Artificial Intelligence Survey - Paper

Artif Intell Rev (2014) 42:79156
DOI 10.1007/s10462-012-9330-6
Applications of quantum inspired computational

intelligence: a survey
A. Manju M. J. Nigam
Published online: 9 May 2012

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper makes an exhaustive survey of various applications of Quantum

inspired computational intelligence (QCI) techniques proposed till date. Definition, categori-
zation and motivation for QCI techniques are stated clearly. Major Drawbacks and challenges
are discussed. The significance of this work is that it presents an overview on applications
of QCI in solving various problems in engineering, which will be very much useful for
researchers on Quantum computing in exploring this upcoming and young discipline.
Keywords Quantum computing Quantum mechanics Computational intelligence
Abbreviations
ANFIS Adaptive neuron-fuzzy inference system
AQM Adaptive quantum mutation
ASVR Adaptive support vector regression
ACO Ant colony optimization
AF Artificial fish
AFSA Artificial fish swarm algorithm
AI Artificial intelligence
BP Back propagation
BPNN Back-propagation NN
BWGC BPNN-weighted grey-C3LSP
CS Clonal selection
A. Manju (B) M. J. Nigam

Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee 247667, India
e-mail: manju.senthil@gmail.com
M. J. Nigam
e-mail: mkndnfec@iitr.ernet.in
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80 A. Manju, M. J. Nigam
CGPQGA Coarse-grained parallel QGA

CI Computational intelligence
CET Contemporary evolution target
DE Differential evolution
DPSO Discrete binary version of PSO
EDAs Estimation of distribution algorithms
EA Evolutionary algorithms
EC Evolutionary computation
FQN Feedback QN
FCM Fuzzy C-means
FS Fuzzy system
GA Genetic algorithm
GD Gradient descent
HNN Hamiltonian NN
Hop.NN Hopfield NN
ICA Immune clonal algorithm
IS Immune systems
IMSCQGA Improved mutative scale chaos QGA
iPNN Integrative probabilistic evolving spiking NNs
IS Intelligent systems
K-SOFM Kohonens self-organizing feature map
LSQET Logarithmic search with quantum existence testing
MP Matching pursuit
ME Multi-granularity evolution
MLP Multilayer perceptron
NN Neural network
NQASVR Neuromorphic quantum-based adaptive support vector regression
NGARCH Nonlinear generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity
NQGA Novel QGA
PSO Particle swarm optimization
pSNM Probabilistic spiking neuron model
QoS Quality of service
QAM Quantum associative memory
Q bit Quantum bit
QBP Quantum BP
QCEA Quantum clone EA
Qu.Cl Quantum clustering
QCBPN Quantum complex-valued BP neuron
Qcomputer Quantum computer
QC Quantum computing
QEP Quantum evolutionary programming
QFSM Quantum finite state machines
Qgate Quantum gate
QACO Quantum inspired ACO
QAFSA Quantum Inspired artificial fish swarm algorithm
QCI Quantum inspired computational intelligence
QEA Quantum inspired EA
QGA Quantum inspired genetic algorithm
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Applications of QCI: a survey 81
QNN Quantum inspired neural network

QPSO Quantum inspired PSO
QM Quantum mechanics
QMin. Quantum minimization
QN Quantum neuron
QDE Quantum-inspired DE
QEAs Quantum-inspired evolutionary algorithms
QISOM Quantum-inspired self-organizing map
QiSNN Quantum-inspired spiking NN
QT-BPNN Quantum-tuned BPNN
RBFNN Radial basis function NN
RQGA Real-coded QGA
RNN Recurrent NN
SOM Self-organizing map
SVMs Support vector machines
SA Swarm algorithm
vQEA Versatile QEA
1 Introduction
Computational intelligence (CI) is an offshoot of artificial intelligence which involves the

study of adaptive mechanisms to enable or facilitate intelligent behaviors in complex and
changing environments. CI comprises of collective effort in emerging, fundamental com-
putational paradigms unlike intelligent systems (IS), which covers all aspects of artificial
intelligence (AI) and focuses on the development of the latest research into practical, fielded
applications. CI depends upon numerical data supplied by manufacturers and does not rely
on knowledge. AI, on the other hand, uses knowledge derived from human expert. The
knowledge or intelligence exhibited from CI is self-emerging and spontaneous as opposed
to manmade and artificial from AI.
As coined by IEEE CI Society, Credited to Jim Bezdek, CI is defined as Any biologically,
naturally, and linguistically motivated computational paradigms include, but not limited to,
neural network (NN), connectionist machine, fuzzy system (FS), evolutionary computation
(EC), autonomous mental development, and hybrid IS in which these paradigms are con-
tained. Bearing the advantages like biologically motivated behavior (learning, reasoning,
or evolution), Parallel, distributed information processing and Mysterious power under real-
world complications, also suffers with drawbacks like Lack of qualitative analysis, Non-
repeatable outcomes, stochastic nature etc. Major advantages of CI, like broad applicability,
robustness to dynamic environments, self optimization capability, established its role as an
optimization and design tool in various fields.
Quantum inspired computing, an emergent research field introduced in 1995, concentrates
on studying quantum computing (QC) that is characterized by certain principles of quantum
mechanics (QM), combined with CI in order to solve engineering problems with cyclic or
recurrent behavior (Moore and Narayanan 1995). The theory of QC is related to a theory of
reversible computing, brings together ideas from classical information theory, computer sci-
ence, and quantum physics. QM was established during 19231927 through the endeavor of
Planck, Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, and Schrdinger and others. It is a mathematical frame-
work or set of rules for the construction of physical theories. Research on applying principles
of QC to improve the engineering of IS has been launched since late 1990s.
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As complexity of technology and various real world problems increase, new challenging
multi-combinatorial problems are emerging and consequently the quantum inspired com-
putational intelligence (QCI) applications are expected to be further enhanced. QCI has
been shown to offer good performance in solving a wide range of problems and many effi-
cient strategies have been proposed as improvement. In order to make a clear vision of the
improvements and applications for QCI practitioners and researchers, this paper attempts
to give a compendious and timely review by categorizing most of the publications on QCI
improvements and applications.
The scope of this survey paper is to comprehensively review QCI applications in the
design and optimization of various problems in the field of engineering and computers. With
no focus on the problem to be solved, interested on evolution and application aspect, the
authors could not formulate a generic model for the methodology. Despite the focus on the
survey of various applications of QCI techniques, we throw light on the pros and cons of
various methodologies. By this way the extended applicability of QCI for such a broad area
of problems is also demonstrated.
The paper is organized in the following sections. Section 2 gives a brief introduction of
QM introduced in to the different paradigms of CI. Section 3 reviews the motivations for,
with applications of various QCI techniques. Section 4 deals with Quantum inspired Hybrid
Algorithms and Sect. 5 with discussion and concluding remarks.
2 Quantum mechanics
As well briefed by Kaye et al. (2007), the belief that existed at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century about the correct laws of physics formulated by Newton and Maxwell, was
shaken in 1930s owing to the problems faced in trying to account for the observed results
of certain experiments. As a result, a new mathematical framework for physics called QM
was formulated, and new theories of physics called quantum physics was developed in this
framework.
QC pioneered by Feynman et al. (1965) is based upon physical principles from the theory
of QM, which is in many ways counterintuitive. But, still it is able to predict the outcome
of the results most accurately and has provided us with perhaps the most accurate physical
theory ever devised by science. Quantum physics includes the physical theories of quan-
tum electrodynamics and quantum field theory, but we do not need to know these physical
theories in order to learn about quantum information. Quantum information is the result of
reformulating information theory in this quantum framework (Kaye et al. 2007).
QC is based on the concepts of QM such as standing waves, quantum bit (Q bit), coher-
ence, Entanglement, Interference and superposition of states. In QM, the state of a physical
system is identified with a ray in a complex separable Hilbert space. The Hilbert space has a
set of states |i , that form a basis, and the system is described by a quantum state | which
is a linear superposition of the basic states. In general the coefficients ci are complex.

| = ci |i (1)
i
Dirac bra-ket notation is used, where the ket | is analogous to a column vector, and the
bra | is analogous to the complex conjugate transpose of the ket. The real Stupendous aspect
of QM theory lies in the physical interpretation of the Hilbert space and its basis, perhaps
leading directly to the counterintuitive aspect of existence of wave function , as a linear
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superposition of all basis states at the microscopic or quantum level. At the macroscopic or
classical level, the system can be in only a single basis state.
The smallest unit of information stored in a two-state quantum computer (Q computer)
is called a Q bit. It may be in the 1 state, in the 0state, or in any superposition of the two
(Hey 1999). The state of a Q bit can be represented as
| = |0 + |1 (2)
where, and are complex numbers that specify the probability amplitudes of the corre-
sponding states. ||2 gives the probability that the Q bit will be found in 0 state and ||2
gives the probability that the Q bit will be found in the 1state. Normalization of the state to
unity guarantees
||2 + ||2 = 1 (3)
The state of a Q bit can be changed by the operation of a quantum gate (Q gate). A Q gate is
a reversible gate and can be represented as a unitary operator U acting on the Q bit basis
states satisfying U+ U = UU+ , where U+ is the Hermitian adjoint of U. There are several Q
gates, such as the NOT gate, controlled NOT gate, rotation gate, Hadamard gate, etc. If there
is a system of m-Q bits, the system can contain information of 2m states. However, in the act
of observing a quantum state, it collapses into a single state.
Concepts of coherence, entanglement, and interference are well briefed by Ventura and
Martinez (1998). A quantum system is said to be coherent if it is in a linear superposition
of its basis states. Observance or interaction of such state with its environment will lead to
instantaneous choice among one of those states and collapse into that state and remains in
that state only. Such phenomenon of collapse is called as decoherence and is governed by the
wave function . The coefficients ci are called probability amplitudes, and |ci |2 gives the
probability of | collapsing into state |i if it decoheres. The wave function describes a
real physical system that must collapse to exactly one basis state. Therefore, the probabilities
governed by the amplitudes ci must sum to unity. This necessary constraint is expressed as
the unitarity condition.

|ci |2 = 1 (4)
i
Interference is a well-known phenomenon common to any kind of wave occurring while

