible t o
610 Project Engineering of Process Plants
select a foundation type and to design it for a givcn application ~ v i t l ~ o u t
careful considcrntion nf soil mechanics.
Became of thc large variety of suhsurfacc conditions peculiar to earl^
m a . a designer must rely on judgment hased on experience in that area.
For this reason it llas i)r~.omecommon practice t o engagc local foundati~in
engineering consultants to aid in the soil analysis and testing program as
well as in decisions necessary for foundation selection and dcsign.
Foundatim drsign is cnipirical in nlany respects. This is particularly
true if the fo~indationniust rest on clay, sand, or silt. Load tests made
a t the jol~sitcare nccessary for any such soil with questionable suliport-
ing capacity. Tliesc tests when properly made subject the subsurface
strata to conditions similar t o thosc anticipated for thc plant equipment.
Load tests are made by applying weights (sand, rock. $tee11 t o a plat-
form resting on test piles or hearing platcs, if piling is not contemplated.
The bearing plates shonld rest on the soil a t the same lcvcl planned for
thc footings. As the load is applicd, settlc~nrntnhserretl for each load
increnlcnt is recorded. These tests may a t times prove rostl>,. Iiut
nevertlieless should be made wlicn reromnicndcd by ~:omjrctcntsoil ex-
perts. Load test information togethcr with soil analysis &a providc tl~c!
only sound basis for design in questionable soils.
Settlement a n d Foundation Failure
Two important factors must bc considered in the dcsign of each founda-
tion. First a foundation must be designed so that the soil ur rock upon
which it is resting supports both the load imposed by the foundation and
the equipment bcing carried by it. Wind loads and other cxternal forces
must be considered also. The single inost important factor in this phase
of design is thc bearing capacity of the soil or rock. I f the hearing
capacity is exceeded the soil or rock will give xvay and the foundation ill
collapse into the ground.
It is possible, Iiowever, to construct a foundation that will not exceed
the bearing capacity of a certain soil, but that will settle into the ground.
If this scttlernent hecomes excessive it can cause cracking of the founda-
tion, particularly if the settlement is uneven, and prnduces undue strain
on structures which are supported by the foundation. Differential settle-
ment between multiplc footings supporting a singlc structure can cause
difficulty since concrete columns begin to crack when the diffrrential
settlement exceeds :!/, in. Steel and brick can withstand grcater am~)unts,
but all are adversely affected.
Design Procedures
No attempt d l be made here to outline or recommend design tech-
niques because foundations, due t o the empiricism involved, must he
designed and selected by experts in that field,
Foundations 61 1
The following brief description of design considerations for varioo>
types of lirwess plant f o u n d a t i ~ ~ nrvill
s proviile a superficial kno\vle~lgc
n.hir.ll. ~vlienproperly w e d , n-ill aid the project engineer in understallding
the problems of the foundation engineer.
Soils a n d Design
As already emphasized, tlic character of the underlying soil or rock
must he an in1l)ortant factor in foundation design. Each type requires a
diffcrcnt basis for design. I t will usually be found. for instance, that the
soil pressure permitted for maximum allowable settlement for s:md is less
than required for bearing capacity failure.' Hence, the allol\-a11lc settle-
ment usually governs the dcsign of foundations in sand. The rvidtll of a
sprcad footing or a mat located in sand influ~ncesthe a l l o ~ r a l ~ hearing
le
capacity of tlic soil (the \$-ides the footings the greater the capacity1
Clays, on the other hand, do not cxliibit such incrcascs in allo~~-able
or safc capacity ~ v i t hwidth. Furtlier, it cannot he statrd definitely
whether settlement or bearing capacity ill control foundation design for
clays. Both must he chrckcd. After the foundation is designed for a
clay soil. a prediction of the settlcment bascd on laboratory cunrdidation
tests must bc made.
I n clays and silts, t,he only reliable method for determining the safc
load on pilcs is by means uf pile load tests. Empirical safe-load pile
formulas should he used only ~vlienprcvious experience %vit,hthe sanle soil
conditions has indicated reliability of the formulas.
Design Calculations
Onre tlrc allowable safe soil pressure or allowable bearing rapacity is
determined by a conlbination of soil tcsts and judgment, actual design of
the cuncrcte portion of the foundation can proceed.
I n imlust~.ialpracticc standard computation procedure forms arc 11s11311y
preliared for specific designs. The arrangcnlent of thcse forms follo\v.; the
logical steps in the c~nnputation. Since foundations arc concerned v i -
mnrily ~vitli~veigllt)all 15-eights are tatiulated. The kip or 1000 11) unit is
employed by nrod ,designers.
Althougli standard forms are used by many organizations the priire~l-
ures r a r y \\-idcly. l l a n y of these tcclmiques havc been published
and those common to process plant practice are included in the
0
references,Y.4.B.i.8.'J.1
Spread Footings
h simple ralculation yields the area required for a concentrically l~inded
spread footing. when the depth of placement of the footing and thi, I X ~ C
snil pressure ior settlcment or the allowable bearing capacity i m given.
* T h c usual safety factor for bearing capacity is 3.0.
 61 4 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 615
that phase of the design v4l not he discussed, and the thickness will be assomed
to he 2 it. This loading is satisfactory. as the soil will safely support 2000 psf.
The wight of the foundation and tower r d l be calculated as f o l l o ~ s : Thc minimum soil loading due to dead load before internnls, ladders, piping,
and liquid are added is:
Area of 6 f t octagon = 0.828d2 = 0.828 X 6' = 29.8 sq f t 125.i00 lb
Volume of top course = 4 f t X 29.8 = 119.2 en ft = 830 psf
Area of base (octagnn) (a) = 0.828 X 13.5" 151 sq ft 151
Volume of base = 2 f t X 151 = 302 cu ft This is the dead load under the w x s t stability condition, and since it is greater
Total volume
Weight of concrete
= +
119.2 302 = 421.2 cu ft than the orerturning stress ( 8 %= 803), the soil hrlrw the foundation will
= 421.2 cn it X 150 lb/cu f t = 63,000 lb alrvays be under compression a t all points, thus indicating that the fourrilntion
Volume of earth fill is stable.*
Usually it is found that the first assumption of foundation size is not correct.
(4 f t - I St) X (151 sq St - 29.8 sq f t ) = 363 cu ft in which case another assumption is made, and the calculations repeated.
We~ghtof ealth fill = 363 cu it X 90 lh/cu ft = 32,700 ih T h e calculations shown in t h e above example d o nnt complete the
Keight [IS empty toxel = 30,000 lb
design of the foundation. Next, t h e various stresses in t h e foundation
*Kc = 30,000 + 63,000 + 32,700 = 125,700 lh must be calculated to be sure t h a t they are helox t h e allor~able. Permis-
*KOn111 be as follows: sible stresses for design a r e recorded.4.8,Q Theac stresses include diagonal
Insulation, platforms, piping. etc. = 9,000 1b tension produced by the upward action of t h e soil. This is a n eccentric
Water required to fill the tower reaction which tends to break t h e foundation along a diagonal starting
(4 f t diam) (50 it high) = 39,500 lb a t the foot of the pedestal and on the l e e ~ r a r dside. T h e foundation must
Total (TI',) = 48,500 lb also resist t h e tendency to shear along t h e bottom l e e ~ r a r ~edge
l of the
TI7 = +
125,700 48,500 = 174,200 lb pedestal. T h e shearing loud is produccd hy the dcad load and the ~ ~ - i n d
a = 151 sq ft, and from eq. 1 load and in its calculation allowance must be made for t h e load-carrying
174,200 lh capacity of the soil.
S, =
151 sq f t = 1155 psf = maximum dead load on soil Other stresses include t h e bending produccd b y the upward reaction of
the soil which must be resisted b y the reinforcing stccl, bond stress between
Allowing 3 in. for the thickness of the insulation, the effective diameter of the concrete a n d steel (must not bc excessive or steel will not act with full
tower exposed to the action of the mind is 4.5 ft. 1wind velocity of 100 mph
is equal to 25 psf of projected area [PC= 0.0025(100)2]. strength), and hearing stresses a t t h e hase of tower. These and m a n y
Therefore other considerations must he carefully analyzed before a foundation can
P, = 25 psf be completely designed. Much judgment and many assumptions are
Do = 4.5 it necessary. Only experienced designers should attempt the design of t h e
H = 54 ft more complex foundations.
P , = 25 X 4.5 X 54 = 6080 #
Height of foundation = 6 ft
Mats

1 T h e design of m a t s is influenced b y t h e type of soil. Because of t h e

large area of a m a t the soil loading in sands is usually coriaiderably heinn-
the allowable hearing capacity. Soft materials such a s clays, l~oi\-cvcr,
From eq. 2 have low bearing values. I n such cases excavation to a greater depth
will uncover strata capable of greater load bearing capacity.
s , = z00.000 ft-# -- 803 psf T h e eccentric loadings produced b y wind on the equipment ordinarily
248.5 I
I supported by large mats a r e never a s great a s for unsupported t m e r s .
= maximum soil load due to overturning moment.
B u t t,hese loadings and thc stresses produced tlierchy should he rhrrked.
'The total n~aximun~
soil load (toe pressure) can be calculated from eq. 3, as More commonly, however, the eccentric loadings causcd by difrcrential
foil<,,, 5 :
+
S = 115.5 803 = 1958 psf settlement of large mats which support tanks r a n produce stresses suffi-
cient t o crack the foundation.
'Ii't !wight of towrr and iaundntion.
=
1V. = weight of nppurtcnances and water necessary to fill tower for pressure test. *h-S2 - +27 #psi mininrunr soil loading. Positive sign indicates eomprcssion.
616 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Foundations 617

' r n n k ~heing supportrd by ring xalls filled n.iil~smcl must h ~ c:11x,f11lly

. line dcsign procedr~rc~.The clarity and li~gical l~rcsentation.; in t11csc
designed. The ring rail must be so proportioned that the soil pressure?
under the tank bottom are equal a t the base of the nall. Because of the
tremendous weights carried in storage tanks it is essential that thc
eharactcristics of the soil under thc entire tank area be knmm accurately.
( h l y tht-n ran supportr he designed which u-ill not undergo r1ifferenti:d
settling.
Massive Foundations
No satisfactory metlml has hecn developed for designing massive
foundations to resist kinetic rcartion of m ~ ~ c h i n e r y .Equipment man-
ufacturers are prepared to provirlc r a l n e for t l ~ runbalanced forres an11
vibration produced by their machinery. Experirnre'O has shown that
the total mass of equipment plus concrete foundation should be cqual
t o 15 t o 20 times the disturbing force for reciprocating equipment.
Specific recommendations for each type of equipment s h o ~ ~ lhe r l oht,ainerl.
Hcavy foundations must, of course, be checked carefully for soil loading.
Piling may be necessary for massive foundations tnore often than for
other types.
Piles
The stresres in the pile cap must be determined in the same manner as
for spread footings. The a l l o ~ a h l eload on each pile can he determincrl
by an empirical formula, as mentioned above, but load tests arc preferable
if doubt exists.
I.rferenccs, lio~verer,may cause the novicc to consider foundation design
sinrple. As in any specialty field, handhouks, codes, and papers have
hem written to reduce the routine of design. Inlplicit in all of these
Ircscntationsl ho~vcver,is the assumption that an experienced designer
;L heginner under the supervision of an experienced inan d l use them
vitll the judgment necessary for safe design.
.I 11lant is certainly no 11ettrr than its physical foundation. 111-
~.on*i~lered "rnrings" on foundations can cause mucl~necdlws expmsc and
unintisfactary plant operation.
REFERENCES
1. A.C.I. I3tiilding Code (ACI 318-51). m e r i c a u Conercte Instilute, Delrmt,
1951.
2. Bolmg. In.ing. P c i d a u m Refiner, SO, So. 4 . 126 (1951).
3. C o n c r t c Pi1i.s. Povtland Ccmrnt Associ;ttion. Chicago, 1951.
4. C.E.S.I. Ihaign Ifandbook, 1st Ed.. Concrete KeinIol.cing Stcel I t ~ r t i t u t r .
iition. Chiwgo. 1052.
. SO. S o . 3. 81 (1951)
6 . Fork.,~C. H . .. P e t r o l e i ~ mKcfiner,
.
7. Fwk. C . H . , Pclrule~intRefiner, S t , T o . 11. 145 (1962).
8. Marslmll, V. 0.>Pt.lioleun~R e f i m i , 2, KO.8. 101 (1943).
!). Rcircforecd Coats-etc Design H a n d b o o k . American Concrrtc Inslitnte, Detroit,
1948.
- -
10. Steven. Georgr. Pon.ri-, PI, XI,. 2. 111 (1947).
1 1 Stibsoil l a w s t i a n t i o m fur Poundatio7~s,Cat. 04, Raymond Cunrrrte Pile Cu.,

Smaller Equipment
Foundations for smaller equipment such as pumps. filters, and dryers
&reoften poured in the form of rectangular solids \vith straight s i ~ l r sand
no offsets. The periphery of the support must conform to the periplrcry
of the equipment and the foundation base must he extended t o firm
stratum. Small process equipment usually has a low mass-area ratio
and thus unit soil loading is invariably below the hearing capacity
because of the large foundation area. Reinforcing stcrl is rarely rcquireil
in these installations unless it is needed to insure secure attnrhmmt of
consecutive concrete pours.
I t mould, of course, be possible to undercut the base of the foundation
since tbe large area is not needed for support. I n such cases, ho~~evel..
tension is created in the foundation and reinforcing steel is required. The
added cost of the steel and additional form work usually offsets any
saving in concrete.
Xumcrous excellent articles and lrandbuoks have been publislledl,?,"
in addition to standard texts on foundatim design which out-
e.7.".",10
 I Structures and Buildings
STRUCTURES
AND
BUILDINGS
The modern process plant is located almost entirely out of doors and
contrasts sharply with the totally enclosed plant of a decade ago. Now
only instrument control centers, critical machinery, and operations re-
quiring cmtrolled atmospheres are enclosed by buildings. Automatic
control instruments, and weather-proof and explosion-prmf motors h a r e
enal~ledthis striking change to take place. Today t,he most irrlposing
structures in a process plant are the large unenclosed structural steel
skeletons which are used t o support equipment that is operated from the
c o n h r t of an air-conditioned control room by means of automatic
instrumcntation.
Thcre are three typcs of structures for process plants: ( a ) the totally
enclosed structure, the conventional industrial or commercial building;
( b ) the partially enclosed structure which is a simple t,ype of roofed
shelter; and ( c ) the unenclosed structure which is a n unshcltered struc-
tural support.
TOTALLY ENCLOSED STRUCTURES -BUILDINGS
The types uf huildings usually found in process plants are relatively
simple ones, similar to thc mill huildings used in heavy industrial plants,
with the exception that process plant buildings arc generally of rnuch
liglrtcr cunstruction.
Single-story structures in the colder climates of the United States are
61 8
619
usually masonry structures x i t h flat roofs which are supported by the
walls and partitions. \Vlien several floors are required, thc strurturc
framing may be either steel or rcinforccd concrete with thrx roof and
exterior walls above the first floor supportcd from this framing. The
lightest possible materials are used for csteriur ~vallsin order to w d w r
the dead load, and insulation is used t o provide weather protection instead
of many layers of brick and masonry.
I n milder climates, simple steel-framed structures are used for lrousing
mechanical equip~lent. LIetallic or corrugated asbestos-cement siding
and gabled roofs corered witli the same materials are generally satisfac-
tory for single-story structures. Flat roofs are illore common for multi-
story buildings.
Some of the more common huildings in proccsr plants include huildings
for housing process equipment, office buildings, change houses, cnfcteria
and recreation center, medical facilities, laboratories, and shops and ware-
Iiouses.
Buildings for Process Equipment
In cold climates some culnpanies h a r e found it advantageous t o locate
process units in buildings, hut the necessity for euclosuree in any climate
is rapidly diminishing. Some pieces of cquipsncnt, however, must be
enclosed regardless of climatic conditions. Tlrese include: (11 certain
heavy mechanical apparatus such as electrical polr-er generating macliiu-
cry, (2) small hatch or kettle processes, (3) processes or lnecl~anical
equipment handling solid materials which must be protccted from the
xcather, (4) packaging equipment, (5) certain types of mechanical filters.
(61 major or master control panels; and (7) any equiprrlcnt or process
which requires constant operating at,tention.
I n warm climates buildings for some of thcsc items vill be opcn-sided
a t points ~vliercwiml will not interfcrc wit11 the proccas. Those 1)uil~ling;
\vllich are completely enclosed such as control rooms will be air-
conditioned.
Office Buildings
I n designing officc buildings the most effective studies can be made hy
making cut-outs of desks, chairs, file cahinets, and office uiachines. Tari-
nus arrangenlcnts of these cut-outs can be made on a plan view of tire
-
proposed office space. Heat and ventilation, lighting, traffic, and office
equipment requirements can also he studied in thi: manner.
Good office equipment arranged in such a way that it causes inefficiency
or constant annoyance t o the staff is of little value. If, for cxamplc, sev-
eral persons must work together in a room, the seating arrangement
should provide as much privacy as possible. Two persons sllould never

