Hundreds of Sheet Metal parts form the Car body

Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing
Process

Non Metals
Metals (Injection
moulding)

Joining
Shaping (welding,
riveting)

Material
Melting
removal
(Casting)
(machining)

Plastic
others
deformation

Bulk Sheet
forming
forming
Stretch
Deep drawing forming
Forging Extrusion, wire
drawing Shearing,
Rolling bending etc.
 Bulk forming and sheet forming

Low -> Bulk forming

http://bharatforge.com/facilities/forging.html

High-> Sheet metal forming

https://www.thyssenkrupp-steel-europe.com/en/press/press-releases/press-release-6553.html
 Work of deformation
Uniaxial tension
Plastic
True Stress,

True Strain,


= .
0

+1
= . = = =
+1 +1
0

Assuming Holloman relation, =

=
+1
 Work of deformation

Multiaxial
Plastic Effective Stress,

Effective Strain,


+1
= . = =
0 +1
Load required for (= average load
= deformation
= . A A= instantaneous area)
+1

W here refers to the ideal work required to deform a material to a given

shape

= 1 . 1 + 2 . 2 + 3 . 3
 Deformation efficiency
(a) to (b) - Ideal deformation

Ideal work - = 0
.

Additional work due to

Friction (by frictional forces)
Redundant deformation (c )- (b)

Total work= = + +

Efficiency= =

(a ) before deformation
(b) Ideal frictionless deformation
(c) Actual deformation Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials
 Analysis of deformation processes
Slab analysis
Slip line field theory
Upper and lower bounds
Finite element method

Material factors
Yielding (yield criteria), friction, temperature &
strain rate effect
 One of the oldest metal working operations (5000 BC)
Forging

Compressive forces
Applications
Automotive axles, crank shafts, wheels etc
Gears
Turbine disks
Valve bodies
Rails
And a lot more
Cold, warm and hot forging

Rolling Source (Wikipedia)

> 90% of all metals by metal working

>6 mm- plate and < 6mm- sheet

Various flat rolling and shape rolling

operations
 Roll flattening and spreading

Roll flattening

Need for camber

Spreading

Need for edger mill

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials

 Defects in rolling
Camber defects

Insufficient camber (a):

edge wrinkling (b),
warping (c), centerline
cracking (d),
and residual stresses
(e).

Hosford, Metal forming :Mechanics and Metallurgy

 Defects in rolling
Camber

Effects of over-cambering (a): wavy

center (b), centerline splitting (c),
edge cracking (d), and
residual stresses (e).

Hosford, Metal forming :Mechanics and Metallurgy

 Direct
EXTRUSION

Indirect

Direct

http://www.allproducts.com/manufacture97/opoint/showroom1.html
http://www.designworldonline.com/misumi-highlights-its-aluminum-extrusions-and-accessories-at-atx-west-2010/#_
http://www.alproextrusions.com/
http://lakelandplastics.com/about-us/guidelines/
 Defects in extrusion
Surface cracking
High temp, friction and velocity
Reduce billet temp & speed

Extrusion defect (piping)

Drawing impurities to centre
Modify flow pattern, control friction, remove surface scale

Internal cracking
Secondary tensile stress
proper die geometry and extrusion variables
Text in italics and blue font indicates solutions

http://vosbltd.com/images/Extrusion%20Defects/pdf2.PDF
Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials
 Wire and rod drawing
Drawing

Extrusion

Push force
Pull force
Friction b/w billet and container
No friction b/w billet and container
Usually hot working
Usually cold working

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials

http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-image-old-bicycle-wheel-grunge-wall-image39791771
 Sheet metal forming
Sheet metal forming is a process of imparting a desired
geometry to a work piece by plastically deforming it using a
set of tools (punch, die and blank holder)
Several processes shearing , blanking, bending, coining,
deep drawing, stretching, roll forming, flanging. etc.

Source: www.nd.edu/~manufact/pdfs/Ch16.pdf
 Sheet Metal Bending
Bending: In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or strip,
is uniformly strained around a linear axis which lies in the neutral plane
and perpendicular to the lengthwise direction of the sheet or metal

V-bending Edge bending

Sheet metal bending
 Bending

Bend allowance length of

neutral axis

Usually neutral axis no change in

length
w

= + = +
2

k=0.5 for larger bend radius (R/t

>2) and k=0.3 for small radii (R/t
<2)

Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed

 Bending strain
Assuming ideal case of no shift in neutral axis (k=0.5)

Bending strain

+ +2 /2 1
= = = =
+ 2+ /2 1+ 2/
2

R/t critical strain

(for a fixed t, sharp radius lead to failure)

https://www.ussteel.com/uss/wcm/connect/uss+internet+content+library+(english)/united+states+steel+internet/markets/automotive/adv
anced+high-strength/dual-ten+steels/automotive-adv+high-strength-dual-ten

failure
 Relation between R/t and tensile prop
Since R/t relates to strain, R/t can be correlated to fracture strain
100
Let % RA = r = 100 ; 1 = 100 0 = 100
0 0

1 0
Bending strain =e= 1+ 2/ ; Natural strain, ln = ln(1 + )