it is traveling along the same medium. Constructive and destructive interference between any
two waves based on their in phase or out of phase condition will cause them to super impose
or cancel each other respectively. Youngs Double slit experiment validates the theory of
interference phenomenon to the probability waves of QM.
Entanglement is the nonclassical correlation that may exist between separated quantum
systems. Results of experimentation of entanglement are the facts which could not be disputed
still but found intuitive computationally. Bottom line of QC is the existence of correlations
between different Q bits as superposition states which when gets destroyed by measurement
or any other means, the proper correlation is somehow communicated between the Q bits.
However, from a physical standpoint, entanglement is little understood.
Inspite of sufficient understanding of the mathematics of QM, its physical interpretation
theory still remains in debate. Some of which includes: Copenhagen interpretation (Dirac
1958), Feynman path-integral formalism (Feynman and Hibbs 1965) and Many universes
(many-world) interpretation of Everett (1957), etc.
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3 Quantum inspired computational intelligence techniques
3.1 Quantum inspired neural network
Quantum inspired neural network (QNN) refers to NN models, relying on principles inspired
in some way from QM which could be classified into two classes. The class of QNN which
explicitly uses concepts from QC remains at purely theoretical level, as it requires a functional
Q computer to be implemented. Researchers have proposed some models where the neuron
is modeled like a Q bit and quantum associative memory (QAM). Another class includes
models of biological NN explaining the exceptional performance of biological brains by
employing concepts from QC and QM.
Quantum analog of NN was introduced by pioneers like Kak (1995) and Ezhov and
Ventura (2000) in which wave function was represented by a Neuron, Coherence & decoher-
ence by weights & evolution by attractor respectively, Entanglement by Learning rule and
unitary transformations by Gain function (Dirac 1958). Later relationships based on their
dynamics were discussed (Zhou et al. 2006a) thereby proving storage capacity (Zhou et al.
2007a; Zhou 2007). Investigations on Quantum analogues of the classical Logical NN, and
Probabilistic Logic Node were performed (Oliveira et al. 2008). These analogous discussions
led to quantum neural computing, QNN and QAM.
Motivation for QNN includes the essential role of Quantum processes played in living
brain, secondly the meticulous combination of NN with QC, leading to the increased prob-
ability of solving certain problems with ease in Q computer rather than the classical one.
Moreover QNN can be implemented conveniently using the present technologies thereby
reducing the downtime for Q computer to evolve.
Earlier in 1993, Matsuda (1993) introduced the concept of quantized values (e.g., integers)
in NNs rather than just binary values (i.e., 0 or 1) or continuous values (i.e., real numbers) for
solving combinatorial optimization problems without getting trapped into local minima. It
was observed that the number of neurons and connections between neurons, and computation
time decrease greatly in comparison with traditional methods. Later in 1997, Purushothaman
and Karayiannis (1997) interpreted quantum states superposition to propose QNN based on
multilevel activation function which is a linear superposition of sigmoid functions in the
hidden layer. Each sigmoid function has a different quantum interval. Mapping of Data to
various Quantum levels was accomplished by adjusting the Quantum interval, leading to the
inherent property for fuzzy judgment.
Meng et al. (2007) introduced ANN model based on Quantum Computational Multi-Agent
System (Klusch 2004) with reinforcement learning algorithm in which each neuron act as a
dynamic parallel computing agent to increase its speed, computational power and learning
ability. A predictive model of QNN, namely generalized QNN for non linear systems had
been developed based on PID NN and QC (Nan and Zhang 2008a,b).
An appropriate training algorithm will enable the multilevel activation function net-
works to apply for adaptive classification of the samples with fuzzy boundary
(Liu et al. 2007a,b; Wang et al. 2008a; Chen et al. 2007a; Zhu and Chen 2006; Zhu
and Wu 2007; Zhu and Sang 2006; Wu and Peng 2007; Li et al. 2002; Karayiannis and
Purushothaman 1994; Ding and Chen 2008; Tsai et al. 2005; Changqing et al. 2007; Teng
et al. 2007a; Huang et al. 2009a). Further complex classification problems in the field of
Bio-medical instrumentation were also dealt, like detection of EEG seizures (Aarabi et al.
2007; Karayiannis et al. 2006a, 2004; Karayiannis and Xiong 2005; Karayiannis et al.
2006b; Yu and Chen 2007; Shuyan 2008), & Premature Ventricular Contraction (Zhou
2003).
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Many other researchers in this direction, say systematic examination of QNN by Menneer
(1998), Entangled NN by Li (2000), Unitary gates implementation of QNN by Andrecut
and Ali (2002) and QAM to solve completion problems by Ventura and Martinez (2000),
have developed and emphasized the advantages of Networks integrated with QM. Based on
their observations we could list out various advantages of QNN. To name a few, its exponen-
tially increased memory capacity, relatively higher performance for lower number of hidden
neurons, expulsion of lethal forgetting due to the deficient pattern interference, single layer
network solution of linearly inseparable problems, faster learning, and that it can identify
overlaps between data due to their inherent ability to approximate any arbitrary membership
profile with any degree of accuracy. But it lacks a systematic way to determine the appropriate
model structure, having no localizability, and slow convergence like classical NN.
3.1.1 Back propagation NN
Back propagation (BP) suffers from two major drawbacks, namely network paralysis, trap-
ping at local minima and learning with slow convergence speed owing to adaptation of
gradient descent (GD) method to minimize the sum of the square errors between the desired
and actual output values, for which QC methods have been applied in an attempt to construct
an efficient supervised training algorithm. All the below proposed models are observed to be
superior over conventional NN.
Matsui et al. (1998) proposed Q bit inspired NN model and have constructed quantum BP
(QBP) learning rule. Superiority over conventional NN in Information processing task was
proven (Takai et al. 1998; Matsui et al. 1999) and Dummy inputs were removed as further
development of the model (Matsui et al. 2000a). The problem variables in QNN algorithm
were represented by using Many universes interpretation of Everett algorithm (Narayanan
and Manneer 2000). Characteristic features, such as the effects of quantum superposition and
probabilistic interpretation were investigated in Matsui et al. (2000b); Kouda et al. (2000,
2003, 2005a). Control parameters of the proposed model were phase parameters, threshold,
and the reversal parameter. Above model was applied by the same authors (Kouda et al.
2002a,b, 2005b, 2004; Mori et al. 2006) and other researchers (Zhao et al. 2006; Guowei
et al. 2010; Gao et al. 2010a) for solving various problems. Later this model was redefined
by including Quantum phase (Zhou et al. 2006b).
Li et al. (2002) established relationship between NN and QM using multilayer perceptron
(MLP) in which quantum neuron (QN) forms Hidden layer. Transfer function of QN could
be the superposition of K sigmoid functions shifted by a Quantum interval which would be
trained for the purpose. Error rate was decreased by more than 16%. Studies performed on
Quantum NNs in realizing XOR function shown the effectiveness of single QN in computa-
tion (Li and Zheng 2003). In Li et al. (2004a) the authors provided a new learning algorithm
for QN as in Altaisky (2001) where weight updation was considered, which was then rede-
fined by introducing a nonlinear and irreversible gate (Gupta and Zia 2002). A model of
feedback QN (FQN) was proposed in Li et al. (2005a). Subsequently Multiuser detection
(Li et al. 2005a,b, 2006a) and Speech recognition (Li and Xu 2009) problems were solved
by the authors.
Analogy property of the complex number with quantum state in quantum dynamic axiom
was employed in quantum complex-valued BP neuron (QCBPN) for pattern recognition
(Mitrpanont and Srisuphab 2002). Learning of complex numbers was performed using the
algorithm proposed by Nitta (1993, 1994). Experiments performed with different network
configuration and with varying learning rate on Benchmark data sets like XOR and TC pro-
vided average values such as minimum, maximum, average and standard deviation of the
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number of epoch and error leading towards accurate results. Results depicted the decrease in
error and number of iteration than BP.
A new learning model was presented in Q bit neuron with GD method by changing the
number of neurons (Maeda et al. 2005). Reducing the number of neurons was accomplished
conventionally in the output layer and a model of 3-Q bit neuron including a work Q bit in
input layer was proposed. Convergence rate and average iteration for learning for the number
of neurons in the output layer were examined by realizing XOR function.
Tsai with his co-workers employed logarithmic search with quantum existence test-
ing (LSQET) to tune a composite model comprising adaptive neuron-fuzzy inference
system (ANFIS) and nonlinear generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity
(NGARCH) (Tsai and Chang 2007). In Tsai and Chang (2008) proposed and validated
quantum minimization (QMin.) to tune the above model. The above model was employed
to constitute the relationship among various indicators while solving the timing problem.
Three remarkable nonlinear models, back-propagation NN (BPNN) (Haykin 1999), adaptive
support vector regression (ASVR) (Chang 2005), and QM (Durr and Hoyer 2005) tuning
ANFIS/NGARCH composite model (Chang 2006) were also provided in this study so that
the performance comparison among methods for the timing problem is compared quanti-
tatively. Above composite model (QM-ANFIS/NGARCH) was also applied to forecast the
flow of data packets around website (Chang and Tsai 2009a).
Also above authors introduced intelligent data fusion system for collision warning predic-
tion to overcome two crucial problems of the danger in driving drowsy and imprecise collision
warning due to perturbed input signal when processing the pre-crash warning (Chang et al.
2010a). Drowsiness of the driver was analyzed with a quantum-tuned BPNN (QT-BPNN)
(Chang et al. 2008a). BPNN was a MLP proposed in Chang et al. (2007) was activated
by Log-sigmoid transfer function in the hidden layer, and the pure-line transfer function in
the output layer. A quantum exponential searching algorithm proposed by Grover in 1996
(Grover 1996) was called by quantum minimum searching algorithm to be as a subroutine
to serve a fast database searching engine. Recently QNN was employed for classification of
data whose features were overlapped (Li et al. 2008a; Yu and Ma 2008; Zhang et al. 2010a).
3.1.2 Training algorithm
The inherent fuzzy judgment of QNN owes to multiple quantum-level activation function.
Hence an appropriate training algorithm could make the networks adaptive, despite fuzzy
boundaries. However many researchers have been working to improve the slow convergence
rate of QNN due to BP training which is prone to false saturation (Hou et al. 2007). A modified
Error Function for the Complex-Valued BPNN was proposed in Chen et al. (2005b), prone to
local minima due to saturation of the neurons in the hidden layer thereby becoming insensible
to the input signals and getting stuck into the extreme area of the activation function thus
blocking the propagation chain. An individual adaptive gain parameter BP algorithm was
presented to solve the problem of sticking into the local minima (Li et al. 2006b). The gain
parameter that was a constant in conventional BP algorithm is now modulated according
to the feedback from the output layer and effectiveness over complex valued BPNN was
demonstrated by applying for detection of symmetry problem and a real task
A training algorithm and structure based on multilevel activation function was formu-
lated with random link weights and thresholds, tuning of which using evolutionary algorithm
(EA) could improve the convergence rate (Ding and Chen 2008). The hidden layer activation
function was modified as linear superposition of arc tangent function and error saturation
prevention function (parabola) was constructed to improve the convergence rate.
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QBP algorithm proposed by Matsui et al. (2000b) was improved to form an ease imple-
menting QBPNN learning algorithm in which the gradient computation formula and the
input-output relationship of networks was presented clearly in Panchi and Shiyong (2008).
QN model was constructed, composed of input, phase rotation, aggregation, reversal rotation
and output where the input was described by Q bits, and the output was given by the prob-
ability of observation of the state |1. Universal Q gates performed the phase and reversal
rotations.
Learning using Quantum search techniques in which weights were represented by wave
function (Ventura and Martinez 2000) were analyzed in Ezhov et al. (2000), the problems
of which were overcome by employing Independent searching of weight vector in a random
fashion (Ricks and Ventura 2004). It was then applied for image watermarking purpose by
reducing it in to a classification problem (Hu 2004). Alternatively inputs represented by wave
function and weights by matrices were also used for modeling a Quantum M-P NN (Zhou
and Ding 2007).
Recently Altman and Zapatrin (2010) extended his own framework proposed in
Altman et al. (2004) where, not only neuron weights and transition functions, but also
linear superposition of the network topology itselfwas subject to training and revi-
sion within coherent state space, enabling it for application to a broad class of prob-
lems. Convergence was improved by the distinguishing concurrent training and optimiza-
tion of topology of the system. Switching between superposed linear networks to conven-
tional NN upon measurement was accomplished by employing Rota algebraic projection
formalism.
3.1.3 Hamiltonian NN
This is a class of Analog NNs having continuous time dependent state variables possessing an
energy function with Hamiltonian dynamics with necessary conditions. Researchers showed
that Signal Processing in QM could be achieved by Hamiltonian NN (HNN).
Studies performed on the performance enhancement of QNN paved way for gener-
ating the final Hamiltonian derived from synaptic weights and external bias, focusing
on the relationship between adiabatic evolution algorithm and Hopfield NN (Hop.NN)
(Sato et al. 2003). Simulation results on combinatorial optimization problem had proven
the neuron like behavior of Hamiltonian, the probability of optimal states of which
could be improved by introducing decoherence effects such as Winner-Take-All mecha-
nism.
Inspired by results known from classical and QM, Sienko et al. have depicted that very
large scale ANNs could be implemented as Hamiltonian systems, i.e., as HNNs (Sienko
et al. 2002; Sienko and Citko 2003) owing to the fact of existence of HNN as algorithms
or physical devices which can perform real time Haar-Walsh analysis. Further, HNN was
demonstrated for Quantum signal processing task (Sienko and Citko 2004) and Comparison
performed by the authors, of the proposed HNN with other learning machines & algorithm
revealed the robustness and compliance making it suitable for implementation (Sienko et al.
2004).
Time dependent Hamiltonian operator replaced ordinary unitary operator in QM to syn-
thesize quantum state in a network, based on adiabatic theorem (Zhou 2008). Multiple Q
gates could be employed for the Manipulation of time-dependent Q gate network. Validation
and feasibility of this network was performed by constructing time-dependent NOT-gate and
XOR-gate network
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3.1.4 Hopfield NN
Hop. NN is a combination of number of simple processing units having collective computa-

tional abilities and behavior to form a continuous or discrete NN. Learning can be Hebbian
or Perceptron which can be employed to compute Boolean functions or as associative mem-
ories. Existence of energy function of a certain form for these recurrent networks makes it
suitable to solve some difficult problems in the fields of combinational and optimization the-
ory. Researchers have attempted to combine QC concepts with the above network producing
better results.
Earlier, Quantum effects had been introduced in classical problem due to the presence of
the random transverse field and the effects of competition between quantum fluctuations and
random threshold on the retrieval phase of Hop.NN. Both second-order and first-order phase
transitions between the ordered ferromagnetic retrieval phase and paramagnetic phase were
displayed for variation in the transverse field as a function of strength of random threshold
(Xi and Ma 1999).
It was illustrated that any quantum system has the formal structure of Hopfield like associa-
tive network (Rakovic 2002; Zhao 2004). Perus and Dey (2000) model was sketched out based
on the direct mathematical correspondence between classical neural & quantum variables
and Hopfield like classical & quantum equations. The authors had demonstrated existence
of the local and nonlocal macroscopic biophysical effects which involves the relationship
between acupuncture system and consciousness in quantum holographic neural information
systems.
Implementation of Hop.NN into quantum-wave dynamics was introduced in QAM model
(Loo et al. 2004) where quantum waves were used for processing with numerous advantages.
Quantum Implementation with holographic procedure using quantum-optics techniques was
performed based on the relationship between parallel-distributed processes in neural and
quantum systems, and their relations to holography
Researchers have also attempted to introduce concept of Quantum dynamics with the
Dynamics of robot to improve the control algorithms of robots. Topology varying with work-
space was determined using Quantum Clustering (Qu.Cl) and an extended Kohonens self-
organizing feature map (K-SOFM) unlike the fixed one. Fine tuning of the above system
provided the implicit relationship between the end-effector positions and the joint angles
(Kumar and Behera 2004).
A different methodology of Q-learning, namely probabilistic action selection method
which chooses actions at a certain state with the learned probabilities instead of a pointed
exploration strategy was provided by Chen et al. (2008a) for indoor robot navigation control.
Introduced probability to Q-learning based state superposition and parallel computation.
Parallel updation of the state-action values and the action selection probabilities could be
accomplished.
Kinjo et al. (2006, 2008) discussed the effects of utilization of energy dissipation in QNN
inspired by Hebb learning. Authors had introduced Neuromorphic quantum computation
(Kinjo et al. 2003, 2005) based on the analogy between a Hop.NN and a Q bit network. Need
for adjustment of energy dissipation rate to an appropriate value was emphasized which could
be further improved using simulated annealing (SA) in the algorithm (Nakamiya et al. 2006).
A Sudoku solver based on the Quantum Neuron NN model which was again an extended
version of the Hop.NN (Tank and Hopfield 1986) was presented by Yue with his co-workers
(Yue and Lee 2006; Yue and Chen 2004; Yue 1992; Yue and Chiang 2002; Yue and Lee 2002;
Yue and Chen 2005). The Quantum Neuron NN was built simply by mapping the energy
function formulated from the rules to solve & generate Sudoku puzzles and combinational
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optimization problems (Yue 1992) like visual cryptography (Yue and Chiang 2005, 2007).
Local-minima escaping capacity was ensured by the proposed noise-injection mechanism.
Property of retainment of Quantum state unless and otherwise disturbed was utilized in
realization of quantum finite state machines (QFSM) wherein standard quantum circuit was
considered as a sequential device (Lukac and Perkowski 2009). The only requirement being
preservation of the states of certain Q bits while the other input & output Q bits were allowed
to set and being measured. Implementation of QFSM as combinational quantum circuits
(binary, MV, and Fuzzy) in three steps of computation namely; Initialization, Quantum Evo-
lution, and Measurement was explained with a discussion of approach and experimentation.
Theoretical formulation was not performed for circuits with QFSM.
3.1.5 Self-organizing map NN
Self-organizing map (SOM) NN is employed for mapping a given input pattern onto a 2-D
spatial organization of neurons which adopts reinforcement learning. SOM NN ignores some
important information during learning, which is the relationship that actually exists between
the input pattern and the weights of all the nodes that participate in competitions which could
affect the stability. Quantum-inspired self-organizing map (QISOM) eradicates such pitfalls.
QISOM is a topological map of local quantum states in which each node in the 2-D
topological map represents a quantum state that had raised the prevalence of using the sam-
pled data without the knowledge about the estimated error. It would be useful for situations
when observations from a very large population are presented in small batches (Garavaglia
2002).
Quantum competitive process learning was applied to perform self organizing and auto-
matic pattern classification in Zhou et al. (2006c). Modification of values of the QR according
to the classified pattern made the analogical pattern win easily in the next quantum competi-
tive process. Inspite of non prestoration of some given patterns, rapid and high classification
of input patterns was achieved. Speed of the achieved Self-Organizing QNN was increased
with the number of patterns owing to classification of all patterns inputted with equal weight
superposition state simultaneously, unlike classical NN. Quantum Growing Hierarchical Self
Organized Map was introduced to improve the stability of intrusion detection and increase
detection rate in Network security (Hou and Zheng 2010).
3.1.6 Radial basis function NN
Radial basis function NN (RBFNN) has an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. The
neurons in the hidden layer contain Gaussian transfer functions whose outputs are inversely
proportional to the distance from the center of the neuron. K-means clustering, random subset
of the training points as the centers, ridge regression, and evolutionary approach are some of
the training methods of RBFNN
Motivated by the effortless unravelment of XOR function by QN with single node, unlike
RBFNN with the cost of number of nonlinear basis functions, wave functions were imple-
mented as complex weights in the learning algorithm of a network named as Quantum net to
facilitate certain computations with accuracy and efficiency in the field of material science
(Igelnik et al. 1999). Existence of a quantum net with only one basis function, to solve the
XOR problem with its universal approximation capability was proven by the authors (Igelnik
and Pao 1995).
Ensemble approach (Igelnik and Pao 1995; Igelnik et al. 1999), a development of Func-
tional-Link net (Pao 1989), was used for training and testing. Prudent introduction of cross
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product terms resulting from interferences, in the internal representation of basis functions
improved its performance in classification tasks (Igelnik et al. 2001). Hardware implemen-
tation of XOR network for further application in the area of smart sensors, and theoretical
development of adaptive architectures were also discussed.
Motivated by the fact of non representation of true membership values by the graded
responses of Feed forward NN with sigmoid output units, Purushothaman and Karayiannis
performed simultaneous minimization of class conditional variances at the outputs of cosine
reformulated RBFNN and synaptic weights updation, in a learning algorithm for skillful iden-
tification of uncertainty in data classification (Purushothaman et al. 1995; Purushothaman and
Karayiannis 1998; Karayiannis et al. 2001; Purushothaman and Karayiannis 2006; Karayian-
nis and Xiong 2006).
The Inherent fuzzy feature of the quantum inspired feed forward network model proposed
in Purushothaman and Karayiannis (1997) was then applied to solve various problems by
researchers involving updation of both connectivity weights and quantum intervals during
training (Zhou et al. 1999a,b, 2002; Lee et al. 2004; Shen et al. 2008; Meng and Gong 2010;
Yang et al. 2009, 2010a).
3.1.7 Recurrent NN
Recurrent NN (RNN) is a class of NN where connections between units form a directed cycle
which can behave chaotically. This creates an internal state of the network which allows it
to exhibit dynamic temporal behavior unlike feed forward NN. Usually, dynamical systems
theory is used to model and analyze them.
Zak (1999) formulated a Common sense behavioral model by replacing Classical feed-
back loops in the above networks by conventional quantum networks, arriving at its Quantum
version exhibiting novel dynamical properties, simulating Markov chains and decision mak-
ing process. The authors have also demonstrated the Computational speedup and exponential
increase of information capacity by application in simulation of chaos, turbulence, NP-prob-
lems, data compression and various common sense based decisions & evolutionary games
(Zak 2000a,b).
Behera with his co-workers in Behera et al. (1996, 1998) incorporated another important
feature, namely Collective response behavior, by a nonlinear Schrdinger wave equation,
which outperformed Dawes (1992, 1993) model. EC was employed for tuning the parameters
of the nonlinear Schrdinger wave equation while tracking both Gaussian and non-Gaussian
probability density function yielding accurate signal estimation. Speech-enhancement capa-
bility was established by stochastic-filtering of nonstationary signals (Behera 2004; Behera
and Sundaram 2004; Behera and Kar 2005) and intelligent behavior of the model was demon-
strated by successfully prediction of its saccadic and smooth-pursuit eye-movement behavior
(Behera et al. 2005, 2006).
Further, a model for a quantum Hopfield NN having Q bits prepared in an initial state
and allowed to evolve to steady state was physically implemented to prove its mechanical
properties in Allauddin et al. (2008). Training of the network to execute controlled-NOT
operation proven its universality which could simulate signal and image processing tasks
without exponential difficulty
3.1.8 Stability analysis
Many Researchers have proposed different QNNs, hardly few among them worked exclu-
sively in the direction of stability analysis. Initially Jankowski et al. (1996) established strict
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convergence condition of asynchronous mode first order complex-valued multivalued neuron