620 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Iw wntwl so t11ey 1lnl.t f;rw enell irthcr. Rrg:rriIlr~s( i f pcr~rmnlity.s11rl1
arrangements lead to problems. I n general, separation of each indi-
vidual even if only by glass semi-partitions is better than group arrange-
ments.
The proper floor upon ~vhichto locate a given group must be given
~ a l . e f u lronsidrration. Assumc t h a t a n mginewing department and a
purchasing i l q ~ a r t m r n tare to bc housed in a tvo-storied structurt,. Lora-
tion of these t ~ departments
o in the same building is functional since in
any organization n-here engineering anil purchasing is p e r f ~ ~ r m ead con-
sirlcrablc anlount of rollal~orwtionr i l l bc n r c r s a r y . T h e next question
is I ~ h i c hdepartn~cntshoul~lbe located on t l ~ rg r o ~ ~ nflr~or.
d Purrhasing
department personnel are usually more active in ilmling with outside
firnis than any other department except sale.-, and n steady flov of repre-
sentatives from other firms r a n always Ile rinticipated. I t folluas then
that the purchasing department sl~ouldbe on the ground floor to facilitate
the reception of salrsmen and visitors.
Change Houses
Tire design of employee change l~ouseeis rrlativcly simple. A count
must be made of employees undcr various ~ v o r k cla~sifications,and
personnel in clean types of jobs separated from heavy maintcmnnce
workers. Foremen and supervisors are also often provided with sepilratc
space.
Generally each employee is provided v i t h two lockers, one for work
clothes and one for ordinary clothing; ho\~-ever,many different arrange-
ments are made depending upon company policies.
The problenl of ventilation is hest solved by using single rather than
back-to-back arrangement of lockers. This permits the lockers t o air
from but11 back and front altl~oughrequiring more floor space.
Ceiling lieiglits for change houses should not be less than 12 ft t o permit
better natural air circulation. Slmver r o o m .slrould he provided with
d o m and completely partitioncd from other parts of the building t o
reduce l ~ u n ~ i d i tas
y niuch as possible.
Lighting nray be kept to 25 foot-candles for extreme economy. Careful
design of circuits, horever, can provide better lighting a t little addition:d
cost.
I n larger plants there are free laundry facilities for outer clotl~ing
(coveralls etc.), and these are operated hy the locker room attendant.
T h e existence of such facilities removes any excuse for continued unelean-
liness.
Heating may be by forced hot-air circulation in the colder cliniates
or by ceiling and wall radiators or unit heaters. Generally it is desirable
to provide sonle means of forced air c i r c u l a t i ~ ~for
n year-round ventilation
in all climates.
Structures and Buildings 62 1
Cafeteria a n d Recreation Center
(:aietcrias for industrial plants may be rquipl~ciln-ith r,o~npletekitr111.11
facilitirs or may be dcsignril for -1iort-oril~~r~vmking n-it11 cmril~lt~tr
dinner. fur~~islred by eatcring scrricc.. IIotrl crluipment cul>l~lylrr~uses
arc lrelpful in the planning of complite kilclien facilities and r i l l usually
prepare a list of rc~cilmlllcndedcqili~llnent.
Adequate storage ellace sl~ouldbe l~rovi~lril fur rnnned goods. 1111lk
goods: and regetables: and refrigcratio~li n ;hlli-in l i;r~,ilitil:~ nlllst Ill, i n l i l t
for meat storage. Tllc cafeteria counter 1s 11:u;ill!- rlcsigncil as :I uuit
to suit tlrc specific lr~cationand service. Tr:iffic must he studied ti] aroiil
mngcstion. T h e total space requirrd for t:il]les can 11c ~ ~ s t i m a t chy d TITO-
viding irmn 10 to 1,; q f t pcr prr.iin; I~or~--rwr, tlic best proccdu~cis to
lay out foul.-person tables. If largcr t:il~lcs arc crcr .;uhstituteii, nrorc
persons I I I : ~IIC
~ :i:co~~l~~l~~il:itcil.
Cozts for rccreation f:rr,ilities may 1,c rrcliicc~li1>- coml~iningthe recrca-
tion arca ~ i t l tl l ~ rplant r:lictcria. Thib nrr:ingrnimt ofirrs ni:lny 11o.ssi-
bilities. I t pro;.ides morc spare if large g r i ~ u l ) s o fpcrs~~nncl ur visiti~~':
are to he entertained ; ~ n di t enal~lesbetter sen-i1.e if food is to be ~ ~ r o v i i l e ~ l
for these occasions. .\Io~-:~ble partitionh n-hirh fold into thc 1\.nll ran bc
used fur isolation of ccrtaitl areas. One part ( l f the cOlll~lin:itil~llToolll
can bcromc R l i l ~ r i ~ rury ri,a~ling~ I I I I I I Irquipl~edn-it11 ~11elv1.s iin11 lil~rnry
tal)lcr. Wnll spncc i l l ~ n o t l ~ 11:irt
e r may he nrr;~nge(lfor milring ] ~ i r l t ~ ~ ~ , l ,
projection. Fol~lingchairs can Ile l~ru\-i,le(li ~ n dstored il\vay 1\-11rn not
In use.
1,avatory farilitics ~cl~ould 11e ~ ) r ~ \ - i i l:irljaccnt
c~I to tllc kil<:11~11fur ci~fc-
tcria help and h g r r f:iditics ( 3 to 10 ~II".>IJII.~ each IIINI(::mil ~ I ' I I I : ~ I L . I
located conveniently for pewonnel being served.
The design of heating. ventilating. and air-conilitii:ming servircs ivill
rlel~endupon the company's policies. If an ;air-con~litimingsyitcnr i-
properly dcsignctl and the structure has h e m adequately insul;~tcilt l ~ v
operating costs will llc rcl:rti;,cly lo\,-. \Tit11 ln'oper zone control rvlif~l~,
areas may be isol;ited, tlierehy reducing the load. I n 11-arm and l~inniil
cliuiates air-conditioning is a neccsiity.
The ro~nl~in:iti<,n cafeteria and rrcrcation cmtt:r rcyrcsrnts t l ~ cmini-
nlunl in facilities i i ~ ~vorkcr
r cimvenicnce ill the proccss industries. I\lan!-
plants provide country-club style recreation buil~ling;, slvimniing 11o11l>.
libraries, and sports equiln~lent. Each coulpany n~ust,decide the extent
of recreation facilities necessary for its particular situation. Plants
located in large inetrupolitan areas do not requirc as nlucli as plants
located in remote areas.
Medical Facilities
Pl:~nt size and 1111,:1tioriarc the l~rin~;ir!. con;ider;~timx in ilrt~wnininp
tho type of medic:il f:icilities n1wl171l. Pl:~nt.- 1,wxtcml I I W ~ ~,itic>~vit11
622 Project Engineering of Process Plants
liospital facilities can use ambulance service, and provisibn need only be
n u d e for tempurary bed patients. Kaiting rooms, examination rooms.
and uffiees for tlie physician and nurse are required, ho~verer. A comhi-
nation examination and surgery roo111 is sometimes provided if tbe nearest
hospital is one or two hours a v a y .
Operating roilins require anesthesia facilities, special lighting, liospital-
t,ype lavatories, sterile containers, and sterilizers. All e q u i p e n t must be
grounded to prevent cxplusii~ns. Grounded types of floor tile are available
for this purpose.
An analytical medical laboratory is necessary if extensive pliysical
examinations are contemplated. Xedical supply firms will reconimend
tbe equipment necessary for routine cxaminatii~ns.
Process Plant Laboratories
1.aborati1ries for tlie process plant may be designed as Control Labora-
tories, General Plant Laboratories, and Researcli Laboratories.
Control Loboralories
I n niany plants simple control tests may be 1)erfornied in the operating
area. Usually n sink with water, air. and other liquid connecti~~ns d l
suffice. The extent of apllaratus provided varier with the function.
General Plan1 Loboratories
I n addition to the actual lahoratory work rooms required for General
Plant I.aboratories, space may bc provided for a chief cl~einist,assistant,
cl~cn~ists, shift chemists, library, file room, supply and store rooms, and
locker and slimvcr roonis. Isolated and air-conditioned space is some-
times necessary for analytical equipnient such as rpectropl~oto~~~eters. In
roille cases lead shielding limy he needed fur floors, walls, doors, and
ceilings of rooms housing m11io:xtive materials.
Arrangenicnts for tlie gcncral analytical laboratory equipment follow
conventional patterns. A number of firms specialize in custom-built
Iallorntory bcnches and related equipment,, and it is more economical t o
purchase equipment from theni. The furniture, though standard in design,
is unitized and can be arranged to suit almost any situation.
Propcr ventilation for the lahoratory is usually a problem which
requires eoneiderable study. All office, technical, and clerical personnel
and facilities not related to actual analytical work sliould be located
togcther in one end of the building or on a separate floor. If a choice of
floors is pmsible all such personnel and facilities should he located on
the ground flour.
If the Iaburatory is air-con~liti~~ned the two gericriil areas, office and
analytical, should be on separate recirculation systeins. An alternate
Structures and Buildings 623
arrangement could he reciroulation in tllc offire area and v m t i r ~ gor 100C :
make-u11 in the analytical a w a . T l l i ~of
, I Y I I I ~ S C\v;~stes
~ c11n1~(1 air. The
aniount of air circulation can l,e rcducerl if opernti~~ns e v ~ ~ l r i nnosio~ls
g
or disagreeable iurnen arc. crmd~~ctcd in hoods.
1,ighting for the analytical arcas of the 1abor;rtnr~-sholllll be of higli
foot-candle intensity (75 t o 1001. Fixture selection dcpmds on tlie typrs
of laboratory m-ark. I n more hazardous areas all lighting may have t o
be vapor- or explosion-proof.
Research Laboratories
Process plant research laboratories must be flcxible in design and layout
since the operations performed in any one area may change. Research it:
often conveniently divided into bench scale and pilot plant research. The
bench scale operations are best conducted in two-man laboratories eom-
plete with hoods and all utilities. Special racks for assembling tall glass-
ware such as laboratory distillation colurnns are required, and convmicnt
desks and files in the laboratory are necessary for each rcscirrclrer.
Pilot plant facilities may bc located outdoors or inside light prefabri-
cated buildings. Buildings and structures shuuld be ennstructed with the
knowledge that change in such facilities is inevitable. Safety precautions
should not be neglected, holverer, just because the existing equipment is
known t o be temporary.
I n designing researcb facilities, every attempt sliould be made t o pro-
vide working conditions conducive to creative thinking. This implies
comfortable, quiet, and pleasing surroundings. Conference rooms and
adequate library facilities are essential.
Shops a n d Warehouses
Sbops and varchouses are no longer ugly, dark, and dirty places in
which t o work. Modern mcchanieal shops and ~varel~nnsc~s in a process
plant arc designed t o provide the maximum in wnrkcr comfort and thus
worker efficiency.
hIaeliines are usually painted pastel shades which are easy on the eyes
and enable more rapid location of knohs and pusl?-1)nttons. Better illunii-
nation together with well-designed painting scl~cmesassure a minimum
of eyestrain.
Kew shops in w m n climates are being furnished v i t h crmplcte air-
conditioning even in the areas used fur \velding. Tlit: increased costs are
apparently offset by greater worker efficiency.
Anyone involved in the design of s l ~ i ~ or
p s ~i-arehoust'sshould thoroughly
study the needs for the particular plant. If pos.sible, the slinp or I n r e -
house foreman sliould aid in all the planning stages.
624 Project Engineering of Process Plants Structures and Buildings 625

Economics in Building Construction

I n planning buildings for process plants, the designer is often confronted
xith attempts hy management t o reduce costs. Procccs equipment costs
arr nwnlly fixed. and ~~-1ien total estimates lnust lie reduced, it is a com-
mon proccrlnre to attempt savings in buildings or huilrling facilities. In
grneral savings effrctrd hy rednction of building sizel or hy limitation of
i'arilities sucll a; lighting. heating, ventilation, and lavatories only result
in poor employee morale.
Building costs. ho\\-ever, ran be reduced hy the w e nf new and l~etter
nxttcria1.s. IYlrile the rl~aracteristicsof tlie hasic or fnnilamrntnl materink
of con-trurtir~ns11r11;IS con~,rete,s t ~ c l and , masonry have not rhangcil
:qy~recial~ly in tlie last seveml decades many hundreds of new matcriala
or new uses for existing niaterials have heen developed n-hieh reduce labor
msts. The cost of exterior ~valls,for instance, may be greatly reduced
by using light metallic panels instead of masonry. xot only is there
saving in labor cost but also in time. Light panels ~ v i t hfixed insulation
n u ~ yhi! t v r t e d in day? ~vhilcit takes Iveeks or months for a ~naeonrywall.
l\lany sinlilar economies can he effected by alert tmgineering organizations.

PARTIALLY ENCLOSED STRUCTURES - SHELTERS

Sonic process equipment, such as large process pumps and compressors,
need not he rncloserl in a tluilding hut do require prrltection from min-
fall and snolv so that maintenanre of the eqnipnient may he done in a
sheltered area.
Tlic vnrions parts of conipressors must he handled hy mechanical means
i ~ h e ndieassenil~ledhrcnusr of their great ~veiglit. The sheltering struc-
ture, t l w t ~ f o ~~e n, n s tprovide support for overhead crnnes or monorails.
Compressor piping is also large and ~ n n s tbe supported. Although com-
pressor shelters art, not nc~wsarilydcsigncd to ~vithstandhorizontal forces
iron1 piping. it is connnon pmctiw to design the major structural menihers
to carry the dead loads of cmnceting piping.
Other shelters that arc romnion in process plants include those for
loading racks, barrel storage, and salvaged equipment storage.

UNENCLOSED STRUCTURES - OUTDOOR PROCESS UNITS

In most areas of the U.S.. particularly south of latitude 40, it is
common practice to install tlie major portion of the process or opernt-
ing equipment without shelter (Fig. 2'3-1). Shelters of some kind lnust
he provided for operating personnel, but improvements in instrumentation
permit all major instrnmeuts to he located in a control center. This not
only provi~lesa shelter for operators but also enables them t o observe the
process froni a single location.
flamn~;~ble :nid cs1,lo~iveT7apors are rare in outdoor 11l:mts. Fur these
rrasons, 11vxr1yall l~rowasp\:\nts, l ~ : ~ r t i c ~ ~ l aTVIII'Kr l y cIi111:ttic~ ~ o n < l i t i o n . ~
:ire l ~ u lwvcre, :wc clc>iynctl Till. uut,loor instiillntiun of mu>t pruccss
equipment.
Punqw, nlotors, n l d rrtl~crcqnilnnt.nt 1l:lve Iiem drsignrd t o operate
satisfnrtorily x$-hcn rxl~cwcito ; i l l ly]ics of \vr:itllcr. '1'11~ ; i d ~ l i t i ~ ~costs
nal
fur auv11 \ \ - c a t l l c ~ ~ l ~ ~isu ui~rqligilllc,
l i ~ ~ ~ 111 C ~ I I I I ) : L ~ 1~0. -Lllikli~lg
UII COSS.
626 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Types of Equipment Supports
Unenclosed equipment d i i c h mnst he elevated above gradc may be
supported hy either structurill steel or reinforced concrete. Structural
steel is less expensive p:rrticularly for multi-story structures, but rcin-
forccd concrete columns have thc advantage of requiring little or no
maintenance since they are unaffected by many of the corrosive vapors
common to process plants. I n addition, concrete n-ill not fail when sub-
jected t o fire Thilc steel must be protected by the application of a con-
crete coating. When "fireproofing" is necessary, therefore, reinforced
concretc structures may prove the more desirable, especially for single
lerel structures (10 ft t o 15 ft ahove grade).
General Considerations in Planning Equipment Structures
Arrangement
I n addition to supporting elcvatcd equipment, space and access must
be provided a t the elevated level for operating inspection and for mainte-
nancc. Heat-exchangc~sand other equipment subjcct t o dismantling will
require more space than simple chambers or vessels. Any equipment
d-hich must bc opened or disconnected periodically must be arranged for
disassembly in placc or for ren~ovaland lowering t o grade, and equipmcnt
a t lower levcls must be arranged t o avoid a n y interference during this
operation. The structurc nus st also be dcsigned for the forces encountered
n71icn lowering of equiprncnt is in progress.
Wherever heavy equipmcnt or its parts are dismantled or lifted, hoisting
apparatus is providcd. Gantry-type cranes are sometimes installed if
many pieces of heavy equipment subject to dismantling are grouped to-
gethcr. A monorail with trolley is provided for isolated pieces of equip-
ment. A portable air, electric, or manual hoist can then be attached t o
the trolley when required for lifting.
Modular or fixed spacing of columns, as used for office or other multi-
story building structurcr, is seldom practical for structures designed for
the process plant. Instead, tbe w i g h t and the desircd arrangement of
equipment should govcm the column arrangement. Main structure col-
umns, of course, must be locatcd on common centerlines t o simplify design
and improve stability. When a number of floors are planned, floor spacing
should hc made cqual if possible to simplify general design and stair
arrangements, and t o improve stability.
Floors
Concrete slab fl~iorsare installed when maintcnancc operations for ele-
vated equipment arc extensive, or when operating personnel must spend
Structures and Buildings 627
considerable time on the opc~,;itilrgfloor. Stct.1 plat? or ,nratin: floo1.s arc
used for arcas requiring only occasicnial attenti~ln. Grating is preferred
to steel plate in areas in which snow orcurr. since sno~r-arcun~ulateson
steel plate and crcatcs a hazard. Grating also requires a minin~unlof
cleaning and reduces the w i g h t of thc structurc, an importnnt factor for
tall structurcs subject to high wind loads.
Attachments
All equipment must bc securcly holtcd t o the supporting members.
Horizontal cyli~~drical vessels, drums, and hcat-exchangers arc usually
supported a t two points only. These suppiirts arc ta-o tramverse s11oe.i
welded t o the equipment. Equipment ~~-11ich changes dimension under
operating conditions is arranged so that une end is frcc to movc in a
guided direction. Largc vertical toiwrs located in a structure ur uhove
gradc arc usually supported a t the lower end. Lugs welded to thc pcrip11-
ery are used for sn~allercquipmmt. Since lieat rx(~11:mger~ h a ~ ~VIIIOY-
e
able heads a t both cuds, they must a l r ~ a y sbe supported along thc length
of the rquil~nicntso that the lieads may be rcniovcd.
Intcrconnecting piping for hot equi1xnent must he restrained und,/or
guided so that strcsses caused hy changes in ter~~pcrature, either in the
piping or the cquipment, are controlled or al~sorbedhy the supporting
structure rather than t l ~ cequipment. Since many of thcsc streases cannot
be calculated beforc all piping dcsign is completed, it is common practice
to overdesign structures for process cquipmcnt rather than delay thc
final dcsign of structural steel. -4nd further) since ncnrly all processes are
subject t o modification, it is usually more economical to design major
mernbcrs slightly heavier than rcquirml rattier than design ior the ahsdute
minimum as in commercial building practice.
BASIS FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
The detailed design of stccl structures must follow the practices out-
lined by the American Institute of Steel Construction.8 and reinforced
concrete structures those of the .4mcrican Concrctc Institute.',7 Either
of these codes may be amended according to the requircmcnts for the
particular type of plant,.
Specifications vhich must be dcvcloped as a basis for design include
the following:
I. Structures thirty it in height or above
1. Weight of equipment.
(a) Empty; ( b ) operating or filled with prorejs fluid; (c) testing (fillrd
nith m t e r or other trcting Huid).
2. Wind loads; use niasinium ;\ntiripted vind and calc~dnttlui~dfor each
of the three conditions above under itern 1.
 Structures and Buildings 629
Iwnly-1~vo( 2 2 ) it high, ihr wnivrline of n-hie11 i; the r,cnlerline t l ~ ~
r:iilroad tmck, and the h ~ i g h tof which rectangle is measurrd from the top
of the railroad rails. (Sote: Alan? states hare statutes rr-hich fis railroad
clearaners. The-e dimensions conform to most requirements.)
h. Eleetriral p o m r line clearances. The minimmn overhead clearance for
olwn wiring carried on str11ct11ra1supports or entering buildings, or run
~djncrntto structnres above rondxays or milmy track rails ?hall he t~rpnty-
eight (28j ft. The minimum horizontd elearanec f r o ~ n~tnlrtnresshall be
ten 110) f t . TViring entering bi~ilrlingsor nm inside the :~horelimits ih:~ll
he corlosed in conduit.
r . Pipine rle:~r.~nrcs.Piping run or~rhendon strnctuml supports or other-
wi-r -1i:dl clo:~rro:ld\\-nys or railronrl rails by not less th:m twenty-five 1%)
f t froor highest point of road crown or t o p of r:~ilrun<lr d . Harizmt:d
clearmce for railmads shall bc a minimum of 8% f t from the renterline of
the r:tilroail tmrks. Horizontal c!cnr:ince for road~vnyiihnll be : ~ tleajt
rquxl to thi. eleatances for r:~ilroatts; hovevrr, piping wpport s t r r ~ t u r r s
shall not be locatrd closer than Sorw ft to thc edge of paving. If roatlr~ays
:,re run n-it11 graded shoulders or ditches, inpporting strnctnrrs shall be
locntid at 1r:l.t foru it Iwyond the far slope of mwh n gr;lded :xrc.n.
Thr minimmn rrrtic:il clraranee nhove gmdc for piping rim in grnernl
p r u c t ~ i3 r e x i , P S W ~ Ifor
~ lmirlers :t{lj:lr.cnt t o erl~~ipmcutzholl be 1.' f t . TIii.
minirmnn rertied clrarance in oprr;itio: arms ? h l l bc iLt2 It : i h ~gr:ule.
,~
d. Strr~cturalclmr:rnccs. Secrindnry or hr:leing strurturnl inenhers shnll
be arrnneal to clenr ilroce,ss rouir~ment . . I)\- : ~ Iemt
t 18 in.
3. ~ahri&tion.
n. .ill shop connections illall be riveted
b. All field connections s11nlI be rirrtrd.
~ ~
c. .ill erection bolt.<and rivets sbnll hr furnished to I:% of requirnnents.
fonmda d. All steel shall br, cleaned frer of r n t and scnle and one coat uf
20 p?f for red-lvad and oil primer hcforr shipn~ent.
Type 11
6. S t r i ~ c t ~steel
~~rl ..\reording to AISC These a r c only partial spccifications for the design and f a l ~ r i r ; ~ t i oof
n
7. Kcini'orwd steel ironcrcte) According to .\CI structural steel. T h c Manual of thc American Institute of Stecl Con-
structionVncludes the stai~rlardspccificntions used throughnut tlrc steel
111ailditim to tlicsc, specifications for the particular installation must, fabricating industry. Standard practices arc also included ~ v h i c ldcrcril,~,
~
include n unnibcr of qwcific r ~ i l ~ ~ i r e m esni t~sn i l a rt o those illustrated in thc usual policies f o l l ~ ~ w ebdy the fabricators if specific instructions are
tlic folloxvi~igq~ecificationb, All li:rrngrnl~llsrliould be numbered fur later riot given in the spccifications,
i~lmtifirntiunor rcvisiun. Inl-olvrd general statcnient:: in spccifications
oftcn lead to misunderstan~ling.which usually rcsult in aclditional costs. STRUCTURAL SHAPES
Any statcnlcnt sh,xiId 1 1 ~ .cra~uineilti1 lie sure thc exnct meaning is under- T h e use of stcel a s a supporting framework for clcvatpd structures is
stood by both i ' a l ~ r i o i t ~and
i r customer. probably faniiliar t o ewryone. N a n y decades ago certain shapes v e r c
developed which would give maximmn strength with minimum weight.
IV. Misrcllaneous rrqi~irenlents
1. If locd building codes require increased design rqnirements such incrmsnl Design formulas were proposed based on these shapes, and tabulations
\.:dues shall form thr b : ~ kfor h i g n . T h e n local code requiren~mtsare less of properties w r e made so that the structural steel designers' task is much
than the req~~irrments hrrein or rvonlil permit lighter designs, the requirenrenti simplified. I n general, the common "rolled" structural steel shapes, such
herein ?hall govern
- its beams, coluii~ns,channels. and angles, sutlice for nearly all types of
2 . Clearances.
heavy structural design.
n . Railroad clearances. S o structure, nor equipment of any kind shall
be permanently located rithin a rectangle seventeen (17) f t wide b>- \Vith the advent of electrical arc ~veldingand its general acceptance in
630 Project Engineering of Process Plants Structures and Buildings 63 1

industry, other special and light shapes are built, such as the well-known
bar joist, (Fig. 23-2) used as a supporting member. Many other types of
r\.cidc~ilplate or builtul~sl~apcsarc used in the manufacture of prefabri-
cated, rigid frame steel structures.
bearing alloys. In most cases either these materials are more costly than
carbon steel or the required fabrication processes arc inore costly.
Alloy and nonferrous materials have been used economirally, however,
when corrosion or weight problems exist. Aluminum and its alloys have
been used to good advantage for exterior panels and window frames, and
stainless steel structures are often used in particularly corrosiw atmos-
pheres because of the rapid disintegration of other less expensive materials.
Stainless steels also have greater strength than carbon steel, and some
reduction in weight for a given design is possible.

REFERENCES
"W"BEAM "I"BEAM
'Wide Flonge' 1. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-51), American
O e i i g n a t o n : 14 W 3 0 Designation: 15145 Concrete Institute, D ~ t r o i t Mieh.,
, 1951.
( 14";30;) 05":45$1 2. Carrier, W. H., R. E . Cherre, and W. A. Grant, Modern Air Conditioning,
Heat and Ventilating, 2nd Ed., Pitmsn Publishing Corp, Keti York, 1950.
3. Dunham. C. W.. Plannina Industrial Structures. 1st Ed.. MeGrati-HIII Book
Ca., S e w Yark, 1948.
.. C. M.. and H. Parker. Materials and Methods of Architecti~inl Con-
4. Gay.
stmetion, 2nd Ed., John W i k y & Sons. Ten York, 1943.
5. Ketchurn, hl. S., T h e Design 01 Steel Mill Buildir~gs,5th Ed., McGr;irr.-Hill
Book Co., Kew York, 1932.
ANGLE CHANNEL 6 . Procedure Handbook of Are A'elding, Design and Pmctice, 9th Ed., Lincoln
oe3ignotion:L 4 " 4 DeSignotion: I0 U 20 Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1950.
110": 2 0 +I 7. Reese, R . C., C R S I Handbook, Conwetc Reinforcing Steel Instihtte, 1st Ed.,
Chicago, Ill., 1952.
8. Steel Construction Manual, 5th Ed., American Institute of &el Construet,ion.
t in Mo nr
New York, 1952.
9. Stoddard, R. P., Brick St~mctures, 11th Ed., MrGraw-Hill Rook Co., S e w
York, 1946.
10. Suthcrland, H., and H. L. Bowman, Structural Theory, 4th Ed., John Wilry &
Sons. New York, 1950.

