SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY FOR EXPLORATIONISTS

BOTTOM LINE KEY WORDS:

Sequence stratigraphy shows the stratigraphic succession of genetically related intervals of
strata, bounded by discontinuities. Sequence stratigraphic large-scale, three-dimensional Cyclical sedimentation
analysis of the rock formations combined with seismic interpretations can provide a pow-
Eustacy
erful means of predictive modeling.
Experimental flow tanks
PROBLEM ADDRESSED Genetic stratigraphic
Sequence stratigraphy has evolved from an academic concept to a valuable tool for oil and
sequences
gas exploration in the past two decades, but it is still under-utilized. The predictions about
reservoir potential based on sequence stratigraphy depend on understanding changes in Maximum flooding sur-
global sea level, tectonic movements and how they affect lithologic facies and boundaries. face
Learning how to evaluate and predict the flow-unit boundaries is the key to correct applica- Sequence boundaries
tion of sequence stratigraphic models. Sequence stratigraphy

TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW another environment."Modern sequence stratigraphic analy-

Concepts of cyclic sedimentation have been used in geolog-
ic interpretation for decades. Cyclical sedimentation is
defined by stacked shoaling-upward packages of marine
sediment and stacked submarine fans. Sequence stratigra-
phy refines the old cyclic sedimentation concepts into spe-
cific 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th order sequences based on
identification of unit boundaries. Identification of the strati-
graphic sequences that make up the cycles is based on
lithology and boundary changes. Seismic reflections are
particularly useful in picking the sequence boundaries. The
deposition of sequences is dependent on sea level change,
sediment supply and subsidence. Interpretation of sedimen-
tary strata based on sequence stratigraphy using correlated
seismic, wireline and core data is important for hydrocar-
bon exploration.
Seismic Stratigraphy-Basics
Lithologic interpretation is based on physical properties
including rock type, color, mineral composition and grain
size. Boundaries between stratigraphic intervals are based
on clearly identifiable contacts resulting from changes in
deposition. Different facies represent different depositional
environments. Walther's law expresses the problem with
lithostratigraphic interpretation of facies. "As laterally con-
tiguous environments shift with time, facies boundaries
shift so that the facies of one environment lie above those of
Based on a workshop sponsored by PTTC's Eastern Gulf Region in
Jackson, Mississippi on January 12, 2005.
SPEAKERS:
Sequence Stratigraphy Basics and Seismic Geometries and Patterns of
Reflector Terminations,
Bruce Hart, McGill University
Experimental Stratigraphy; Stratal Geometries Associated with Sequences:
Delineating Sequence Boundaries,
Nikki Strong, St. Anthony Falls Laboratory, University of
Minnesota
sis is a means of interpreting the lateral and vertical pat-
terns on sedimentary deposition.
Illustrations of stratigraphic intervals and boundaries of the
Mesaverde Group in Utah have become classic sequence
stratigraphy examples. Timelines are used to identify the
stratigraphic surfaces that are formed by the interplay of
tectonic forces, global sea level changes (eustacy) and sedi-
ment supply (volume and type). The timelines allow for
correlations across a broad area and relate all factors into
predictive models. Unconformities are major sequence
boundaries formed by lowstand erosional events. Flooding
surfaces are formed by transgressive (landward movement
of the shoreline) and regression (basinward movement of
the shoreline) movement. The cyclical nature of sedimenta-
tion is built by the stacking of prograding outward building
shoreline deposition, and retrograde or backstepping shore-
line deposition.
Sea Level Change
Transgression and regression depend on the rate of sedi-
ment supply and the rate of accommodation space.
Accommodation space pertains to the vertical space in
which sediment can accumulate and is equal to the water
depth in marine or freshwater lacustrine or fluvial settings.
Lateral changes in accommodation determine the shape of
the prograding or retrograding deposits, such as ramps or
shelf breaks.
Sea level changes effect the direction of sediment supply.
Base levels fall when the sediment supply halts along the
margin of a basin, followed by subaerial erosion or when
the inner shelf of the sea floor is eroded in advance of a
prograding shoreline. These changes in sea level are read as
unconformities in the rock. Unconformities are recognized
as evidence of subaerial erosion and truncation of underly-
ing sedimentary intervals. Difference in facies above or
below sequence boundaries can form flow unit boundaries
541 reflected in permeability differences.
Sequence stratigraphy concepts were developed for marine
deposits and application of them to non-marine stratigraphy
presents difficulties in interpretation. Problems result from
changes in sediment supply, tectonic uplift, and climate;
which can mimic the effects of sea level change. One
approach is to limit sequence stratigraphic concepts to a few
10s of miles from a coastline.
To interpret stratigraphic sequences it is important to estab-
lish a shoreface profile. Progradation during periods of con-
stant sea level generates a gradual coarsening upward shore-
line profile in equilibrium. Falling sea levels result in abrupt
changes in the profile with erosion seaward of a prograding
shoreface generating regressive surfaces of marine erosion
with shoreface sediments directly overlying deposits from
the outer shelf. Rising sea levels result in accumulation of
non-marine sediments in a landward direction on the ero-
sion surface. At the shoreline, deposition ceases and erosion
begins, resulting in a change from a transgressive to a regres-
sive trend.
Seismic Geometries and Patterns of Reflector Terminations