network through Hermitian nature of weight matrices, which was later relaxed in Lee (2001),
and was then improved by including inequalities by Muezzinoglu et al. (2003). Whereas extra
assumptions had been made to arrive at the stability condition for higher order fully con-
nected complex-valued NNs in Mishra et al. (2006). In continuation, convergence condition
for synchronous update mode discrete-time recurrent NNs with multivalued neurons had also
been formulated (Zhou and Zurada 2009).
3.1.9 Support vector machines
Support vector machines (SVMs) are a set of related supervised learning methods which
constructs a hyperplane or set of hyperplanes in a high or infinite dimensional space used for
classification and regression tasks.
Chang with his co-workers made a significant contribution towards high efficiency search
and optimization by introducing a hybrid-forecasting model composed of NGARCH and
BPNN-Weighted Grey-C3LSP (BWGC). Neuromorphic quantum-based adaptive support
vector regression (NQASVR) was proposed to standardize the coefficients for both BWGC
and NGARCH linearly for simultaneous generalization and localization (Chang and Tsai
2007). The above model tuned by adaptive support vector regression was employed for
complex time series prediction while comparing the optimization ability of three kinds of
quantum optimizations: QMin., neuromorphic quantum based optimization, and LSQET.
Accuracy and computational complexity of the three approaches was explored (Chang et al.
2008b).
ANFIS coupled with NGARCH optimized using QMin. was introduced to surmount the
overshoot and volatility clustering problems encountered in non-periodic short-term time-
series prediction. Grovers method and Q Search approach of quantum amplitude amplifica-
tion techniques had been explored and compared (Chang 2008). QN-based adaptive support
vector regression with nested local adiabatic evolution, denoted by NQASVR was employed
for optimal tuning of the introduced model. Employing the model for a variety of non-periodic
short-term predictions yielded better results even if provided with fewer sampled data (Chang
and Tsai 2009b).
3.1.10 Spiking NN
Incorporation of spatial-temporal information in communication and computation, in Neu-