0 100 1 +
= 1 + indicates 100 = 1 + 1+ = + /2
2/

100 + 2 = 100 +

50
= 1

60
Experiment fit, = 1

 V bending

width of the opening at least 8 t (t =thickness)

Angle of the V bend can be changed by varying
the distance of the punch (air bending)
Radius of bend 1/8 of width
Wide range of material and angles can be
formed
Bottoming- 3 to 10 times pressure as air
bending
V bending
 Springback in V bending

Upto 2 deg for soft

metals and upto 15
deg for hard metals

Coining at punch
corner
Springback reduction in wiping die
 Bending force

2
=

F bending force ;
K=1.33 when die opening is 8t,
1.2 when die opening is 16t;
0.67 for U draw bending
L=length of bent part
S= Ultimate Tensile Strength
W= width between contact points
 Problem
Calculate the bending force for 45 bend in
24ST3 aluminium,1.6 mm thick and 1.22 m
long, with a die opening eight times the metal
thickness. The bend is to be made by air
bending methods.
DRAWING
Drawing : This is a process of a forming a flat work piece into a hollow
shape by means of a punch, which causes the blank to flow into die
cavity

(a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal from flowing
freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in
drawing
Typical setup
Deep drawing

If h/d > 0.5, then

its deep drawing
Stages in deep drawing
Metal flow during deep drawing
 Deep drawing factors

Punch radius-4 to 10 times

metal thickness; for lesser
radius, restrike

Draw radius-4 times thickness,

excessive radius lead to
wrinkling
Shallow draw without blank
holder- 6 to 8 times thickness
Draw radius nomograph
 Deep drawing - % reduction
D

P=( D-d)*100/d
P- percent reduction d

Theoretical max P- 50%; better to h

restrict to 40%
 Deep drawing no of stages
h/d is another indicator of deep drawing

Max h/d per stage 0.75

If h/d > 0.75, introduce another stage

Blank size determination
Aluminum Two-Piece Beverage Cans
Top of Aluminum can
Metal-Forming Process
for Beverage Can

The metal-forming
processes involved in
manufacturing a two-
piece aluminum
beverage can
Shearing

Shearing, blanking,
trimming, piercing, fine
blanking..
wikipedia
 Shearing - clearance

Clearance important role

Excess clearance leads to tensile pulling of material into die

Source: Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed
 Shearing process- Force

Punch force depends upon

Material shear strength
Cross section area

Empirical relation
= 0.7

t=sheet thickness
L=shear length

Source: Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed
Cutting force calculation - Blanking
A mechanical press of maximum 1 tons is used
to punch a square hole of 8 mm from an 1 mm
thick sheet. Find the feasibility for
Material A- UTS=400 MPa
Material B- UTS=600 MPa

Is it possible to reduce the cutting force

during blanking ?
 Reduction of blanking load

Stepped
punch

Shear on
tools
Upto 30% reduction in cutting force
possible in shear
Double shear better as it is balanced
Blanking- shear in die
Piercing- Shear in punch
Shearing
(a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing
and shaving, combined in one stroke.
Fine blanking

Shaving Trimming
 Tool design

http://calculusdesigns.com/press_tool_design.html Die, fixtures, layout etc..

 Sheet metal die design

Image source: http://www.thyssenkrupp-system-engineering.com/en/automotive-industry/prototypes/prototype-tools-parts.html

 Traditional die design

Die design

Die manufacturing

Tool tryout
FE based die design

http://www.deskeng.com/de/optimize-sheet-metal-forming/
http://www.autoform.com/en/products/autoform-diedesigner-plus/
Die set
Punch and Die mounted on punch
holder and die shoe respectively
Advantage alignment
At least 16 mm clearance to be
given between punch and guide
block for resharpening
Sufficient allowance in the die shoe
for mounting
 Types of dies- few eg

Punch attached to die shoe and die to

punch holder
Advantage :
1) Less bending and useful in thin sheets

Disadvantage
1) High cost
 Progressive die

Many stages are

combined in a single
die.
Each station has one
operation done in the
strip.
Station to Station
distance constant
Disadvantage- less
support
 Compound die

Multiple
operations in a
single station
Slower than
progressive die
Closer
tolerance
Small press for
large
components
 Combination die

Similar to
compound
die.
Difference-At
least one non-
cutting
operation is
combined
 Stamping press
Sheet metal working tool with a stationary bed and a powered
ram driven towards the bed or away from the bed to apply
force or required pressure for various metal forming
operations

Components of a typical mechanical drive stamping press

 Components of Presses
A frame: that supports the
bolster (2) that is a plate attached
to the bed. The bolster has tapped
holes, T-slots, or other means for
attaching the bottom die to the
press.
A drive mechanism (3) that
moves the slide (4) at a right
angle to the bolster

The Gibs (5) that guide the

reciprocating motion of the slide
and ensure the parallelism of the
slide to the bolster
 Metal forming press

Press: Machine tool that apply force to change

the shape of metal
Classification of presses Frame type
Mechanism C frame
Hydraulic OBI etc
Mechanical
Function
Stamping, forging, press brake
No. of slides
Single action
Double action
Triple action
 Different press frames

Open Back Inclined (OBI)

C frame
Open Back
Widely used for blanking and
piercing of small work pieces
 Mechanical press
A mechanical press drive
consists of an electric motor, a
flywheel, a clutch/brake, a
drive shaft, a connection (also
called a pitman arm or
connecting rod), and a slide
(ram) guided by the gibs.

