1

THE

BODY PROJECT
BY HOLLY ROLFE

2
 COVER IMAGE What, P. (2015). Phaze What - Tokyo (Official Video). [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pcLodlS-
G0k [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
3
 HOW DO WOMEN PERFORM OR DISMANTLE
THE PHYSICAL AND AESTHETIC BOUNDARIES OF
FEMININITY AS A CULTURALLY DEFINED GENDER
STEREOTYPE?

4
 1 Shilling, C. (1993). The Body and Social Theory. SAGE Publications.
5
 IN THE AFFLUENT WEST THERE IS
A TENDENCY FOR THE BODY TO BE
SEEN AS AN ENTITY WHICH IS IN THE
PROCESS OF BECOMING; A PROJECT
WHICH SHOULD BE WORKED AT
AND ACCOMPLISHED AS PART OF AN
INDIVIDUALS SELF-IDENTITY.1
CHRIS SHILLING

6
 ORLAN (1996). Woman with a Head. [image] Available at: http://i0.wp.com/radaronline.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/86.
7 jpg?fit=700%2C700 [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
 9
INTRODUCTION:

THE BODY AS A
NEUTRAL ENTITY
32

33
THE BODY
AS POLITIC:

ORLAN &
CINDY JACKSON
48

THE BODY AS 49
A LANDSCAPE:

G R A C E
N E U T R A L
62
63
CONCLUSION
68

8
 Gober, R. (1991). Untitled, Sculpture. [image] Available at: https://c1.staticflickr.com/4/3940/15696576955_c73b93b424_b.jpg [Ac-
cessed 30 Apr. 2017].
9
INTRODUCTION

THE BODY AS A
NEUTRAL ENTITY

10
 The human body is a powerful tool, because it can have
a plethora of meanings to different people. Some use the
body as a tool to express themselves, others simply let it
be. Because the human body is under constant surveillance
and scrutiny in almost all aspects of modern society, the
idea that all bodies are carriers of statement is explicable.
No matter your age, sex, race, gender, or whether or
not youre aware of it, your body is making some kind of
statement about you. Being judged on looks is intrinsic to
Western society whether we like it or not and seems to be
one of the main reasons why many people spend so much
of their time deliberating over how they look. The physical
body is not our only concern, but rather how we choose to
perform, display and alter our bodies.
Dennis Dutton doesnt believe that beauty is in the
eye of the beholder2, or as critics prefer: beauty is in
the culturally conditioned eye of the beholder.2 In fact,
according to Darwins theory of beauty, how we define
beauty may stem back further than one million years. His
theory of sexual selection explains how it is possible for the
appearance of a species to evolve in order to better attract a
mate. For example, peacocks have evolved to have majestic
tail feathers not out of necessity for survival, but rather to
attract the attention of the peahen; Darwin truly believed
that in eyes of the peahen, the peacocks tail feathers are
beautiful2. This could be a reason for one of many basic
human desires: to look attractive to potential mates.2 In
2 Dutton, D. (2010). A Darwinian Theory of Beauty. [video] Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/denis_dutton_a_darwinian_theo-
11
such a comparatively advanced and modern community
this means something very different to us now than it
did a million or so years ago, but seems as though it still
has plenty of relevance. It could be a reason as to why
the marketing of makeup and clothes as items that are
essential in order to make yourself more desirable to other
humans is so effective and why many of us, as humans, so
willingly buy into this culture of beauty.
This theory of sexual selection directly relates to our
infatuation with art. The Acheulean hand-axe is arguably
the earliest example of what we would define as an artistic
artefact, and also works as a basis for defining how humans
may perceive beauty in objects, which can translate to the
physical beauty and objectification of the human body.
These artefacts were found across Asia, Europe and Africa
in their thousands. Not only the sheer quantity of these
objects found but also the condition that they were found
in after so many years suggests that these particular tools
were not used as tools in fact but actually as objects of
beauty.2 Rather, that a well crafted hand axe was a great
indicator for desirable personal qualities: intelligence,
fine motor control, planning ability, conscientiousness and
sometimes access to rare materials.2 The crafting of these
hand-axes was a way to convey such attractive qualities to
the opposite sex, hundreds of thousands of years before
hominids developed any sense of verbal language.2
ry_of_beauty [Accessed 2 Mar. 2017].
 BUT STILL, ONE FUNDAMENTAL TRAIT
OF THE ANCESTRAL PERSONALITY
PERSISTS, IN OUR AESTHETIC
CRAVINGS: THE BEAUTY WE FIND
IN SKILLED PERFORMANCES. []
HUMAN BEINGS HAVE A PERMANENT,
INNATE TASTE FOR VIRTUOSO
DISPLAYS IN THE ARTS. WE FIND
BEAUTY IN SOMETHING DONE WELL. 2
We can apply the same kind of theory to the design and
manufacturing of the human body. The ability to, say, apply
makeup with great precision or trim a beard symmetrically
could be an indicator of the same fine motor control and
planning ability that our ancestors looked for in a mate, we
just convey it in a different way now. Maybe nowadays what
we find attractive as a species is a well-crafted exterior that
subliminally showcases our functional abilities.

IMAGE ON NEXT PAGE Botticelli, S. (1480). The Birth of Venus. [image] Available at: http://t.wallpaperweb.org/wallpaper/draw-
ing/2048x1536/Birth_of_venus.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
12
 ONE IS NOT BORN,
BUT RATHER
BECOMES, A WOMAN.3
3 Wolf, N. (1990). The Beauty Myth. Chatto & Windus.

13
14
 Female beauty is defined in the Western world by a myriad
of things. The beauty industry, for the most part, has a THE BODY BEAUTIFUL WAS BEING
strong role to play when it comes to how women feel they
are supposed to look. In theory, both male and female INSTITUTIONALISED; AND BOTH THE
gender stereotypes are social and cultural constructs. Even MEANING AND THE REALITY OF THE
in a world that is more connected than it ever has been
before thanks to the internet, cultural ideals of beauty can BODY WERE CHANGING.6
still vary drastically depending on geographical location. In
The Descent of Man, Darwin proposes that it is certainly The body started to become a much more important area
not true that there is in the mind of man any universal of focus, because we were being shown images of people
standard of beauty with respect of the human body.4 On that we aspired to be like, because we enjoyed to watch
a very primal level, we are genetically predisposed to be them on the silver screen and idolised the idyllic and
most attracted to people that we detect complement our glamorous lifestyle that was portrayed to us by the media.
own physical genetics in order to have the best chance at It also served to reinforce the stereotypes that women
producing healthy offspring, and yet Naomi Wolf notes are supposed to be beautiful and are objectified as things
how the West: pretends that all ideals of female beauty to be admired. One of the reasons this was so successful
stem from one Platonic Ideal Woman.5 She reinforces how could be down to the fact that the media chose to leave
out one crucial detail, that you needed a Hollywood sized
ludicrous this construction is and reiterates Darwins theory
by defining other cultural standards of beauty, how the budget to look that good, making achieving such a look
Maori admire a fat vulva, and the Padung, droopy breasts.5appear accessible to everyone. This is similar to the way
In the Western world, our perception of beauty is almost female celebrities are presented nowadays too: just a look
back at photos of celebrities before and after they became
entirely dictated by our corporeal and consumerist lifestyle.
We are constantly encouraged to accept ourselves and the famous really shows how much difference a whole lot
way in which we look, yet are subjected to unachievable of money can make. Of course conforming to the beauty
racist and sexist beauty standards because they enable ideals that we see in advertising is an expensive business:
a level of dictation and control over consumers; thus for the most part, the amount of post-production editing
enabling a high profit. and airbrushing promotes such a high standard that is
not actually attainable through natural means, but rather
It is possible that this mass-produced, mass-consumed humanly impossible exaggerations of typically attractive
idea of beauty started in 1920s Hollywood - the first time qualities. Plastic surgery is often the only way to replicate
that both beautiful women and handsome men were these standards.
packaged for mass visual consumption.6