ron model making it realistic yields Spiking NN, a third generation NN models. Timing
concept, in addition to neuronal and synaptic state, is used for multiplexing information into
a single stream of signals like auditory system. Neurons in the SNN fires only when a mem-
brane potential reaches a specific value unlike MLP networks in which firing occurs at every
propagation cycle.
A general framework of a quantum spiking NN model and a quantum computational neuro-
genetic model was introduced by Kasabov (2007a, 2007b). Input features and Probability of
firing of Neurons were represented as a Q bit to form a probabilistic spiking neuron model
(pSNM) as a Quantum information approach thereby extending computational neuro-genetic
models for classification, string pattern recognition and associative memory applications
(Kasabov 2009, 2010). Further the authors had incorporated probability learning parameters
to form integrative probabilistic evolving spiking NNs (iPNN), in which the parameters were
optimized using quantum-inspired evolutionary algorithms (QEAs) (Kasabov 2010).
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Integrated connectionist system was formulated by Schliebs et al. (2009a) using quan-
tum-inspired spiking NN (QiSNN) model. Searching in two spaces was accomplished in
a different manner, binary representation for optimizing feature subsets and a continuous
representation for evolving appropriate real-valued configurations (Schliebs et al. 2009b,c).
Comprehensive study and configuration of all parameters involved in QiSNN were analyzed
in Schliebs et al. (2010).
QC algorithm inspired by QM was formulated in Horn and Gottlieb (2001), Effective-
ness of which was demonstrated by applying it to pattern recognition and bioinformatics
(Horn and Gottlieb 2001; Horn and Axel 2003; Nasios and Bors 2005) and applied for prov-
ing simultaneous and independent information passage between the two different modes;
namely firing rate and temporal variation within synchronized bursting events in neuronal
networks (Barkan and Horn 2006). Recently, apart from the above QNN models, Deep Quan-
tum Network was formulated in Zhou et al. (2010) which integrate the fuzzy classification
capability of QNN (Purushothaman and Karayiannis 1997) and the abstract capability of
Deep Belief Networks (Hinton et al. 2006) with their advantages.
3.2 Quantum inspired fuzzy system
Among various dimensions of research witnessed in the last two decades focusing to develop
common new processing platforms, two theories dealing with uncertainty, both using mathe-
matical tools, which advanced in the twentieth century were QM and fuzzy set theory differing
from those used in classical probability theory. Uncertainties in QM were dealt with Fuzzy
sets and systems by Seising (2006, 2008). Similarities between the two theories and Math-
ematical & Dynamic analysis of the networks were emphasized and proven advantageous
by many researchers. In another way, uncommon features like absence of the continuous
square root of not operation in fuzzy logic was also analyzed in Kreinovich et al. (2008).
Speeding up of Fuzzy inference was achieved due to the replacement of serial operations
between matrices of large dimensionality by one-step quantum addition or a quantum sub-
traction by Rigatos and Tzafestas (2002). The authors have simulated QC machine using FS
due to the unitary properties of the algorithm with their convergence issues and introduced
Fuzzy logic approach for emulating QAM model based on the analogy between the two
theories (Rigatos and Tzafestas 2006).
The idea of employing string of Fuzzy bits to represent superposition of crisp values was
introduced by Hannachi et al. (2007a) using the similarities between fuzzy and Quantum
logic (Hannachi and Hirota 2005). Authors have also developed a 2-D fuzzy Q bit model
(Hannachi et al. 2007b), which was further employed for implementing QAM learning and
retrieval algorithms (Hannachi et al. 2007c).
Wave function formalism was provided for membership function of fuzzy C-means (FCM)
with an interpretation of the existence of cryptical wave function in it by Li and Wang (2007b).
Unified nature of FCM and a non parametric unsupervised clustering algorithm, namely Qu.Cl
(Horn and Gottlieb 2001) in Quantum theory was proven and fused to overcome the difficult
issues in model determination of nonlinear complex data (Sun and Hao 2009).
Motivated by quantum theory of measurement, Quantum semantics, an extension of fuzzy
logic (Chiara et al. 2007) was induced in a semantic distillation algorithm (Sierocinski et al.
2008a) suitable for mapping dataset with less statistical variability between samples, into a
graph thereby analyzing its properties (Sierocinski et al. 2008b).
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3.3 Quantum inspired evolutionary methods
Algorithms inspired by natural evolution have been employed for solving optimization and
design problems by building well approximated solutions. Various techniques are being
applied differing in implementation and the nature of the particular applied problem.
To overcome the various shortcomings in the classical evolutionary methods, researchers
begin to introduce the quantum idea into classical algorithms to perform efficient parallel
computations (Yang et al. 2001; Alfares and Esat 2003). Even though the efficiency of the
algorithms would be the best if run on a Q computer, as the development of the same is still
ongoing, simulations of the above algorithms on a classical computer can be very resource
consuming. Hence Researchers started working on developing quantum-inspired evolu-
tionary computing for classical computers rather than developing quantum algorithms for
Q computer.
3.3.1 Genetic algorithm
Genetic algorithm (GA) belong to the class of evolutionary algorithms (EA) by using tech-
niques inspired by evolutionary biology such as inheritance, mutation, selection, and cross-
over, in which population of random chromosomes represents many possible solutions to the
problem to be solved. Selection of the member in the population for reproduction is based on
the probability value assigned at the end of evaluation at every generation. Crossover between
pairs of the selected parents is performed to create their offspring which then will be mutated
through the mutation operator and then be inserted into a new population, creating individ-
uals for the next generation. The above process continues until good results are obtained
in terms of the fitness function. The problems faced by GA such as slow convergence, less
efficiency & local optimization, huge calculating storage, losing of the best chromosomes,
less guarantee for convergence to the whole optimal result with less computation time, etc.
lead to the modification of conventional representation to obtain better performance based
on implicit parallelism concept (Liu et al. 2007c).
In quantum inspired genetic algorithm (QGA) quantum idea is combined with classical
algorithm for simulation in classical computers. Representation is in the form of Q bit having
two ground states 0 and 1, and their superposition (Quantum superposition) instead of
classical bit which exists in two ground states only, leading to simultaneous exploration and
exploitation of the Q bit coded chromosomes. The off springs are formed by rotation of Q
gates intended to make individuals to mutate in the direction of the better chromosome in
current generation unlike GAs in which reproduction is by means of selection, crossover
and mutation. Some researchers have omitted mutation and crossover operators, while others
modified the algorithms using QM concepts as discussed below.
Mutation can be performed by deducing probability distribution or by Q-gate rotation
(Vlachogiannis and Ostergaard 2009) while Quantum Collapse concept was introduced
to maintain Diversity among Quantum chromosomes in Yang et al. (2004a). Inspired by
Narayanan and Moore (1996; 1999), Dai and Li (2008) modified the Crossover operator of
conventional GA using quantum interference. Population Diversity was preserved in Khor-
sand and Akbarzadeh (2005); Akbarzadeh and Khorsand (2005) by a novel diversity pre-
serving operator and Look-up tables were employed as the strategy for convergence in Xing
et al. (2009a). Further, solution space was expanded by increasing the number of solution
space transformation functions by Liao et al. (2010).
Pros and cons of quantum approach to GA was analyzed by Rylander et al. (2001). Sup-
ported by the recent research on combinational optimization, QGA is found to possess the
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following advantages namely, reduced population size, strong parallelism, and increased
search capability in shorter computational time. Despite these advantages QGA proposed
by various researchers holds some disadvantages too. To name a few: demands large mem-
ory for coding leading to stability problems (Liu et al. 2007c), updation process of every Q
bit involves lookup tables requiring multiple parameters judgment tree to search thereby
increasing time complexity (Chen et al. 2004; Han and Kim 2000), premature convergence
(Teng et al. 2008a) appropriate selection of rotation angle of Quantum rotation gate (Han and
Kim 2002a), Q bits employed in QGA is prone to modifications by the external environment
(Lv and Liu 2007), non-determinability of lookup table for updating Q gates and requirement
of prior knowledge of the best solution and premature phenomenon (Zhang et al. 2004a). Due
to the Problems listed above in QGA various other improved methods are being proposed
and tested.
Owing to the inherent parallelism in Q bit representation, Han and Kim (2000) proposed
QGA for knapsack problem, in which mutation and crossover operations were omitted as
their high probabilities would result in performance reduction. Instead diversity was caused
by Q bit representation which was effective over conventional GA. Motivated by Parallel
EAs, in order to meet the higher population demands, parallel QGA based on repair methods
was proposed by the authors in Han et al. (2001) to obtain optimized solution in shorter
computing time over QGA.
Above methods were not suitable for solving continuous function optimization problems,
particularly multi-peak continuous function problems, since the update strategy of Q gates
depends on prior knowledge of the criterion of the optimal solution. In order to encounter
such problems, Zhang et al. (2003a) presented an extended coarse-grained hierarchical ring
model in coarse-grained parallel QGA (CGPQGA) for the design of IIR Filters in which the
update strategy of Q gates was accomplished by phase comparison method and search grid
was made. CGPQGA eradicated the disadvantages in existing parallel algorithms namely;
communication overhead and delayed migration of best individual.
Yang et al. adopted one-to-one emigration strategy and quantum cross over for the Infor-
mation Exchange among Multi-universe parallel structures, separately (Yang et al. 2003a)
and with Independent Component Analysis (Yang et al. 2003b), to obtain the global opti-
mal solution of Nonlinear Blind Source Separation and Blind Source Separation algorithm
respectively. Recently QGA was employed for multi-objective optimization problems like
slope detection and dynamic alliance with Wireless Sensor Networks in Wang et al. (2010a);
Luo (2010a,b).
Fascinated by the chaotic behavior of Q bits, chaotic sequence was used to update cha-
otic Q gates to accelerate the convergence speed thereby resolving the Q-gate research issue
(Chen et al. 2004; Haiyan 2005).
Characterization of the concepts of real Q bits and real Q gates was performed in real-coded
QGA (RQGA) with other crossover methods synchronously, to accelerate the convergence
rate in Liu et al. (2007c). Chaotic behavior was also sliced with QGA (Liao 2011) and RQGA
(Chen et al. 2005a). While the genes of the chromosomes were expressed by phase angles
instead of real values, satisfactory performance was achieved over Improved QGA by Liu
et al. (2006a). Later in order to avoid premature convergence while dealing with multi peak
problems, Ni and Wang (2010) employed niche elimination mechanism to maintain diver-
sity. Adaptivity and other new operators were included as an enhancement by Amjady and
Nasiri-Rad (2010) and Like Approximation operator was replaced by Quantum rotation gate
in Xu et al. (2010a).
Teng with his co-workers made a significant contribution towards high efficiency search
and optimization by improving QGA to resolve the problem of easy getting into local
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minimum. The authors had improved the efficiency by combining it with mutative chaos
concept (Teng et al. 2007b). Since, above method was effective only for smaller search space,
improved mutative scale chaos QGA (IMSCQGA) was presented in Teng et al. (2008b) as
an improvement for its convergence strategy. In which without modifying the search mecha-
nism of QGA and the rules of chaos variable, the search space was constantly shrinked in the
process, to enhance precision and efficiency, thereby avoiding local optimal solution in an
easy way. Further they devised a similar efficient algorithm using graded descent, which was
efficient than the one with mutative chaos concept (Teng et al. 2007b). Chaos optimization
based on Henon map (Teng et al. 2010a) and Tent map (Teng et al. 2010b) was devised to
address the Local minima problem. Similar technique of shrinking was adopted by Zhu et al.
(2008), in Multi modal QGA based on accelerating operators in which the excellent individu-
als were viewed as attractors and local small populations were generated in the neighborhood
to maintain diversity. Searching involved constant shrinking of the neighbor in order to avoid
premature convergence.
Problem of complex multi gene encoding was met by adjustable way of chromosomal
gene initialization, while global optimum retention and partial population disaster strategy
were introduced to improve its searching performance in multi peak problems by Lv and Li
(2008; 2009a).
Feature selection of an important and difficult issue in pattern recognition, machine learn-
ing and data mining was also dealt by QGA. Zhang et al. proposed novel QGA (NQGA)
for filter design and feature selection, with adaptive search grid mechanism and catastro-
phe mutation method to avoid early convergence of QGA (Zhang et al. 2003b, 2006) and
employed it for obtaining optimal Feature subset from original feature set of radar emitter
signals with and without resemblance Coefficient criterion (Zhang et al. 2004a,b). In addi-
tion, a multi-criterion satisfactory optimization method with NQGA was proposed to design
FIR and IIR digital filters (Zhang et al. 2003c,d). Guidelines for setting low angle of Q-gate
were proven in Zhang and Rong (2007a). Time-complexity at each step of standard matching
pursuit (MP) algorithm was reduced by employing simple QGA (Zhang and Rong 2007b),
Improved QGA (Zhang and Rong 2007c) and CGPQGA (Zhu et al. 2006, 2007a,b) for fea-
ture extraction of Radar signals. Accuracy of Text characterization was guaranteed by Zhang
and Qiu (2010) and clustering problem in data mining was transformed into optimization
approach in Cheng et al. (2010).
Building QoS constrained multicast tree is a key problem of quality of service (QoS)
multicast routing optimization algorithm in computer networks. Such algorithm was for-
mulated for a large scale network using QGA in which Quantum collapse, Random quan-
tum mutation and Strong parallelism of quantum computation was brought into play for
strengthening the convergence characteristics (Niansheng et al. 2007; Xiong et al. 2004)
which was further applied by Wu et al. (2008a) to determine polarity in multi-output
circuits. Xing et al. (2008a) considered Individual differences among chromosomes, by
introducing an adaptive rotation angle step determination scheme and a grouping-based
quantum mutation operation. Multi-granularity evolution (ME) mechanism was introduced
by quantum rotation gate strategy of QGA, allowing different chromosomes of one generation
to have different rotation angle step values to get updated in QoS algorithm. Significant
improvement in the performance of the proposed algorithm was achieved by adoption of
ME mechanism, adaptive quantum mutation (AQM) operation and a repair method for
fitness evaluation (Xing et al. 2009a). Wang et al. (2006, 2007a) employed QGA with
random crossover and mutation to search for a QoS unicast path with Pareto-optimum
under Nash equilibrium between the provider utility and the user utility achieved or
approached.
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Stochastic Job scheduling problem was dealt using QGA (Shu 2008; Gong et al. 2009)
by scheduling coding of chromosomes to reduce search space even with a small population,
and without premature convergence by Gu et al. (2008a, 2008b). Further aiming at reducing
the expected value of make span in such problems, improved co-evolution idea of multi-
population was introduced not only to adjust the population size dynamically by increasing
the diversity of genes to avoid premature convergence, but also accelerate the convergence
speed with Q-bit representation and quantum rotation gate by the authors (Gu et al. 2009).
Three new strategies, named as competitive hunter, cooperative surviving and the big fish
eating small fish, were utilized to reduce the make span of the previous algorithms in Gu et al.
(2010). Application of QGA for grid task scheduling has tolerance over inaccurate execution
estimation (Mo et al. 2010a).
Contribution of QGA in the area of Bio informatics includes improved precision in multiple
RNA structural alignment in which several individuals were quantum encoded to represent
them in only one chromosome thereby reducing the population. The important reason for
premature convergence namely, Sharing of single contemporary evolution target (CET) by all
individuals was addressed by encoding the chromosomes in terms of probability amplitude
of Q bit which enables the chromosomes to evolve independently. Efficient searching was
performed by exchanging their CET to enable information exchange and their probabilities
were exchanged as mutation for Data mining applications by Li et al. (2003a). Concepts of
Q measurement, interference and Quantum cross over were utilized for multiple sequence
alignment in Meshoul et al. (2005a); Layeb et al. (2006, 2008). Recently QGA was also
applied for optimization of the route length in the field of robotic path planning (Liu et al.
2010a,b).
Many researchers have applied Hans algorithm without mutation and crossover operators
for various applications (Vlachogiannis and Ostergaard 2009; Zhou and Sun 2005; Xiao et al.
2006; Xiao and Zhang 2007; Zhao et al. 2007a, 2009a; Wang et al. 2007b; Qian et al. 2010;
Ghavami et al. 2008; Li et al. 2008b, 2010a; Yan et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2010; Yao et al.
2009; Liu et al. 2010c; Lee et al. 2011), while others modified Hans algorithm to improve its
performance, by introducing permutation and shifting operators (Talbi et al. 2004a), adopted
Quantum crossover and Quantum mutation (Li et al. 2005c; Benatchba et al. 2006; Talbi et al.
2004b,c; Wu et al. 2010a). The variable quantum rotation angle was defined according to the
distribution of optimization solutions in Liu et al. (2006b). Quantum mutation was pooled
with distinction table (Lv and Liu 2007) and Variable string Length GA was sliced with Hans
algorithm by Xiao et al. (2008, 2010). Stability of QGA was improved by introducing even
evolution in Dai and Zhang (2009).
3.3.2 Evolutionary algorithm
Evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-