B A R JOIST

Fig 23-2. Commonly used structural shapes.

Common structural members are shown in Fig. 23-2. Each section is

manufactured in a number of different sizes. For instance, "equal-leg"
angles may be obtained from 1 in. by 1 in. up to 8 in. by 8 in. in a number
of thicknesses totaling 80 different sizes and weights. About 120 different
sizes and weights are available in unequal-leg angles. Standard manu-
facturing practices and the properties of various carbon-steel structural
sections are given by the AISC8 and manufacturer's catalogs.
I n addition to carbon-steel as a structural framing material many other
materials are available, such as the various stainless steels, aluminum,
aluminum alloys, magnesium, magnesium alloys, and the many copper

SAFETY
PLANT
DESIGN
Safety must he a paramount consideration in t h e design of a process
plant. T h c mass US steel t h a t is fasl~ionedinto a plant will ulti~nately
be operated by human beings d i o s e health and well-being must he
protected.
Disregard of safety in t h e design of a )prure,ss plant is comparable t o
criminal negligence. Each drsign cnginrrr shoulcl feel a responsibility
for providing a safe design H e slioulcl ask l ~ i ~ n s e l "IYould
f: I he willing
t o operate this equipment as it is 110n. designed?" If t h e a n s w x is "no"
or if the "yes" is ~ v c a k ,the rctuons for the uncrrtainty a l ~ i ~ u lhe
d found
:1nd corrcctcd. T h c designer should. 71-hcuevrr possil~le.iliscuss his d c i i q
~vitlioperating men and the 11lnnt safety cngiucera. Thesc inen are keenly
; w a r e of safety and d l have many good suggestions.
HAZARDS IN PROCESS PLANTS
T h e 11:lz:rrds to bc considered in thc design of any process plant can hc
grouped ruugl~lyinto three major categories: flamt~iahleaud e q ~ l u r i v e ,
hygienic, and mechanical. X majority of chemical processes are poten-
tially dangerous because flanmable and cxplusire nlaterials are produced.
T h e design of equip~nentfor s u c l ~plants ~ i l u s tbe dictated by character-
istics of t h e materials being processed. One's memory on t h e combustion
characteristics or explosive limits of materials should never be trusted.
Careful investigation of thcse charactrristies of the materials t o be
l~aullledin the plant should precede d l dcsigu calculutions.
632
Safety in Plant Design 633
A n u n i l m of cliemiral pruduct;; constitute ilrfinitf h c a l t l ~1iaza1.d~.Pro-
longed breathing and/or skin contact over a long period of time of suc11
materials a s benzene and carbon tetrachloride can cause permancnt im-
pairment of Iicalth or even death. It is surprising t h a t many scientifically
trained people are u n a v a r e of the hazards to health presented b y some
common chemicals. Although there are excellent references on industrial
toxicology ~ v h i c hcan be used as guides: all hut the most cornlnon chemicals
sliould be referred to a trained industrial toxicologist for study hefore
liandling techniques are devised.
Mechanical hazards include all the hazards created b y inoving equip-
mcnt and arrangement of equil~nientand structures.
Thcsc classifications are s i ~ m e ~ v l i aarbitrary
t and overlap, but they
serve t o en~phasieethe primary hazards in process plants t h a t create or
a r e capable of creating unsafe vorking conditions.
Careful design combined with ~vell-l~lanned accident prevention pro-
grams have produced amazing safety records. 3Iannfacti1rcrs of tctrn-
ethyl lead, for instance, xvere faced with a n unusual health probleni due
to t h e poisonous naturc of the raw materials and product. Rcnlizing this
problem even before the dcsign of t l ~ cplant ~ v a si ~ e g u ncreated a n a v a r c -
ness t h a t influenced all design decisions. T h e result has been an enviable
record of safe operation.
Sources of Information
M a n y safe practices are no more t h a n application of common sense.
T h e problem is t o rccognizc unsafe situations before they a r c incorpo-
rated in plant design. Basically, this involves determination of the
hazards that exist. I n additiot~t o many books on safety a n d industrial
liygiene,'~2~"".'".'Vliere arc a number of handbooks, codes, and similar
publications b y numerous agencies interested in safcty and fire prevention
which are l ~ e l p f u lin defining potential hazards. A selection of these is
given below:
I. Fire and explosions
1 N*'ntionalFire Protection Sssocintion; GO Rntterymnrch Street, Bastoll 10,
blass.; a nonprofit technical and educational organization; publishes:
a. Standards: widely ndopted throughont U.S..I. as basis for construction.
Following summtiries of standards arc :~v:dable.
(i) Sational Fire Codes for Flammat~leLiquids, Gases, Chemicals mil
Explosives.
(ii) Rational Fire Codes for the Frel-ention of Dust Explosions.
(iiii National Fire Codeg for Building Courrruction and Equipment
(i1.i Rational Firr Code; for ~ . x t i n ~ u i u h iand
n ~ S l a m Equipment.
( v ) Rntidnal Elrctricid Code.
b. Quartrrly of thc Sntional Firc Protecti~n.4ssoeiation:
up-to-ilntr information on fix-: ~ n dfire prevention.
c. SFPA Ilnu~lbuolrof Firc Protection: a handy reference work.
634 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2. National Board of Fire Undervriters, 85 John Street, Ncrv York 7, New
York: an educational, factual and engineering organization supported by the
c u ~ ~ stock
~ t d fir? insurance compwni~spublishes:
a. Stnndanla for fire protection many of which are based on NFPA
standards.
h. R ~ ~ e a r creports.
h safe nractices and recommendations for industry.
c. Special reports on unusual disasters. (Most of this information is sent
free of charge upon request on company stationery. Advice and counsel
on certain phases of fire protection problems not nox covered by codes or
st:lnrl:irils r a n he ohtained.)
3. Other insurauce organizations: The Factory Insurance Associaton, 555
.4sylum Street, IIartford 2, Conn.; Amociated Factow Mutual Fire Insurance
Cmn~inny,18-1 High Street, Boston 10, Mass. These also operate research
laboratories and publish standards.
4. Frderal Agencies, Washington, D.C.
n. 1. U S . Bureau of Mines-research reports and recommendations,
minerals, dusts, and oils.
b. U.S. Dept. of Bgriculture; dust explosions and fires.
c. U.S. Drpt of Labor, Division of Labor Standards; safe practices
recommended for various industries.
d . N:ition:d Bureau of Standards; fire hazards and fire resistance research.
P. ITS. Pnhlic Health Service; industrial hygiene publications.
5 . National Snfrty Council, 20 N. Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill.; mainly
safety education. Research work conducted-advice available (nonprofit).
6. Cndermitcrs Laboratories, Inc., 207 E. Ohio Street, Chicago 11, Ill.;
(nonprofit). T~wtsequipment (electrical, fire protection, etc.) to insure safety.
Lists of tested and approved equipment issued annually with hi-monthly
supplrments.
7 . L:iws; federal, state, and local laws relating to fire protection and buildings.
Many refer to various provisions of the NFPA codes.
8. Insurance companies and local and state fire prevention bureaus can
provide valuable advice.
9. Amcricnn Petroleum Institute, 50 W. 50th Street, New York, N.Y.;
publishes bulletins on Fire Protection in Refineries.
11. Industrial hygiene
1. M:umfscturing Chrmists' Association; publishes chemical safety data
sheet for thc safe handling and use of many chrmicals.
2 . Nation:il Safety Council; publishes health and safe practices pamphlets
relatire to the handling of various chcmirals.
3. m e r i c a n Industrial Hygiene Bssociation; publishes technical quarterly
on in~I~lstrial hygiene.
4. U S . Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.; dusts and toxic vapors.
5. Atomic Energy Commission, Washingbon, D.C.; radioactive materials.
6. Mellon Institute, Industrial Hygiene Foundation, Pittsburgh, Pa.; research.
7 . Division of Industrial Hygiene, U S . Public Health Service, Washington,
D.C.; publications of various typrs and advice.
8. American Medical Association, Committee on Physical Agents of a
Hazardous Nat.ure.
9. Chemical companies; publiuh information on the safe handling of their
own products. Producers of tetraethyl-lead, for instance, recommend and
furnish complete design for equipment handling the ethyl fluid.
10. Sax, N. I., Handbook of Dangerow Maten&, Reinhold Publishing
Safety in Plant Design 635
Corp., N.Y. (1951); gives hazardous properties, treatment, and antidotes;
also sueerstions for safe handling of numerous toxic materials of commerce.
111. &hanical
1. Equipment manufacturers; will recommend safe installation procedures.
2 . U.S. Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards; publications on
3 Xat~onalSafety Councd; safe practices, recommendations, presented in
pamphlets.
4. Codes for constrnct~onof vessels, tanks, piping, electrical equipment:
a. ASME and API-ASME Codes for Unfired Pressure.
b . ASME Boiler Construction Code.
c. American Standards Association Code for Pressure Piping.
d. API Standard No. 12C and 12E for Storage Tanks.
e . National Electrical Code.
5. Liability insurance companies; publish helpful data rrhich aid in the
design of safe plants.
PLANT LAYOUT
T h e safety record of a plant depends partially upon the arrangement of
thc various units and the location of equipment within thoac units. F o r
tliis reason alonc zafcty considerations should permeate even t h e early
planning stages o f plant design.
Topography a n d Weather
I n selecting a site topography a n d meteorological phenomena should
be carefully considered. Hilly areas present certain inherent hazards.
Overflowing tanks or vessel failures can send thousands of gallons of
flammable materials into surrounding areas. If the area is hilly, these
materials can reach a wider arca a n d if ignited cause a rapid spread of fire.
Prevailing ir-inds should be considcred in t h e layout of a plant so t h a t
flammable and toxic gases can bc properly dissipated n i t h o u t endangering
t h e lives or comfort of plant personnel or peoplc in the surrounding areas.
T h e occurrence of sucli n e a t h e r phenomena a s inversions should be
analyzed. T h e atniospheric temperature normally decreases with altitude.
During periods of inversion t h e reverse is true. I n such situations the
loner atmosphere rcniains stagnant, and smoke and noxious vapors hang
over the earth's surface and create extreme health hazards. T h e DeA'ora,
Pennsylvania disaster in which a number of peoplc died was caused by
such a condition. Any area t h a t has frequent inversions lasting more
than three t o four days should be rejected a s a possible site for a process
plant.
Division of Plant into Units
T h e operating unitr of a p r o w s plant should he srparatrd not only for
more efficient operation and ninintcnence hut also for safety reasons. By
638 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2 . Proride a snificirnt number of m;inholes and hantlholes for inspectio~l
and nrnintmance, and orient to permit easy access.
3. Avoid screnwl nipples for small nozzles. Use 6OOO lb couplings.
4. Xozzles above 1% in. should be Hanged. For high pressure, use flange6
nozzles for all sizes.
5 . Careful inspertion during and nftcr fabrication; a competent inspector
can m w h to prewnt vessel failures.
a , Inspection of materials.
b. Inspection of mrkmanship (especially quality of welds).
c. Witnessing of radiographing and stress relieving.
6. Atmoqheric storage tanks should be provided vith ndeqnate vents for
breathing (the taking in or dischzrging of rapor as the pressure in the tank
inerrases or derreasm dlir to change in temperature or liquid level).
a. L-re vacuum-prenw~rebreather valves (consrrration vents)
b. Use floating-rnof tanks for volatile liquids.
c. Connect rapor spaces of gas-tight tanks to a single tank serving as a
gas holder. Providc relief d v e s for all tanks, holvcrrr.
i . Automatic tnt:illy enrlosed tank level gages prrfcrred; manual gage hatchrs
whjret opemtor to needless hazards.
B. IIrat eschangers
1. If both inlet and outlet of exchanger require block valves, pn~viderelief
ralrr: on cold slde to prevent excessive thermal cxp;~nsion h l m y exploiion;i
h:ive orcurred becausr of eurh expansion.
2. Sufficient drains should be provided for maintenance.
3. Each Huid space of an errhanger should be given an individual test.
4. If units are to be stacked, they must, be st:ickcd during the testing process.
6. If mixture of shell and tube Huids constitutes a hamrd, extreme care in
design and w o r k m a ~ h i pmust be excrcisrd.
C. Moving equipment (pumps, etc.)
1. Provide guards a t all couplings, belts, and chain drives.
2. Providr a r l ~ q x l t espace betx~.een units for safe and convenient servicing.
3. .\utornatic overload, overspeed, or other devices are good invrstments on
machinery such as compressors.
4. Proteetire devices such as strainers on pumps and liquid knockout drnmi
for compressors are essential to safe operation.
D . Piping
1. Abore-ground process lines are prcferrcd. These may be elevated or
placed at ground level on sleepers. Buried lines constit~~te a hazard since leaks
are not readily detected.
2. If lines are installed in trmches, fire stops and drains mnst be prmided
at regular intervals.
..
3. .\rrunmment of ninine~.nnd rslves is imnortant to safe oueration
a. Large ralvrs in particular must be readily accessible from platforms.
..
Annroximatrlv 7 ft 0 in, is thr maximum distance from centerline to illatform
level. .4bove this chain operators are used.
b. Use double-block valves for hazardous equipment which must be re-
moved while remainder of unit continues to operate. A small tell-tale valve
in between double blocks indicates leakage.
c. Arrange long yard lines to avoid congestion so that in case of fire any
portion c:m be isolated from the renlainder by closing a block valve.
d. Ilcadroom for overhead lines should be np~~roximately 15 ft 0 in. abovc
roads; 13 St 6 in. above platform; 9 ft 0 in, above grade. If a line must be
Safety in Plant Design 639
located belorr 6 it 6 in., locate considrrahly below and provide a walkr\-ay
over it.
e . Fuel supply valves for furnaces should be in a remote location.
/. Emergency dump ~ s l v e sshould be located at a safe distance from the
equipment to he dumped and preferahl5- behind a heavy wall or building.
g. Install valves discharging into open tanks so rhat operator can operate
without undue exposure to vapors or splashing.
4. Check valves leak; and if such leaking is intolerable, provide a blork
valve in addition to the check valve.
5 . Avoid angle valves.
6. For structural reasons avoid pipe smaller than 1 in. fnr overhead line..
7. Drains for low points and vents for high points should be pro~ided. Use
3/4 in. or larger sizes.
8. Water lines, rspecially fire lines, should be looped.
9. Loop stf,am lines and provide block valres so steam can be provided
from scrrml directions in case of failure of one portion of the system.
10. Separate sewer sj-stems may bc nccrisory for ccrtain haznrdous materials.
Venting of such sl-stems must be carefully planned.
11. Firr stops are necesary in all snrfacr drainage sy-temp to prevent spread
of fire.
12. Lines should be pressure tested prior to operation. Care mnst be taken
to avoid overstressing certain pieces of equipment or fcmmlations during
hydrostatic trsts.
E . Electrical ~quipmentand grounding
The safe installation and design of electrical equipment is carcfully out,lined
by the National Electrical Code. The problenl requires the, attention of c o u ~
petrnt electrical engineers. They must be supplied with information on the
hnzanls in rach part of the plant.
1. Means for remote shut-down of opcrating eqnipment in addition to locally
mounted starters is desirable.
2. Critical items such :IS ST\-itchgearnnd tr;lnsformers should be loeatid ;is
remotel)- as liractimble from o p ~ r n t i uunits.
~
3. Identify nnderground ronduit by inclndine :I dye in tho concrete for the
casing.
1. Protert rwerhead rond,~itfrom expourr to excrssive hrat.
5 . Provide emrrgency power supplies.
6. All portions of the plmt must be adequntely lighted so that operators cml
avoid bodily injuries from b u m p or falls.
7 . Static electricity and lightning constitute real hazards to safe procrw plant,
operation. Xeither can be pre\.ented b r ~ tprotrrtion is posiibk. Watch for
static electricity :~rcun~nlation and diir.h:~rgesin the folln~~ing situations:
a. Moving niachincry (belts, conveyors, etc.).
b . Flowing fluids or dust.
c. Human beings.
d. Lightning.
Protection is arrrmlplirhcd by propcr grounding of all equipment in arras
whew static electricity is antieip;iterl. When all n~etalequipmmt wsts on
concrete foundations, for instance, grounding must be installed. Instructions
for proper prouncling of equipment are given in Handbook of Fire Protection,R
the Sationnl Electrical Codes, and various govcmnlmt pr~blicationsg (See also
sources of information).
640 Project Engineering of Process Plants
F. Strr~cturalsteel
1. Protect from failure due to fire b!- corrring with concrete to the main
support level or by providing cmergencl- nnter sprays for cooling steel in event
of fire.
'2 .ivoid interfermces of structural steel n-it11 piping :ind equipment. Inter-
ferences are sometimes remedied in the field hy removing or "cutting-out"
portions of steel, thereby reducing the -trengtli of thc structure.
:i.Platforms shoald be provided :it all operxtinn or inipectiun areas with a
? it G in. minimum vidth. 3 it to 3 f t 6 in. i.< prcferrnl in maintenance arm-
around manholes.
4. Stairways are prrfrrul~lcto h d r l m ~:ind at 1c;wt t ~ are c required for
larger units. Use gentlr slope, 45' or lwa, and nidths of 3 St 0 in. or more.
5 . Snfrt>-a g e s arc rcquirrd for I:dd~.r-owr 15 to 20 it.
6. Handrail? are rcq~iirrdn r o ~ m lall pl;itiorms anrl stairwrys.
7. Tor plates ( G in. high) nronnd the etlgcs of platforms are necesrar!- to
protect personnel froni falling objects.
G. B~iilding~
1. Finlprooi crmrtruction is essential in hazarduus nrcni.
2 , l'nlris abrol~~tely nrwz.;sr\- prorcis eqr~ipnient sho~~lrl not hr Iio~wril.
Operation of outdoor plants is much safer.
3. P n r d r explosion door? to handle ;my porsiblc expli~iionsthat may occnr.
4. Provide automatic sprinklvr systems \\-lien practical.
5 . .it 11,iist t\rn exits are rcquirecl.
11. Imdation
1. I n d a t e all hot linrs ivith \I-hie11 personnel may comc in rontaet. Approri-
mntely 1 in. to 1% in. of 85% m:~gnesiais :r~lrqu;~tc for protection of personnel.
Nore, of co~irie,may be requird for heat conserr~tion. Detailed specificntion~
are ;rvailnblc from insulation rnnnufncturers.
2 . Inrulatr portions of critical instrument leads and electrical conduit in areas
of rsresire heat or areas hen! fire is probable.
VENTILATION
When process equipment must be located inrloi~rs,ventilation becomes
:Imajor problem. Both toxicity and flammability of a material must hc
ronridered in design of a ventilation sy.stcnl.
Toxic Concentrations
Alatcrials such as aniline, the lialog~ns,hydrogen fluoridr, and phosgcnr
are toxic in concentration? ;ii Ion. a s 5 parts per million. ~vliereastoxic
concentrations of sucb familiar inatcrials a s ammonia, l~eiizcnc,cbloro-
f o r q hydrogcn sulfide and carbon tetrachloride range from 20 to 100
parts per million. M a x i m u n ~allowable ronrentrations of various chcnri-
cals bave been pnblished a s tahles.2 T h e user of sucb tables should he
cautioned, I~owever,tbat rcsc:u.t,l~ on tuxic p r o l ~ w t i c ~ soni~'
,f n~i~tcrii~lr
is incon~plete,and, ah new infor~ilationbeeoules available, t l ~ evalues o l
allowable concent,rations m a y bc revised either upward or downnxnd.
Limits of Flammability
Information on flammability limits of gases and vapors and metl~otlsof
estimation have bccn p u b l i ~ h c d . " . " ~ ~ jT h e limits of flmnmnbility are
Safety in Plant Design 641
vxprrssed ns u p p r r aml Ion-cr lin~its. T h e 111rwrlimit r ~ p r r s c n t sthe 1ra.t
amount of the mntcrial 11-hirlr d l sustain flame propagation when mixed
with air, and the upper limit represents the greatest amount. These
limits of flammahility a s determined experimentally are affected b y the
typc of testing apparatus used. Extremely small apparatus in particu-
Inr p o c h ~ r e snarrow limit3 of flammability, and rcsults from such equil).
rnent shoul,l he I I 1~-itl1 ~ caution. T h e flammability limits for mixtures
of several romhustihle gases am1 air ran bc estimated from a n equation
d i i r h h n been verified espcrimentally:
100
I,", =
Ca
C ' + - + +C:,. ..
14 1,z I.3
where L, limit of flammability of mixture. Mole % (upper or
=
lower)
L1, IJ2,
I,R= limits of flammability (upper or lo\~-er)for gases 1, 2 ,
a n d 3, mole % (c.g., moles of g a d m o l e of gas plus air)
C,, CZ.CR = mole C ; on air and inert free basis of gases 1, 2, and 3
T h e units of this expression arc consistent since tbc summation of
C / L terms has units of moles of air plus n~olesof combustihlc per mole
of rornbustible.
Required Ventilation Rate
Knowmg tlic rate of release of hazardous vapor and t h e allolvahlr con-
centration of contaniinatc in a n e n c l o ~ n r c ,thc nrininiunr fresh air rate
can he calculated from a simple material halance.
n.hrrc r,. = moles of c o n t a m i n a k entering enclosure per unit time
r = moles of fresh air per unit time
I,.., = lo\ver flammability limit or toxic limit ~vhicheveris smaller,
mule t', contaminate per mole of air plus contaminate
T h c practice of expressing rcntilating capacity in air cliangee per hour
sbould be avoided. If 15 air changes pcr hour provrs the correct air
rate for one installation, i t does not follow that tl~i::samc rate vill prodnre
satisfactory results in a n enclosure of smaller size.
rlir rate, cu ft! hour
Air changes =
Enclosure volume cu f t/change
Local Ventilation
General romn ventilation can be supplemented by localized ventilation
over t h e equipment from which offending vapors are being emitted. Sucb
 Safety in Plant Design 642
642 Project Engineering of Process Plants
render exhaust gases less ohjectiounble. I n any event, the gases should
local units are arranged as exhaust systems, and consist of hoods designed
to catch the maximum amount of vapor or dust without interfering with be discharged from the building in t h same
~ dirertim as the prevailing
the operation or servicing of the equipment. Hoods can be ]~laccdo r r r r i n d . Rerolving-type roof ventilators permit such a discharge ever.
filters, a t pump packing glands, around crushing and grinding operations, with variable winds.
and a t other similar installations.
PRESSURE-RELIEVING DEVICES
Positive Air Pressure I t is impracticable to design proress equipment for every possible con-
It is often desirable to maintain a higher air pressure in a hazardous dition that may arise through abnormal situ:~tions. Fortunately, how-
area than in the surrounding rooms or the outdoors. T h e electrical equip- ever, abnormal situations can be liandlecl by the use of preasure-rclierir:b
ment, for instance, which cannot be designed for explosion-proof operation
TABLE 24-2. Conditions Requiring Relieving Devices
can be installed in a hazardous area by p l a c ~ n gi t in a room under positive
air pressure. Comhtion Design Basis
Failure of cooling a i ~ t e rsupply Vapor equivalent to maximum total
Inert Gas Purge to fractionating tower overhead rate
T h e use of inert, gas is another valuable aid to ventilation. Inert gas is Failure of fractionating tower BIaximum possible flow equivalent to
manufactured hy burning fuel gases in conrentiunal furnaces or, prefer- reflux total overhead rate
ably, specially designed inert gas generators. T h e gas can be uscd t o Entrance of foreign highly vola- Calculate vapor flow based on in-
purge tanks and wssels of toxic and flammable vapors before purging tile matel.itll stautaneous vaporization
with air so t h a t men may enter the vessel. Exposure to fire
Men have died after entering inefficiently purged equipment,. Every 1. Calculate heat input on hasis of
process plant which handles toxic or flammable materials must be equipped PAW data which in equation form
with inert gas generators or air or steam eductors for removing the toxic becomes approximately:
vapors and flammable vapors from tanks and vessels which must be log q = (0.796) log S - 1.7
entered by personnel. where q = heat input to vessel in
millions of Btu per hour
Ventilation for Comfort S = surface area exposed to
I n addition t o removing flammable or toxic materials generated in flame in sq f t
enclosed areas, ventilation and conditioning of the air in operating build- 2. Pse for exposed surface area
ings is also important to workers' comfort and morale. It may be con- Hol.izonta1vessels One-half cylindri-
sidered safe for men to v o r k under hot and humid or extremely cold less than 20 ft in cal surface plus
conditions, but the worker's efficiency and dexterity are reduced under dim1 area of heads
such conditions and accidents may develop merely because of fatigue, Horizontal vpssels All alea up to 20 ft
discomfort, or low morale. more than 20 ft ahove ground
in d ~ a m
Design of Ventilating Systems
Vertical vessels All rircumferential
I n process plants extreme care should be exercised in locating inlet and less than 20 ft area plus bottom
exhaust ducts t o avoid short-circuiting of fresh air (entrance of fresh air high head
into exhaust ducts). T h e degree of mixing of the toxic or flammable gas Vertical vessels Lower 20 ft of ares
with the room air must be known in order to decide upon location of greater than 20 ft
exhaust openings. high
If possible, vapors removed from rooms sl~ouldbe treated before releas- For insulated vessels (2 in. fi~cpron'
ing to the surrounding atmosphere. Centrifugal or cyclone separators, insulation or above) reduce eslculateZ
spray or packed columns, air filters, and electrostatic precipitators can input by 20 C:,
644 Project Engineering of Process Plontr
TABLE 24-2. Conditions Requiring Relieving Devices (continued)
Crrndition Design H:&
Cxposu~.eto fire (continued) 3. Cdcul:~ten p o r s genemted
sherc Ii' = It) lrr vapors
II = latent heat
(Alternate method)
Tse r l / S = 22.000
This nlternate n~ctliodis far irwrr.
conserv:~tive than the 1';LlY
nicthod. Other metliods give intw-
mediate values.
Closed valves Amount of fluid leaving vessel undel.
normal oprrating conditions
where B =coefficient of thernxrl
cxpansion. I ,'T
p = heat supplied to fluid
C , = heat capacity
11' = Iblhr
The~.mnlexpansion of confined gases Calculate incrcase in volume using
Gas Laws
Exenssire heat loads during :rbnormal Vapor gelrerated 11)-addit,ional h w t
operation in1111t
devices sucli a s relief valves or rupturc disks. Tlie ilcsign of prrssure-
relieving systems requires careful study. I n a badly planned system,
too many or too few arc installed or tliosc installed are not well pl:~ced.
Sylvander and Iiatz14 have prepared a n excellent diacussim oil the
design and construction of prewure-relieving systems. Some typical ap-
plications for relieving deviccs are given in Table 24-2, ~ v i t hsuggested
design Lasis for each applicatiun. This talrle is b a d ill 11wrt on tlic
n-urk of S y l ~ n n d c r;mtl I<atz.
Safety in Plont Design 645
Discharge Rates of Relief Valves a n d Rupture Disks
T l ~ erare of dkrhargc for a relief valve or rupturc disk is calculated
11y the iollo\\-ing iorniulas for vapors and liquids. Tlie vapor formula
is derived ;i.s*uniing a n ideal gas, adiabatic expan.sion: a value of 1.001
for t11c r;>tio of sllecific heats, and vapor flowing a t the acoustic velocity.
Higher valucs of -prcific heat ratio r i l l give a lover discharge r a t e ; a n d ,
tl~eri.fore) tlrc 5implified formula given below is ronservative. Tlie
io1~111l;ifor liqniiis is based on the siniplc o ~ i f i c eequation. l\Innufac-
turrrs furnisli handy cliartr and tables xhich facilitate thc calculations
of rclicf I-ulvc m i l ruptwi. (1i.k -iact;.
1)ischnlgc rtttos of relief valves a n d rupture disks
A = area of orifice, sq in.
P = upstream pressure, psia
C = nozzle coefficient, 0.97 for relicf v:~lves 1 a~~curnulation),
0.81 for rupt,ure disks (consult m a n ~ ~ f n c t u r c r )
,ll = molecular \\wight
7' = al)solntc upstream temperature, F
Q = 38.1C
S.G.
Q = liquid capacity in gpm
A = orifice area, sq. in.
C = coefficient of dischnrgr. 0.40 for relief valves (10:'; accumolit-
tion), 0.61 for rupturc disks
S.G. = specific gravity
Relief a n d Blow-down Discharge Systems
Tlir 11ropcr disposal of inatprial:: ~ l i i ~ ~ l i a r ghy
e d automatir relieving
ilevices i r n ~ ; ~ n u a l lol~eriitcd
y valve. is ;In iniportant p l ~ a s e
blo~x--rlin~n
of ~ j l a n td c t y . Xelicf valves which are located on top of high fraction-
ntirig t o w r s can oitcn be vented to the atmosphere. Such atmospheric
venting, lloxcver, is not always possible when large quantities of flam-
lnable vapors or liquids must be discharged a t a safe distance from t h e
11lnnt for disposal. T h e discharges of relief valves and blow-down valves
~ ~ i it single discharge line connected t o t h e disposal
c;rn be i n i ~ n i f o l d into
,ection ( a t~urningpit, flare stack, or a quench tower).
648 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Water a s a Fire Extinguishing Agent
Water continues t o be the major firc fighting agent, and its uses ex-
panded after the introduction of water fog nozzles and sprinkler systems.
A steady stream of vater on a flammable liquid often does more harm
than good, hut the nee of a fog or mist of water which tends t o smothrr
Ihr firc in addition to producing ;I cooling effrct has provcd extremrl>-
sucressiol.
The great depentlcncc upon ~ ~ a t as e r a firc fighting agent suggests the
r a r e i d planning of fire water distribution ~ y s t e m s . Such a system inl-ari-
:hly requires fire pumps to boost the normal water pressure to the liig1ic.r
pressures rerlnired for the fire hose and sprinkler systems. Fire p u m p
must he carefully selected and have an alternate drive t o insure opcration
w d e r the most adverse conditions. A typical dual drive fire pump i.
equipped with an electric motor and a gasoline engine drive. The gasoline
engine is used during polver failure.
Other Extinguishing Agents
Another common method of extinguishing fires quickly in confined
areas is by s~notheringthe fire. This can be done hy the use of foal11 or
inert gases such as carbon dioxide. St,eam smothering is also valuablc
and is pnrticularly useful in extinguishing small fires around furnaces.
Emergency Valving
Main shut-off valves for lines carrying flammable materials should be
located so they can be operated in case of firc. It, may be preferable in
some fires to simply stop the flow of flanmlable matcrial and allov. that
already escaped to burn. This avoids large concentrations of explosive
gas and vapor.
Portable Extinguishers
I n addition to the permanent installations of fire hydrants, automatic
sprinkler systems, and automatic carbon dioxide extinguishing systems.
portable fire extinguishers should be supplied thrnnghout a proccss plant
since a small fire can often be extinguished with ease by the rapid use oi
:in extinguisher. Most large fires begin as very minor conflagrations, and
immediate attention t o a small fire will often prevent a disaster.
Selecting Fire Extinguishing Equipment
The project engineer should be cautious in using handy fire extinguish-
ing tables designed to indicate the exact extinguishing method for various
types of flammable material. They give general suggestions and are not
intcnried to be specific for all situations. These tables can he a helpful
guide, hut advice of authorized agencies should be obtained.
Safety in Plant Design 649
When a n e x plant is being designed all niatcrials which constitute a
fire l m n r d in the operation of the plant should he carefully studied. Case
histories of prcviuus fires for similar plants should be ohtained so t h a t
fire extingnishing equipment can be intelligently selected and placed. The
Sational Board of Fire Vnderwiters, The National Fire Protection ASRO-
ciation, The Associated Factory I\lutual Insurance Agenoy, and other such
groups d l sul~plyreliable information of this type.
Plant Alarm System
.4n alarm system should he installed in all process plants so that per-
somiel can he alerted in case of fire. I n most plants the alarm system
ran he manual: although in some process areas normally requiring little
attentiun, automatic alarm is prefer:ible.
REFERENCES
Ywk, 1047.
3. Buvgcrs, hi. J.. and R. V. Wliecier. J . Chern. Soc., !I!/, 2013 (1911).
4. Uoggiin. J. J.. Client. Eng., 68, KO.6 , 125 (1951).
6. Fiii. Pirdeciiu,i in Rcfiwiiea, 3rd Ed., .American Prtrolr~om I n h t o t e , X e w
- ~
10th l < d . S:~lionalFitc P~.otrrtiunI s s o r . . Boston. 1048.
9. .Yrilioani Biircau o f Standards H a n d b o o k H.jO. Supt, of Documents, Washing-
ton. D.C., 1945.
10. \.afinnol Fire Codes, S;ltioni~iFire Protrrtion s i o r i s t i o n . Boston (1945).
11. Petty, Frank A . I,idusti.iol H y g u v x aud Tozirology, Interscience Puhlishcr.~,
Inr., S e w Y w h , 1948.
12. Keigclutli, R . J . , S a f e l y u n d Ecmoniy i n H e n w C o n s t w c f i o n , hlcG~.a~r-Hill
Book Cn., S e w Y u k 1933.
13. Hol,inson, C. S.. Ezplusio,ir, l ' h c w A ~ ~ i l u n t mid
y I)esfxetii,c,tcsa, XlrCrarr-
H11l Hook Co., X e w Y o I . ~1941. .
14. Syl\mdrl.. 3 . F:.. :ind U . I,. I<:ctz. ? ' I K Dcriyn mid C o , i s l ~ . i ~ c f i oonj Pi.rsrri,c
I { c l i ~ i i , ~ ,Sysfui,,r.
g Engr s : I Inst.. Bdlctin S o . 31, Unir. of Michlgon
I ' r m .\cbal. h l i d . . 1018.
15. Tliwntan, IV. %I,,Phil. J l u g . , 33, 140 (1917).
CONSTRUCTION