4 Darwin, C. (1871). The Descent of Man and Selection in relation to Sex.

5 Wolf, N. (1990). The Beauty Myth. Chatto & Windus. 6 Synnott, A. (2016). The Body Social. [S.l.]: Taylor & Francis.
IMAGE Kim Kardashian for Brazillian Vogue. (n.d.). [image] Available at: http://luxtogo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/kim-kar-
dashian-para-a-vogue-1432679092.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
15
 IT IS CIVILISATION AS A WHOLE
THAT PRODUCES THIS CREATURE...
WHICH IS DESCRIBED AS
FEMININE.165
17
 SOCIETY IN GENERAL IS NOT OPPOSED TO
COSMETIC SURGERY, IT IS HOWEVER OPPOSED
TO DELIBERATE BODY MUTILATION.7

7 Clarke, J. (1999). The Sacrificial Body of Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE ORLAN (1997). Portrait by Fabrice Lvque, Polaroid Instant Film. [image] Available at: http://68.media.tumblr.com/3d-
21206dd16a985551d8dea85dc36907/tumblr_o0rmpe8cK51qgpe60o1_1280.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
18
 Are these not one and the same? Surely cosmetic surgery,
as an invasive process with no medical necessity, should be
considered as deliberate body mutilation; it is an aesthetic
choice just the same as tattooing, piercing or scarification
is.
However, we seem to be in the midst of a huge shift
in what society perceives as feminine or beautiful. The
beauty industry is being shown up time and time again
for the unrealistic standards that it sets for women, and
are beginning to change in response to what their target
market actually wants. Social media has the ability to make
things go viral and this immediacy of the internet exposes
people to a gargantuan amount of information and
imagery; we have access to things outside of our cultural
periphery, which can inspire us and open our minds to new
concepts of what we personally perceive as beautiful. For
example, where many who would have been perceived as
outlandish, extreme and bizarre used to thrive in what was
solely an underground and very hidden scene, these freaks
of the night can now gain mass followings on social media
as the inception of the internet has made it easier for
people to share niche interests, creating a more open sense
of community for those who may have struggled to fit into
the real world in the past. On the internet, everyone has
somewhere where they feel they can belong. This ability to
connect like-minded people so easily can be a great tool for
breaking down prejudices against certain minority groups .
19
Beauty is no quality in things
themselves: it exists merely in the
mind which contemplates them;
and each mind perceives a different
beauty. One person my even perceive
deformity, where another is sensible
of beauty to seek the real beauty,
or real deformity, is as fruitless an
inquiry, as to pretend to ascertain
the real sweet or real bitter.8
If we look back to the teachings of the ancient Greeks
there are many different theories available on beauty.
Plato believed that physical form was relevant to beauty,
but was only a mere rung on the heavenly ladder towards
the ultimate beauty: love.9 This reinforces the proverbial
notion of it being what is inside that counts, a modern
interpretation of Platos ideology. However, in todays
society it would be almost impossible to really believe
that, when so much of general modern culture is defined
by aesthetics and how we look on the outside, culture has
historically always been driven largely by the arts and in the
ability to perceive beauty through sight. The way someone
looks has a deep importance on many levels.
8 Hume, D. (2010). The Standard of Taste.
9 Synnott, A. (2016). The Body Social. [S.l.]: Taylor & Francis.
 We have taken ourselves too
seriously, perhaps, we humans, in
thinking of ourselves as cared for
by some cosmological agency in the
role of parent. We have looked for
oracular guidance where there is no
guidance to be found other than our
own wits.10
Jane Goodall emphasises the fact that religion seems to
still dictate a lot of the rules in modern-day society as it
is one of the most popular and longest standing belief
systems and rule systems. Although a lot of countries in the
west would no longer be considered to have one singular
religious majority, which is a very recent shift in society in
the grand scheme of things. It seems as though religion
has had such a role to play in setting the ground rules for
western society throughout history that the prevalence
of it today is still incredibly apparent, even to those who
are atheists or agnostic. Historically the west has been a
predominantly Judeo-Christian society and Goodall further
elaborates that With the practices of bodily purification
and discipline, [Judaeo-Christian belief systems] work
to promote humility in conjunction with the constant
threat of shame.10 To break these historic societal norms
effectively equates to going against Gods law: to change
10 Goodall, J. (1999). An Order of Pure Decision: Un-Natural Selection in the Work of Stelarc and Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
the body is to mock God. Christianity teaches that God made
all humans in his image, and in changing the body you are
making a statement that Gods work is not good enough.9
Historically this would have been incredibly blasphemous,
and although this is no longer the general consensus in
society, there still seems to be sense of people within society
that are subconsciously uncomfortable with blaspheming:
If the actions or functions of the body escape discipline,
shame is visited upon the subject through a comprehensive
repertoire of social enactments.10 If we were able to remove
religious constraints and live our lives based on evolutionary
teachings, we may live in a world with much fewer trivial
restrictions. The connotations of religious imagery also play
a huge part in dictating what is and is not seen as beautiful:
angels are often depicted as pale, blonde ethereal beings
with incredibly natural beauty, unscathed by sin,and are
the epitome of all things holy and great; the devil is seen as
antithetical to this. In Paradise Lost, Lucifer is a fallen angel
that becomes essentially what we know to be the devil
today. Imagery of the devil seems to be intrinsic within a lot
of subcultures that are associated with body modification in
a very literal sense.This idea of Lucifer being a fallen angel
could mirror the idea in society that those who choose to
mutilate the body into anything other than that which
nature intended are choosing a descent into all that is
unholy; in doing so you are distinctly separating yourself
from God and this heavenly image. However, if we are to
intervene with nature in a way that causes us to look more
angelic, then it is often praised by society.
20
 IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY THE SELF IS
A REPRESENTATIONAL SELF, WHOSE
VALUE AND MEANING IS ASCRIBED TO THE
INDIVIDUAL BY THE SHAPE OF IMAGE OF
THEIR EXTERNAL BODY, OR MORE PRECISELY,
THROUGH THEIR BODY-IMAGE.