based metaheuristic optimization algorithm involving selection operation according to their
level of fitness and other Nature inspired operations. Apart from Genetic algorithm, Genetic
programming, Evolutionary programming, Evolution strategy are the other EA techniques.
EA often perform well approximating solutions to all types of problems because they ide-
ally do not make any assumption about the underlying fitness landscape, but computational
complexity introduced by fitness function evaluation is a prohibiting factor when applied to
real world problems that would be overcome by Fitness approximation.
Other disadvantages of EA include lack of a clear genotype-phenotype distinction, Poor
balance ability of exploration and exploitation, absence of individuals past history, slow opti-
mization regarding the evaluation of each solution while applied to computationally intensive
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problems. Problems listed above lead to the evolution of quantum inspired EA (QEA) which
almost overcomes them.
QEA, not a quantum algorithm, but a multimodal probability estimation of distribution
algorithm exploring quantum parallelism is based on the probabilistic superposition of states
(Hirvensalo 2004). It is characterized by the representation of the individuals, evaluation
function, and population dynamics such as population size, variation operators, parent selec-
tion, reproduction and inheritance, survival competition method, etc. like any other EA (Han
2003). Without Crossover operator, these QEA algorithms named as quantum evolutionary
programming (QEP) was formulated using Quantum mutation operator (Yang and Jiao 2003),
mutation operator (Li et al. 2004b) and chaos mutation operators (Yasin et al. 2010).
Analysis made by various researchers on QEA, revealed the following advantages owing to
its high degree of parallelism: automatic balancing ability between global and local search,
inclusion of individuals past history, involving fewer individuals thereby demanding less
memory with increased performance, less computation time, clearer termination-condition,
and higher precision. Despite advantages, QEA is not far away from disadvantages too. In
QEA with respect to binary encoding: haphazard and blind characteristics of Q bit mea-
surement and frequent Binary to decimal conversion are required. Similarly with respect
to evolution: determination of magnitude and direction of phase angle rotation of Q gate is
required and due to consideration of only phase angles, weakening of Quantum characteris-
tics is observed. A systematic review with comparison of recent developments in QEA was
provided by Zhang (2011) but we focus on the applications point of view.
Motivated by QC concepts, introduced by Moore and Narayanan (1995), Han and Kim
(2000) proposed the basic structure of QEA, which was further modified by researchers
to obtain improved and modified versions for eradication or suppression of the defects
present in the model. The proposed incorporates the ideas stemmed from the behav-
ior of QC elements, encapsulated in a structured evolution process. In the above QEA,
Q-bit as a probabilistic representation with its linear superposition of states maintains
population diversity among the individuals. This would be further driven towards better
solutions by Q-gate as variation operator. Such inherent mechanism of convergence of
Q-bit to a single state by Q-gate operator was responsible for maintaining a good bal-
ance of exploration and exploitation (Han and Kim 2001). Experimentation carried out by
the authors on the knapsack problem, revealed the automatic switching of search mecha-
nism from Global to Local modes owing to inherent probabilistic mechanism, making the
algorithm effective and suitable to solve any other combinational optimization problems
in Han and Kim (2002a,b). It worked well with standard knapsack problem but demands
other Quantum operators in case of solving Difficult Knapsack Problems (Patvardhan et al.
2007).
Guidelines for setting the parameters of QEA for maximizing its performance were pro-
vided by the authors in Han and Kim (2003a,b). The performance was further improved by
introducing new termination criterion and a new Q-gate with two-phase scheme (Han and
Kim 2004). Mechanism of QEA was also reasoned out and verified using simple test function
with single individual (Han and Kim 2006).
Single objective problems such as the problems in PCA for face verification (Jang et al.
2003, 2004a,b), Disk allocation applications (Kima et al. 2003), etc. were overcome by using
QEA.
Various researchers attempted to extend the above algorithm for multiobjective problems
also, with an objective of improving Convergence and preservation of diversity (Zhang et al.
2003e; Kim et al. 2006) and subsequently applied for solving various problems (Talbi et al.
2006, 2007; Li et al. 2009b; Kim and Kim 2009; Park et al. 2010a). QEA was then sliced
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within a P system framework, the effectiveness and applicability scope of which was dem-
onstrated using knapsack problem by Zhang et al. (2008).
Following the Footsteps of Han, a general framework for quantum multi- objective EA
was formulated (Meshoul et al. 2005b; Li and Rudolph 2007), with convergence condition
to the Pareto optimal set (Li et al. 2007a). Later Hadamard gate (Alfares et al. 2004) and a
combination of modified rotation gate & NOT gate with a specified probability were validated
as Q-gate paradigms (Li et al. 2009a).
Many researchers have applied Hans algorithm directly for various applications (Feng
et al. 2006; Xing et al. 2008b; Xu and Dai 2008; Xu et al. 2010b; Lau et al. 2009; Chung
et al. 2011; Park et al. 2010b; Wang and Shi 2010; Nicolau et al. 2011), while others modified
Hans algorithm to improve its performance as discussed below. Additional mutation opera-
tor was introduced by Zhou et al. (2005; 2006d) for application in the field of bioinformatics.
Quantum angle was used for representing Q bit and Quantum Rotation Gate Strategy for
updation in references (Feng et al. 2008a; Gao et al. 2006). Similarly Jeong et al. (2009a)
replaced Look up table method by simplified rotation gate and decreasing rotation angle for
improvement in its convergence characteristics. Probability distribution function was mod-
ified to improve the search process with less computation time by Vlachogiannis and Lee
(2008). Probability of collapse was introduced for evolvable Hardware applications in Popa
et al. (2010). Recently Diversity measure was employed to control the population to handle
the problem of premature convergence by Neto et al. (2011).
Concept of real valued representation is demanded by problems in function optimization
where adjustment of some variables is required to find maximum or minimum. Moreover
Binary representation is not suitable for real valued design parameters and it discretizes the
search space which has discrepancy with the actual problem space. Hence, the variables in
QEA were encoded as real numbers in Q bits which would be processed through a Q gates
(Alfares and Esat 2006; Al-Othman et al. 2007; Zhang and Rong 2007d) and observed as
rectangular pulsed probability distribution function instead of probability to resolve the issue
of speeding up of convergence rate by Cruz et al. (2004). Apart from Pulse width contraction
that could lead to local minimal entrapment, other operators inspired by Cultural Algorithms
like fission, fusion, generalization and specialization, increased the control over the algo-
rithms as shown in da Cruz et al. (2005). Gene Representation was simplified by replacing
Rectangular pulse in da Cruz et al. (2004) by squared one with single pulse by da Cruz et al.
(2006, 2007, 2008) and applied for Image segmentation applications (Melo et al. 2008). Such
rectangular pulse representation with self learning operator was found to be effective over
fast evolutionary Programming and Stochastic Genetic Algorithms (Qin et al. 2008).
Chaotic behavior of real coded Q bit emphasized in Chen et al. (2005a) was represented
by a radian value by Yang et al. (2006) which was further extended for multi objective case
by the authors in Yang and Ding (2007). Gradient of object function was utilized in choosing
the value of rotating angle in Li and Li (2008a). Multiple Q bit encoding problems were
avoided by employing Neighborhood operators in Solution strings with real parameters by
Babu et al. (2008). Gao et al. (2008) suggested Complementary double mutation operator
for realization of good balance between exploration and exploitation. Algorithm devised by
Al-Othman et al. (2007) was applied for Network Reconfiguration of Electrical Distribution
system in Radha and Rughooputh (2010).
Unlike previous works, in which uniform evolution mechanism of designing evolution-
ary parameters for the entire population was employed without considering fitness of such
parameters for all individuals, an adaptive evolution mechanism was used by Xing et al.
(2010, 2009b) for solving QoS multicast routing problems. Such mechanism eliminates the
hitch of failing of some of the individuals in reaching excellent solutions.
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Various issues in QEA discussed earlier are being addressed by various researchers. To
avoid the prematurity in the anaphase of the evolution a new diagonal recombination oper-
ator namely global-interference crossover was employed by Yang et al. (2004b) which was
later utilized for financial domain applications with real number encodings in Fan et al.
(2007a,b, 2008a,b). The above issue was also dealt using chaotic initialization by Yan-
guang et al. (2010). Process of employing co-evolution operator in every sub population
formed by splitting the entire population provided intrinsic adaptivity, increased reliabil-
ity and learning ability as depicted in Liu and You (2009). Information exchange between
updating process of two Q-bit strings for single individual was suggested by Xin and Shigeru
(2010).
Bloch coordinates of Q bits were used for encoding as an attempt to meet the follow-
ing problems: Randomicity and blindness in probabilistic operation, non suitability of binary
coding for numerical optimization, uncertainty in determining the magnitude and direction of
rotational angle of Q gates, weakened quantum characteristics due to vector representation of
Q bits in unit circle. Such an encoding circumvents the haphazard and blind characteristics
of Q bit measurement, Binary to decimal conversion and increases the probability of suc-
cess. Updation was performed by Quantum rotation gates whereas quantum non-gates were
employed for mutation by Li and Li (2008b). To overcome the main demand of multiple Q
gates upon usage of multiple Q bits, a hard design issue, probabilistic superposed bit was
used for encoding the individuals in Shen and Chen (2006); Shen and Liu (2008).
QEA is not an exception to hitchhiking phenomenon also (Futuyma 1998). As a preventive
measure for that phenomenon Elitism strategy was employed by Platel et al. (2007) in ver-
satile QEA (vQEA). The information about the search space collected during evolution was
not kept at the individual level but continuously renewed and shared among the whole pop-
ulation which was claimed to belong to the class of estimation of distribution algorithms
(EDAs) (Platel et al. 2009). Issue of Premature convergence was addressed by employing
niche update strategy (Liu and Zhou 2009) and by using Restrictive operator in QEA and
vQEA (Mahdabi et al. 2009). Discretization of search space owing to the rotation mechanism
of Q gate was overcome by Hu and Wu (2009) using a variation operator based on chaos
theory. Cataclysm was introduced to ensure the diversities of the solution spaces in Zhao
et al. (2009d).
Generally the performance of QEAs depends on main factors like good architecture and
Size of the population. Tayarani and Akbarzadeh suggested Cellular structure (Tayarani and
Akbarzadeh 2008a) for real coded QEA (Akbarzadeh and Tayarani 2009) and ring structure
sinusoid population with variable size (Tayarani and Akbarzadeh 2008b), aiming at finding
the best population structure and function for the size of the population. The authors inves-
tigated functional population size as an improvement in Tayarani and Akbarzadeh (2009)
where in addition to the sinusoid function, saw-tooth, inverse saw-tooth, triangular, sinusoid
and square functions were used. Above functional population size QEA was then applied for
fractal image compression in Nodehi et al. (2009).
Evolution process in multi-agent based computation, a branch of distributed AI was accel-
erated by incorporating cooperative & competitive behavior using Neighborhood quantum
crossover & competition quantum-evolution operators respectively in Qin et al. (2007). Simi-
larly for effective determination of uniform Pareto frontier, Neighborhood Competition Quan-
tum Evolution Operator was employed by Liu et al. (2009a). Concept of combining agent and
Q bit was introduced in Quantum multi-agent EA for addressing partner selection problems
in a virtual enterprise by Tao et al. (2010). Evolvement Operators such as energy evaluation,
competition, crossover, mutation, and trimming with three evolutionary strategies provided
a balance between the exploration and exploitation. Communication and synchronization
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cost was reduced, while QEA and modified QEA was introduced for Time-frequency atom
decomposition of radar signals by Zhang et al. (2010a).
Self adaption of the mutation step size which is the main characteristic of evolution strat-
egy, requires spotting of the exact beneficial search space. Existing ES involves production of
hyper eclipse without clear information about the direction towards optimal solution leading
to unsatisfactory convergence. As an encounter, Izadinia and Ebadzadeh (2009) introduced
QC concepts to modify the direction of mutation, which was included in Q bit chromosomal
representation. Suitability of such Quantum-Inspired ES was proven by experimentation.
Research openings on QEAs include encoding a quantum chromosome, describing and
updating a Q bit, termination criterion, variation operator, and study of effect of initial con-
ditions while employing for real world problems.
3.3.3 Differential evolution
Differential evolution (DE), a parallel direct search method, is a very simple population based
stochastic function minimizer inspired by GA. But is powerful than GA, with the feature of
numerical optimization and without explicit knowledge of the gradient of the problem to be
optimized.
Global optimization is necessary in fields such as engineering, statistics and finance which
include many practical problems having objective functions that are non differentiable, non-
continuous, non-linear, noisy, flat, and multi-dimensional or with many local minima, con-
straints or stochasticity. DEs are capable of handling such problems, which are difficult as
they are impossible to solve analytically.
Introduced by Storn (1996), DE has a population of potential solutions within an n-dimen-
sional search space. A fixed number of vectors are randomly initialized, then evolved over
time to explore the search space, to locate the minima of the objective function. At every
generation, new vectors are generated by combining the vectors, randomly chosen from the
current population (mutation). The out coming vectors are then mixed with a predetermined
target vector. This operation is called recombination and produces the trial vector. Finally,
the trial vector is accepted for the next generation if and only if it yields a reduction in the
value of the objective function. This last operator is referred to as a selection. DE emphasizes
on mutation while crossover operator was featured in GA.
When the solution space becomes large, conventional DEs are very expensive in terms of
processing time and memory size. Choosing appropriate control parameters and premature
convergence are the problems often encountered while dealing with DE. Hence, quantum-
inspired DE (QDE) algorithms are proposed to tackle the computational complexity by
reducing the number of chromosomes and using superposition of states.
Initially Draa et al. (2004) proposed QDE in which Q-bit individual was used as a prob-
abilistic representation. It aims at optimizing real parameter and real valued functions. The
authors then accomplished Interference and Quantum Differential Mutation operations using
rotation gate and perturbing values of quantum chromosomes respectively in Layeb and
Saidouni (2009).What makes QDE attractive is that each chromosome does not encode only
one solution but all the possible solutions by putting them within a Superposition as stated
in Draa et al. (2010).
Actually, the application of DE was real parameter optimization but both Crossover and
mutation operators were adopted in Binary QDE proposed by Su and Yang (2008), where
exploitation ability and the convergence performance was demonstrated. Further the authors
combined QDE with DE along with weight Mutation algorithm for Classifying rules in
Data mining applications (Su et al. 2010) and for evolving TakagiSugeno fuzzy models
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(Su and Yang 2011). Xu and Guo (2010) updated the positions of individual after mutation
and crossover operations using Position iterative equation
QDE is also not far away from demerits. In case of Binary QDE evaluation of fitness
function involves binary to real number conversion thereby increasing time complexity. In
addition, QDE cant find the satisfying solutions for the high-dimensional function, though
it is excellent. Hence QDE demands some strategies to improve the exploitation perfor-
mance. In this direction, a new strategy namely, Big Fish eating small fish was introduced
for population growth by Jiao et al. (2009).
3.3.4 Swarm algorithm-particle swarm optimization
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) was first intended for simulating social behavior of bird
flocking and fish schooling which is advantageous over GA, as it is easy to implement with
few adjusting parameters. PSO optimizes a problem by maintaining a population of candidate
solutions called particles and moving these particles around in the search-space according to
simple formulae. The movements of the particles are guided by their own best known position
(pbest) and neighbor best position (lbest) in the search-space as well as the entire swarms
best known position (gbest). Each particle changes its velocity towards the pbest and lbest
for every iteration. Acceleration is weighted by a random number toward pbest and lbest
locations (Clerc and Kennedy 2002). When improved positions are being discovered these
will then come to guide the movements of the swarm. The process is repeated and by doing
so it is hoped, but not guaranteed, that a satisfactory solution will eventually be discovered.
Parameters of the algorithm are upper limits of cognitive (nostalgia) and social (envy) and
the updation parameters are inertia weight (memory), cognitive (nostalgia) and social (envy)
behavior.
PSO can be used on optimization problems that are partially irregular, noisy, change over
time, etc. as it does not require the problem to be differentiable. PSO works well for linear
behavior but in reality thinking of human being is so complicated that derived equations
are not sufficient. Also global convergence is not guaranteed and may get trapped in local
minima making it not suitable for discrete optimization. Hence, QC is introduced to PSO to
depict the uncertainties in thinking thereby forming quantum inspired PSO (QPSO).
Quantum field model has the advantage of Diversified representation of state, thereby
depicting various possible thoughts & uncertainties in human mind in reality before taking
decision and possibility of appearance of best superior solution even far away from Learning
Inclination Point. Delta potential well and quantum oscillator in Feng and Xu (2004a,b) are
two paradigms of such potential fields, whereas other models are complicated or prone to
premature convergence.
Inspired by QM and trajectory analysis of PSO (Clerc and Kennedy 2002), Delta potential
well model of PSO was introduced by Sun et al. (2004a), in which the individual particle was
allowed to possess Quantum behavior to sample around the previous best points guarantee-
ing global convergence. The iterative equation of QPSO is very different from that of PSO.
Besides, unlike PSO, QPSO needs no velocity vectors for particles, and has fewer parameters
to adjust, making it easier to implement. The quantum state of a particle is depicted by wave
function instead of position and velocity function.
The QPSO algorithm has been shown to offer good performance in solving a wide range
of continuous optimization problems like other evolutionary algorithms, but also confronts
the problem of premature convergence, and decrease the diversity in the latter period of the
search and many efficient strategies have been proposed to improve the algorithm.
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Premature convergence in QPSO with single parameter of control was dealt with Main-
stream thought point to evaluate creativity by Sun et al. (2004b), whose discrete binary
version was devised for integrating with GA by the authors in Sun et al. (2007b).
Selection of parameter and its influence on convergence was analyzed in Sun et al. (2005a);
Liu et al. (2006c); Xu and Sun (2005); Sun et al. (2011b); Fang et al. (2010). Searching ability
was improved by introducing selection operator in Sun et al. (2007c) and random selection
operator in Lin et al. (2010). Xi et al. (2007b) depicted the Decisiveness of people using
elitist strategy based on which, a linearly decreasing weight parameter was introduced to
render the importance of particles in population during evolution in Xi et al. (2008). Li et al.
(2008d) introduced adaptivity to avoid local minima by controlling Diversity of the swarm
through attraction and repulsive phases, through diversity guided (Xu and Sun 2005; Sun
et al. 2006a,b,c; Dong and Wu 2009; Zhao and San 2010), linear-decreasing (Sun et al.
2005b) and asexual reproduction concepts (Geravanchizadeh and Asl 2010). Co-evolution
operator was introduced to avoid premature convergence of adaptive QPSO in multi modal
optimization by Ma et al. (2009a; 2009b). QPSO algorithm adapts itself to the modifications
in the dynamic environment by detecting the changes (Zhao et al. 2009e). Weighted mean
best position was introduced by Li et al. (2009c) and Opposition based learning concept was
sliced with QPSO as an improvement in Yang and Xie (2010).
Further Mutation operator was introduced in Liu et al. (2005; 2006e); Coelho (2008)
to provide diversity in the search and aiding exploration of the undiscovered search
place and Liu et al. (2006f, 2006g) introduced Immune operator with an aim to
increase intelligence. As an improvement to QPSO, Mutation operators like Chaotic
(Wang et al. 2008b; Feng et al. 2009; Li et al. 2010e), Cloud (Zhao et al. 2009f), Sobal
Pant et al. (2009) and crossover (Su et al. 2009a) operators were introduced. A set of muta-
tion operators like Gaussian, Chaotic, Cauchy and Levy used in QPSO was analyzed and the
performance was compared by evaluating a set of benchmark functions in Fang et al. (2009);
Nie et al. (2010); Chen and Yang (2010). In order to prevent the stagnation of the particles and
therefore make them escape local optima and sub-optima more easily, Standard distribution
(Sun et al. 2006d) and Gaussian disturbance (Sun et al. 2007a; Coelho 2007; Coelho et al.
2008; Coelho and Herrera 2008; Coelho 2010; Lebensztajn and Coelho 2010) on the mean
best position was proposed. Random numbers were generated to update the velocity equation
in the above process.
Performance of QPSO deteriorates as the dimensionality of the search space increases.
Hence, Cooperative Approach among the multi swarm was proposed for simultaneous evo-
lution and interaction with each other by communicating information in Gao et al. (2007,
2010b); Jiao and Li (2010); Zhou et al. (2010b). Blackwell and Branke (2001) employed
Exclusion and anti convergence operators for interaction between the swarms. Each swarm
in the group has information regarding a specific component of the solution vector only;
the rest of the vector is provided by the other swarms. With the aid of above Cooperative
Approach, a competitive scheme was introduced by Lu and Sun (2008a) which was then
hybridized with QPSO algorithm in every iteration by the authors in Lu and Sun (2008b).
Adaptivity was introduced for better parameter control in the co-evolution model by Liu and
Ma (2008). In the perspective of competition, Luitel and Venayagamoorthy (2008; 2010;
2010) allowed the best particle obtained from PSO to compete with the best of QPSO and the
winner was selected forming particle swarm optimization with quantum infusion (PSO-QI)
for various problems. Non-dominated sorting method was adopted for solutions population
in Li et al. (2008c) and Interpolation based recombination operator was employed for gen-
erating a new solution vector in the search space in Pant and Thangaraj (2008). Further, in
Baida et al. (2008) a two layer framework was proposed where single QPSO swarm was
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employed to track with the global best solution in the top layer and other QPSO swarms
searches in the bottom layer. Xiao et al. (2009a) introduced Mutual learning concept to make
optimal treatment in high-dimensional function. As an enhancement of multiswarm QPSO,
Exchange strategy among Two Sub-swarms was introduced by Liu et al. (2010e) to maintain
diversity and Heuristic rules were formed in del Amo et al. (2010).
Other search methodologies include a generalized local search operator for obtaining bet-
ter solutions (Wang and Zhou 2007), chaotic (Yang and Nomura 2010; Luo and Li 2009;
Meshoul and Batouche 2010) and hyper chaotic (Li et al. 2010f) search to increase diversity
and public history researching with variant particle to improve convergence speed (Huang
et al. 2009b). Recently Zheng and Li (2010) introduced Inverse proportional inertia weight
function to maintain search capability in the early iteration and to accelerate convergence in
later iteration.
While empirical evidence has shown that the QPSO algorithm works well, there has been
little insight into how it works. Sun et al. (2012) analyzed Single particles behavior in QPSO
to derive the sufficient and necessary condition for probabilistic boundedness of the particle
that can guarantee the particle swarm to converge.
Discrete binary version of PSO (DPSO) in Kennedy and Eberhart (1997) was not
effective for successive optimization as the sigmoid function serves the purpose of map-
ping only. Such be the case, Yang et al. (2004c) represented the particles in DPSO by
Q bit and the sigmoid function was replaced by random observation, with less com-
putational complexity when compared to PSO (de Oliveira et al. 2006). When applied
to constrained optimization problems, the difficulty of choosing penalty parameter was
avoided by separating the constraints from objective function instead of using Penalty
function method by Liu et al. (2008b). Wang et al. (2009b) introduced Parallelism based
on variable neighborhood topology model to QPSO, making it closer to the nature
world.
QPSO with fewer parameters and stronger search capability was applied to solve various
problems as shown in Li et al. (2010e); Coelho (2007); Coelho and Herrera (2008); Coelho
(2010); Gao et al. (2010b); Sun et al. (2012); de Oliveira et al. (2006); Sun et al. (2006e);
Chen et al. (2008b); Peng et al. (2008); Zhang et al. (2009c); Xue et al. (2006); Huang et al.
(2006); Zhou et al. (2007b); Gao et al. (2009a); Sun et al. (2006f); Zhao et al. (2010a); Kong
et al. (2007); Luo et al. (2010); Zhang and Li (2010); Chang et al. (2010b); Chi et al. (2008);
Zhao et al. (2008); Sun et al. (2006g, 2011a); Wang et al. (2010b); Liu et al. (2006h); Sun
et al. (2007d); Cai et al. (2008); Xiao (2009); Lu and Wang (2008); Lu et al. (2010); Li et al.
(2010g,h); Zhang et al. (2010); Fang et al. (2006a, 2008, 2006b,c); Sun et al. (2008, 2010a);
Fang et al. (2006d); Coelho and Mariani (2008); Sun et al. (2009); Meng et al. (2010b); Tao
(2009); Tao et al. (2009); Peng and Xu (2009); Lei and Fu (2008); Feng et al. (2008b); Huang
and Wang (2008); Zhao et al. (2007b); Zhao and Hu (2010); Lu et al. (2007); Huang and Zhang
(2009); Wenlong et al. (2007); Tang and Tang (2008); Coelho and Alotto (2008); Mikki and
Kishk (2005, 2006a,b, 2007); Xia et al. (2008); Shi et al. (2010a); Wu et al. (2008c); Omkar
et al. (2009); Caprihan et al. (2009); Luo et al. (2009); Chai et al. (2009); Xin and Qiang
(2010); Zhao et al. (2009g); Sabat et al. (2009, 2010); Liu et al. (2010f); Chi et al. (2009);
Su et al. (2009b); Jalilzadeh et al. (2009); Xi et al. (2006, 2007a); Du and Wei (2009); Liu
et al. (2009d); Luo and Li (2010); Shayeghi et al. (2010); Thangaraj et al. (2009); Wang et al.
(2010c,d); Gao and Diao (2009); Liu (2009a,b); Liu and Song (2009); Jeong et al. (2009b,
2010); Zhang (2010b); Sun and Lu (2010); Sun et al. (2010b); Yin et al. (2010); Babaei and
Hosseinnezhad (2010); Li et al. (2010i); Du and Wang (2010). Research directions of QPSO
include arriving at theoretical aspects, formulating matching and parallelizing algorithms
(or algorithmic components) to problems, Applying QPSO to more and/or different class of
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problems say multi objective problems, selection of parameters, Comparisons between PSO
variants and other algorithms, finding New variants, decreasing the effect of slowing down
of algorithm due to cooperative behavior and to find out an open quantum PSO system.
3.3.5 Ant colony optimization
Ant colony optimization (ACO), a meta heuristic algorithm inspired from the behavior of
real ant colonies, are used to solve discrete optimization problems was first introduced as
Ant systems in early 1990s and was further improved as Ant Colony System, Max-Min Ant
System and Rank based Ant system etc.
The optimization problem is transformed into the problem of finding the best path between
food sources to the nest which is devised as a weighted graph and the artificial ants incremen-
tally build solutions by moving on the graph. While moving, ants deposit a volatile chemical
substance called pheromone and, according to some probabilistic rule, preferentially move
in the directions locally marked by higher pheromone intensity. Shorter paths between the
colonys nest and a food source can be completed quicker by the ants, and will therefore be
marked with higher pheromone intensity since the ants moving back and forth will deposit
pheromone at a higher rate on these paths. According to a self-amplifying circular feedback
mechanism, these paths will therefore attract more ants, which will in turn increase their
pheromone level, until there is possibly convergence of the majority of the ants onto the
shortest path. The aim is to increase the pheromone values associated good solutions and
decrease those associated with bad ones (Di Caro 2004). Disadvantages include premature
convergence, low searching ability and slow convergence speed paving way for formulating
Quantum inspired ACO (QACO).
QACO became evident from 2007 when Wang et al. (2007c) implemented a hypercube
framework making the algorithm robust, in which Q-bit and new strategy quantum rota-
tion gate was adopted for representing and updating the pheromone respectively. The rota-
tion angle was independent of the fitness value and pheromone concentration was limited
between 0 and 1. Later each ant was represented as quantum individual and instead of Q-bit
code, the probability of choosing robots were employed to solve robot coalition formation by
Yu et al. (2009). Population of the Ant colony was initialized with superposition of Q-bit, and
self-adaptive operator was employed to solve TSP problem effectively in You et al. (2009b).
Continuous space optimization was met by devising the ant to bear information about its
current location in the form of Q bits which would be altered to change its location. Popula-
tion diversity was increased through mutation using quantum non-gates, while convergence
was proven theoretically in Li et al. (2010j,k,l).
Recently, Inspired by Bloch coordinate representation, position of the present ant was
coded as probability amplitude by Tian et al. (2010), which was regarded as two positions
thereby doubling the search space enhancing speedy convergence.
3.3.6 Artificial fish swarm algorithm
Another Swarm Intelligence algorithm inspired by Fish Schooling is artificial fish swarm
algorithm (AFSA), in which the pattern of the Fish finding the nutritious area irrespective of
its initial position is constructed. Praying, swarming, and movement towards Global optimum
behaviors are simulated, evaluated and action is chosen accordingly. Shortcomings such as
decrease in convergence speed at the later stage of the algorithm, getting trapped into local
optimum etc. lead to incorporation of ideas from QC.
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Quantum inspired artificial fish swarm algorithm (QAFSA) proposed by Zhu and Jiang
(2010) employs Q bits to represent the position of the artificial fish (AF), uses the quantum
rotation gate to update the position of AF so as to enable the AF to move, and uses the
quantum non-gate to realize the mutation of AF so as to increase Diversity for single optimal
solution problems. The authors employed Niche technology for multimodal optimization
problems with restricted competition selection in Zhu et al. (2010).
3.3.7 Immune systems
Immune systems (IS) are computational systems inspired by the principles and processes of
the vertebrate immune system. The algorithms typically exploit the immune systems char-
acteristics of learning and memory to solve the computational problems from mathematics,
engineering, and information technology. The immune mechanism contains the concepts
of Immune recognition, Immune feedback, Clonal selection, Immune adjustment, affinity
maturation etc.
Implications of clonal selection (CS) Theory were explored extensively by the Australian
F. Burnet in 1958, main ideas of which lie in the selective reaction of antigen to the anti-
bodies. When exposed to antibodies, the antigen stimulates an immune cell with appropriate
receptors to proliferate (divide) and mature into terminal plasma cells. Based on this theory,
Immune clonal algorithm (ICA) was proposed with clone operation, immune genetic oper-
ation and clonal selection operation in steps. The algorithm attained good local searching
ability at a cost of adding the scale of the population by clone operation. In order to speed up
the convergence, Q bit representation for antibodies was adopted with high parallel compu-
tation capacity in Li et al. (2004c); Li and Jiao (2005); Jiao and Li (2005) which was proven
to be rigorous by Liu and Li (Liu and Li 2003).
Chaotic mutation was employed to control the selection operation by Li et al. (2004b).
For solving multi objective problems, the authors in Li and Jiao (2007) proposed crowd-
ing-distance concept in which only less-crowded Pareto-optimal individuals were selected
to do cloning and recombination update based on their fitness values with more attention
to the less-crowded regions in the trade-off front in a single generation. Such algorithms
based on Immune theory maintains population diversity, accelerates convergence rate and
get converged to the global optimal solution rapidly as emphasized by You et al. (2006a),
even for multi objective optimizations (You et al. 2006b,c, 2007, 2008a, 2009a). The authors
also embedded Chaotic searching technique with above algorithm as an improvement in You
et al. (2008b).
Later, Jiao et al. (2008) proliferated and divided the antibody into a set of subpopula-
tion groups represented by multistage gene Q bits for improvement. Such antibodies were
updated using quantum rotation gate strategy and the dynamic adjusting angle mechanism
was applied to accelerate convergence, and the quantum NOT gate was employed to realize
quantum mutation to avoid premature convergences. Information exchange between subpop-
ulation groups to improve the search efficiency was accomplished by quantum recombination,
which was then applied for image segmentation purpose by Yang et al. (2010d).
Li et al. (2004c) algorithm combined the theory of QM with the mechanisms of clone pro-
ducing a copy of each chromosome to maintain the diversity of the solution space of functions.
So, when the chromosome was replaced with Q gate, the probability of the diversity of the
solution space of functions would be increased. This algorithm increases the probability of
arriving at best individual of chromosome and not in improving search space. Also deletion
of chromosomes in maintaining the scale of the swarm after replacing chromosome with
Q gate degrades the solution space.
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To avoid the above disadvantages, Qu et al. (2008) proposed a new quantum clone EA
(QCEA) in which scale of cope was dynamic, multipoint mutation was applied to increase
diversity and random updation of entire swarm was done in order to avoid trapping in local
deceptive peak for Multi-objective Optimization. Further the authors in Qu et al. (2009),
improved the speed and convergence by introducing Immune operators, with immune rec-
ognition for prior information and CS to maintain diversity.
Further, Wu et al. (2008d; 2009) improved Li et al. (2004c) algorithm by introducing
memory strategy to store information of current environment which would be reused later in
new environments providing population diversity. Various Immune operators were employed
simultaneously for prior knowledge usage and diversity improvement in Zhang (2008); Xu
and Linghu (2008). Some of the Q bits were mutated by Quantum non gate to avoid premature
convergence by Yin et al. (2010). Multi objective problems were addressed by Chaos update
strategy (Shang et al. 2010) and weight based algorithm (Gao and Wang 2011).
Quantum inspired Clonal algorithms reserve good characteristics of the QEAs, and try
to refine the character information from different kinds of problems adaptively, so that the
new algorithm can improve its performance (Changsheng and Liang 2009). Application of
above algorithm reduced computational complexity (Bi and Jin 2007; Gou and Shu 2008),
decreased make span (Niu et al. 2009) and was effective in solving Non linear (Wu et al.
2010b) and complex (Wang and Bai 2010) programming problems too.
4 Quantum inspired hybrid algorithms
Hybridization, aiming at combining various algorithms, exploits their good properties while
mitigating their individual weaknesses, is of growing interest. Initialized by Ulyanov (2003)
many others hybridized the Quantum inspired concepts to obtain better results, in the field of
engineering which is Summarized below in Table 1 (>means better than and h indicates
hybrid)
5 Conclusions and discussions
In this survey paper we discussed the current research in solving various problems in com-
puter and engineering field using QCI. Furthermore we tried to stress out the impact of
introducing QM with CI techniques that could yield promising results for real world appli-
cations. The survey suggests finally that applications of QCI are apparent in many different
areas. Apart from the above discussed topics QC principles are being applied into vari-
ous other fields like Electromagnetism-Like Mechanism (Chang et al. 2010c; Chou et al.
2010), Iterated greedy algorithm (Zhang and Li 2010), Morphic computing (Resconi and
Nikravesh 2008) etc. Investigations on the Theoretical aspects of such Quantum inspired
algorithms would further enhance its applicability which still remains primitive addressed
by very few researchers. In this regard, Building Blocks Propagation based on Hollands
schema theorem (Holland 1975) in QGA was explored recently (Nowotniak and Kucharski
2010).
Within little more than a decade hundreds of papers have reported successful applications
of QCI. To aid the QCI practitioners and researchers to have a clear up-to-date vision of what
has been done in this area, the large number of publications dealing in this area has been
categorized (Table 2) based on problems solved and CIs classes.
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Table 1 Quantum inspired hybrid algorithms (>means better than and h indicates hybrid)
Methodology References Problem Comparison
One pass self-clustering Lin et al. (2004, Classification >FS, NN, NeuroFuzzy, QRBFN
algorithm (SCA) = quantum 2007); Chen et al.
fuzzy entropy + BP (2002)
Quantum clustering = FS + NN Lin and Cheng (2005) Modelling /
Applications of QCI: a survey
Training Gaussian mixture model Liu et al. (2009f) Image processing >Gaussian mixture clustering, immune CS EM
using QEA +
expectation-maximization
(EM)
Training process NN using double chain QGA Cao and Shang (2009, 2010) Classification >BPNN
Training NN using QPSO + ICA Duan et al. (2010) Modelling >QPSO
Training NN, SVM, ENN using Wu et al. (2010c) >NN, QPSO + SVM, ANFIS,ER
exponential re-weighting (ER)
+ QEA
Training NN using QEA Araujo et al. (2008); Araujo (2010) >NN, MLP
Training MLP using QEA Araujo et al. (2010) >MLP, rank linear method
Training wavelet NN (WNN) Dong and Wu (2009) >QPSO
using diversity guided
immune clonal QPSO
Training WNN using modified QPSO Liu and Liu (2009) >QPSO
Training WNN using QPSO + conjugate gradient (CG) Ma et al. (2007) Network intrusion detection >NN, QPSO-WNN,CG-WNN
Training QNN using GA Li and Li (2010) Image processing >BPNN
Training QNN using improved PSO Fu and Dai (2009) Modelling >QNN, PSO-QNN
Training BPNN using QPSO Li et al. (2007b) Image processing >BP
Xu et al. (2009) >BP, PSO
Gao et al. (2009b) Modelling >PSO
Training BPNN using improved QPSO Yang et al. (2008a, 2010b) Control >BPNN with momentum
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107
Table 1 continued
108
123
Training BPNN using quantum clonal Zou et al. (2010) Image processing >BP, maximum likelihood classifier
EA +
gradient descent algorithm
Training SVM using quantum delta potential well PSO Wang et al. (2008c); Chen and Pan (2009) Modelling >PSO
Training SVM using diversity guided QPSO Wang et al. (2008d) >PSO
Training SVM using QPSO Pan et al. (2007) Modelling >LevenbergMarquardt (LM), SVM
Zhou et al. (2008); Li et al. (2009d) >PSO
Lu et al. (2010) >NN
Zhang and Che (2008) Data mining >NN, RBF, PSO
Wu et al. (2008b) Network intrusion detection >PSO, improved PSO
Training SVM using QPSO + SA Shi et al. (2010b) Classification >QPSO
Training SVM using QGA + gradient descent Mo et al. (2010b) >BP
Training SVM using parallel QGA Xie (2009) Control >GA
Training single neuron using QPSO Zhao et al. (2009c) Modelling >PSO, GA
Training RBF using QPSO Sun et al. (2006h) >PSO
Liu et al. (2009e) >Response surface methodology
Wang et al. (2009c); Du et al. (2009a) /
Tian and Liu (2009) >RBF
Tan and Song (2008) Signal processing >PSO
Training RBF using adaptive QPSO Zhu et al. (2009) Classification >classical methods
Training RBF using QPSO + gradient descent (GD) Ma et al. (2008) Network intrusion detection >QPSO-RBF, GD-RBF
Training SNN using QPSO Hamed et al. (2009a,b) Classification /
Training simultaneous RNN Venayagamoorthy and Modelling >PSO,BP
using PSO with quantum Singhal (2005); Cleaver and
infusion (PSO-QI) Venayagamoorthy (2009);
Luitel and
Venayagamoorthy (2009)
A. Manju, M. J. Nigam
Table 1 continued
Training Bayesian networks using QPSO Lv (2009b) >GA