THE PLANT
 design work is complete, construction may
A FTER
begin. At this point most of the responsibility
shifts to the construction superintendent. The project
engineer, however, must maintain active interest in the
construction operatiom in order to interpret where~er CONSTRUCTION
necessary the intent of the drsign engineers and art as
liaison between the construction forces and the enginerr-
ing design groups. Such work requires some knowledge Wlicn construction begins the work of the project engineer is rsscntiall~
finished and rompletion of the project dcpends 1111 t l ~ cconstruction ilel~art-
of construction methods. ~ u c n t . The project engineer, however, cannot bc complaisant abont t l ~ c
tecliui~~ues and problems of construction. On the contrary he must bc
st1 well scliuoled in thc inetlrods of ronstruction t h a t he can forrsw and

avert possible difficulties in construction vhile the plant is still in design

>tages.
T o understand the problems of construction thc proicct engineer should
I ~ n wsomc understan~lingof construction planning. l;tl~or,and labor reln-
tions, and :ictual ~,onstructiin~ ollerations.

CONSTRUCTION PLANNING
Ileaign drawing> and spccificati~~na give thc construction d r l ~ a r t n ~ c n t
rlctniled infomlation a l x ~ u td ~ a ist t11 be built, hut the?: do not presrribc
thc uictl~odsof erertion. Long before actu;il erection begins, therefore,
the cunstruction superintendent and his staff study prelinlinary engineer-
ing data and scale tnodels of thc plant to be erected. I n this way the
most advantageous location for derricks and hoisting equipment can be
chosen; major conetruction equipment can be selected, and the most
practical con~tnlctionn~etliodsdetermined for each major piece of e q u i p
nicut. Such preliniin;iry planning in the office always results 111 loxcr
construction costs.
653
654 Project Engineering of Process Plants 1 Construction

labor. T h e construct,ion worker is essentially an itinerant worker and is

CONSTRUCTION PERSONNEL
employed permanently only when ire becomes a supervisor.
The field or construction organizatiirn has two general clarsifirations Construction employee labor organizations make agreements with the
of personnel, clerical persinme1 fur the field office and the craftsmen who contractor which fix the construction wx-ker's wage, hours: overtime rntes.
perform the actual construction work. and working conditions. I n general the union controls the employee, his
Tbe routine office operation. lor a construction job consist of local pur- employtnent. and his s1)ecific ~ v o r kas well as tbe area lahor practices.
chasing, receiving, and accounting operations, preparation of a weekly Unions constantly seek improvement in working conditions, n-age ratee
payroll, and maintennnce of daily labor cost records for each portion of and length of employment. The length of e~iiployrnerrtis incrensed by
the project. 1 strictly limiting the functions ui each craft SO that morc types of rviirkers
T h e executix-e persunnel for a construction project consists of a field must be retained throughout the project. Most of the priiblenis x i t h
project manager or superintendent, or both for large projects, assistant construction labor arise from this practice which oftcn causes one craft,
superintendents, gencriil and iubioremcn, and a n office manager. whuse n o r k is slack t o arbitrarily take over the work of another craft.
The key field i q a n i z a t i o n usually consists of from three t o five general h dispute results which is called a jurisdictional dispute.
supervisors including the superintendent. Office operations require from
eight to fifteen c l e r i 4 workers. The i ~ i l l o ~ i norganization
I
g is typical of Jurisdictional Disputes a n d Labor Relations
one nliii,li could be used on a large project costing ten million dollars T h e jurisdictional ilispute iii a disxgreiment hetween two or more
or more. crafts over which craft shall perform certain functions or parts of the
1. Field project ni:mager work. T h e reasonable solution t o sucli questiuns ~ o u l dseem tu be
2. Superintendent mutual agreements betrwen tlic sevcml labor organizations n-ithont.
3. .issistiint superintendent employer participation. T h e employer is not necessarily interested in
3.1. Field engineer (civil) whether one craft or another perforn~san operation unless erection costs
4.0 Field 5.0 Office are increased or quality of work impaired.
4.01 General foreman 5.01 Officr: manager Regardless of his neutrality, the contractor may find himself in a
4.02 Area foremen 5.03 Chief accountant dilemma when trying to choose between two crafts for a certain job. T h e
4.03 I'iping superintendent 5.03 Chief payroll clerk craft not favored may "walk-off" or the dispute may induce a "slow-
4.04 Pipriitter forcmen 5.04 Buyer down" of otber v o r k . Some of tbese difficulties can be averted by agree-
4.05 Carpenter foreman 5.05 Warehouseman
4.06 Iron worker foreman 5.06 Rccciving rlerk ments on division of work with the national offices of the various craft
4.07 Boilermaker foreman 5.07 Timc clerks unions.
4.08 Bricklayer foreman 5.08 Secretaries and strnographers I n any discussion of labor problems i t must he remembered t h a t the
4.09 Cement masonr). forern:in 5.09 Typist, svitchbonnl operators construetion laborer performs tbe most difficult typcs of work. Further-
4.10 Electrician foreman more, he has no job security, and must attcrnpt to earn higher Tvages than
4.11 Machinist foreman
4.2 Painter foreman regularly employed personnel. As underst:~ndingincreases liet~veenlabor,
4.13 Asbestos worker foreman management, and labor leaders many of the iiroblcm~sucli as jurisdic-
4.14 Sheet metal worker, foreman tional disputes will be more satisfactorily resolved.
4.15 Rodman. reinforcing steel workers,
foreman. Construction Labor Distribution
Engineering groups sometimes work a t the jobsitr, hut they are usually T h e scope of work and type of project governs the types of craftsmen
separated from t l ~ cconstruction operations and are not considered here. required on a project. T h e following work distribution is typical of a
T h e titles under 4.0 are also classifications of union labor. Organized process involving fluids. T h e manhour distributions slion-n vary consid-
labor requires a pnrtirular craft for each type of work. When the work erably rvith each project.
of a given craft is completed thosc workers are rlischarged, but most T h e project illustrated is one nliicli is to be erected in 12 months. All
crafts on process plant projects are used during t l ~ eentire project. foundations are spread-type and no piling is used. T h e total cost of the
The greater portion of construction work is performed by organized project, material, labor, engineering, procurement, fee and profit amounts
656 Project Engineering of Process Plants Construction 657
to 64.200.000 of n.hich 63.150.000 inrlr~dcsmaterial. e q u i p e n t , fee. and ern1 foremen reccive 25$ per hour over t o p foreman's rate. There a r e
profit. T h e remainder. $1,050,000 is for construction costs, erection approximately 300 different classifications of organized labor used in con-
labor primarily. strnction operations. M a n y of t h e classifications slightly overlap. Those
s h o v n are most common for process plant installations.
Craftsman Distribution