THE REGULATORY CONTROL OF THE BODY IS

NOW EXERCISED THROUGH CONSUMERISM
AND THE FASHION INDUSTRY RATHER THAN
THROUGH RELIGION. 11

11 Turner, B. (2013). The body & society. Los Angeles [etc.]: Sage.
IMAGE Kruger, B. (1988). We Are Not What We Seem. [image] Available at: http://s3.amazonaws.com/mhka_ensembles_production/
assets/public/000/008/555/large/Kruger_Barbara_We_are_not_what_we_seem_1988_foto_SyblS.jpg?1465899933 [Accessed 30 Apr.
21 2017].
22
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23
 Male and female can refer to either sex or gender. Where
sex is concerned, male or female literally refers to the
genitalia present on a human, whether a human was
born with a penis or a vagina. Biologically speaking, this
may be a little short sighted, since there are allegedly at
least five different varieties of genitalia that a human
can be born with, which we would group together all as
one, undefined as something between the sexual norms
of penis/vagina as hermaphrodite.13 Where gender is
concerned, male and female refers to the assignment of
socially and culturally prescribed boundaries to the two
legally recognised sexes with the idea of femininity and
masculinity. Of course there are biological differences
between the sexes, but it should not be possible to set such
strict rules for each gender, so why do we feel the need as
a society to create such drastically different roles for men
and women? Professor Simon Baron-Cohen of Cambridge
University suggests that in very basic terms, there are only
two different brain types: empathisers, who are good at
identifying how other people are thinking or feeling, and
systemisers, people who are more interested in trying to
take apart and analyse systems.14 Generally speaking,
almost every human brain is a combination of the two,
but it seems as though those who are biologically male are
more likely to be at the systemising end of the spectrum,
whereas women are more often empathisers, which is

12 Lorber, J. (1994). The social construction of gender. Yale Univer-

sity Press.
13 Ainsworth, C. (2015). Sex Redefined. Nature, 518(7539).
14 Baron-Cohen, S., Lutchmaya, S. and Knickmeyer, R. (2004).
Prenatal Testosterone in Mind: Amniotic Fluid Studies. Develop-
mental Medicine and Child Neurology, 47(10).
IMAGE Dove, R. (n.d.). Androgynous Model Rain Dove. [image]
Available at: http://v.img.com.ua/b/1100x999999/a/ab/99ff-
339c8188d9ce4536c4578ff70aba.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017]. 24
 likely where a lot of stereotypical gender traits come from.
Baron-Cohen believes that it is actually down to the level
of testosterone present within the amniotic fluid pre-birth.
His research suggests that if a child is exposed to a high level
of testosterone as this stage of development then they are
more likely to grow up to show traits that are typically in
line with the brain of a systemiser.15 The reason this more
often describes the brain of a biological male is because
the development of male genitalia in the womb causes
the secretion of testosterone into the surrounding amniotic
fluid; if female genitalia develops then more oestrogen is
produced,15 thus lowering the level of testosterone present
and causing the development of an empathiser. However,
since hormone levels during pregnancy can be influenced
by a plethora of factors, whether or not the child has a
typically male or female brain may be dictated by a lot
more than just their biological sex. Despite the reputable
scientific basis of these studies it is worth recognising that
the whole nature-nurture debate comes into it, because it
becomes impossible to ignore the external influences that
impact human development as soon as they are outside
of the womb. This is where the entire concept of gender
becomes a much larger and distinctly more complex issue
than biological sex.
It could be presumed that the reason we have such
confined gender boundaries for each sex is based on a very
primal biological need to be able to decipher whether we
are able to reproduce with another human; our ancestors
15 Baron-Cohen, S., Lutchmaya, S. and Knickmeyer, R. (2004). Prenatal Testosterone in Mind: Amniotic Fluid Studies. Developmental
25
would have roamed around naked, which meant your
biological sex was always on display. Since we are a species
that are only able to reproduce heterosexually, it could
be argued that it is intrinsic to the success of our survival
as a species to be able to easily and efficiently deduce
someones biological sex just by looking at them: now we
are generally expected to be clothed most of the time (or
at least when out in public), having different aesthetic
expectations prescribed to both men and women enables
this and creates a systematic sense of order. Although,
this is a somewhat flawed system nowadays. The gender
somebody presents themself as does not necessarily denote
what their biological sex is, but because in the western
world gender has generally been such a consistently
defined role for each sex we are often shocked or distressed
by the breaking down of such boundaries. Men and women
have almost always been seen as opposites despite the
extensive amount of examples of both men and women
rejecting gender stereotypes.
Nowadays, many people recognise gender as more of a
spectrum, although the societal constructs of male vs
female still tend to exist in such binary, opposing terms.
Where gender is concerned, there is the ongoing debate of
where the idea of blue for boys and pink for girls came from.
Some speculate that there may be a biological explanation
for why women seem to tend to prefer pink, and boys
Medicine and Child Neurology, 47(10).
 blue. However, it is very difficult to be able to efficiently
test this theory since there are so many indications that
it is more likely a product of culture.16 There was a study
conducted recently that recorded childrens preferences
when they were presented with two identical objects: one
pink, and one of another colour. Varying groups of children
between the ages of 7 months and 5 years old took part
in this experiment. The results show that in the early
stages of development, and notably before the children
really become aware of their own gender, neither boys nor
girls showed any particular preference for the pink object.
However the older girls showed an increased liking for
pink and the older boys seemed to actively reject the pink
objects.17 These data are shown in the graph below:

16 Hammond, C. (2014). The pink vs blue gender myth. BBC Future. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20141117-
the-pink-vs-blue-gender-myth [Accessed 6 Mar. 2017]..
17 LoBue, V. and S. DeLoache, J. (2011). Pretty in pink: The early development of gender-stereotyped colour preferences. British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 29(3).
GRAPH LoBue, V. and S. DeLoache, J. [image] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51578057_Pretty_in_pink_
The_early_development_of_gender-stereotyped_colour_preferences [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017]. 26
 The reason for this change in taste for each gender seems
to directly correlate to how children tend to be taught
to associate pink with girls and blue with boys.18 Often,
children will be taught by their parents that they cannot
have something because it is for boys and they are a girl,
and vice-versa. This causes children to associate colour
closely with their own gender. Another study showcased
how quickly children will adapt to show bias towards a
group that they are affiliated with.19 During this study, a
group of children aged between 3 and 5 years old were
given either a red shirt or blue shirt to wear every day at
nursery: the children in the group in which the colour of
the shirt was continuously mentioned showed obvious
signs that they liked everything about their own colour
group better18, after a period of only 3 weeks wearing the
shirts. This study likely translates to the way children do
or do not identify with their own gender in the way that
society presents it to them: as a structured role with set
boundaries, and if a child feels as though they do not fit
within these stereotypes then they may be more likely to
develop gender dysphoria, also known as gender identity
disorder(GID). It could also be an explanation for why
associating something so simple as colour with gender is
so successful.
Gender dysphoria is a condition where a person experiences
discomfort or distress because theres a mismatch between
their biological sex and gender identity. Its sometimes
known as gender identity disorder (GID), gender
incongruence or transgenderism.20
Recognised as a medical condition, as opposed to a mental
illness, GID has a variety of possible treatments, including
the process of gender reassignment surgery. The NHS
describes an example of early symptoms of GID as a child
[that] may refuse to wear typical boys or girls clothes,
or dislike taking part in typical boys or girls games and
activities.20, which reinforces the societal indoctrination
of gender. If gender was no longer such a binary concept,
would the concept of gender dysmorphia cease to exist?