Training Elman RNN using QPSO Aziz and Shamsuddin (2010) Classification >PSO
Training NN-FS using real-coded chaotic QGA Zhao et al. (2009b) Modelling >QGA, gradient algorithm
Training FuzzyNeural controller using double chain QGA Li et al. (2010b) Control >GA
Quantum learning for neurofuzzy networks (NFN) Panella and Martinelli (2009) Benchmark function /
Generating rules for NFN using subtractive quantum clustering Kim and Kwak (2010) Modelling >RBF
QNN + Wavelet theory Liu et al. (2010d) Image processing >BP, SA, QNN, WNN
hNN = SOM + QNN + Von kries Chromatic adaptation Chen et al. (2007b) > SOM + PNN, SOM + QNN
hQNN = Quantum neuron + BP neuron Zhang et al. (2010b) Classification >BP
DempsterShafer theory used for global Zhang and He (2009) /
fusion to gain a unified result of QNN
QNN + rough set theory He et al. (2009) Fault diagnosis >BP, MLP, PNN, RNN, RBF
Xianwen et al. (2010) >BP
QNN + NN Mahajan (2011) Forecasting >NN
Fuzzy synchronization of QNN + chaotic system Li and Ge (2011) Benchmark problem >TakagiSugeno fuzzy
Training FCM + RBF using QPSO Meng et al. (2010a) Classification >RBF, FCM + RBF
FCM + QPSO Wang et al. (2007d, 2010e) >FCM, PSO + FCM, GA + FCM
Lu and Zhao (2010) Clustering >K-center, PSO
Parameter selection of FS using QPSO Lei and Fan (2008); Yu and Fan (2008) Image processing >FS
Optimization of fuzzy using QPSO Tang and Xue (2008) Control > FS + PSO
Zhong et al. (2010) Image processing >PSO, FS + PSO
Yu et al. (2010) Control >PSO
Optimization of fuzzy using PSO and QEA Yu and Huang (2009) /
Optimization of fuzzy using DE + QDE Su and Yang (2011) Benchmark function /
123
109
Table 1 continued
110
123
Parameter selection of SVM Yang et al. (2008b) Classification >DE
using Real coded
quantum-inspired immune
EA
Parameter selection of SVM using QPSO Luo et al. (2008a,b,c) >cross validation
Shi et al. (2009) >BP, PSO
Wang et al. (2008e) /
Yue et al. (2008) >BP, LM, SVM
Self organizing algorithm = QNN + QGA Ulyanov (2004) Control >FS
Self organizing fuzzy = Ulyanov et al. (2005); >FS
quantum fuzzy interference Litvintseva et al. (2006a,b);
+ QGA Litvintseva and Ulyanov
(2009)
hGA for exploration where Chiang (2008) >hGA
QPSO produces initial
population
QGA + Permutation GA (PGA) Wang et al. (2005a); Li and Flow shop scheduling >PGA
Wang (2006, 2007a); Wang
and Li (2008)
QGA + immune CS Wang and Guo (2010) Communication >GA
QGA + real coded GA (RGA) Wang et al. (2005b) Modelling >QGA, RGA
Chaotic algorithm generates Liao (2010) >GA, QGA, Evolutionary & Dynamic programming
initial population in QGA
QEA + DE Wang and Li (2010) >DE, PSO, QEA, GA
QEA + preference based selection Kim et al. (2011) Robotics >QEA
QEA + ABC Duan et al. (2009b) Benchmark function /
QEA + local search Liu et al. (2008a) >QEA
QGA + local search Li et al. (2003b) Image processing >GA
Table 1 continued
Parallel QEA + local search Li et al. (2004d) /