Craft designation
klnximnm Craftsmen a t ]oh peak
Craftsmen
= 3.50
hlnxin~omused 3Ianhours
I
I
TABLE 25-1. Construction Labor Rates 1954-1955 Southwest Area U. S.
C~.aftsnran Rateihr
P Pipefitter 135 115.000 1
I, 1,ahrxer -- 68.000
1. Painters 2.50 -2.75
53 2. Tean~sters 1.615-1.70
B 13oiIer1~ker 30 51,000 \Yarehousemen 1.70
(' ('aq~nter 45 44,000 3. Lahorers 1.60 -1.80
ti I'lectriciun 3.5 37,000 4. Ckmcnt finishers 2.625
I Ironworker 45 35,000
- ! Thew r m f t m ~ e n(nos. 1-4) rereire time-and-one-half for overtime except
Subtotal 350.000 for Sondn~-and any autho~.izedlrolidny which are paid a t double time.
M Xiscellaneous crafts. I 5. Electricians 3.00 1:; Benefit fund, DO.Oi5,'lrr
clerical, and super!-ihion 40 50,000 health, and welfare
Total -100,000 These craftsmen (So. 5) receive time-and-one-half for hours from 4 3 0 P31
to 10:00 PA1 Monday through Friday. 1 1 hours past 10:00 P31, Saturday,
Craftsman Distribution by Month Sunday, :mrl holidays me l,aid a t dr,nljle time. If personnel are called from
home after w u ~ . k i nhours
~ the)- 1,eceire IIOUIIIP time from home to home,
1000 nrnnhrmrs i.e.. they n1.e paid for travel time as well as work.
XIonth per month l i u m l w of Men Used
- ~~ p~~
6. 1rona.orkers 2.90
P I, R C B I Subtotal 7. (Reinfo~ing)rodmen 2.65
8. Carpenters 2.625
9. Millwights 2.8i5
10. Operating engineers 1.975-2.75
Hear? cranes, tractors, derricks 2.75
Oilers 1.975
11. Roilermnkers 2.975 Health and welfare $O.Oij
12. .Isbestos workers 3.0625 Health and welfnre $0,075
13. Pipefitters 3.10
11. Bricklayers 3:15
These craftsmen (nos. 6-14) receive double time for all overtime.
1.5. Sheetmetal workers 2.85
These craftsmen (no. 15) receive tinre-;ind-one-IraIf for the first three hours
over any regular working day and for tire first four hours on Saturday.
T h e columns indicating subtotal and total are peak requirements rather All other overtime is paid 3t double rate.
than averages. T h e total of c m f t s m m pcr month constantly fluctuates be-
cause of thc discharging of some personnel, changes in the work, ndvcrsc CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
weather conditions, and off-schedule equipment delivery. T h e Sotali Every project engineer should accrpt the first opportunity t o observe
shown, if constantly a t work, would exceed t h e manhour level hy 10%. the erection o i a process plant from start to finish. An understanding of
the many complex operations can be developed only hy actual obserration.
Labor Rates
T h e erection of a plant m w t procee~lwit11 the minimum of delay and
T h e typical rates listed in Table 25-1 a r e so-called '.Journeyman" rates. a visitor t o a project is invariably impressed by t h e spirit o i action that,
Foremen receive from 1 2 % ~to 256 per hour over journeymen a n d gen- pcrvades the jubaite.
660 Project Engineering cf Process Plants
l ~ c k f i l li? II:~:IIIYI ~ Y U I I I[lit, : I ~ ~< <YI ~II I : I I t111, -it? ~villlw :s c11,~r
?I> i]o>>il~lc
and ready for tbe installation of underground facilities.
Installation of Underground Facilities
As ditches are completed, pipe fitters hegin the task of installing under-
ground piping, and electricians, underground conduit and cable.
Thc nictliod of pipc installation varies with the type. Re11 anil spipi~t
cast-iron pipe as used for x a t c r , process sewers, and drains is laid on ? I
sand cushion to insure cuntinuons support. Tlie joints are pavkcii n-it11
plain or t a r - s a t u r a t d jute anil carefully caulked ~ i t n~olten h I t d . Aftvr
t l ~ cjoints are niadc-up, firm soil is packed aronnd the lower lialf o f tl~i.
pipe and ns tlir ditch is lmckfillcd tlie soil is tamped.
.\Icclianical joint cast-iron pipe, niost often nseri for water, is laid in n
similar manner except making u p of joints requires only the setting in
place of a gasket and tightening of bolts.
Cement,-ashestos crrnbination pipe can bc 1 1 4 instead of en-t-iron for
some services. A collar and heavy rubber ring compose the joint which
can he rnade u p in one-tcntli the time reqi~ire(lfor ltw~ledjoints.
Vitrified tile is usnally uscrl [or sanitary sc\vr.rs mi11 wrrosive pruce?t
fluid drains. T h e joints arc sealed ~ v i t h neat* cement or corrosion
resistant mastic. Ungnlvanized carbon stccl pipe to lie installed under-
gn~unriis first coated and ~ r a p p e d . After the wcklcr:: complete tlicir
work i t is clcaned and coated with rust-rcsisting paint and then bitumastic.
and finally it, is >mapped with tarred felt or t,arred glass fiber blanket. If
the quantit,y of pipe t o 11a wrapped is large, it is done by a nincliine
\\-hidl moves along tlie ditch an11 wraps and l o ~ e r ; .the j ~ i l ~into c the ditc11.
.4lI u n d c r g r ~ ~ u njoints
d not t l i r r n d t ~ lin l~oltriiarc protected against
Ienkage and xvatrr hainnicr 11y incans of concrctv :rnrholc. Tlic tanipcil
soil alonc nronnd n joint is not sufficient to overcome strains introdured
by sudden pretmrP surges.
Electrical Conduit
Ftcel condnit is rut, tlirmded, and bent with tools siniilnr to thnsr
used hy pipe fitter.;. Bccawe of the thin \T-allsand light weight, l~ow?vcr.
Iiandling and fa1)ric:tting is very siniple. After cutting :ind threading.
sharl) edges arc coniplctely r e n ~ o v e ~since
l they m n damage the val)lo
insulation during cable pulling. Tlie conduit is tlrcn lowered iiilo thc
ditch and joined together by couplings.
Cable is pulled through the conduit between nlanirules by air-driven
~vinchesor by hand, using a lubricant to reduce frictim. T o avoid injury
to the cable, pulling tension is carefully cbecked by spring scales when
pulling tension is believed high.
*Cement ith hoot nggwgnte.
4 Construction 661
.As r:rl,le is installrd the insulation is tcstcrl l ~ yan i n - t r ~ ~ ~ i i c\~-birll
nt
applies high roltage across the insulation and indicntrs tile re.sistanee of
thc insulation. This testing is supervised by a competent electrical
engineer, as is all electrical equipment testing and installation.
Red-col~redconcrete is poured around the condnit and after i t sets,
the ditch is hackfilled and tamped. The red culor is plainly visible and
acts as n warning to vorkers v h e n excavations are mnrlc around it.
The only other nn~lcrgroundelectrical ~ v o r kprneccrling at this time is
the installation of grounding systems and cathodir protection. Bare
grounding cable: either eolid or stranded c q ~ p e r .is laid di~,e~:tly in the
griinnd and brought to the surface a t prcdeterniined points for connection
to equipment. Insolated wire used for cathodic protection is connected
electrically to the undcrground pipe t o he protected and hrought t o the
surface for attachment to the cathodic protection system.
Foundation Construction
I Foundations are puured as soon as underground piping and conduit
I\-ork in till, ilnnirdintr area IIM h e m complrte~l. 1.awer foundations
rcquirc several p n ~ w:lnd ~ u r kun a tingle ir~undutiunnlay 1;lst a week
01' more.
The details of these operation:: arc descril~edin CI~alltcr22. Oncc a
concrete pour has 11cgun it must he contiuued uninterrupted. Hence tlir
nlajur effort of the construction forces and supervision is directed toward
the pouring operations.
Erection of Guyed Derrick
A fi,unri:iti~mis also constructed for the guyed derrirk d i i e h must I J ~
installed next so tliat equipment inay he lifted in place. The r r e h o n
o i a guyed derrick is a nlajor ol~er:~tion often requiring some 3000 mau-
liours of construction labor. T l ~ e(ierrick (Fig. 2;-l) consists of a v t ~ t i c a l
structural stccl mast, a boom, and a hoisting engine. T h e iiiast is often
200 i t or more in height am1 is held in position by 6 or 8 guy c:~l]lr.
extending radially from its top to ground where each guy is seeurt~ly
attached to a ,'deadnlan." A "deadman" is &: liea\~ylength of 11ilr I~uriecl
~lerpeniliculnrto the direction of pull anti cncnsed in concrete.
T h e boom is pin connected t o the niast near its bottom. At the lover
end of the mast is a hall-and-socket joint, the bass of whicli is supported
by and securely bolted t o a concrete foundation poured for the derrick.
Tlie upper end of the boom is raised or lowered by heavy cables running
through a set of blocks on the boom and mast, and on to the hoisting
engine. Another cable and set of blocks is extended from the boom t o
the load for vertical lifting. .i n.liec1-like contrivance is provided :tt tlic
lover end of the mast so tliat inast and boom may be rotwtrd. T h e load
664 Project Engineering of Process Plants
held by steel mire slings. A crawler crane, a guyed derrick (Fig. 25-l),
gin poles (Fig. 25-2). various portable truck mounted cranes, and even
chain l~oistsnlay he used for the lifting, depending on tlie load.
Large equipment n-Iiich is to bc located at or near ground l e d can
often be skidded over wood or pipe rollers to the desired position. In
Construction 665
Any Inrgr p~efahrirntrrlreswl n.11icIl i . to he in-t:~llril rcrtirally is
unloaded from truck or freight car so that lifting equipment can operate
from directly above the point of attachment. The lift niust be as nearly

Fig. 25-1. Guy dcrrirk (right) and crawler crane (Icft) at construction site.
(Courtesy of M. W. Kellogg Company.) Note guy wires.

such cases tlie equipment is protected a t its base by wooden beams called
skids. Short lifts of large equipment can be made, when necessary, by
the use of 1ie;~vyduty jacks.
The lifting of heavy equipment is probably the most interesting phase
of the construction operation. It requires highly skilled operating
engineery and helpers. Tile lifting :tnd 11recise placing of a 200-ton piccc
of equipment, for instance, requires strong nerves and a great deal of
cunfidencc. The hoist operator controls his derrick with the aid of hand
signals from a helper standing near the load. These signals, as well as
all j~hascsof crane operation, have been standiirdized by the Anlerican
Stantlards Azwcintionl since ~nisintrrpretatiol~ may prove costly and
dangerous. Uuring l ~ i glifts evrn ,seasoi~rdcunstructim workers stop to
~ ~ a t and
c h admire the work of the dcrricli operatur.
Fig. 26-2. Gin-poles being used t o erect a 360-ton distillation tower. (Courtesy of
h1. W. Iicllogg Company.)
.Tole: Bottom of tower rests on sled which was p u l l ~ don rollws starting with the
t o s c r in a horizontal position. The specd of \cis such that the lifting cables
remnined ret.tical. The illustration shows the tor%-erhanging in a n almost vertical
position just before the sled was rsmored and the tower placed on its foundation.
vertical as possible since hoisting equipment cannot withstand high
horizontal forces. Vesscls fabricated on the jobsite are usually built
n~ithinthe effective radius of the fixed lifting apparatus.
Equipment may be provided with lifting lugs for attachment of hoist-
ing apparatus or special slings may be wrapped around the equipment.
 666 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Lifting lugs, which arc welded on the vessel, siniplify the ~ t t a c h n l e n tof
hoisting cables. They add t o the cost of the vessel, ho~vever,and make
insulation of the vesscl more difficult.
In gcneral nearly all types of cylindrical cquipmcnt are lifted v i t h
braided steel wire slings. Vcrtical ressels are lifted directly above their
fc~undationsand the slight degree of slope in the vessel caused by the
sling aids in starting the anchor bolts into the vessel base. Anchor hillti
for large vessels are usually provided with special threaded cone-shaped
caps n.hich protect the threads as well a s guide the bolt into position.
Steel plate shims are placcd a t each space bctween anchor bolts so that
~ r h e nthe vessel is set donm on its bolts it will be essentially level. Bolt
nuts are tightened after the vessel is cheeked with a n instrument (transit)
for perpendicularity. After the vessel is satisfactorily located, nuts are
tightened and the anchor bolt sleeves and base ring are grouted with
concrete.
O t l ~ c rlarge equipment such as machines are handled in much the same
manner. Even though machines may weigh several liundrcd tons they
arc not usually so unwieldy as extremely long and heavy vessels.
l\lachines are carefully aligned and leveled during the bolting i~pera-
tion, and grouting-in of large machines is usually done only after a
manufacturer's representative has checked the machine for proper align-
ment and level. When bolting and grouting is completely supervised by
the manufacturer's representative, the supervision is a condition of the
manufacturer's guarantee.
Installation of Piping
The erection of above-ground piping begins after major equipment is
installed and continues throughout the construction period.
The majority of process plant piping is connected by flanges and wclds.
Thc rarious picces are fabricated in a shop and delivered t o the site or
fabricated in a field shop a t the jobsite. I n either case the methods are
similar. The pipe is cut t o the proper lengths by means of a cutting
machine or an oxyacetylene cutting torch. A piping piece or assembly
n-hioh may, f i n instance, consist of a straight length with a 90" bend
attached and two nozzles in different planes is set up on a work table
or on trestles. The setup is carefully aligned and then tack welded.
The tack-ivelded assembly is checked dimensionally and final welding
is done usually hy the electric-arc process. h full-pcnetration weld free
from slag and cracks must be made. It is economical t o do as much of
the welding as possible on the ground since the pipe may be rotated on
rollers and welding may be donc with little or no movement of the
w l d i n g electrode.
After welding, each piece is checked for alignment and weld quality.
Construction 667
Slight misalignment can be corrected by pulling into place by suitahle
machinery while the assembly is held stationary.
Screwed piping is fabricated a t thc johsitc and as much as possihle a t
ground lcrcl. Threading and cutting tools, many of them power opcrated,
are part of a pipcfitter's standard etlnipment. The fitter cuts, threads,
and partially fits the pipe on a bench about 3 ft !vide by 12 ft long.
Cutting oil is used dnring the threading operation to prevent excessive
heat and help in the penetration of the metal. Tllrends are ~ n a d ein
accmdance v i t h standard lengths recommended by tlic codes. They are
thorouglrly clcaned before making up joints. A jointing compound which
serres as a lubricant and filler is placed on thc threads. Various com-
pounds are used for different operating temperature ranges and fluid
conditions. Screiring of threaded joints is donc slowly to prevent binding
caused by excessive heat.
Pipe assemblies and sections of straight runs of pipe are lifted intll
position by means i ~ fchain hoists or slings attached t o cranes. Tlrv
several pieces are then aligned. Flangc faces are thoroughly cleilncil,"
gaskets applied and the bi~ltstightencd. 'hghtening of bolts is clone in
such a x a y that the tension is erln;d on opposite bi~lts. If field n-el& arc
to be made, aligning clamps arc used.
Expensive items such as valves must be handled \vith care. They arc
well supported a t all times during erection and their faces pri~tcctcdfrom
injury.
A safe adequate work area is necessary for the pipefitters who install
orerlicad piping. Scaffolding must be strong and roomy since it is n i ~ t
possible f i n pipefittcrs to align heavy piping ii-it11 great accurncy n-he!?
t,heir own bodily safety is in jeopardy or when forced t o assumc eutrem~ly
uncomfortable positions. As piping is completed, it is nashed or pickled,
pressure-tested, cleaned, painted, and insulated. The painting of in-
sulated pipe depends on process conditions. I n general all carbon-steel
piping, whether left bare or insulated, is treated with a rust inhibitor after
thorough cleaning.
Pipe Idenlificalion
Each separate piece of shop-fabricated piping is given a piece nun~bcr
or spool number on the original piping design dravings. These numhcrs
are used as irlcntifying numbers and are painted and stamped with a
steel dic on the fabricated pipc. T h e original design drav.ings are thcn
used as erection drawings.
A color code is oftcn used for identification on extensive projects haring
a number of process units w.hich utilize larger sizes of piping, Mark,
piece, or spool numbers must still be assigned to identify the pieces. If
* Ring-type joints muat he cluaned exceylionally ell to insure a tight seal.
668 Project Engineering of Process Plants
>el-era1q ~ a m t units
e are being fabricated, color can be >elected for each
unit su that pilling in the storage pard can be easily aeparated I\-itliuut
finding tlic inark nunnbcr. The color coding ib applied l i e u e a c l ~end
tlie piece and cumpletely circles tlic pipe in a band sufficiently a i d e to be
$ten irom 3 reasonable diatancc.
Rnndom pipe delivered to a jobsite is also color coded 13-hen receiwd.
This code should be deaigned to indicate the size and type uf pipe iseani-
less, alloy). llucli of tlie random pipe purchased must oiten he stored
for screral niontlns. Only certain mills carefully identify pipe, l ~ n tthe
original identificatiun may be lost or defaced ii it cxistcd Color m:nrkin:
ran be quickly ilimc as pipe is being unluaded and will save much time
;IS the job proceeds.
Insulation
iliter cleaning, pipe is pressure-tested and then insulated. Insulation
is done by a aubcontr:tctor specializing in this n-ork. Tlnc.<e37-orkers begin
the itisulntiun of vesscls a t about the same time as pipe insulation. (Sce
Chapter 19.)
Buildings
Office Luildings. change houses, warehouses, and machine shop buildings
are cwctrd at :illy time (luring tlie project as men bcc,~line available.
Process buildings ; m i slnelters are erected after major cquipnnent and
large piping are installed.
Construction 669
r,ffort, involving rl~cmiral,merl~nnicul, clcctriral. and rivil engineers.
draitsn~ncn,stenographers, accuuntante, buyers, i.raftsmt.n, and office hnys,
.4.q one leave? tine plant sit? on this final day t x o people will probahly
he busily ronfrrring: the project engineer and t h r construction superin-
tmrient. These two men h a w done more than any t o a r m a s ~ ~ c c e s p f ~ ~ l
npwating plant. T h r projrrt cngincer has direrterl thc projrrt .;inre tlrl-
c%rlj- prmr-r clchign. IIc Ira. Iwrn a gnori r~r,q:tnizrr nnd n rompctmt
cnginccr c a l ~ : ~ l ~oil r ,do:~ling~1-irI1p ~ p l cof n-irldy ~lifierentt~ackgroimls.
Tlie slightly hamssctl louking gcntieman \\-l~onithe 11n1jectcnginwr is
congratulating is tire con.!t~.r~?tionsi~l~erintt.n~lrlit. n.ho ! d l sliortly move
to :I rnen- n s s i p u ~ c n t . Hecause of his intrliigcncr. high niccl~;mir:~l
a l i t i t o d ~and
~ good judgment, he Inas not unly hren allle to construct tlnr
~ h n ;tI . onlrlirrcil l)y the engi~uwiiigilmxings, l ~ u talso has correcte<l,
~ v i t htlic help of tile projcct enginecr. the inevitable errors t h a t occur in
dran-ings and procurelnnrnt. H e has inipr.oviscd where necessary, but
mait inipr~rtant.Irc ha3 ronililrtrd thc jo11 on time and built a l ~ l a n tthat
pleases the custulncr.
REFERENCES
S e w l-ork, 1%4.
3. Hossnngcl, IV. E.. IIonrtBook oi Rigging, l\IeGmn-Hill Rook Co., Yew l'ork,

Final Stages of Construction

After all tlie major equipmeut is in place, sriiall equipment which n i u ~ t
lie supported by the larger allparatus is inslidled. Fragile irnatc1.ia1.ssnrI1
as instruments, electrical apparatus, and small piping are also iristnlled in
Co., S e n Yatk, 1931.
the final stages in order to minimize possibility of d:lm:rgc.
T h e last veeks o i a construction project are husy on?.. Equilirn~ntii
pressure-tested. Operating tests of equipment are made. T l ~ c-it? is
<,leaned and put in order. T e n ~ p i ~ r a rbuildings
y are removed, arid many
official visitors arrive to inbpect tlie plant.
The contractor's and the cu~tomer'sengineers n-110 began working on
the design of the plant a year or two before can a t last see t h e t m ~ g i h l i ~
proof of their efforts. M a n y portions of the design could he improved and
criticism of some portions of the plant can easily be made. B u t as the
construction equipment is moved from the site and the contractor's
operators conduct the acceptance test of the equipment and dcnionstratc
that the quantity and quality of the product can be produced with e : w .
adverse criticism seems in;ippropriate.
The plant now ready to operate is a tribute t o a tremendous ~ I ' U U ~ I
INDEX
Above ground lines. 458 American Bureau of Shipping Rules for
hrrrptnnce order, 131 Clearification and Construction
Accessul.iw for. piping, 426434 oi Steel Tpscelr. 198
Accounting procedure of eontrnetor, 164 .Itn~riran Concrete Institute, design
Acetylene gas wclding, 189 plxrtiws of, 627
Actual gases, compressor calculations for, hmrriran Instituts af Steel Construc-
339 tion, design prartiws of, 627
Additives i o ~concrete.
. 603 American Petroleum Imtitute; Specifi-
Afiinity laws, as applied to centrifugal cations for Oil Storage Tanka,
pumps, 280 198
Air, design of instrument air system, Amcrican Standards Asaociation, Code
i"""
7R for Premure Piping, 396
design of plant service air systrm, 581 flnnge classification, 403
Air chamhrrs far reeiptm:ating pumps, Amee facinez.
" , 408
256 spcrifieatians for centrifugally cast-iron
Air changes, ealeulation of, 641 pipe, 412
Air conditioning, costs of, 1617 Anchor bolts, 606. 666
design of iacilities. 621-623 Anchors (and supports), marking on
in control rooms, 542 drawinas, 111
Air-cooled cxrhangcrs, 215. 223
Air line service and plant location, 12
.kit.-motor valve, 538
..
Anglr-type reelproeatmg campreasor,
Air preheaters. 570 301304
.2larm systcms, 649 .In& values, 418,420
Alignment oi pumps, 294 .lnnual rctorn, 54
.illoy pil,~, pffprt of variuus mctak on API-.ASME Code for Unfired Pressure
phyzirai prapcrtips. 400 Vessels, 195, 198
.kltcrnillirrg-ct1r1.e11trnolors, 352 41.c welding, 189
Alumina-siliis refiavtories, 485 Atca eleration, 598
 Index 673
['wlfcii~igiil r o n ~ p r e ~ w t ~design
s. ralrnla-
tion ior, 343
diaphragms for, 315
~ I t i w sior, 317-318
efficiency of. 333
impeller typcs, 31W14
ia-line Rrrnneement oi, 315