Depending on the design, a

press may have gear set(s) to
reduce the speed and
increase the torque
Drives in mechanical press
Drives in mechanical press

(a) Simple crank drive (b) slide motion

 Crank drive
Crank link is attached to a drive shaft
Crank link rotates with the drive shaft and is attached to a connecting rod
by a rotational joint
Connecting rod rocks back and forth during the motion of the crank
The ram operates in a slider joint and travels a one dimensional path in both
directions
 Eccentric drive
Motor drives an eccentric shaft, rotating in a connecting rod
The connecting rod moves a ram in a slider joint
As the motor rotates, the center of the drive remains stable but the overall
center of the shaft changes. This causes the shaft to change position, providing
motion
 Knuckle drive
The knuckle joint press translates the energy of a motor through a powerful
linkage design, and is capable of delivering a tremendous amount of force
The drive shaft crank rotates completely. The links are well grounded to
support such pressure
 Rack and pinion drive
The rack and pinion press delivers the
motors energy from a gear directly
connected to the drive shaft
The rack is actually a round gear of
infinite radius
A rotating gear (pinion), provides force
through the rack. This gives the one
dimensional, translational motion
desired of press machines
 Screw drive
It uses rotational energy of a motor to turn
a large screw.
Typically, a friction disk is used to translate
the force from the drive shaft to the screw's
head. The screw pushes a ram with great
mechanical advantage.
Screw presses are similar to hydraulic
presses in that they are relatively slow and
require a longer contact with the work.
Some screw press machine tools in modern
industry can produce 31,000 tons,
(62,000,000 lbs), of force.
 Gear Reduction
In mechanical press, to increase energy per stroke, gear reductions are used.

(a) Direct drive (non-geared), (b) single gear reduction-single end drive, (c) single gear
reduction-twin end drive, and (d) double gear reduction.
Single ,double and triple action press

Double action
Single action
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpHoKDkQ0FM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aoGvVC5QQbQ
 Selection criteria for stamping press
Type of forming operation, and dies and tooling required
Size and shape of work pieces
Length of stroke of the slide, stroke per minute, speed and shut height (distance
from the top of the bed to the bottom of the slide, with the stroke down)
Number of slides (single action, double action and triple action)
Maximum force required (press capacity, tonnage rating)
Safety features

Schematic illustration of types of press frames for sheet- forming operations

 Mechanical press Vs. Hydraulic press
The main difference between a hydraulic and mechanical press is the
drive mechanism
 Servo press
Main motor, flywheel, and clutch, replaced
with a servomotor that focused energy only
where needed and, in effect, made the ram a
controllable axis
The stroke, slide motion, slide position, and
speed are programmable to allow many
different combinations that can work with a
wide variety of dies, part types, and
production speeds
Servo press
 Injection molding
Injection molding is generally used to produce thermoplastic
polymers
 The plastic material is received by the molder in granular
form
It is placed in the hopper of an injection-molding machine,
from which it is fed to a heated cylinder
Mold defines final shape as material cools and solidifies
 Characteristics of injection moulding
process
Intricate parts in large quantities
One molded part can replace what would otherwise be an assembly
of components
Secondary finishing operations are not necessary
Suited for lower stressed application area
Housings and covers are common uses rather than, for example,
frames and connecting rods
Production must be large enough so that the mold cost can be
amortized over the quantity manufactured; >10,000 parts
 Design for Injection moulding

Gate and ejector pin locations

Surface finish of the part depends upon the location of gate

and ejector pin

Ejector pins usually located on the underside of a part if it has

an both outside and an underside

Gates can be located in a number of locations

 Various Gating Systems in Injection
moulding

In case of round and cylindrical parts center gating is preferred and for
large area parts near center-gating is recommended
 Design guidelines

Maintain uniform wall thickness and avoid abrupt change in wall thickness and make it
gradual change
Design guidelines

Minimum spacing for holes and sidewalls

Design guidelines

Minimum spacing for holes and sidewalls

 Design guidelines
Through hole is preferred than a blind hole
Hole in the bottom of the part is preferable than the side
Blind hole should not be more than two diameters deep. If the diameter is
1.5 mm or less, then one diameter is recommended

Recommended depth limits for blind holes.

 Design guidelines
To increase the depth of a blind hole steps are
used thereby enabling employment of stronger
core pin

If a blind hole must be deep, use a stepped diameter

 Design guidelines
For through holes, cut-out sections in the part can shorten the
length of a small diameter pin

Improved design on the right provides better rigidity of the mould core pin
 Parting line rules
Parting line should not adversely affect the appearance or function of
the part
It is preferred to keep the parting line at the edge of the part where
already a sharp edge exists.
If it is not possible to keep the parting line at the edge, a bead on the
parting line facilitates removal of the mould flash

Not this This or This