QSEA = QEA + PSO Moore and Venayagamoorthy (2005) Design >GA, PSO
Yu et al. (2006) Communication networks >QEA, PSO
Huang et al. (2008) Control >EA
Wang et al. (2005c, 2007e); Benchmark problems
>Traditional algorithms
Huang et al. (2007); Li
et al. (2008c)
Feng et al. (2008c) >QGA, WalkSat
Yu et al. (2006); Changsheng et al. (2009) >PSO, QEA
Hossain et al. (2009, 2010) Benchmark function >QEA, hQEA, real coded QEA
Zheng and Yamashiro (2010) Flow shop scheduling >Traditional algorithms
Ykhlef (2011) Data mining >GA
QSEA + time varying acceleration coefficients Xiao and Liu (2009) Combinational optimization >QSEA
hQSEA = QSEA + chaotic search Xiao et al. (2009b) DNA computing >GA, EA
QPSO + GA He et al. (2010) Scheduling problem >QPSO
QGA + PSO Chen (2010) Flow shop scheduling >GA
QPSO + decomposition statistics method (DSM) Tang and Tang (2008) Forecasting >QPSO, DSM
Quantum discrete PSO + chaotic systems Li et al. (2010c) Power systems >GA, quantum discrete PSO
DE + PSO-QI Sarangi et al. (2011) Design >PSO
Improved QACO + QPSO Zhang et al. (2009a,b) Data mining-clustering >GA, improved K-Medoids
QEA + EDA Chen and Quan (2007) Benchmark problem >QEA
IS + QGA Li et al. (2005d) >GA, IS + GA, QGA
QACO + QEA Wang et al. (2009a) >QEA
SA for selection in QPSO Liu et al. (2006d) Benchmark function >PSO, QPSO
Discrete QPSO + estimated of distribution algorithm (EDA) Wang et al. (2008f) >Discrete QPSO, PSO
123
111
Table 1 continued
112
123
Chaotic search + opposition-based learning + DE + QM Omran and Salman (2009) >GA, hGA, constraint handling, harmonic search
QGA + chaos mutation + immune system (IS) Chen and Li (2010) >QGA, GA
QPSO + culture algorithm (CA) Liu et al. (2009b) Modeling >Numerical algorithm
Genetic programming (GP) +QPSO Liu et al. (2009c) >RBF-QPSO
hQPSO = QPSO + K-Harmonic means (KHM) Lu et al. (2008) Clustering >KHM, PSO, QPSO,HPSO
K-Medoids + QPSO Yang and Zhang (2010) >PSO
ICA + QNN Yang et al. (2010c) Classification >BP
Watershed + quantum inspired ICA (QICA) Li et al. (2010d) >GA, K-means, QICA
Quantum algorithm + ACO + reinforcement learning Tan et al. (2009) Game theory >Nash learning
Table 2 Categorization of references
Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

inspired inspired
neural fuzzy
network systems GA EA DE PSO ACO AFSA IS
Bioinformatics Meshoul et al. Sun et al. (2012);

(2005a); Layeb Cai et al. (2008);
et al. (2006, 2008) Xiao (2009); Li
et al. (2010g,h)
Benchmark Zhou et al. (2006a); Kreinovich et al. Yang et al. (2004a); Han and Kim (2001, Layeb and Saidouni Li et al. (2008d); You et al. Li et al. (2004c); Liu
problems Oliveira et al. (2008); Hannachi Narayanan and 2002a,b); (2009); Draa et al. Lebensztajn and (2009b) and Li (2003); Li
(2008); Matsuda et al. (2007a) Moore (1996); Patvardhan et al. (2010); Su et al. Coelho (2010); and Jiao (2007);
(1993); Matsui et al. Narayanan (2007); Han and (2010); Su and Blackwell and Qu et al. (2009);
(1998); Takai et al. (1999); Dai and Li Kim (2003a,b, Yang (2011) Branke (2001); Li Zhang (2008); Xu
(1998); Matsui et al. (2008); Han and 2004); Kim et al. et al. (2008c); del and Linghu
(1999, 2000a,b); Kim (2002a); Lv (2006); Zhang et al. Amo et al. (2010) (2008); Shang
Kouda et al. (2000, and Liu (2007); (2008); Meshoul et al. (2010); Gao
2003, 2005a, 2004); Han et al. (2001); et al. (2005b); Li and Wang (2011);
Mori et al. (2006); Xu et al. (2010a); and Rudolph (2007); Changsheng and
Zhou et al. Xiong et al. Li et al. (2009a); Liang (2009)
(2006b,c); Li and (2004); Zhou and Feng et al. (2006,
Zheng (2003); Li Sun (2005); Chen 2008a); Alfares and
et al. (2004a); et al. (2010); Talbi Esat (2006); Yang
Maeda et al. (2005); et al. (2004a) and Ding (2007);
Li et al. (2006b); Xin and Shigeru
Ricks and Ventura (2010); Shen and
(2004); Zhou and Liu (2008); Platel
Ding (2007); Zhou et al. (2007, 2009);
(2008); Kinjo et al. Mahdabi et al.
(2003, 2005); Yue (2009); Tayarani and
and Chen (2004); Akbarzadeh
Yue and Lee (2002); (2008a,b, 2009);
Yue and Chen Nodehi et al. (2009);
(2005); Garavaglia Tao et al. (2010)
(2002)
123
113
Table 2 continued
114
Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

neural network fuzzy systems
123
GA EA DE PSO ACO AFSA IS
Allauddin et al.
(2008); Schliebs
et al. (2009c,
2010)
Biomedical Aarabi et al. Yao et al. (2009)
(2007);
Karayiannis
et al. (2006a,
2004);
Karayiannis and
Xiong (2005);
Karayiannis
et al. (2006b);
Yu and Chen
(2007); Shuyan
(2008); Zhou
(2003)
Communication Klusch (2004); Liu et al. (2007c, Li et al. (2008b) Geravanchizadeh Wu et al. (2008d)
Ding and Chen 2006a); Xiao and Asl (2010);
(2008); Li et al. et al. (2006); Mikki and Kishk
(2005a,b, Xiao and Zhang (2006a); Chi
2006a); Tank (2007); Zhao et al. (2009)
and Hopfield et al. (2007a,
(1986); Behera 2009a)
(2004); Behera
and Sundaram
(2004); Behera
and Kar (2005);
Behera et al.
(2005, 2006)
Table 2 continued

Clustering & Zhou et al. (2007a); Li and Wang Zhang and Qiu Nicolau et al. Li et al. (2009c);
classification Purushothaman and (2007b); Sun and (2010); Cheng (2011); Zhou Sun et al.
Karayiannis (1997); Hao (2009); et al. (2010); et al. (2005, (2006e); Chen
Wang et al. (2008a); Chiara et al. Yan et al. 2006d) et al. (2008b);
Zhu and Wu (2007); (2007); (2009); Xiao Peng et al.