Recognition of flooding surfaces is the key to interpreting
sequence stratigraphy. Flooding surfaces formed during
transgression are evidence of shoreface erosion and abrupt
deepening. Erosion events can remove up to 10-20 meters of
strata and downcut through previous unconformities. These
transgressive lag sediments may cap a flooding surface and
diagenetic alternation frequently occurs below the lag, form-
ing permeability flow barriers.
In sequence stratigraphy, parasequences are the main unit of
interpretation. Parasequences are restricted to shallow
marine sediments and reflect shoaling upward stratigraphic
units bounded by flooding surfaces. The stacking patterns
formed by parasequences differ for progradational, aggrada-
tional and retrogradation system tracts. It is important to
understand that in the development of systems all sequences
that form may not be preserved. An example from Utah's
Cliff House sandstone shows sections of barrier islands
formed during transgression, which may later be partly or
completely eroded.
Maximum flooding surfaces across a broad area indicates the
end of a transgression and the beginning of a regression.
Maximum flooding surfaces may represent a period of no or
very slow deposition or of marine erosion. They can be rec-
ognized as downlapping surfaces on log cross sections or
seismic images. Maximum flooding surfaces are used to
define sequences.
Theories of Sequence Stratigraphy
Systems tracts or sequences link contemporaneous deposi-
tional environments. Three major schools of thought on
sequences are based on unconformity (Exxon school, 1977-
1988), maximum flooding surfaces (Galloway school, 1989),
and subaerial unconformity and transgression surfaces
(Embry school, 2002).
The depositional sequence of the Exxon model is based on
highstand and lowstand systems tracts. It is bounded by sub-
aerial unconformity, followed by a regressive surface of
marine erosion, and then a correlative conformity (which is
often difficult to recognize). The sequence begins with each
highstand or progradation onto the shelf. The Exxon model is
useful as a starting point, but is heavily weighted with termi-
nology and requires flexibility for interpretation of sequences.
The Galloway model of genetic stratigraphic sequences is
based on sequences bounded by maximum flooding surfaces
often referred to as regressive-transgressive sequences (R-T).
The advantage of the genetic stratigraphic model is that only
one type of surface is defined, and this maximum flooding
surface is easy to identify. However, be aware in the genetic
model that unconformities can lay within a sequence.
The Embry and Johannessen model of transgressive-regres-
sive sequences (T-R) is bounded by subaerial unconformities
and maximum regressive surfaces. The T-R sequence is
divided into two systems tracts. The transgressive tract lies
between the sequence boundary at the base and the maxi-
mum flooding surface at the top. The regressive system tract
lies between the maximum flooding surface at the base and
the sequence boundary at the top. The T-R system tract is
the newest concept and is simple to apply, but not widely
used.
Application of Transgressive-Regressive Sequence
Concept
Recent work by Mancini, Parcell and Hart (2004) applies the
transgressive-regressive sequence concept using outcrops,
logs and seismic images to interpreting Gulf Coast stratigra-
phy. Examples from Mancini, et al demonstrate how seismic
interpretation of sequence stratigraphy can be made. The
seismic reflections result from changes in velocity and den-
sity in the sedimentary deposits. The seismic reflections
form timelines separating older and younger strata. Fluid
contacts and barriers formed by diagenesis may alter reflec-
tions and the timelines.
As seismic reflections correspond to physical changes in the
strata, they can be generated anywhere along a flooding sur-
face and can cross lithologic boundaries. Seismic reflection
terminations define the geometric relationship between a
reflection and the seismic surface where it terminates.
Differences in seismic reflection terminations can be used to
identify and define depositional history. The visual trunca-
tion, toplap, onlap (marine or non-marine), downlap
(marine) reflections can be identified on log cross section or
seismic lines. When using reflection terminations for inter-
pretation it is important to flatten the seismic or log sections
on a datum to avoid problems, such as changes due to tec-
tonic tilting.
Seismic Techniques
In seismic stratigraphy unconformities can be recognized on
seismic lines as erosional truncation of underlying strati-
graphic intervals. The unconformities result from subaerial
erosion related to relative sea level dropping. Internal con-
vergence occurs when sediment packages thin to a reflection
termination. Recognition of downlap surfaces at the base of
prograding sequences is associated with maximum flooding
surfaces and frequently are associated with shale intervals.
In deltaic settings downlap is formed by lobe switching.
Downlap surfaces in shale may be vertical barriers to fluid
flow.
As a caution when interpreting reflection terminations, not
all seismic lines are dip sections, and stratigraphic and
structural features are often difficult to recognize.
Seismic resolution decreases with depth as velocity increas-
es and wavelengths become longer and higher frequencies
are attenuated. Frequency changes and content in seismic
data may affect resolution and apparent seismic stratigraphic
relationships. Due to frequency content, reflection geome-
tries visible on seismic lines may not truly represent strati-
graphic relationships.
faces generated during sea level changes including subaerial
unconformities, regressive and transgressive events, and
maximum flooding surfaces. The stratigraphic surfaces are
used to define the sequences and systems tracts and deposi-
tional history. Sequence stratigraphy can be a valuable tool
for evaluation of nearshore sediments and prediction of
drilling locations in hydrocarbon exploration.