18 Hammond, C. (2014). The pink vs blue gender myth. BBC Future. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20141117-
the-pink-vs-blue-gender-myth [Accessed 6 Mar. 2017]. 19 Patterson, M. and Bigler, R. (2006). Preschool Childrens Attention to Environ-
mental Messages About Groups: Social Categorization and the Origins of Intergroup Bias. Child Development, 77(4). 20 Nhs.uk. (n.d.).
Gender dysphoria - NHS Choices. [online] Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Gender-dysphoria/Pages/Introduction.aspx
[Accessed 17 Mar. 2017]. 21 Goodall, J. (1999). An Order of Pure Decision: Un-Natural Selection in the Work of Stelarc and Orlan. Body &
Society, 5(2-3). IMAGE The Vampire Woman of Mexico. (n.d.). [image] Available at: https://datfreakwriter.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/
27 vampire-woman.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
 TO PROPOSE THAT THE HUMAN
BODY IS ENTIRELY NEGOTIABLE IN
AN ORDER OF PURE DECISION IS
ONTOLOGICALLY CONFRONTING
AND STRIPS AWAY MOST OF THE
HISTORICALLY ACCUMULATED
RESPONSES TO THE QUESTION:
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE
HUMAN?21

28
 THE HUMAN BODY AS A DESIGN
PROJECT SITUATED BETWEEN
THE DISCIPLINES OF AESTHETICS
AND ENGINEERING IS A BODY
INTERPRETED IN ACCORDANCE WITH
LONG-STANDING CONVENTION. 22
How we construct ourselves on a day to day basis can
communicate different things within different cultures,
because it will always be viewed within its immediate
context. It seems as though it is impossible to face the
world without a consciousness for where or how we
position ourselves within the constructed boundaries
of our own culture. People who are generally seen as
bizarre or unconventional in the way they look can only
be perceived in this way because it somehow opposes or
challenges current popular culture. It would generally be
considered impossible for someone to remain idiosyncratic
over a period of time without changing anything about
the way they look. Human society is a very malleable and
fluid concept that can change drastically over time; many
things that would have once been considered eccentric
have found their way into the mainstream at some point,
causing them to lose any provocative credibility.
THE CONSTITUTING DISCOURSES
OF WESTERN MODERNITY AND
MOST OF ITS SOCIAL THEORIES HAVE
EMPHASISED THE NEED TO CONTROL
AND REGULATE THE BODY AND ITS
SEXUAL EXPRESSIONS IN ORDER TO
CREATE CIVILISATION.23
22 Goodall, J. (1999). An Order of Pure Decision: Un-Natural Selection in the Work of Stelarc and Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
23 Klesse, C. (1999). Modern Primitivism: Non-Mainstream Body Modification and Racialized Representation. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE Kim, S. (2012). Illustration by Suki Kim. [image] Available at: http://sabrinamilazzo.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/consum-
29
According to Kleese, the price we pay to be the only civilised
species is in the loss of our immediate, innocent and
unrepressed relationship to the body and to sexuality.23 In
order to live within such a complex and quickly advancing
technological era we need some kind of structure within
our day-to-day lives to provide us with a sense of comfort
and control. Outside of this world we have created for
ourselves are the unpredictable and disorderly forces of
nature, that still have the monopoly over our civilisations;
the ability to inevitably destroy the man made. Directing
our focus towards the body invokes such a precedented
reaction in so many people because the way we see our
bodies has become deeply symbolic of our detachment
from other species. We dress our body to conceal it and are
taught to be humiliated at the public exposure of our naked
bodies, yet are simultaneously taught to love the skin we
are in. Yet, our own corporeal sensibilities are blurred by the
corporate voice of western beauty. Those that stray away
from the mainstream aesthetic attract attention because
they challenge not only the mainstream, but also often the
natural body. Both the fashion and beauty industries may
be so successful because they focus on adorning, extending
and decorating the body in a non-permanent way, with a
consciousness of the pace at which other industries evolve
and develop. There is often very little focus on permanent
body modification, maybe for this same reason: trends
come and go as the seasons change because people often
get bored of life feeling too static. From this perspective,
beauty could be seen as a man-made evolutionary process
that progresses in a fluid and linear way: things that stray
too far away from the mainstream or play with the notion
of invasion of the private (the body) can be disruptive to
the way we are used to things evolving because they are
often incomprehensible within their immediate cultural
context.
24 Featherstone, M. (2000). Body modification. London, England: SAGE.
erism.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
AN IDEOLOGY OF PERSONAL
CONSUMPTION PRESENTS
INDIVIDUALS AS FREE TO DO THEIR
OWN THING, TO CONSTRUCT THEIR
OWN LITTLE WORLDS IN THE PRIVATE
SPHERE THE BASIC FREEDOM
WITHIN THE CULTURE IS FREEDOM
TO CONSUME, YET THE HEDONIST
LIFESTYLE AND EVER-EXPANDING
NEEDS ULTIMATELY DEPEND UPON
PERMANENT ECONOMIC EXPANSION.24

30
 Now we seem to be progressing as a society to no longer
desire to conform to particular subcultures, but rather
become visual amalgamations of what we enjoy as
individuals. We know that the initial judgements that
people make of us happen within the first few seconds of
meeting and are based almost entirely on our aesthetic
alone, we can manipulate ourselves to match how we
would like to be perceived. As much as people with
modifications will often say that they are doing this for
themselves, can that ever really be true? There is no way
to avoid the watchful, judgemental eye of other humans
as its in our nature to do so, and so anything you do to
modify your own body arguably becomes everyone elses
business too. We also cannot ignore that in todays western
culture body modification is still very commonly seen as a
taboo subject and so by engaging in this you are making an
active statement that you are not conforming to societal
norms, whether you see it that way or not. But it is these
statements and these people that are drawing attention
to the way they look, because they are doing something
bizarre or unexpected, that could be considered a catalyst
for change.

With this in mind, the personalities selected as case studies

may only be perceived as outlandish and eccentric because
they challenge the current societal and cultural norms
surrounding beauty that we are used to in 2017. But it
is likely that they will have a cultural impact on society
in some way and maybe in the future we will be more
accustomed to seeing these kind of body alterations in the
mainstream media.
25 Hume, D. (2010). The Standard of Taste.
IMAGE VICELAND (n.d.). Needles and Pins, Series 1 Episode 6:
TRIBES & TONGUE SPLITTING IN THE UK. [Documentary] Available
at: https://www.viceland.com/en_us/video/tribes-and-tongue-
splitting-in-the-uk/58bf190c186d627b29a2ef28 [Accessed 19
31 Apr. 2017].
BEAUTY IS NO QUALITY IN THINGS
THEMSELVES:

IT EXISTS MERELY IN THE MIND WHICH

CONTEMPLATES THEM; AND EACH MIND
PERCEIVES A DIFFERENT BEAUTY.

ONE PERSON MAY EVEN PERCEIVE

DEFORMITY, WHERE ANOTHER IS
SENSIBLE OF BEAUTY.25

32
 ORLAN (1993). Omnipresence Surgery. [image] Available at: http://www.vasa-project.com/gallery/biological_canvas/orlan/omnipres-
ence.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
33
THE BODY
AS POLITIC:

ORLAN &
CINDY JACKSON

34
 TO INTERFERE WITH THE GIVEN
FORM OF THE BODY IS TO INVOKE
DIVINE WRATH: PSYCHOANALYSIS
AND RELIGION AGREE IN SAYING:
ONE MUST NOT ATTACK THE
BODY, ONE MUST ACCEPT
ONESELF. THESE ARE PRIMITIVE,
ANCESTRAL, ANACHRONISTIC
CONCEPTS. WE THINK THAT THE
SKY WILL FALL ON OUR HEADS IF
WE TOUCH THE BODY.
ORLAN26
35
36
PREVIOUS PAGE: 26 Goodall, J. (1999). An Order of Pure Decision: Un-Natural Selec-
tion in the Work of Stelarc and Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE ORLAN (1991). Successful Operation. [image] Available at: http://ttp://2016.
viennaartweek.at/content/journal/8-seeking-beauty/orlan-printing-lips-on-pa-
per-4th-surgery-performance-titled-successful-operation-8th-december-1991-par-
is.cibachrome-diasec-mount-65-x-43-inch-web.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].