Wu and Peng Sierocinski et al. et al. (2008, (2008); Zhang
(2007); Li et al. (2008b) 2010) et al. (2009c);
(2002); Karayiannis Chi et al.
and Purushothaman (2008); Zhang
(1994); Tsai et al. et al. (2010);
(2005); Teng et al. Tao (2009); Tao
(2007a); Menneer et al. (2009)
(1998); Andrecut
and Ali (2002);
Ventura and
Martinez (2000);
Narayanan and
Manneer (2000);
Zhao et al. (2006);
Li and Xu (2009);
Mitrpanont and
Srisuphab (2002);
Yu and Ma (2008);
Zhang et al. (2010a)
123
115
Table 2 continued
116

123
Chen et al. (2005b);

Perus and Dey
(2000); Yue (1992);
Zhou et al. (2006c);
Purushothaman
et al. (1995);
Purushothaman and
Karayiannis (1998);
Karayiannis et al.
(2001);
Purushothaman and
Karayiannis (2006);
Karayiannis and
Xiong (2006); Zhou
et al. (1999a,b,
2002); Meng and
Gong (2010); Horn
and Gottlieb (2001);
Horn and Axel
(2003); Nasios and
Bors (2005); Barkan
and Horn (2006);
Zhou et al. (2010);
Hinton et al. (2006)
Table 2 continued

inspired inspired
neural fuzzy
Benchmark functions Khorsand and Han (2003); Yang Su and Yang Feng and Xu Li et al. Zhu and Jiang Li and Jiao
Akbarzadeh and Jiao (2003); (2008); Xu and (2004a,b); Sun (2010l) (2010); Zhu (2005); Li et al.
(2005); Liao Li et al. (2004b); Guo (2010) et al. (2004a,b, et al. (2010) (2004b); You
et al. (2010); Han and Kim 2007b, 2005a); et al. (2006a,b,c,

Chen et al. (2006); Zhang Liu et al. 2007, 2008a,
(2004); Han and and Rong (2006c); Xu and 2009a, 2008b);
Kim (2000); (2007d); da Sun (2005); Sun Jiao et al.
Teng et al. Cruz et al. et al. (2011b); (2008); Qu et al.
(2008a); Haiyan (2004, 2005, Fang et al. (2008)
(2005); Chen 2006, 2007, (2010); Sun
et al. (2005a); 2008); Qin et al. et al. (2007c);
Ni and Wang (2008); Yang Lin et al. (2010);
(2010); Teng et al. (2006); Xi et al. (2007b,
et al. (2007b, Gao et al. 2008); Sun et al.
2008b, (2008); (2006a,b,c);
2010a,b); Zhu Yanguang et al. Zhao and San
et al. (2008); Lv (2010); Liu and (2010); Sun
and Li (2008); You (2009); Li et al. (2005b);
Zhang and Rong and Li (2008b); Ma et al.
(2007a) Liu and Zhou (2009b); Zhao
(2009); et al. (2009e);
Akbarzadeh and Yang and Xie
Tayarani (2009); (2010); Liu et al.
Qin et al. (2005,
(2007); Izadinia 2006e,f,g); Feng
and Ebadzadeh et al. (2009);
(2009) Zhao et al.
(2009f); Pant
et al. (2009)
123
117
Table 2 continued
118

123
Su et al. (2009a);
Fang et al.
(2009); Nie
et al. (2010);
Chen and Yang
(2010); Sun
et al. (2006d,
2007a); Gao
et al. (2007);
Jiao and Li
(2010); Zhou
et al. (2010b);
Lu and Sun
(2008a,b); Liu
and Ma (2008);
Pant and
Thangaraj
(2008); Liu et al.
(2010e); Wang
and Zhou
(2007); Yang
and Nomura
(2010); Li et al.
(2010f); Huang
et al. (2009b);
Zheng and Li
(2010); Kennedy
and Eberhart
(1997); Liu et al.
(2008b); Wang
et al. (2009b)
Table 2 continued

Control Huang et al. Rigatos and Vlachogiannis and Park et al. Wang et al. Wang and Bai
(2009a); Li Tzafestas (2002) Ostergaard (2010a,b); Liu (2008b); Coelho (2010)
(2000); Kouda (2009); Liu et al. et al. (2009a) et al. (2008);
et al. (2002b, (2010c) Coelho and
2005b); Dawes Herrera (2008);

(1992) Baida et al.
(2008); Su et al.
(2009b);
Jalilzadeh et al.
(2009); Xi et al.
(2006, 2007a);
Liu et al.
(2009d); Luo
and Li (2010);
Shayeghi et al.
(2010);
Thangaraj et al.
(2009); Wang
et al. (2010c,d)
Data mining Grover (1996); Li et al. (2003a)
Ezhov et al.
(2000); Zhao
(2004)
123
119
Table 2 continued
120

123
Design Akbarzadeh and Zhang et al. Coelho (2008, Li et al. (2010j,k) Yin et al. (2010)
Khorsand (2003e); Alfares 2007, 2010);
(2005); Lv et al. (2004); Xu Luitel and
(2009a); Zhang et al. (2010b,b); Venayagamoor-
et al. Wang and Shi thy (2008); Luo
(2003b,c,d); Wu (2010); Popa and Li (2009);
et al. (2008a); et al. (2010) Fang et al.
Ghavami et al. (2006a, 2008,
(2008); Dai and 2006b,c); Sun
Zhang (2009) et al. (2008,
2010a); Fang
et al. (2006d);
Coelho and
Alotto (2008);
Mikki and Kishk
(2005, 2006b,
2007); Xia et al.
(2008); Shi et al.
(2010a); Wu
et al. (2008c);
Omkar et al.
(2009);
Caprihan et al.
(2009); Luo
et al. (2009);
Chai et al.
(2009); Xin and
Qiang (2010)
Table 2 continued

inspired inspired
neural fuzzy
Distribution networks Changqing et al. Kima et al. (2003)

(2007)
Entertainment Yue and Lee Wu et al. (2010a) Tian et al. (2010) Wu et al. (2009,
(2006); Yue and 2010b)

Chiang (2002)
Faults Chen et al.
(2007a); Zhu
and Chen
(2006); Zhu and
Sang (2006);
Guowei et al.
(2010); Shen
et al. (2008);
Yang et al.
(2009, 2010a)
Financial Fan et al. Ma et al. (2009a);
(2007a,b, Sun et al.
2008a,b) (2006f); Zhao
et al. (2010a)
Graphics and visualisation Xue et al. (2006);
Huang et al.
(2006); Zhou
et al. (2007b);
Gao et al.
(2009a)
123
121
Table 2 continued
122

inspired inspired
123
neural fuzzy
Image and video Zhou et al. Rigatos and Li et al. (2005c); Jang et al. (2003, Draa et al. Li et al. (2010e); Yang et al.
(2007a); Zhou Tzafestas Benatchba et al. 2004a,b); Talbi (2004) Gao et al. (2010b); (2010d); Bi
(2007); Liu et al. (2006); (2006); Talbi et al. (2006, Meshoul and and Jin (2007)
(2007a,b); Gao Sierocinski et al. et al. (2004b,c) 2007); Melo Batouche (2010);
et al. (2010a); (2008a) et al. (2008); Peng and Xu
Hu (2004); Loo Shen and Chen (2009); Lei and Fu
et al. (2004); (2006) (2008); Feng et al.
Muezzinoglu (2008b); Huang
et al. (2003); and Wang (2008);
Kasabov (2009) Zhao et al.
(2007b); Zhao and
Hu (2010); Lu
et al. (2007);
Huang and Zhang
(2009); Wenlong
et al. (2007)
Modelling Tsai and Chang Luitel and
(2007, 2008); Venayagamoorthy
Panchi and (2010); Liu et al.
Shiyong (2008); (2006h); Sun et al.
Schliebs et al. (2007d); Lu and
(2009b) Wang (2008); Lu
et al. (2010); Zhao
et al. (2009g); Sabat
et al. (2009, 2010);
Liu et al. (2010f);
Du and Wang
(2010)
Table 2 continued

inspired inspired
neural fuzzy
Network security Yue and Chiang

(2005, 2007);
Hou and Zheng
(2010)
NN & fuzzy systems Meng et al. Hannachi and Li and Li (2008a)
(2007); Nan and Hirota (2005);
Zhang (2008a); Hannachi et al.
Altaisky (2001); (2007b,c)
Gupta and Zia
(2002); Nitta
(1993, 1994);
Durr and Hoyer
(2005); Altman
and Zapatrin
(2010); Altman
et al. (2004);
Sato et al.
(2003); Sienko
and Citko
(2004); Sienko
et al. (2004);
Kinjo et al.
(2006, 2008);
Nakamiya et al.
(2006); Igelnik
and Pao (1995);
Igelnik et al.
(1999, 2001)
123
123
Table 2 continued
124

inspired inspired
123
neural fuzzy
Prediction and forecasting Nan and Zhang Dong and Wu

(2008b); Chang (2009); Tang
(2005, 2006); and Tang
Chang and Tsai (2008); Du and
(2009a); Chang Wei (2009)
et al. (2010a,
2008a, 2007); Li
et al. (2008a);
Igelnik et al.
(1999); Lee et al.
(2004); Chang and
Tsai (2007);
Chang et al.
(2008b); Chang
(2008); Chang and
Tsai (2009b)
Power systems and plants Liao (2011); Yasin et al. (2010); Luitel et al. (2010);
Amjady and Lau et al. (2009); Xiao et al. (2009a);
Nasiri-Rad Chung et al. Coelho and Mariani
(2010); Lee (2011); Jeong (2008); Sun et al.
et al. (2011) et al. (2009a); (2009); Meng et al.
Vlachogiannis and (2010b); Jeong et al.
Lee (2008); Neto (2009b, 2010);
et al. (2011); Zhang (2010b); Sun
Al-Othman et al. and Lu (2010); Sun
(2007); Babu et al. et al. (2010b); Yin
(2008); Radha and et al. (2010); Babaei
Rughooputh and Hosseinnezhad
(2010) (2010); Li et al.
(2010i)
Table 2 continued

inspired inspired
neural fuzzy
Routing Xing et al. Li et al. (2009b); Jiao et al. (2009) Zhao et al. (2008);
(2009a); Xing et al. Sun et al.
Niansheng et al. (2008b); Gao (2006g, 2011a);
(2007); Xing et al. (2006); Wang et al.

et al. (2008a); Xing et al. (2010b)
Wang et al. (2010, 2009b);
(2006, 2007a) Hu and Wu
(2009); Zhao
et al. (2009d)
Robotics Kumar and Liu et al. Kim and Kim (2009) Yu et al. (2009)
Behera (2004); (2010a,b)
Chen et al.
(2008a); Lukac
and Perkowski
(2009); Behera
et al. (1996,
1998)
Scheduling Shu (2008); Gong Kong et al. Gou and Shu
et al. (2009); Gu (2007); Luo (2008); Niu
et al. (2008a,b, et al. (2010); et al. (2009)
2009, 2010); Mo Zhang and Li
et al. (2010a); (2010); Chang
Wang et al. et al. (2010b)
(2007b); Qian
et al. (2010)
Sensor networks Wang et al.
(2010a); Luo
(2010a,b)
123
125
Table 2 continued
126

inspired inspired
123
neural fuzzy
Signal processing Zhang et al. Zhang (2010a) Yang et al. Jiao and Li (2005)
(2004a, 2003a); (2004c); de
Yang et al. Oliveira et al.
(2003a,b); (2006); Gao and
Zhang et al. Diao (2009); Liu
(2006, 2004b); (2009a,b); Liu
Zhang and Rong and Song (2009)
(2007b,c); Zhu
et al. (2006,
2007a,b); Li
et al. (2008b,
2010a); Liu
et al. (2006b)
Demand for efficient parallel technique like QCI is increasing owing to the technological
advancements which increase the complexity of various real world problems. New design
and optimization algorithms with an open model in this regard are expected to emerge as
many researchers are focusing in this burgeoning area. Future work is to urgently address
the limitations and challenges in various methodologies and implementations of QCI.
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Artif Intell Rev (2014) 42:79156

Applications of quantum inspired computational

Published online: 9 May 2012

Abstract This paper makes an exhaustive survey of various applications of Quantum

Keywords Quantum computing Quantum mechanics Computational intelligence

A. Manju (B) M. J. Nigam

CGPQGA Coarse-grained parallel QGA

QNN Quantum inspired neural network

Computational intelligence (CI) is an offshoot of artificial intelligence which involves the

||2 + ||2 = 1 (3)

Interference is a well-known phenomenon common to any kind of wave occurring while

3 Quantum inspired computational intelligence techniques

3.1 Quantum inspired neural network

3.1.1 Back propagation NN

3.1.2 Training algorithm

Hop. NN is a combination of number of simple processing units having collective computa-

3.1.5 Self-organizing map NN

3.1.6 Radial basis function NN

3.1.8 Stability analysis

convergence condition of asynchronous mode first order complex-valued multivalued neuron

3.1.9 Support vector machines

Incorporation of spatial-temporal information in communication and computation, in Neu-

3.2 Quantum inspired fuzzy system

3.3 Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

3.3.1 Genetic algorithm

3.3.2 Evolutionary algorithm

Evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-

3.3.3 Differential evolution

3.3.4 Swarm algorithm-particle swarm optimization

3.3.5 Ant colony optimization

3.3.6 Artificial fish swarm algorithm

3.3.7 Immune systems

4 Quantum inspired hybrid algorithms

5 Conclusions and discussions

Methodology References Problem Comparison

Methodology References Problem Comparison

Methodology References Problem Comparison

Training Bayesian networks using QPSO Lv (2009b) >GA

Methodology References Problem Comparison

Methodology References Problem Comparison

Parallel QEA + local search Li et al. (2004d) /

Methodology References Problem Comparison

Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Bioinformatics Meshoul et al. Sun et al. (2012);

Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Zhu and Wu (2007); (2007); (2009); Xiao Peng et al.

Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Chen et al. (2005b);

Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

et al. (2010); Han and Kim 2007b, 2005a); et al. (2006a,b,c,

Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

2005b); Dawes Herrera (2008);

Application Quantum inspired Quantum inspired Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Distribution networks Changqing et al. Kima et al. (2003)

(2006); Yue and 2010b)

Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Network security Yue and Chiang

Application Quantum Quantum Quantum inspired evolutionary methods

Prediction and forecasting Nan and Zhang Dong and Wu