Ihl&linp oi I I I F C S ~ I N i<.->cli,203. 201 ~n~ullislapr. 311

Building w & i . 628 performnnrr curvrc for. 336337
Building 11r:in-iop 101 rrgnlatinn oi. 318
13t1ililing*.design <,i.325, 61Fr621 wlrction of impflier. ~ i z eand s p e d ,
d w g u o i ~ U II ) S O W ~ S C ( I I I I I ) I I I C ~ I ~610
337438
.
565 rwvlmn oi. 654 668 h t i t srnls iur. 31b317
3%. 401 h i t rffiei~ncypoint ( B E P ) , 2i9, 284 loc:lllm uf minicuiz? irnz;~r~is. trl.minolo&~ 636-
for. 310311
sprcifications. 101. pipe, 399 Ilid vompnrisans, 127 637 (!cntriiognl filter, 375
Atmospheric 1ernper;rtnt.c. rnaximon~nad I{ill of lndmg, 128 Cvntl.iiuga1 gavwnoi., 365
nrinimtim, ior design, 2 i Billing procedure o i rontl.arfw. 164 (:mtl.iillgnl pumps. affinity laws for, 280
Atomization of liquid ioels. 561 Bimelallie strip, 508 nuriliary piping for. 296
Attachments ior equipment. 627 Hirmingham K i r r Gage (BIVG), 225 b:wr plates for. 277
A u t , o r l a r ~373-3i4
, I h n k e t insulntion. erection of. 481 Imuings. 2i4. 275
k i g n ui. 374 lllnnkel a r d e ~ s123
. raleulation of NPSH for. 288
.intomntic zprinklel. sytems. 640 BIwd. ilefinition oi. 456 ensings oi. 268
.lntom:itic s t w m v d i c cut-off type for Bl~nrl.Minition of. 456 L U c ~ v t i :h~ . ~ g of,
n 621 i.liemid, 266-268
reriprocnting CUIIIJ,I~CSIOI~I. 307 I linc. 43-34 C . ik I'.. 126 cl;tssifimtiun oi, 263
Auxiliary piping fol. pumps. 296 I Black dingrsm. 65 I t t fat. hmt IIBOS~PI. r.orrcction8 to performance curves oi,
A\-wage tempcmturr, iol. brat transicr Block insulntiun, wwtion of. 481 ralrul;itians. 237 285-287
cnlculntions, 237 Block m l r e , &finition oi. 456 C;inc~II:ttionr . l ; ~ ~ w134.
s . 135 ~:ooplingfor. 2i7
\ V W A specification iol. cast-iron pipv. Blo& valvre i m stmm. 5i3 C:ipxity, ni,tunl of i.rripmi:lting pumps, douhle-suction. 270
412 Hhr--,lu\vn systrms, 645-646 2.57 estimating eKect of speed and impcller
Blurv-down d l - e l , 645 theorcliwl ior i.wiproc:iting ptlnrps. 256 diameter on periormsnre of. 281%
HIov-c~.r.iumpmison with compressors, vwintion in. inr ~mtriiue:il ~ ~ ~ r n p s . 289
315 281. 283 general service of, 266
,hives ior. 317-318 Cnl.Ron dccl pipr, spwificution ior. 401 glmd oil piping ior. 296
~rgulntiunoi. 318 Cx~.-loxlingronlp:lny. 11 Irorsepur~rand cffirirncy of. 278
Blue-printing. 116 C;lrry-nlls. 659 hot oil, 266
Body of vu1i.e. 414 Cti.inps (rcntrifugnl ln1mp), ciriulnl., 269 in~lwllwtypcs, 265
Hack filling, 6 W 0 1 Boiler ierdxster, 549 difilsion. 269 install;ltion of, 293
Back pwssure, reeonlmended fur atean Boiler ieedeater pump*, 569 rnollntinp oi. 269 rnwlinoieal seals for, 276. 2i7
cylinder of reciprocating pumps, Boilers, drums fol., 564 voltttc, 269 rniiltislngt,, 272
261 rypes oi. 562-571 CusL-in-lllare conmrte p i l e , 589, 5gg NPSH, 287
Bacteriological rests on water. 553 Boiling corfficienta. 235 C;lrt-imn fittings. 112 opcrnting points ior, 289
Baffle spacing. minimum ior errhnngew. Bolt stud. ior flanprs. 407 Cast-iron flnner. 406 opewition in parnllrl of, 289
224 Bultr.,l-flanged bonnet ralve, 414-415 Cast-iron joints, typcs of. 413 openition in wries of, 289
Balancing drum for eentl.iiugal com- Bolting, for flanges, 407, 410 C:m-imn pilie, dcwriplion mxl use of, packing for, 276
pwsor, 317 uf equipmeut. 62i 402. 112 periormance currps iol. 27%280
Ball bearing& a n centrifugal pnmps, 275 oi strncturd stpel, 662,663 installatim~oi.660 process type, 266
on motors, 358 Ualts and nuts, recommended t3-pes for Catch basins, 579 radial impeller typrs. 271
Ball-float level indicator, 519 vnrious services. 409-410 Catliodi? protection, inetalintion of. 661 )range oi service for., 263
Hall valves, 254-255 Bonnet of valve; 414 Cavitation in rmlrifugnl pumps. 288 rotation of, 268
Base plates for centrifugal pumps, 277 Horings ior soil tests, 594-595 Ccment, 601 sliait and shaft sleeve ior, 275
Bnric refractories, 485 Bottom of pipe ( B O P . ) , definitiou of, Cement-asbestos pipe, installation 01, yingle-stage, 272
Basis oi design, 55 456 660
~ ~ ~

single-suction, 270
Bateh system eontr.ol. 525 wtting of ele\.atrun ui, 433433 Cont~~.-packed plunger pump, 251 specific specd of. 284-285
Bxttcr pilec. 5Y2 tkjumlnry line loc:~tion.59i Centriiugnl roniprosors, and axial blow- stuffine bar ior. 27.5
Bearing c;ipwlly. ; ~ l l ~ w ~ i l596
,le, Uowdou tulw hlti r,m. 3llX32V
f o r soil, 596, 612 Buurclon-typi g;ige, 51b516 bearings fur. 317
674
Centrifuges. p~rformanceof. 375
trsts of, 375
Crt.tifird prints, description of, 109
f i x wntrifugnl pumps. 277
u e in foundation ilrpign. 60R
Chain opcmtors. usr of. 458
Chambrrs of Commerce, aid in site selec-
tion of. 17
iniomration :<railable itom. 24
Chnngc houses. construction for, 658
design of, 620
Cllangc o r d m , 128, 134
Changing impeller diam~ters,283
Characteristic curve for centriiuga'
pump, 279
Check valves, 295,421. 423
Chwking drawingal 103-105, 211
Chfmicnl feeders, 262
Chcmical pumps. 266268
Cllcmisorption instrummts, 526
C.I.F.. 126
Chilton's m ~ t h o d 51 ,
Chiltun and G ~ n r r r a u x ,pressut.e drop
equation for exrhmrgrr.~,239
Clrromel-alumel thermocouple. 511
Circuit and conduit schedules, 114
Classifiers. 581
Clearance control for rer:ipl.orating eom-
pressors, 308
Clearance pockets, effect on compressor
efficiency of, 308
Clearances, typical d u e s for. pipe, struc-
t u r d steel, and power lines, 629
Closed impeller, 265, 271
Coal, as a fuel, 31, 556
Code for pressure piping, 396
Codeu, see name of sponsoring body
state and city, 210
Coil-in-boa cooler. 221
Coke, as a iuel, 556
Cold junction of thermocouple circuit,
513
Cold spring of pipe, 438
Color code, for pipe, 667
for structural steel, GG2
Cdllnlns, for structures, spacing of, 626
Combination piles, 591
Commodity buying, 122
Cummutator, 350
Compneting, 600
Completion date for process design, 55
Compound-wound motor, 351
Compressed Air and Gas Institute, recip-
rocating compwssor lubrication
sllggcstions by, 307
reci~t.orntingcompressor nomenclature
by. 297-298
Index Index 675
Compr.?ssed Air and Gas Institute, ter- Consrruction labor, distribution of. 655 Correspondence, volnmc of. 139
minoiogy for centrifngnl cam- man hour requir~ments,94 Ccmrosion allowanre iar w s a ~ l s ,210
pl'i'swv hy. 3 1 W l l on ioreign johs. 41 Corrosion data, 58
Cum~wssibilityf:i,:tor. 34S341 mtcs, 657 Corrosive fluids. pnmping of, 277
i h i l for. 340 Construction ofire build in^. 658 Cor.rouion inhihitars. 552
Compr~ssionratios, typiral. 339 Contingcnries fol. estimate?. 47 Cost ~ i t i n l ~ trests
? ~ , of. 47
Comprei.ion tcsts for soil, 596 Continuuus system control. 531 precision of. 4 i
Conlprrssion theory, 326330 Contracts, bnscs for. 159 rauid mrthods ior, 47
Cornpl.rsaion-type fitting. 409 ranrrllntion oi. 166, I79 tybrs of. 46
Coui~~rcssive strength of c o n r r ~ t c ,602- definition of tprms in. 173 :ost-plus contract, typical exsnlple of,
603 finm oi. 162 163
.. .
Corrqressor cffieicncirs, 331, 333 typrs oi, 160. 161.162 !~,st-plwwitli fixr&iee contrxrts. 161
Comp~.cssorhorscpox~et.,calrul;ition of. Contrart buying. 122 losts, estimation oi for piping. 447452
33 1 Cantt.artor and custorn~r, division of Intmr. 54. 170. 657
Comprcmxs. see type work. 2 slip-on rrrrue welding n w k flanges, 404
Colnpressors, accecsot.ies far, 322 Cuntmctor, definition of. 2 !olmt~rflow1-1 pxchanger, 216
rosL of maintenance for, 322 frmctiou oi. I56 hunting instrummts, 524
cylinders far. 304-305 selection of. 157 !ouplings, far rentrifugal pump, 277
for plant air, 581 Contt.ol centers. 540 lneliing joints by, 402
foundations for. 587-588 Control Laboratories. drsign of. 622 tlsr of on \-essels. 192
inslnllafiun of. 325 Cun~soloi prowasr-, 525, 31-5-42 :meking furnscrii. design of. 387388
piping at. 461 Control of turhinca, 364 :raitsmnn, ninnhonr distribution, 656
pistons for. 304305 Contt.al psnrls, 105,540-541 h n r . cmwlpr typr. 664
vnlws forl 304-306 Control point of nn insfnment. 534 gani~.\--typr.626
selrrting tj-pc oi, 32W22 Control room, design of. 540-542 self-propellrd. 600
Concrete, costs of, 608 Contiol tlieol.y, 540 hss-fins, 216
curing of, 60W03, 605, 606 Control vnlres, air ptrsawe of, 533 hsr;flow. in heat rxchnngris, 232
pouring of. 6 0 M 0 5 &finition of, 456 pwssure drop in, 239
rcinforecd, 601 description of, 423425 h s l r c r s a n d grinders, descl.iption
repair oi. 606 danhlc-port,. 423 38W81
~ t t . m g t hof, 602403 sinele-nort. 424 selection of, 379
Uec in p i l ~ of.s 589 Contkll& volume pumps, 261, 262 test of, 380
Cmrrele foundations, curing of, 605, 606 Convection roeIiieient, for horizontal :~.~-~twilizrrr, drscription of, 381
Candenwte. piping ior, 572 pipes. 491
Conveyors, 389390
-
dpsinn and selertion of, 381
trsts oi. 381
Condrnsatc linps, typical rulps for, 461
Zcnd~nsatetraps, w e Steam traps Coalinr hetmern stagps 101. c~ntnfngitl :ultur;d iaeilities, ~ f f e c on t plant lotn-
Eondensation nxw, 235 mmprcssors. 315 tion, 17
:'oud~nsers, 220 Cooling s y s t ~ m s ,circulating. 552 l u r t m w r , definition of. 2
L'ondcnsing rorfficirnts. 232
: k n d r ~ i t559
,
lonc-roofpd tank, 574
lonferencc leadrr, 137
Cooling t o ~ c r s design
Cooling w a t w 549
, o f , 377-378
Cupper-constantan tlrern~ououplc. 511
Cork insulation, 483
-
Inioots. WP OE in plot planning. 82
Syclr for gas turbines, 369
.,y!inders, for reciprocating eompl'essor5.
~R
-M
lonfwenrc notw, 137 Corrected mean tempwat,ure differmrr, Cylindcr liners, 254
~ o n f r r ~ n c e136,
s . 137 23i "lindrr sizrs, deaignntion of for recip-
Ionfidential information on flow din- Carrrspondmre, and d~.awings,trnnsnlit-
grams, 79 tin^ for f o r ~ i g njobs. 40
:onstruction, final stages of, 668 drslgn inrtrucrion. 143
ot.gnnivation for, 654 forms. 141, 148 Detdm-ight !onda on vessels, 203
personnel for, 654 instruetion letters. 141 Deneraling h c a t ~ r s568.
ulnnnine- of., 653 interofice, 140 Dearration (11 h o i l ~ rwater, 549
preliminary data. for conett.uetion plan- k t t r r s of intent. 146147 Delivery date, 91, 127
ning, 3 2 4 2 rrierno iorms. 141 Dclirery t i m ~ sfor ~ q a i p m e n t ,91
steps in, 88 owner-rontmctor. 144 Den Harlog iormuln, 196
~onstt~uetiondepartment, planning by, Density measurement, 529
653 Desien data. 59
~onstruction interferences, anticipation Design draiting. 103
of, 34 manhour requiwnents. 94
678 Index
Fabricator's drawings far vessels, 211
Fannine enuation. 442
Fans, 3f8 '
F.A.S., 126
Feedwater, heaters for. 568
surge drums for. 569
treating farilities for. 568
Field roil. 350
Field-iahrientrd pipc, typical rules for.
461
F i ~ l dfabrication of vessels, 195
Figurc 8 blind, 433434
Filing and distt.ihution of vendor-prints,
108
Filing, systems of, 151
Filter photometers. 527
Filters, tpsts of, 386
Fin effirienry. 250
Fin tnhes. 215
Fire extinguishing equipment, 648449
selection oi, 648
Fire foam connertions for tora age tnnks
57s
Fil.cproofing of steel, 626
Firc pumps, 553
Fires, iniurrrlation on prevention, 633
Fire-t,uhe boilera, 563
Firewalls, 637
Fi1.e water, 553
Fittings, cast-iron, 412
energy losscs in, 445
flanged, 411
pr-ssure drop in, 445
ratings far, 403
screwed, 412
welding type of. 4011.411
Five-step clearance control, 308-309
Fircd capital costs, 50
Fixed price contracts, 161
Fixed-tube sheets, 221
Flitrne arrestors, for storage tanks, 574
Flammability limits, 6 4 W
esleuliltion of for mixtures, 641
Flange and hoking, selection of, 455
Flange facings, 407
American standard, 408
flat-faced, 407
male-and-female, 407
Flange fittings, 411
Flange prices, estimation of, 449
Flange taps for orifices 502
Flange types, 405
Flanged joints. 403109
E'langcs, 4 w w
rompanion for pumps, 296
ratings for, 404
special types of, 407
Index 679
'lapper for pneumatic ron(1.01.533 Fuels and plant location, 14-15 Guidc i o r pipe. 430, 456
lare darks. design of, 646 Fuels for prorrss plants, 53-556 Guidc vanes for crntnfug;d romprrssors,
'lashing cement, 482 Fundamental research. 43 314
'lat heads. 190 Furnaces, 387388 Guyed (derrick, 661-664
'lexible couplings, 277 &sign of, 387
'loating head. pull-through type o f , 221 types oi for boilcr~,561 Hnicpm;. 215
split-ring type of, 221 F. F., definition of, 456 H:md~ailr.640
'loating-roof tnnks, 574 Hnngcrs, ddinition of. 456
'loat-type level controller. 519, 520 Gage glasses. 523 I for pipe, 43M33
'load conditions, design for, 28 Galvanizd hands for insulation, 482 Hnzsnfaas areas. electrical equipmrnt
'law diagrams. block, 65
engineering, 67
Galvanizing on structural steel, 114
Gantiy-type cranes, 626
i ior. 560
Hazardous cquipmcnt. minimum spacing
gmphir, 67 Gss burners, 561 for, 636
proecss. 65 Gas d i e ~ ~for l s rwipromting compresmr, Hnznrdou.; locations, for reciprocating
schematic, 64 301304
~ ~
vomprewora, 310
Vow measurement, mechaniral, 499 Gas engines for reriprorating C O ~ I ~ I P S S O ~S:~tion:d
, Elwtrir Code, definition of,
;low nuzzle., 503.504
, 301-304 357358
k i d expansion thermometer, 509 Gas storage tnnks, 575 H;ia:~rdain pnxrzr plants, 632435
C0.B.. 126 Gas turbines, 3 6 M 7 1 Hrtrd. ralculation of h o r s r p o n ~ rand psi
?areehalanee type of manometerrl 504- npplirations of, 370,371 from, 288
506 cycle ior, 3 6 M 7 0 dcfinition ui, 272
k c c d eirrolntion boilers, 564 efficiencies oi, 371 of rentriiugsl pump, 278,288
Coreign projwtr, 35-42 use of on wntrift~gnlramptmsors and variation in, for centri1ug:d pumps.
'orm work for foundations, 693 hloneru, 317 281,283
~ o l m conferences,
d 137 Gaskets, for fltinges, 407 Head room. recommended mlues, 638
hrming operations for. spread footings, delrrtion of, 455 Headers for fire water. 553
586 Gate valves, 417,418 Heads for r-easels, selection of, 190
Terms, building of, 601 installation of in pump piping, 295 spinning of, 190
economies of. 609 Gear pumps, 290 types of 190, 191
?orwarcling agpnts, 36,37 Grncral files, 152 Hest ~xrhangcrs, drsign of, 226, 241,
Fouling factors, 236 General serviec pumps, 266 242
Foundations, con~ttuetionof, 593, 661 Geometrically similar pumps, 281 fabrication of, 224
design of, 6 0 H 1 7 Gin poles, 66W65 nomenclature, and p u t s for. 221, 222
~ x a m p l edesign of. 613415 Glands for valves, 414 safety rules in design of. 638
for compressors, 325 Glnnd oil piping for pumps, 296 shell size of. 224
for pumps. 294 Glnss insulation, 475 specification sheet for. 240
for small pqoipment, 616 Glam pipe, 399 tuhe lengths for, 224
layout of, 607 Glohr r d v m , 417420 typrs of, 214-220
scheduling of w o r t for, 593 Governors, for steam turbines, 365 Hext losses. through insulated surfaces,
selection of type of, 592-593 throttling type of for reciprocating 4m93
types of, 584 compressors, 307 bhrough insulation. ux:mipir ralcul:i-
Four-cycle engines for compressor drives, G~.adient,definition of, 456 tion of, 492-493
302 Grnphir diagram, 67 H a r t transier resetweh, 1Tnivet.sity of
'Free Air" unloadcrs, 308 Graphic panels, 54b541 Delaware. 231
Freight forwarders, 36 Grating, use of, in out~doarstrwturra. 62i Heatmi, see Furnaces
Freight planning, rnovcment within for- Grid plates, 193 H ~ a t i n gand ventilating farilities, design
eign rountry, 38 Grinders. see C~.ushersand gt.inder.s of, 621
Freight rates, 9 Grounding, 639 Hrating, costs o f , I 6 1 7
and plant location, 10 Grounding systems, installation of, 661 Hravy equipment, erectiorr of. 663466
Friction factor, 44%443 Ground joint unions, 403 H ~ a v ymachincry, planning iw, 39
Froat line, design for, 28 Grout, 606 Hcight of roaling tower, ilet~rminwtion
location of conduit runs with resprct Grouting, 666 of. 377
to, 559 Guamntee clause, 129 Helical Eon stage of a tnrhine, 361
location of foundation with respect to. G u a r ~ n t e c dmaximom contracts. 162 Helical pumps, 291
586 Guarantees, 181 IIor.~aontnllift check valvp. 419
Fuel oils, 31. 554, 555 Gua1.d~ and guardhouses for process Horizontnlly split casings iut. centrifugal
h e l sources, 30 plants, 582 pump, 269
680 Index Index 68 1
Hal-s~power. mlcrhtion of lor ronrpl.Pi- Tn4;1llntion. d~.orrineifor, 106 Isothermal cornpreicion. reversihlr. 328 I.iit rheek ~ s l w421 .
sors, 331 (we olro WolA of rorn- of mrnprrcwn, 325 Iaotl~ermalefficiency, 33J I.ifting lug?, 6 6 x 6 6
preasion) of ptlmps. 293 Itenl numhers. on f l o ~ddi;~g~.:mi.
68 Light Itydrocarhonr, ptmping of. 277
for centrifugal pumps. 278 Inslruclmn Iettws. 141 1,iglricr;~gec h r g e . 37
for motors, standard ratings of. 358 I n i t r w t i o n ~to vmdarr. 134 J;icki, henvy dilly. 664 1,ighting. 620. 623
for reciprocating pnnips, 259 Instinimmt nil.. defign of system. 536 Joints. fat. pipe. 402 Lime-soda softening proeei?. 551
Hose connections, 459 In.3twnrent dhitinp. 105, 115 staggering of f m insul;ition, 182-483 I.i,nit rontrals. 524
Hot oil pumps, 266.267 I n - l w n ~ ~ n l n t i ncnginwring.
n 512-543 lypes uf cart-iron pipe. 413 Limits of fla&mahility. 610-641
Hot prorws phosphate. coftming of. 551 I ~ ~ - l r ~ ~ n ~ ~ for ~ n liwntl.iiue;tl
; ~ t ~ o n . cmal- Joristlictional diapute~.655 I.inc blinds. 433434
Hotel facilities, effect on pl:~nt locntion. pvr,ior?. 321 Linr nulnhers, 71. 457
17 for intwnal r o n h ; t i o n engiow. 573 Iirrusene as a fuel. 554 I.inr sizes, determinatiun of. 410U32
Haudry prowr-, ose of gas twhinrs in. iot. ~.rriplwi.:ttingrumprr-sots. 3'24 Krttle-type rpbuilw. 219
3fig iw s t r : p ~ h~n t r . 570-571 liingihwy-typr hearing, 101. rcnlriiugal
.-
compl-c-sol-.317
~