ORLAN, a French performance artist, shows how the

human body can be used as a tool in many different and WHATEVER ELSE HAS BEEN ASSERTED
unconventional ways. She exploits herself and her body all
in the name of exploring the many ways in which the body FOR THEM, ORLANS INTERVENTIONS
can be used as a carrier of statement, often questioning ARE, I WOULD SUGGEST, IMPORTANT
how we perceive the human, and more specifically the
female, body. ORLAN is generally concerned with the PRIMARILY FOR THE SIMPLICITY AND
concept of beauty and the design of social constructs. PROFUNDITY WITH WHICH THEY
She sees Western culture as functioning within the binary
constraints of viewing everything as though it must be
BREATHE LIFE INTO THE OLD CLICHE
categorised as one thing or another, but cannot exist as OF PERFORMANCE ART ANALYSIS,
both. She believes that this forces us to condemn one THAT IN THEM SHE USES HER BODY AS
element and to choose another27, which can be detrimental
because it breeds a lack of acceptance for anything that HER ARTISTIC MATERIAL.27
may differ from or challenge our own personal perceptions
of the norm. ORLANs work is positioned within a more ORLAN has no problem with using plastic surgery as a tool to
inclusive perspective that presents juxtaposed concepts manipulate the human body, as it is used as a fundamental
as able to simultaneously coexist: the good and the bad, element in some of her performance pieces, but rather that
the beautiful and the ugly, the living and the artificial, she is against the standards of beauty, against the dictates
the public and the private.27 It is provocative and often of dominant ideology that impress themselves more and
disturbing, simply because it challenges the binary nature more on feminine and masculine flesh.28
of the cultural and societal ideals that we are accustomed
to in the west.

27 Ayers, R. (1999). Serene and Happy and Distant: An Interview with Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
28 Clarke, J. (1999). The Sacrificial Body of Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE ORLAN (n.d.). ORLAN during surgery. [image] Available at: http://situations.fotomuseum.ch/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/
ORLAN_2-1200x783.png [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
37
38
39
 AT THE OUTSET, THE PLAN FOR HER
TRANSFORMATION WAS ESTABLISHED
AS A PROGRESS THROUGH THE GREAT
MYTHOLOGICAL IMAGES OF WESTERN
FEMININITY.

ORLAN WOULD ACQUIRE:

THE CHIN OF VENUS

THE NOSE OF PSYCHE

THE EYES OF DIANA

THE LIPS OR EUROPA

& THE BROW OF MONA LISA.29

29 Goodall, J. (1999). An Order of Pure Decision: Un-Natural Selection in the Work of Stelarc and Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE ORLAN (1995). ORLAN After Surgery. [image] Available at: http://68.media.tumblr.com/e0d3d260d77337fc8f7956f6782ce878/
tumblr_mvtrn9LTOW1qgpe60o1_500.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
40
 By combining facial elements from artworks that involve
historically beautiful women ORLAN is not only making
a comment on the static nature of culturally perceived
femininity and beauty, but acknowledging the modern
day concept of facial reconstruction and how, similarly to
these paintings, society is generally only exposed to the
end product. The elimination of any imagery involving the
pain and gore that comes as a necessary process within
plastic surgery procedure disguises how destructive and
taxing the process is on the body; it is easy to forget that,
like any other surgical procedure, there are risks. This was
the first of her facial reconstructions and one that focuses
on stereotypically beautiful features.
devoid of any physical pain. It could be that, in creating
and performing this surgery, she actually appears to
conform to these same standards of beauty that she is so
against herself. However, ORLAN has been able to pervert
this by presenting the act as a piece of performance art:
by showing the raw and invasive side of plastic surgery
as though it is nothing makes the viewer uncomfortable
and question their own views and willingness to accept
plastic surgery for all that it really is. The fact that ORLAN
is conscious, alert, able to carry out tasks and perform as
though she is not herself aware of the surgery that is taking
place on her own body reflects the way that society is so
often blissfully ignorant to the reality of so many situations.

The open wounds and actively invasive, gory and bloody

SUPERFICIALLY, IT SEEMED THAT nature of the process has connotations of horror and
ORLAN WAS INTENT ON BECOMING THE violence, which is completely antithetical to what
EPITOME OF ALL BEAUTIFUL WOMEN mainstream western culture views as beautiful; to many,
it would be repulsive. ORLAN is exploring the oxymoronic
THROUGHOUT ART HISTORY.30 nature of plastic surgery being equated with the ability
to achieve a look that replicates natural beauty, whilst it
Despite this seemingly narcissistic desire to reconstruct her simultaneously goes against nature entirely.
face, for ORLAN it was not so much about the end product
but rather the process involved. The surgery was broadcast
live via satellite and ORLAN was awake during its entirety. THE PERFORMANCES ARE A
She celebrates the advances in technology and science POWERFUL IRONIC COUNTERPOINT
that enable surgery to become a conscious performance,
TO THE ARTISTS PRESENTATIONAL

30 Clarke, J. (1999). The Sacrificial Body of Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
41
 RHETORIC, SO THAT THE RHETORIC
ITSELF ACQUIRES A GROTESQUENESS
THAT IS HIGHLY EFFECTIVE IN
DISTANCING THE AUDIENCE FROM THE
SEDUCTION OF GLAMORISED NOTIONS
OF THE POST-BIOLOGICAL.31
The grotesque being outside of normalised beauty is
historically linked to disease and death8; unnatural
disfigurement of the human body has always been
representational of a physical ailment and likely
impending death. This ideology is still very much prevalent
in contemporary society and the epitome of beauty seems
to be widely associated with looking healthy. Advances in
science and technology now make it possible to achieve an
aesthetically healthy and fit exterior through unnatural
means. Therefore, the outside of the human body can no
WHAT IS LABELLED UNNATURAL
longer be trusted as a realistic or interpretable indication of
the quality of a persons genes. MAY BE REJECTED NOT FOR
OFFENDING AGAINST NATURE,
MY WORK AND ITS IDEAS INCARNATED BUT FOR BREACHING CULTURALLY
IN MY FLESH POSE QUESTIONS DETERMINED FORMATIONS OF THE
ABOUT THE STATUS OF THE BODY IN SUBJECT.32
OUR SOCIETY AND ITS EVOLUTION
IN FUTURE GENERATIONS VIA NEW
TECHNOLOGIES AND UPCOMING
GENETIC MANIPULATIONS.ORLAN30
Since we are able to generally rely on medicine in
contemporary culture to solve or improve a variety of
physical ailments and diseases that would have once
been fatal, it seems as though it is no longer intrinsic to
our species survival to be able to assess the suitability of a
prospective mate by their biological and genetic qualities.
Instead, we have much more socially complex needs to
fulfil, and although an instinctive physical attraction still
has a part to play in this, to find a suitable partner in todays
society there must be a complementary metaphysical
connection too.