When using seismic stratigraphy without log or core data, it
is essential to establish a workflow based on available data
and scale. Use reflection terminations to define the flooding
surfaces to tentatively define the depositional environments.
Develop a relative sea level history and integrate deposition-
al environments to make predictions on lithology. Define
system tracts using seismically determined surfaces. Identify
drilling targets and if possible correlate with outcrop analogs
or field data.
Experimental Stratigraphy: Stratal Geometries Associated
with Sequences, Delineating Sequence Boundaries
Experimental research on sequence stratigraphy at the
National Center for Earth-Surface Dynamics at the University
of Minnesota relies on detailed tank studies and sophisticat-
ed computer analysis. The tank studies allow the research
team to precisely measure all the potential changes in water
levels, sediment supply, subsidence and uplift. This data can
be used to reconstruct flooding surfaces and sequences.

If well data is available seismic interpretation can be corre- Images created by superimposing, in chronological order,
lated with log or core data to increase the value of predic- surfaces in the experiment tank are captured with laser and
tions about lithology, continuity and depositional systems. sonar topographic measurements. The research helps to ana-
One of the most useful techniques is to overlay wireline logs lyze the processes that form the surfaces and boundaries,
(particularly gamma ray logs) over seismic data. Advanced which form the sequences we see in the sedimentary strata.
seismic techniques such as inversions and seismic attribute The genetically related facies formed within a framework of
analysis can be used for predictions on porosity, lithology, chronostratigraphically significant surfaces defines sequence
seals, and to identify drilling targets. stratigraphy. Laboratory research on the processes and pat-
terns developed during deposition adds significantly to the
Challenges with Sequence Stratigraphy body of knowledge of sequence stratigraphy.
There may be confusion on whose theories to apply. The
concepts have changed and evolved over time. Each theory CONNECTIONS:
has a multitude of terms that may be contradictory. The dif-
ficulties in interpreting cycles, parasequences and sequences Bruce Hart, Associate Professor
can be solved by focusing on the basic principles. Using McGill Seismic Research Group
both logs and seismic data allows for better correlation of Earth and Planetary Sciences
intervals and evaluation of the data. Analysis of global sea McGill University
level changes and determining the order of sequences relies 3450 University St.
on interpretations of biostratagraphic and subaerial uncon- Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2A7
formities. Ph: (514) 398-3677 Fax (514) 398-4680
Email: hart@eps.mcgill.ca
Summary
The object of the one-day short course was to acquaint the Nikki Strong
audience with the basic principles of sequence stratigraphy, St. Anthony Falls Laboratory
and mention some of the shortcomings or problems with University of Minnesota
interpretations. The concepts of cycles and sequences are a Mississippi River at 3rd Ave SE
method that incorporates global sea level changes, local and Minneapolis, MN 55414
regional subsidence and uplift, and changes in sediment Ph: (612) 250-1763
supply. Sequence stratigraphy depends on interpreting sur- Email: stro0068@umn.edu

For information on PTTCs Eastern Gulf Region and its activities contact:

Ernest A. Mancini, Professor of Geology, University of Alabama,

Box 870338, 202 Bevill Building, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487
Phone 205-348-4319, Fax 205-348-0818, Email emancini@wgs.geo.ua.edu

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