Housing, far I : h m mi iuwign jol,., 42 on flow di:tgr;trn.;. 71

for centliiugal purrilw. 275 Lmm drawing s h e ~ t s116
.
Human relations, n e ~ db , ~~lnilwclm<ltng
. Inst~.uments,ehemirnl and phpical prop-
Iinorhout d~.unlc,323. 647 1,jungstrom turbine; 362
of, 154 erty mcnsurement by, 326-530
Iiraft paper. 483 Liquefied pctl.olrum gas :a. :Liurl. 31. 554
Hurr.irsne ft.cqoenry. d ~ s i g ni w 27 general clnsiifieirtion of. 49W99
Hydraulic control. 537 types of. 498-409 Liquid eylindel.~for rreip~.oratingpunll~s,
"Iiydmm~ii~" s p e d goremo.. 365 Insulating hrick. 485
Labor, and plant lwntian, I 5 ---
7x7
elreck list for cunat~.nvtionplanning of. Liquid hot.sepo~cr,calculations o f , 259
Hydrostatic test, uf hrat rsch;ingcrs, 226
of ressrls. 195
Insulating ccmmt. 482
1u;ul;rting fil.ebricki. rharact~rixties of.
"-
RR Liqui&le~rlinsttum~nts,519-523
costs of. 54, 170. 655 Liquid storage, 574
490 distribution of, on constrrwtion jobs,
Impellers. cutting of. 283 Inmlnting refriietoriec. 485
Lad teats un soil. 610
655 1,aulr. nlluwahlr for i t t . ~ l ~ t ~628
ir~i,
I m p e l l ~ rrlinmrtrr, efiwt on C P L I I I . I J I I ~ : I I Iniulntion, il~erwterislirsof vnrioilr ma- on ioreign jabs, 41 J.ocnl flood or tidr mndition.., drsign c m -
pump p?riormmce. 2R3-28l tn.i;di fol.. 476478 unwst of, 16
Impell~l.size. srlcction oi. in>.~rrntnirig;ii sklerationa fol., 28
cronomir.;~lthickncra of, 495 U.S. expatriatrs. 41 Locatiun of sul,surince water, 595
cornpl.rssol.s, 337-338 effieicnry of, 4116 Labor market studies. 15
Impeller types. for centrifug:d rompres- 1,ocumotire boilci, 566
rrildion of. 481484.668 Lahor organizations, 655
sors, 312314 i:wtow in rr:%luntionof. 470-480 Lag mean tcmpwntnl~cdiffer~uw.236
Labor liractirps. 655 Longitudinal hnRi~.218
backward cwrcd. 313 1o1.pel.sonn?l protwtion. 640 Lahm ~ x t e s656 ,
forwsni rurr-erl. 313 fat. s t < ~ : ~piping,
rn 5i3 Longitudinal fin&,215, 216
on constn~ctionjobs. 657 Longitodinal stresses; 1'96
for centrifugal pnn~ps.265 h m t lass through. 490-4'13 Labor relations. 655
Impolse turbinr. 361,362 Imw point, ~ ~ s t a b l i s l m ~of.
m t 598
inquiries and qnotatiims for. 480 Lahoratorics. design ui. 622
Indwtion motors, cdaulntion of nctunl 1 . o ~temperature insulation, vwution oi.
,inckets im. 483 Labyrinths, for eentl.iiugal caulpressom,
sprrd, 353 4%
optimum thirkncss of. 494496 316
drsmiption of, 352 safety rulcs in drsign oi. 640
1x1,shipn~ents,11
Ladders. 194 1.ubricntion of rrntl.iingnl compwsml.,
use o f , on reriprorating eompwssor. selection of. 479 Lantern ring, 275
301 iyprs of, 473-458 317
Lap-joint flanges: 404, of plug r a l i - a . 421
Indimtot. horzepo~pr,259 Insur;m~.efor ronitmrtion Inlmr 42 Large equipment, plmning for. 391
Induvtrial Comn~issions.nid in site selec- 1ntprroast;il canal. 12 of rcripl~orntingeonipl.escor. 3 0 6 3 0 i
Large pressurc rcssels, rnaxinlorn sizes. Lump-rum or fixed-price contlxcta, 161
lion by, 17 Internal combustion puwe1.5i3 40
Industrial hygicne, inionnation on. 614 Internd gear pump. 290 1.avatory facilities, design of. 621
Inert gas purges, 642 Intwoffire e o r r ~ s p o n d e n w140 blnrhinc bolts fol. flanges. 40i
Layout, for steam distribution ~ y a l e m , hlrrliinc shops, 576
Infrared photometer. 525, 527 Interoffire Ipttpr. 140 .&'I?
In-line arrangement of renldugal rom- 3l:whintr)-, ioundations for, 687-588
Intrrstnte Commerce Commission. 11 of rquipment. 637
prersws, 315.316 J1:tintcnnure costs for ronrprussul.a. 322
In\-ersions, rffect of on plant location and of formdation, 607
Inquiries, for insulation, 484 Maintrnnnec ieeilities in prows- plant*,
layout, 635
forms for, 124
minimum number of, 124
Inverted bucket tmp, 428 - of office equipment, 619-620
of piping. 103,434-440
,576
Manlroles, electrir:al, 55S560
Invoice. 128 of trimsfel. pump syarem. 576
parts of. 124.240-241 ior senem, 578, 559
Iron-eonstantan thermocouple. 511 I.CL shipments, 10
Inside film corffieient. 227 Manhours, distribution on eansrruction
Isentropic compression, rercrsiblc, 328 Imul ruhs for thermocauples, 513
Inspection, of equipmmt. 124, 131 Isentropic rsciency, 333 job of, 656
Luascd nirc services, 150 r.equir.ements for engineet.ing, drafting,
of vessels, 195 ior rpntriiugal compressor, chart for. 335 Lens flange, 406 and construction of, 92
Inspeetol.. duties of. 131 I s e n t t q i c head for centrifugal rompres- I.rttcr of intmt. 146 .\lmimiwtrrs, bell typc, 517
repurta hy, 131 sam 336 I.<.llel.i, re i. ( 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ~ s ~ ~ o ~ a l r n e e i,rw l d : t ~ w604-5C6
Instability, conditions for in foundations, Isentropic horsepower, from enlhalpy
I,uvri g;~grs,5'231 n,,w,,ry, 504-~zIxi
613 diagrams. 332
682
Mamlal rontrol. 531
hlamlfacturrr'i rlrn~<-ings and data, 106
Manufacturing costs. pitimation of, 52
Marine freight carriers, 37
Markers. prrmanent, for conrtmetion
site, 598
Marshall and Steven index, 52
Mass ratios, for m a s i r e foundations, 616
for reciprocal rompressor foundations,
325
Massive foundations. 587488
design of, 616
Mnstcr plot plan. 8 M 2
coordinates on, 597
example of, 81
factors influencing, 82
Mat foundations, drseription of, 587
drsign of, 615
Material and energy balance. 55
Materials handling equipment, 389390
selcetian of, 389
Materials of constlrlction, for cenlt.iiugal
pumps, 278
for exchanger tubcs, 225
for pipe, 399400
for pump casings, 268
for rceiproeating pumps, 250
for structural shapes. 6 3 W 1
for vesarls, 209
selection ofl 57
Mean cBeetire prrssure ( M E P ) , 260
Mean tenrpertiture difference. 236
corrceted, 237
Mechanical control. 532
Mt.rlrmird design, and safety, 637-640
of YVSSPI. 210
Mechanirnl efficienry, definition of, for
eompt.cssors, 333
of rrriprorating pumps, 25S260
Mechaniral expansion joints, schedules
of, 111
Mechanical flow diaggmm, 67
Merlmnical joint, 409
Mechanical seals. 275-277
for centrifugal compresion, 317
Merhnnieal specific~tions,101
Medical farilities, design of. 621422
Memo iormr, 141
3lcl.cury-in-glass t,hcr.mometer, 508
Mercury-type rnanom~trl-s,504406
Mcridion.al stress, 196
Mineral nvol inculation. 174
Mixed flow lnrpellm, 265
Mixers, sekctkn oi, 390
tests of, 390
Mixing equipment, 390
Mixing plants, for concrete, 604
Index Index 683
Aanolithic mass, 5% One-two exelranger, 218 Pcrformnnce curves, for centrifugal
.lonthly tirnc chart. 100 Opcn impellcrs. 265. 271 pumps. 275280
.loody friction fartor chart. 443 Opcn motor, 355 ior riscous liquids, e w r w i m n to, 28.-
dotor-driwn reciprocating compressor, Operating company, 2 287
~-
299 O p ~ r s t i n gIwbol.. 15. 18 Pwiphwal ~n,mps.2111
dotor ratings, 358 Operating points of centrifr~gal pumps P w i r d ~ ~ r velocity,
al drsign vnlvr foy ren-
dotors, 3 4 W 6 1 289 Ldug;tl c o n ~ p ~ ~ e s s338
oi.
alternating-current. 352355 Operating tests of rquipn~ent.668 ui wnlrifugal pump. 283
=drives for centrifugal compresaors,317 Optical pyrometers. 514-515 I'wmits, 35
classification by N.Eb1.A. of, 35M56 Orientstiun uf nozzles. 210. 211 Pr~aonuel dialribuliun. typical, 95. 96
cost comparison of, 35%367 Orifier m ~ t e r sSM-503
. Personnel mornlc. 154
direct-current, 3 5 M 5 1 e q u a t ~ a nfox flow rate fol 501 pH miler, 530
elementary principles of, 349, 350 Or~firr-trpcbnfflrs, 221 Photoelectric cell, 524
selection of, 359 Or.sst, automatic, 526 Piece marks on structuul steel. 662
standards for, 349 0 . 5 . and I' (outsidp stem and yokc). Pieee numbers far pipe, 667
typical applications of, 360 definition of. 416 Pile drivers, W 0 i
rlovemcnt of raw materinls and prod- Outdoor r q u i p m ~ n tlacntion. adrantages Pilrs, east-in-place conl.rete, 589
ucts, 576 of, 625 dt.iring of, 606607.658
Multicylindcr compressor, 300 Outdoor procew units, 624429 penetration of, 607
Multistage blowers. 314416 Outline drawing for vcssels, 112 types of, m 5 9 2
\fultistaec centrifurrnl romnressor. 311 Ontsidr r o ~ f f i c i e nfor
t ~ ahell-and-tube ex- Pilot light for flare stark, 646
\lultistage centrifugal pumps, 272 rhmgers, 231 Pilot plant facilities, design of. 623
Multistage compressors, 314316, 338 Outsid? film corficient, for double-pipe Pilot plant, use of. 43
Multistage steam turbiu~s.362-363 exrhnngcr, 229 Pin-fins. 216
fur rxtmdrd surface. 229 h p c , .iSThl speclfiratmns for, 399, 401
Vational Electtic Code, 349 Outside stem and voke r d r~, ~415
.-~ contmg of, 470
Yntianal Electric hf~nufaet,Urer~ Amaria- Overall hcnt transfer eaeffiri~nta, calcula- design codes far, $96
tion (N.E.M.A.). . . 349 tion of, 227 fittings for, 4091113
Vatural gas, design of pipclinc connec- estimating of, 244-246 history of, 394
tions, 30 Owr.hmd rosts. 54 identifirntion of. 667
plant pressure of, 31 Ore~.lrcsdrlrarmrc for piping, typical, iointa for. 402
use of in process plants, 30. 554 459 &nr~fwrture of. 395
S e t uositirr suction head ( N P S H ) , 287, Orcrbime payments to labor, 171 plastic, 399
288 Ore~.turninplond for cylindrical towpr. required thickness of, 398
Nipples, use of a n vessels. 192 612
... schedule number. for, 398
Koise abatement, 14 0, wturning moment. 5% selection of. 455
Yominal pipe siws, 396 sizes of, 396
Yozzlcs, nr~~angmmmton ccntrifngal Parknge-type stenm generators, 211, 565 steel, 399
pumps of, 269 Paekcd stuffing box, 275 t. m. ~ of.
s 395
control of stenm turhinea by, 364. 365 Packing, fat. ecntrifugnl pump, 276 3 p c and fitt,ing prices, estimation of, 448
details of, 211 for export, 37,38 'ipe bmding, 459
for process wssels, I92 for reripmating eompwssor, 304 'ipe-cap. 409, 411
orientat,ion of, 210,211 for reciprocating pumps, 254-255 'ipc coils, 223
3'
reinfol.remmt of standard-lmgth, 192 for turbines, 364 ~pe-concretepilcs, 590
Nussdt equation, 227, 232-233 see also Shaft wals 'ipe fittings, screwed, 403
Nulaling-disk displacement metel., 500 Packing gland on 1-1 rxrhnnger, 217 'ine foundations. 588
Nuts, w r Bolts and nuts Packing list, 128 'ibc hangers, 4 3 k 3 3
- Packlcss expansion joint, 429 'ipe insulation. woction of, 482
Orrnn frright rates, 36 Psrklcss valves. 416 'ipe shoe, 430
Octagonnl iootings, design of, 613415 Painting of pipe. 470 'ipe supports, 43M33
Office buildings, dcsign of. 619-620 Parallel centrifugal pump operat,ion, 289 design of, 432433
OH-prak power, 556 Patcnt protertion, 130 fire proofing of. 470
Off-the-slrelf materials, procurement of, Pedestals for centrifugal pumps, water- indication on drawings, 111
123 cooled, 270 'ipe taps for orifices, 502
Oil-field boiler, 566 Perforated platcs. 193 'ipe wall resistance to heat transfer, 235
Oil mall~ahleunion. 402 Performenre curves, estimation of, 282 'ipe mall temperature, calculation of, 238
Oil seal for centrifugal compressors, 316 for centrifugal compressors, 336337 'ipelines and plant location, 13
684 Index Index 685
I'ipine, nrcww~.irsfor. 126-134 P h t 1w:ilion ztwlirs, inbnrmntion for
~rh;mgpsin dirrction oi, 434,462 19-24 7~ ~ .~~
rlearanrer r r q u i r ~ dfor. 629 Plant north, wtting o f , 598 Pre\-ailing winds, rffect on plnnt layout for coolng mater, 552
rstimating installmi roits of. 447-452 Plnnt s e r n c r alr .sy.tem, drsign oi, 581 of. 635 ior fire, 553
mpansion oi. 436440 Plant .?ile. scr o h Planl location Prirri;, discussion oi, 134 foundations for, 294
iahvirstion of s r r e w d piping. 667 proredurr for selrrtion of.8 re-negotiation of, 134 installation of, 293
for romprewx installations, 325 Plnnt tcw.ain studies, 28 Pi.ocesi cantl.ol, 525.531442 piping for. 294-295,460
ior pumps. 294-2% Plant wastes. ~~~~.31
~
Prore% desien, - , data ior. 59 safetv factors for. 231
ior rclici r;tlrcs. 64G-647 Plnitic. uw in rh~micnlpwnpF, 266-268 ~ 55-58
p r o r e d u r ~ior, tank ~ ~ R " s ~ P576 I.
for stcnm di&hution. 571-573 Pl;tstir pipc, 399 1'1.ocess development, 44 Purchase wdcr, guarantfe clause in. 129
insta1l:~tionof. 666 Plates f o ~ shells.
. wual sims of. 189 P I . O ~ Pengineer.
W 56.57 ! inrpretion claoze in. 129
lii\-mt iind a m n g ~ ~ r i e no ft , 431-440 P l n t i o l m ~ ,dimcnrionr of.640 and project mgineer, rehtion hetreen, lnhor el;wses in, 130
lifting of. 667 58 patent p1,oteetion in. 130
mFrty m1i.s in design ior. 638 Ploccss engineering, 43-63 I . . rlnuse in. l2Y
aunlitr
-Imp-inlricuted or field-inhl.icntrd, 110 couple, 511 mnnhoor lequil.cments for. 93 i shipping inatructiuns in. 130
$>zingof. 440152 Plot plan, see Master and unit plot plans Procesn evnluntion, 45 standard notes on, 130
sperificntionu ior. 462-470 Plug cock, 421 Prorrss flow dingranre, 58,65 suhrontl.artor clnuars in. 130
testing of. 464-465 Plug valves, 421,422 Process iniomation on engineering Born Purchasing, see n1.w P~.ocn~.ernent
Piping costs. uee oi in linr ~iainp,447 Plumhing fixtwes, water usngr of, 580 d i a g m m ~69 , Purchasing agent,. 122
Piping derign, 103 Plungrr Dump, 251-253 I'roeess lines, sizing ai, 44W52 Purrhesing methorlr, 122
Piping dr:r~r.ings.checking of. 103 P1ungr1.s for rccip~.ocnting pumps, 251- . . 266.267
I'cwceis mtrnns.
rrwthodi for. 110 253 Ptmerss sprcificntions, ior pnmps. 292 iiunnlily rliscounts. 126
.,.;dt,s for. 110 Pn~uninliceont~.ol.532 use of. 101.157 i2nrndi towws. 646
l'il,ing mutwitil 1i;ting 01. t A - O N , 112 prupoition:tl. 534 Prorou. - i t r ~ i ~ l557,
l, 560 "Quickie" mtimatcs. 51
I'ining ~ . q m m ~ t i t t i oon
n flow di:rgrnms, pl.qwrtiontrl i.ri.et. 536 1'mi.r~-\r;~te.;.d i q m d of, 580 Qnotaiioni. 125-128
70 ~ , r o p o ~ . t i o n a l - r c ~ ~ t -536
t.at~, Process 5mtev. 548 mmpmisoo of. 127
Piping spceifimlions. typicid crarnple of, Polyphmc induction motors, 354 P~.acul.rnlent. cnginwring participation contcnts oi. 125
466470 Polystymnc insulation. 475 in. 122 rvointion of fol. heat erc1l:mgerr. 246
Piping stresses. 436 Polybropic compression co?fficient, 331 m:~nliourrcquirerncnts iol., 94 lor inmhtion. 480
Pirani gage, 518 Polytropie cffirieney. 333335 ~m'liulin:~sy ,l:it:~lot.. 32
Piston pump, 251-253 t o isentropic c f i c i ~ n c y(01. ~.rntriiug:~l ~ ~ u r c i ~ : ~ r r r - vpractices o t ~ 134
i ~ ~ ~ ~ l for. R ; d i ; ~ lbearing un rmtt.iiugal pump. 274
Piston-ring expansion joint, 429 eonrpl.essor.. ronversion of. 334 Pruco~wmr~ntDepartment. orgnnizwlion Ha0i;il impeller-. closed, 2il
Piston rods, 254 Portnblc extingnislic~.~. 648 :and operittion oi, 121 (01. rmtriing:tl ronrprwsor. 311
Piston spepds r~rommended,for reoipro- Potmtiometer ri~.roit Em t.lre~~moaouplc P1.or.uretnent ~netliotls,122 opcn. 271
csting pumps, 257-258 mmi, 513 I'ro~lurtionDepnrlmcnt, 109 z r l n i - d o s d 271
for rrriproiating compwssor, 304305 l'out~ingof conrrele. 604.605 Project m g i n ~ ~tind r . ~ i o ~ w w m c n135t, wuri-opm. 271
Pistons, for ~wipl.ocatingpumps, 251-253 Powrl. msts, study of. 15 coop~~.:ttion oi with inslrument engi- H;dialion corffirirnt fur 1m~ieont:Jpipes,
Pitrli, minimum for cxchnnger tubes, 224 l'uwc~.data ior design, 29 nrrr. 543 491-192
Plnnt nil.. 581 Powel. distribution, 559 d~finitiunof. 1 lladiation pylomrtws. 511-515
Plnnt datnm, 598 I'owcr shovels, 659 rlrnics of, 2 4 Rndiogl.apliing of ~ c s i c l s 194
.
Plnnr dmign, steps in, 88 Pmndtl number, 227 Project engineering, nranhour requiw- Rnil~.,,:idele:usncez. 628
Plnnt lahol.:~tori~a. deaign of, 622 Precast-conerrte piles, 590 m m t i lot.. 93 Rnil~~onrl facilitiri irr process planis. 577
P l m t layout. see Master plot p l ~ n P~.eliminarydesign, 158 Project pstirnotr. 3 R~ill.ond.liipwnt and plnnt. location. 10
and iafcty. 635 P~.essul.cdrop, a l l o ~ a h l cfor prorese linpr. Projrct files. 153 R:drond qlurs in ptmwss plants. &sign
Plnnl location. inrtors in, community, 17 447 Plwjert mnn:lgPI.. definition of, 1 d,577-578.659
fuel :ind ~ U W P14 I., in gas and vapor lines, 447 I'mjert organizeition, 3 Rnilt.m&rypc m n n , 402
labor, 15 in h a t exchangers, 238 Project schedule, 85 Rainiirll, fur design. 27
noise d ~ n t e r n m t 14
. in proccsj lines, equi~tions for, 441, Proportional cant~.ol,533 Xaininll intmsity, ioc. design oi surface
proress watrrl 13 442 Proposal, by eontl.uetors. 158, 169 dvsins. 5i9
raw materials, 9 Pressure gages, 515616 P~~,posals. see Quotations Raised-inre flwngr facing, 407
transportation connections for, 459 Puhlie trxnsportatim, effect on plnnt Random pipe. definilion of. 157
sic freisht, 12 instmments, 515518
P~.rssure-lnensn~.i~ig l o c h o n of. 17 R:tnkine cycle, 365
railroad it.cight. 10 Prrssur.e r~gulaiorfor steam turhinr con- Pumps, S I P t)pr of pump Raw maiel.ials and plnnt location, 9
trucking. 11 trol, 365 Pump casings, 268 Rencrion turljine, 361,362
tiastr diqornl, 14 P~wsire-relievingdcvires. 643446 P u r q housc. 293 Kendy-misrd eonrl.ete, costs of rom-
nwtel.. 12 Prrssut.t.-rart~umvents. 574 Pump selection chart. 249 jiaicd with site-mixed canercte,
vtwthrr, 16 Ptwstwsard concrete piles, 591 Pumps, alignment of, 294 608
686 Index Index 687
Rcnrly-mixed concrete, use of, 604 Regulation, of reciprorating compressor. Safely cages, 640 jewers, slope of lines for, 578
Reboilerr, 210 307 Safety factors, for pumps. 291 ihaft ior centrifugal pump. 275
Reciprocating campl.czsars. 297310 Beinforced concrete, 601 for pressurc ~es.-els.208 B a f t seals for centrifugal compr?ssors,
angle-type, 301-304 Reinforced concrete struvtuwr. csrction for reboiler design, 220 316
cle&nce pockets of, 308 of. 662 for soil-bearing capacity, 611 ;haft sleeves for centriiugal pump, 275
design calculations for. 343-3413 R<.infol.ringstpel, ior ronewte. 604 use of; 55 ihaft work, 327