31 Goodall, J. (1999). An Order of Pure Decision: Un-Natural Selection in the Work of Stelarc and Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
32 Featherstone, M. (2000). Body modification. London, England: SAGE.
42
43
 In a later facial reconstruction performance surgery,
ORLAN gets cheek implants on her brow bone. The use of
commonly used implants within a different part of the face
for which the implant was not designed creates a disruption
to the natural and expected flow of the conventional
human face. Society has created rules and boundaries for
what is an acceptable way to look, and the beauty industry
often evolves in response to how our culture is changing or
progressing. It may well be that ORLAN has made changes
that will one day be widely acknowledged as an acceptable
and even common way to alter the human face, but at the
time it seemed ridiculous and eccentric. That is not to say
that there were not people who considered the new look to
be beautiful and even desirable.

In an interview with Robert Ayers, ORLAN recounts a time

that she met a group of alternative men that wanted to
imitate her forehead bumps in the hopes of it catching
on and becoming a trend. She was furious about the
idea, telling them that this is unthinkable! Impossible!
I cant make money from this, when thats precisely the
principle that Im working against.33 This principle being
the idea of multiple people conforming to fashion and its
dictates whether it be on a large scale or small scale, both
mainstream culture and sub-cultures are guilty of doing
so; whether they personally believe that they are liberating
themselves from some cultural restraints or not, in the eyes
of ORLAN it is all just societal indoctrination.

33 AYERS, R. (1999). Serene and Happy and Distant: An Interview with Orlan. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE ORLAN (n.d.). Portrait of ORLAN. [image] Available at: http://www.tmvmag.fr/tours/wp-content/uploads/sites/tours/ACTU_
PAP2_ORLAN.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017]. 44
 Cindy Jackson is known as the worlds number one equals 1.618; this number ties all three together and has
cosmetic surgery advisor34 according to her website. Since been used to describe growth patterns and proportions
the 70s, she has endured over 50 cosmetic procedure to in nature and art. It is theorised by many that the golden
alter both her face and body. ABC describe her as taking ratio is the key to defining the perfect human face, and
anti-aging to the extreme;35 anti-aging of course, being body. Often, but not exclusively, used by plastic surgeons
one of the most promoted things within the beauty to design the proportionately perfect face, which is
industry. She, like ORLAN is quite comfortable with supposedly the most attractive.37 It is on these principles
the fact that she is messing with nature. Although on that Cindy Jackson has based the layout of her new
the surface it seems as though Cindy Jackson is doing face. Both ORLANs surgical performance and Jacksons
everything that ORLAN stands against, they both had metamorphosis into the perfect female have utilised
facial reconstruction surgery that was influenced by ancient rules of proportion, the principles of beauty in
historical ideals of beauty that have remained prevalent an artistic context and basic anthropology. Although out
today. ORLAN was inspired by famous female portraits of the two it is only ORLAN who actively recognises her
painted by acclaimed historical artists, and Jackson work as provocative and making a statement about the
recognised Leonardo Da Vincis influence on the perception current state of human culture, what Jackson is doing is
of beauty and perfection in regards to the human face. essentially saying the same thing. The fact that Jacksons
design has been influenced by mathematics, science and
art could be seen as giving her work more validation
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE PAINTERS than ORLANs, since it has a wider context than just art.
KNEW WHAT BEAUTY LOOKED
LIKE. THEY WERENT DEALING IN However, ORLANs forehead bumps or horns are
at the opposite end of the spectrum to Cindy Jackson
RANDOM SPECULATION ABOUT HOW altogether. Both ORLANs forehead bumps and Jacksons
FAR APART TO PUT THE EYES.36 extensive list of facial reconstruction were achieved using
plastic surgery. In reality, Jackson has had a much vaster
Leonardo Da Vinci, painter of the Mona Lisa that inspired amount of procedures than ORLAN, yet the bumps are
ORLANs forehead reshape, was notably linked to the much less socially acceptable than Jacksons entirely
Golden Ratio for his use of it within many of his paintings reconfigured face. This could be because Jackson conforms
and drawings. But the concept of the golden ratio goes completely to the typical standard of beauty in western
back to the great ancient Greek philosophers, roughly one culture that has a deep historical context. Jackson has
thousand years before Da Vinci. Both the golden ratio and been very intelligent in her approach: she has managed
the fibonacci sequence are based on phi, a mathematical to completely transform herself to not only look like a
equation comprised of the just the number 5 which different person entirely, but to look like a natural beauty.

34 Cindyjackson.com. (n.d.). Cindy Jackson Cosmetic Surgery Advisor - Best plastic surgery advice & referrals. [online] Available at: https://
www.cindyjackson.com [Accessed 16 Apr. 2017] 35 ABC News (n.d.). Woman Takes Anti-Age Surgeries to Extreme - ABC News. [image]
Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDiMPWJXO3w [Accessed 18 Apr. 2017]. 36 The Independent (2006). Cindy Jackson:
Britains most surgically enhanced woman. [online] Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/cindy-jack-
son-britains-most-surgically-enhanced-woman-524480.html [Accessed 18 Apr. 2017]. 37 Live Science (n.d.). What is the Golden Ratio?.
[online] Live Science. Available at: http://www.livescience.com/37704-phi-golden-ratio.html [Accessed 18 Apr. 2017]. 38 Synnott, A.
(2016). The Body Social. [S.l.]: Taylor & Francis.
.IMAGE Jackson, C. (n.d.). Portrait of Cindy Jackson. [image] Available at: http://pomada.cc/uploads/tumb/im-
g/201703/3834471c3e870c4ffd969555426d863d_fitted_740x740_tumb_660.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
45
THE PURSUIT OF BEAUTY [] IS WIDELY REGARDED AS AN EXCELLENT
INVESTMENT WITH SUBSTANTIAL PSYCHIC, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RETURNS38
46
A TERRIFIC ADVERTISEMENT FOR A TERRIBLE PROCEDURE.39

47
 She has had such skilled procedures that many people are
astounded when they meet her in person because, as many
of them recall, it is so difficult to tell that she has had work
done to her face, despite being well aware of all that she
has gone through to achieve it. This goes back to Dennis
Duttons theory that humans find beauty in a job well done.
Although the quality of the surgery ORLAN had was a job
well done40 in technical terms, from the perspective that
it disrupts the natural perceivable human face too much
redefines it as a job done wrong, simply because it does not
mimic nature. Of course there are some cases of people with
abnormal growths and bumps and surface mutations that
have occurred naturally, but these are so often associated
with disease and ill-health that it would be difficult to
accept into the mainstream. Jackson, on the other hand,
still looks innately human. Without visible scars that act as
evidence for the surgery, Jacksons final form looks totally
believable, and is therefore typically perceived as much
more beautiful than someone who looks obviously fake.
improved in order to be financially successful. She recognises
the correlation between beauty and success in western
culture and adapts accordingly to the existing system,
rather than fighting back and protesting like ORLAN does.
Although Jackson may look like she is an unaffected
and natural human being, the fact that her appearance
was achieved through such unnatural means is often
difficult to comprehend. Plastic surgery remains a very
controversial topic, which therefore makes Cindy Jackson
controversial. For this reason, both ORLAN and Jackson
can be seen as making a political statement about beauty
in our society by using their bodies as their medium.
Similarly to ORLANs livestreaming of her surgery, Jackson
had a breast enlargement that was paid for by the BBC
and was broadcast live on television39. Her quest to
become perfect has gained her a lot of press coverage
and enabled her to become a self-made celebrity and
brand ambassador for the world of cosmetic surgery.

However, for beauty to be found in the physical appearance Cindy Jackson has absolutely treated her body as a body
of a person that has been immaculately designed and project.41 She was in fact an art student, and there is
crafted, it has to make sense within its immediate cultural no way of knowing whether Jackson may actually just
and social context. From this perspective, Jackson would be in the midst of a lifelong piece of performance art
be seen as more beautiful than ORLAN, but only because about the way the western world works. Maybe she
she epitomises what the western beauty industry, the is performing femininity to the absolute extreme to
media and history portrays as perfect feminine beauty. make a point, or maybe she was genuinely so insecure
about how she looked that this was the only way for
Jackson chose to give her outer body a complete aesthetic her to feel truly comfortable. Either way, both Jacksons
overhaul and meticulously redesigned every part in order transformation and ORLANs performances eloquently
to comply with her strictly calculated ideals. It is as though symbolise how the female body is objectified, modified,
she views herself as a product that needs to be refined and gendered, performed and perceived in this generation.
39 The Independent (2006). Cindy Jackson: Britains most surgically enhanced woman. [online] Available at: http://www.independent.
co.uk/news/people/profiles/cindy-jackson-britains-most-surgically-enhanced-woman-524480.html [Accessed 18 Apr. 2017].
40 Dutton, D. (2010). A Darwinian Theory of Beauty. [video] Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/denis_dutton_a_darwinian_theo-
ry_of_beauty [Accessed 2 Mar. 2017].
41 Shilling, C. (1993). The Body and Social Theory. SAGE Publications.
IMAGE Jackson, C. (n.d.). Cindys Face Book: How Cindy Jacksons face has transformed since the 1970s. [image] Available at: http://
static.fanpage.it.s3.amazonaws.com/socialmediafanpage/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/cindy-jackson5-e1330619263365.jpg [Ac-
cessed 30 Apr. 2017]. 48
 i-D (2015). I-D, Grace Neutral | The Tattoo-Covered Alien Princess. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DdzNEUx-
49 zc4k [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
THE BODY AS
A LANDSCAPE:

G R A C E
N E U T R A L

50
 MAKING THE BODY COLOURFUL, STRANGE, AND LESS HUMAN
LOOKING INDUCES IN THE MIND OF THE VIEWER CONFUSION
THAT MAY BE DISTURBING OR DELIGHTFUL, OR BOTH.42

51
52
PREVIOUS PAGE: 42 Hewitt, K. (1997). Mutilating the Body: Identity and Blood and
Ink. Bowling Green: OH.
IMAGE What, P. (2015). Phaze What - Tokyo (Official Video). [video] Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pcLodlSG0k [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].