<&irimcies of, 336335 sperifieatiuns for, 604 Safety haaards, in plant design, 632-635 Sharp-edged orifice, 503
enginr-driven, 301 Relative humidity, for design, 27 information on mechanical, 635 ihpar tests for soil. 596
fisr-s1t.p cleerance control for. 308 Relntire roughness of pipe. 444 Sanitarv wastes. disnosal of, 580 $hearing load in foundations, 615
lubrication ofl 306-307 Kelnlse for fabriration, 113 Sanitary water, 553- Sheet piling, 592
motw-drir-cn, 299 Rdief valves. description of. 425 Scaffolding,667 Ihell-nnd-tube heat exchangers, 216220
parts of. 304306 design basis. 643444 Scale, in boilers, 549 shell plates, 189
regulation of, 307 discharge rntes of. 645 in cooling-water systems, 549 Shell-side pressure drop, 239
t y p oi,
~ 29~304 discharge systems far, 645446 prevention of, 552 ihellers, for eonstmction, 658
selection of drives for, 308710 in pump piping, 295 Scales for drawings, 100, 115 for process equipment, 624
steam-d~.ivenduplex, 298 piping for, 646-647 Schedule numbers of pipe, 398 ihielded are welding, 188
suetion ralvr unloatl~rsfor, 308 Relieving dcriees, conditions requiring. Schedule preparation. 90 Shipment of products, 576
tut.hine-driven. 301 64.L644
~ - .--
- Schedule sheet, 86,87 Shipper, 37
two-slngr, 201) Research Ixboratot~ies,derign of, 623 Scheduling departments, 100 Shipping, costs oi. 36
Rwiprorating pumps, actual rapacity of, Reset, 535 Scheduling drafting manhours. 99 instructions for, 130
2.57 Resistanec of vslrcs and fittings. 446 Scheduling foundstion work. 593 Shipping lengths, for piping. 462
air chnmher.s for, 256 Resistance thermomcter, 514 Schematic drarving of an eiertrieal sys- fur vessels, 40
applirstion oi. 249 assentbly of. 514 tem, 558 Shoes, definition of, 457
rlnssifimtiou of. 250
rv1iuilpt.s fa!.. 253
-
ranee of.,~~
514
Return on investment, 55
Sohematic flow diagrams, 55, 64
Suope of work, changes in, 4
fat. supporting equipment, 627
Shop drawings, description of, 107
flangrr for. 256 Reynolds numbcr, 227, 280, 285, 442, 501 Screwed bonnet valve, 414, 415 far structural steel, 113
rnatwinls of construction ior. 250 ior rentriiugal pumps, 285 Screwed fittings, 412 for vessels, 211
merhnnical efficirncy of. 259-260 for orifire me& 501 See, water, use of for cooling, 552 Shop-fabricated pipe, practices far, 110,
parking ior, 254-255 Ridgway's approximation of compressor Seal ail pump for centrifugal compres 111
parts oi. 253 xwrk, 342 sors, 324 typirid rules for, 461
piston and plungcr tvper of. 251-253 Rigging techniques. 663 Seal oil systems, 276 Shop iabrieation, of pipe. 666, 667
piston rods for, 254 Right-angle comprPsor, 302, 303 Sealing liquid, 275 o i ICPSCIS,195
recommenricd piston speeds for, 257- Ring-joint flange racing, 407 Sealing oil, 276 Shop testing of pipe; 464
258 King-wall foundation, 587 Seamless pipe, 395 Shopping facilities, effect on plant lorn.
airing of. 256 Riveting of st,ruetnml steel, 662, 663 Seat of valve, 417 tion, 17
thcor~tiealcapacity of, 256 Rivets, detecting faulty, 663 Secretarial help, 151 Shops, design of, 623
valves forl 254 Roads, sniety hazards rrcated by. 636 Sectional pipe inmletion, 483 Shurt-cut mcthods of heat exchanger de-
r a ~ u m ~ t r ~fficiency
ie for, 257 Roadways, in pmeess plants, 577. 659 Security for process plants, 581 sign, 243
Rccrpation renter, design of, 621 suggested width of, 577 Sedimentation cquipment, 391392 Shunt-wxmd motor, 351
Recreation facilities, effect on plant loen- Roller ~xpander.225 Sedimentation tests, 392 Sipdcr and Tale equation, 228
tiun oil 18 Kpm effect of on centrifugal compr.essor Segmental b d e s , 221 Signals, standard for derrick operntiaus,
Reducer, 409.411 performance. 337 Selection, of insulation, 479 664
Re-cntry nozzle. 361 Rotameters, desc~.iptionof, 506 of pipe materials, 402 Signaling, elcetricd systems far, 538
Ref~t.encelocation. 597 effect of changing float weight on, 507 of pump types, chart for, 249 Silica refraetorics. 485
ReflwAive insulation, 475, 479 floa equation for, 506 of pumps, 291 Similarity of flow, 280
R ~ i r n c t o r n e t ~ r528
r, Rotary cornpressom and blowers. 318 Seli-supporting towrrs. design o i foot- Simplex pump. 251
Refractories, 484-490 Rotary-liquid piston compressor, 319. 320 ings for, 612-615 Single-phase induction motor. 354
selection of, 484485 Rotary pumps, 290 Senii-closed impellers, 271 Single-stage hlowrrs, 314
types 06 485 Rotation, of ecntriiugal pump, 268 Semi-open impellers, 265.271 Single-stage cmlrifugal pumps, 272
Reirartory brirk, characteristics of, 4 8 6 of induction motors. 354 Seriee-wound motor, 351 Single-suction centriiugal pnmpa, 270
AX7 Routing fluids in shell-and-tub? cxchang- Service connections for IIUSP, 459 Site, sac Pliml site and plant loration
inatnllatian of, 489 ers, 242 "Servo" wstem, 537 p~.cparationof. 658
typical shapes of, 48-89 Ron-off. for design of surface drains, 579 Set prassure, of relief vah s i . 647 irlcrtion of. I8
Refrigeration. principles of, 347 Rupture disks, design basis for, 643-644 Settlement of foundations, 610 Sizing str:tnt rylindexs for purups, 261
Refusal, 591 disehnrgc rntes of. 645 Sewer systems, 578 Skidding I;trpe equipment, 664
Regulation, of centrifugal and axial com- S m w s , dcaign of, 578 Skil.ts, 194
pressors and blo~vet.~. 318 manhole for, 579 Slab floors, 626
688
Sliding-vanr type comprcsror, 318
Slings irn liiting nylindneal equipment
666
Slip. of elcclxic motors, 353
of rcripmeating pumps. 257
of rater? p u m p 290
Slip-on flanges, 404
Slump teat far ronwetc. 603
Snlotht?riag gl:ind on ecntniugnl polnp.
276
Snow conditions fut. dcuign, 27
rinow load, 628
Yorket-rvrlding flmgc. 406
Soil. annlysir of. 596597
bearing riiparitp oi. 6%
d c r t oi un ioun<l;ttiondceign h:eis. 611
csperts on. 597
inrestigalions of. 593
prafiles o f . 5%
sarnplc oi, 596
Soil prciaurc, nllo\rnlrlp, 596. 612
Imianth a footing. 5%
Solid ~r-astcs,disposal oi, 580
Soot h l o w ~ r r570
. compressors, 307
Spacings between haanrdaus p~oeeas
units, 636
Spare pumps, selection of, 293
Specialty cnginecring, 101
Spccifir speed, for rentl.ifugal punrpr.
263-265, 284-285
Specifiration sheet for pumps, 2V2
Speeifie,ztians, far ronrretc. 6 a '
for equipmmt. 58
for structural steel, 6 2 i 4 2 9
nomenr:lntur~iar piping, 453
prcparutian ui ior piping, 463
Spceifying pumps, 291
Speed; cnlrrd:~tionoi, ior erntriiogd cow-
pressor. 343
contlol oi. on slenm t,u~.hines.364
effect oi, on centt.iiugal compl?*sw
pcriotmxmcr. 337
effect of, on eent~ifugalpump
nnee, 281
selection of, for cenbl.iiugnl eompl.es-
.;om. 33i-338
Spherical tanks, 575
Sphwiral ~ e s w l s ,stwsses on, 197
Sphwoidal tanks, 575
Splasli-pl.ooi motor. 356
Split-phase motor, 354
Spool, definition oi. 457
Spool numbers, definition of, 457
for pip?, 667
w ~585-586 1
Spread i o o t n ~ y ~d .t ~ r ~ p t ,d,
&sign "i. 611415
cxsnlule &rign ui. 613415
Index lndex 689
Slfing hanger. 432
Spur tracks in pmews plants, . 5 i i L j i 8
Square-edged orifice, 503
S q i m e iaotings. 586
.
examnlr ralculatmns for. 368 ( Stuffing box paekmg, for reeiproeatmp,
!
~~~
Square pitch, J !%
~~
rste oi steam for.366 pumps, 254
Squirrel-cage motor, 352353 ptenrn ronsumption o f , 366368 Sohrontraetor. in purchase orders. 130
Stages, caleulntion of number. for centtii- use on centrifugal compwsrars and Suhcooling in condensers. 235
ugnl compresor, 343 b l o w ~ r rof. 317 I'
Y~~I~s,lriar.i.mil inrestigntions. 5W
Stairways, slope of, 640 ~ . 301
us? on rccipl.ornting r n m p l - t ~ r ,cii. Su/~sorf:wr~ W R ~ I T . loration o f . 595
Stalling prcsure of reciprocating pumps. Steel taper pilps. 590 ! Swtion headers for pumps. 295
---
295 Steel structurps. basis for desizn oi, 627-
~ ~
Suction piping ior pumps. 294-295
Standard instrument symbols, 71 629 ; Stllwrlirnlvi;. conwetion tylir of. 570
Stundanl notes on purchase order, 128 Stem oi mlvc. 114
Stund;<rcipipe sizcs, 397 Step-control for r e r i p l . o c h ~ gcornpros-
Srnmlrrd welding symbols, 211, 212 sors. 308
5l;tmlnrds. iox nmtolr. Sationsl Elrctri- Storage, location oi. 31
ml M:innfartwers .I~iuuintinn, of raw r n a t e d s and prodwt*. Q 4
349. 355, 356 oi solids. 576
i w shcll-and-tube cxcllm~gr~s. 223-224 Stomge tanks, foundations f m . 587
Tubular Exchanger Manuiactnrcc's .is- St,raight-tube, box-headw-typ~ water
sori;ltion, rpromrnendd fouling tube boiler. 563 Surge d r r ~ r r w i oiwil,tiwit~ing 1.011111111~-
factors, 286 Strain gagc. 518 .or.. 3a3
Start-and-stop control for reeipl.ocating Strainer ior p~rmps.295 S~n11lucnuctc~.iali,linndling of. 181
Stwam nnalyiis, 524 S ~ i n xd ~ w k\ : ~ l \ c ,41:).
. $21
St:trtcw for alternating-cul.~.ent mutors, Stwarnline flow, 228
355 Stress, allowable, for structures, 628
Starting, of altemat,ing-curvent motors. walking, 199, 201, 208
355 design enlenlations tor. 438440
of induction moto~.s,354 due to dead weight wind loads. 203
of synchronous motors, 354 in ioondatione, 615
Static elcetrieity, protection from, 639 in piping, 435.436
S1:rtiaticnl iniornmtion ior plant location limits oi for reinfor.cinr steel. 604
studies, 19-24
Steam cylinder diameter, enloulation oi, ., .. ...
far reeiprorating pumpn, 261 on sphrrc under. inlermrl press11r.r. 197
Strum cylindem, 254 variation with configuletion of piping. Tnhulatinn of h i d . 127. 128
Stcnm distribution systems, 571673 439 Tnehomctc~~s. 523
Str;im-d~i\.en reeiprorhting comprewx, Stress relicring of vrssels. 194 Tnngentinl stlasws. 11%
298 Sttueturnl clenrnnrca, 520 Txnk g:rging. 499
S t ~ n meencrators. auxiliaries for. 568 Sttuctural design. 103 T;~nk-.dwign u i iminhtions for. 616
oprrating ranges oi, 567 Stl.uctural details. 113 dorsgr of, 5il-575
1 p:dageri. 565-566 Structural drawings. 113 T:N o~.dil~ani.t.i,
effwt on pI:mt loration.
I rcleotion oi, 556568 Strnetnml shapes, commonly used typw 1 R1
1 stnndatdized. 565-566 of, 630
typcr ai. 5 6 1 4 7 1 design formulas ial.. 629
Tclrgramr, 149
I
Steiiln lines, typical ~ v l e sfolr 461 mntprials used i o r 630
Steam i,owrl., 560 Structural stcel. detail dtwvines.. ni., 101 Telrphane. use oi, 151
Strnnr smothering, 648 erection oi, 662 .. 148. 150
Tclrtrnr.
Steam traps, rh:iructeristics oi, 427 rnnrking oi, 662 Ternperntul.~nmawring instruments.
description of. 426428 piles of. 591 507-515
listing oi, 428 safety rulrs in design far, 690 nsud industrial rang<! o f , 508
piping fipecifiration ior. 170 Strurtures, basis for design oi, 627-629 Temperature riw, allownhle ior motor?.
speciiying of. 427 partially enclosed. 624 358
types of. 426 totally anclosed. 61&824 mlrulation of ior cornprssmn, 335. 344
Sleaui tut.binrs. ;fij~pl~c~al~uni ili. 363 unenclosed, 624429 effiricncy ior centrifugal rompt.essors,
d c u l ; wu
~ ~ h r , 365 Stuh end for lap joint. 401 :<R3
Stu! halt !or flanges, 407 of cooling wltcr. 549
690 Index
Temporary buildings, 658
T r m i n n l companies, 11
Terms oi L>ayment,125
Test curve for centriiugi pnnlp. 2i!)
Twting of pipu. firld. 463
shop, 461
T ~ s t - :of rqoil,mcnt. sce typr o i equip-
ment
Theoretical work of compression. 327
Thet.nul uc~ndurtivitymeter, 530
Thermal eonduetirities, of t.eirartol.y and
insulating fire hriuk, 485
of thermal insttlntorr, 479
Thernmconplp rircuita, 511
Tlirmocouple combinations, 511
Th~rmocuuple errors, minimizing of,
512
Thrt~nououplewells, 512
Tl~ennoeo~qiles, range oi, 510
Thcnno-rlcctrie trmpcrtature mr;~auring
inztt.ummts, 510-515
Therrnu-syphon r~tmilers,2111, 220
Thermometers, solid mpnniion type oi,
507
fluid expansion in, 508-510
Thicktnrl.~.*stirnation of requityd area
and volume for, 392
test3 oi, 392
Thickness calculation, ior pipe, 398
ior vessels, 199,201, 205
Thick-walled vessels, 201
Thin-walled vessels, definition oi, 196
Threaded flange. 406
Threndcd pipe joints, 402
Throttling hellows, 533
Throttling, eont1.01 of stemn turbinrr;,
364, 365
Thrust hearings on ccntriiugd pumps,
27G271. 274
Ti& :wditians, for design, 28
Titrimetrrs, $27
Toe plates, 640
Ton of reiriget~tion,347
Tanguc-nnd-groove flange facing. 407
Tool room. for eonstrurtian, 658
Topug~.aphy,eNert on plant saipt?, 635
Top-suction, top-disrharge centrifugal
pllmps. 269
Tornado frequency, ioi design, 27
Totally mclosctl motors. 356
Tower hasc plates. 211
Tower, self-supporting, 585
Toxie chemicals, iniorrnation on, 634
Toxic concentrations of chemirals, typi-
cal. 640
Toxic fluids, pumping oi, 277
Trade terms, 126
Index 69 1
T~xuafet.pumps, 5i6 Yalres. clectrirally operated, 538 Vessels, saiety ~ u l r sin rlcagn ior tanks
Tran-mittnl letters, 142, 148 rrrrcrgenry. 648 and, 637, 638
Transrcrse fins, 215 estimation of prices ior, 450 skptch 01,206. 210
Triangular pitch, 225 flow characteristics ior, 418-419 Vibration in piping, 435
Trickle coolers, 223 list? ior, 453 isolntian of. 587
Trombone coolers. 223 loration oi, 458.638 Viscosity i,orrertion curve? for rentrifugd
Truck shipments and plant location, I1 namenclntu~.efor, 414 pump perfurnlancc. 286
Tube hundlr: nssrnibly oi. 224 parts of. 414 Viscous fluids. pumping oi. hy rotary
Tubing, 398 reciprocating pump typcs of. 254 pumps, 291
Tuhula~.exchanger, Manuiartnring :Isso- seat for. 417 Vitrified tilr, installation of. 660
ciation Standards ior. 223-224 symhols for pipes and. 70 Voltape rztings for motors, suggestrd,
Turbine drirps. ior imtriiugal compres trim for, 417 359
,. sow and blowrrs, 317
Iurbine pumps. 291
Vapor hat.riers for all insolation. 483
Vapor-filled thermometw 509
Voltages. typival, for equipmml. 559
for power distribution. 557
Torbinea. 361-371 Vegetable cork insulation. 475 Volumrtrir pffici~nry, for rrriprocating
piping at, 461 Velocity-compounded tnrhine, 302 rumpressors, 332
arw also types Vrlority diagr;<ms of r m t r i i n g ~ lpump., with nrttinl gases. 341
stcwm classification oi, 361 280 ior rwiprocntmg pumps. 257
Tnrhtiirnre at orifice. 504 Veloritics. ior stcam distribution piping. Volute-type multistage c r n t d u g a l pomp,
Turbdcnt flow. 228 572 272. 273
T w - c y r l r rngines for camprrssor drives. reasonable ior process lines. 447
302 I.ena contraeta, 502 \\:nrchouses, design of. 623
Two-font. cxulnmg*rs, 218 V~ndor-prints,106 iol. eon~tnwtion.658
Ttru-lnipcller blowers, 319 filing and ilis(rihution oi. 108 \\:nstc rlispoanl, 14.5XO-581
Two-position control, 532. 533 identilic::~tion u(. 109 I\-tisto-brat hoillws, 566
Two-wt>eel turbine, 361 submission oi, 109 IVaste products, as fnels. 554. 556
Typing, on drawings, 117 uac in iorlndntmn &sign of, 607 IVatcr, as a fire extinguishing agent,
V~ndors.rrlations with. 123 ,548
- -~~
Ultimate st,rrngth of concrete. 602 Vmtilnting systems, &sign of, 261-262, rornrnon inpuritirs in. 546548
Ultraviolet photometer, 527 642-643 information on. far ilcsign. 28
Unbsltinrcd iorrrs. effect oi, on founda- Ventilntiun, for rumfort,. 642 sources of, 548
tion design, 616 for snfety rvasoni;. 640 t~rnpornrysupply of. iol. constrnrtion,
Underground iaeilities. instnllntion of. loculized, 641442 659
660 oi cornmpssor huildines. . . 325 \Vrrter-heitring strata, 600
Untlet.gronnd lines, 458 of pump housrs, 293 \Vnter-cement ratio. 602,605
Union bonnet valve, 415 requir~mentsfor, 641 Rntrr-cuuled txaring housings, 275
I:nions, iar labor. 655 Vents. fittings for. 192 \Vatpi liot~s~powcr. 259
i m pipe, 402 ior tanks. 574 \Tatel. jacket. 276
1-ntt plot plans, drscription of. 82-84 Venturi meter, 502-5(W \Yater-proof motor. 356
steps in preparation of, 84 Vertical cxehanget.s, 220
Vertically-split casings ior r.rntiiiugal
.
Water secmee.- 600
G.S. Grodetic suwey datum, 398 \V:ttcr-softening proeesrra, comparison oi,
Vtillty companies, porrlrsse of power pump, 269 548.55W51
from, 15 Vessel design, development of, 211 \Vater sources. and plant location, 13
... d ~ t a i l r dmechaniral, 210 investigation of, I4
t,tlLt:. water. 563
IJtilitirs. see type example of, 207 Wat~r-tuhchoilrrs, 563
lowtiun o i generating pk.'.? to mini- selrrting materials o i rnrrsll-wtinn for, \Taler transportation nnrl plant location,
209 12
mize hazards fat.. 636
setting hnsic dimensions for. 2W Ratcr usage of plumbing fixtures. 580
primary, 54.5
theory oi. 195-197 \Vaternaya, 12
U-tohes. 221
Vessel drawings, 112,2W211 \Vrat.ing rings, advantages of. 272
standard details for, 211 for casing, 272
!'-angle rompr.esmr, 302, 305
Ve.4 insulation, dctnils of. 112 ior impeller, 272
Vacuum fquipment selrrtion chart, 323
procedure ior. 481 on centriiugal pumps, 271-272
Vacuom gages. 518
Vpssels, fabrication of. 187-3116 Kcather, data iot. ronstructiun pro~crts,
Vacuum pumps, 322
heads oi, 190 26
Valves, 413426
installing of large rertwal. 665 pNwt on plant location, 16
:wrrssihility of, 435
internal8 of. 192 effect on plant safety, 635
classification ai, 414

are. 18.8
iaoll3-. 189
of wa-el-. 188
of stntrtrli-al steel. 663
Wclding r.fli~.icneies,allowable, 2 M
Welding fillinpi, 409
\Velding neck flanges, 404
\Velds. detwling faults in, F63
Wet-seal gas Iroldel., 3 5
Weymouth'r equation, 452
Williams plot ior steam turhinrs, 36i-
368, 369
Wind, iol. dehign purpoars, direction of,
2i
orertirrnillg nroment produced by, 586
pressure oi, 613
iol dcrigu, 2 i
Wing r.slot~s.254-255
\Virinp diapmms, 114
\Vood-composite pile. 590
\Voud, use of, in pilrs. 589
Work; calculation oi. for cumprcssors.
327, 346
for pumps, 259. 278
for str;uu tnrhinr;, 366
iar rnultistsgr i.omprriso~..330
PI. stage for ccntriinenl cornpveisor.
338
\Vork of eomprei~ion,h;iwI on irlu:il gar
law. 3 2 9 3 3 0
ex:~mulrcalculation of. 345-348