The body can be thought of as a landscape intended for

artistic expression and interpretation. When viewed in this
way the human body becomes a blank canvas, offering TATTOOS HAVE BECOME A REGULAR
an exciting and unique platform with which to work. ASPECT OF CONSUMER CULTURE,
Tattoos are essentially just another form of illustration,
however the assumed permanence of each piece adds
WHERE THEY ADD CULTURAL
a heightened sense of value and significance: if you are CAPITAL TO THE BODYS SURFACE.43
not happy with the outcome you are pretty much stuck
with it, unless you are willing to spend a lot more money Tattoos are an incredibly popular form of body
and time, and endure more pain, to have it removed or modification, and have become much more mainstream
reworked. Many people choose to adorn or decorate the and commonplace in recent years. Getting a tattoo is
body with things that can be easily removed and easily no longer necessarily taboo or something that would
changed, for example: makeup or hair dye. Fashion and completely ostracise you from society or scandalise your
trends change with the seasons, whereas tattoos remain parents. In fact in Britain an estimated 1 in 5 people have
a constant. The body still has very strong symbolism in at least one tattoo.44 Many people who choose to get
Western Society as being the private and the personal tattoos really believe in the importance of the culture and
and yet the naked female body is paraded in advertising, defining it as an art form, but this growing popularity
especially in the beauty industry. The ideal female body does not mean that there are not still many people that
in this culture is free from modifications; smooth, blank are completely against even the concept of tattoos. It
and perfect. But there are plenty of female role models, seems as though it is the idea of permanence that many
whether it be celebrities or artists, that have a fair number people struggle to come to terms with, worrying that
of tattoos on show. Female tattoo artists and tattooees are they may come to loathe a tattoo that they once believed
gaining recognition and breaking out-dated and sexist was a good idea. However, the assumptions made about
gender-stereotypes of what a woman should look like. tattoos and their surrounding culture by those who are
They are helping to redefine alternative female beauty outside of the tattoo community do not tend to align with
and liberate many women by showing them that it is okay the way in which people from the community perceive it.
to create yourself according to your own beauty ideals.
43 TURNER, B. (1999). The Possibility of Primitiveness: Towards a Sociology of Body Marks in Cool Societies. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
44 Proud, A. (2015). Were not going to reach peak tattoo until 2025. The Telegraph. [online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
men/fashion-and-style/11545649/Were-not-going-to-reach-peak-tattoo-until-2025.html [Accessed 19 Apr. 2017].
IMAGE VICELAND (n.d.). Needles and Pins, Series 1 Episode 6: TRIBES & TONGUE SPLITTING IN THE UK. [Documentary] Available at:
https://www.viceland.com/en_us/video/tribes-and-tongue-splitting-in-the-uk/58bf190c186d627b29a2ef28 [Accessed 19 Apr. 2017].
53
54
55
 Some people get tattoos as a fashion statement, their we can modify the body in the first place means it can
tattoos are objectively chosen dependent on how they fit be modified again and again. These changes may be
within culture and how one may desire to be perceived permanent in the sense that it is very difficult to get the
by others. This could potentially be seen as ignorant augmented area back to exactly how it was before, but that
behaviour, as trends change drastically with time, and to does not stop the possibility for them to be altered into
permanently modify your body because it is considered something else. From this perspective, body modifications
the it thing to do right now is perhaps a little nave. have become a system of continual and perpetual
Conversely, it seems as though the majority of people who stylesocial change46 in their own right. It is because they
take to extreme modification are, in this sense, doing it for are so often perceived as permanent and involve a lot of
themselves. They may take inspiration for modifications money, time, planning and care that many choose to view
from other modified bodies, as we all imitate what we them as permanent: the majority of people who get tattoos
like, but generally they will not be doing it in order to do it with the intention of it being on their body forever,
follow the mass, fleeting trends of the mainstream. - but it is in fact their choice to keep it that way forever. Paul
any permanent body decoration [] is as anti-fashion Sweetman recognises the impermanence of tattoos,and
as it is possible to get [...] true fashion being defined as defines body modification as an uncertain form of textual
as system of continual and perpetual [] change.45 practice because there are no necessary linkages between
marks and roles. Body marks are typically narcissistic,
No body modification that we describe as permanent is being playful signs to the self.47 Historically tattoos had
actually permanent in technical terms. It is possible to a communicative purpose within a tribal environment,
effectively remove tattoos, rework or cover them. Because and modern tattoos can be viewed in the same way.
of advances in medical science, just the simple fact that
45 SWEETMAN, P. (1999). Anchoring the (Postmodern) Self? Body Modification, Fashion and Identity. Body & Society, 5(2-3)
46 Polhemus, T. (2011). Fashion & anti-fashion. Hastings, U.K.: T. Polhemus.
47 TURNER, B. (1999). The Possibility of Primitiveness: Towards a Sociology of Body Marks in Cool Societies. Body & Society, 5(2-3).
IMAGE Close up of tattoo needles penetrating human skin. (n.d.). [image] Available at: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/MTFljGWSDck/maxresde-
fault.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
56
 Grace Neutral is a tattoo artist and, as expected, is covered
head-to-toe in tattoos. But Grace stands out from other AS PERVERSE, CRIMINAL AND
heavily tattooed artists with the extensive lengths she OFFENSIVE, BUT ALSO AS ARTISTIC,
has gone to in order to modify her body. Grace is a great
example of someone undertaking their body as a project
EXPRESSIVE AND RADICAL.52
and she has worked to mould her external body to fit
Grace Neutral grew up expecting to become a ballerina,
the way she feels she is on the inside. The way she looks
dancing for the Royal Ballet, but an injury prevented her
has gained her a lot of media attention, and in turn has
from reaching this dream. For most of her childhood and
increased her popularity. To many, Graces modifications
adolescence her life seemed to revolve almost solely
make her look so far from what a human is expected to
around dance. Having always been a creative, as Grace
look like that her appearance can often be perceived as
defines herself, when dance was no longer an option
shocking or even disturbing. However, this is not to say
she knew that she still wanted to pursue a career in the
that nobody finds her appearance beautiful, in fact she has
arts. From a psychological perspective, the injury that
over 558,000 followers on Instagram48 and her fanbase is
she endured could be considered as a catalyst for self-
growing every day. Since gaining so much popularity on
destructive behaviour, igniting a fervent desire to allow
social media Grace has become a television presenter for
her body to be mutilated over and over again. However,
VICE, an online based documentary platform, starring in a
Grace recognises this prejudiced view that she is often
series of documentaries entitled Needles & Pins49 in which
subjected to, how people often assume she must have
she travels the world to explore how tattoo culture differs
issues53 or be somehow psychologically damaged.53
between countries. Aside from this, she also models for
many small scale clothing companies and runs an Etsy
store where she sells her own line of clothing, prints of NOT EVERYONE THAT YOU LOOK
her artwork and signed photographs of herself.50 She was AT THAT LOOKS DIFFERENT IS
even scouted to walk the runway as a model for the Ashley
Williams new collection at London Fashion Week,51 which DAMAGED JUST BECAUSE YOU
is proof that body modification is becoming more widely DONT UNDERSTAND THEM.53
appreciated. It is pretty safe to say, whether you appreciate
the way Grace Neutral looks or absolutely despise it, it It is not that out of the ordinary to see people who
has been pivotal to her success in the industry. She has are plastered with tattoos or heavily pierced. Grace
made herself into her own brand, and has become a sort stands out because she has other, much more bespoke
of self-made celebrity within western tattoo culture. modifications. The fact that Grace also conforms to a
lot of the expected normalities of feminine aesthetics,
BECAUSE THEY HAVE PUSHED THE like having long hair and wearing makeup, could make
her appearance seem a lot more confusing to many
ENVELOPE OF BODY AESTHETICS, BODY because it simultaneously conforms to and dismantles
MODIFIERS HAVE BEEN UNDERSTOOD culturally defined gender stereotypes and expectations.
48 Neutral, G. (n.d.). Grace Neutral (@graceneutral) Instagram photos and videos. [online] Instagram.com. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/
graceneutral/?hl=en [Accessed 16 Apr. 2017]. 49 VICELAND (n.d.). Needles and Pins. [Documentary] Available at: https://www.viceland.com/en_us/show/
needles-and-pins [Accessed 19 Apr. 2017]. 50 Neutral, G. (n.d.). Grace Neutral Art And Apparel by GraceNeutral. [online] Etsy. Available at: https://www.
etsy.com/uk/shop/GraceNeutral [Accessed 15 Apr. 2017]. 51 Weinstock, T. (2015). Grace Neutral looks out of this world in Ashley Williams Spring/Summer
16 show. i-D, VICE. [online] Available at: https://i-d.vice.com/en_gb/article/grace-neutral-looks-out-of-this-world-in-ashley-williams-springsummer-16-
show [Accessed 18 Apr. 2017]. 52 Pitts, V. (2015). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. Palgrave Macmillan. 53 VICELAND (n.d.). Needles
and Pins, Series 1 Episode 6: TRIBES & TONGUE SPLITTING IN THE UK. [Documentary] Available at: https://www.viceland.com/en_us/video/tribes-and-
tongue-splitting-in-the-uk/58bf190c186d627b29a2ef28 [Accessed 19 Apr. 2017]. IMAGE Neutral, G. (n.d.). Grace Neutral for Ashley Williams SS16. [image]
Available at: https://i-d-images.vice.com/images/articles/meta/2014/12/01/grace-neutrals-beauty-is-out-of-this-world-1417429749.jpg?crop=1x-
w:0.42251461988304095xh;0xw,0.2324561403508772xh&resize=2000:*&output-format=image/jpeg&output-quality=75 [Accessed 26 Apr. 2017].
57
58
 I like to push my physical
boundaries as much as possible
and I like to see how far I can go,
how far I can take things and how
much I can handle54
59
 The face is maybe one of the most controversial places remove your own belly button may seem bizarre in itself,
to modify purely because it is almost never covered in but for Grace it was done as a romantic gesture55 and she
western culture, and Grace has had a lot of extreme facial set the removed flesh in clear resin in a heart shape and
alterations which make her look less human. Perhaps the gave it to someone [who she] thought was special.55
most striking modification she has is her purple eyeballs.
It is a very new procedure which is still in early stages of Grace defines her body modifications as just being another
development in comparison to other forms of extreme way of expressing herself artistically and creatively. For
body modification, and there are incredibly high risks her, seeing her body as a project is intrinsic to who she
associated with it. Grace has explained that she was only believes she is as a person. She is her own canvas in a
comfortable going through with the procedure because completely literal sense, and does not necessarily view
she personally knew the person who invented it, and had all of her modifications as permanent. It is clear from
spent a lot of time prior to the session deliberating over photographs of Grace Neutral that she does not view
whether she was comfortable with the risks involved.54 any tattoo she gets as finite, since she has areas of her
Eye contact is a very important part of communication, body where you can see the remains of old artwork
which makes it hard to ignore the bizarre colouring of her peeping through the lines of a newer tattoo; analogous
eyes. Her stretched nose piercings and facial scarification to a painters canvas with many layers of paint. Instead,
appear to be much less obvious in comparison, despite she understands that the body is essentially infinitely
being considered more extreme forms of modification changeable, the only constraints being the accessibility
themselves. The other thing that is completely out of the of modifications. A lot of her motivation to modify herself
ordinary on her body is her lack of a belly button, which she comes from a desire to challenge herself both physically
had surgically removed. On someone with no modifications, and emotionally, which she believes will maker her a
being devoid of a belly button would surely look totally stronger person. However, in a much more basic sense, she
unnatural. However, with Grace being so heavily modified just really enjoys all of the stages of the process involved.54
and very petite it is almost unnoticeable. The choice to
54 Eggleton, S. (2015). GRACE NEUTRAL ON HER MODIFICATIONS. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n81hmoee-
ovM [Accessed 19 Apr. 2017].
55 i-D (2015). I-D, Grace Neutral | The Tattoo-Covered Alien Princess. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DdzNEUx-
zc4k [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
IMAGE i-D, VICE (n.d.). Portrait of Grace Neutral. [image] Available at: https://i-d-images.vice.com/images/articles/meta/2014/12/01/
grace-neutrals-beauty-is-out-of-this-world-1417429749.jpg?crop=1xw:0.42251461988304095xh;0xw,0.2324561403508772xh&re-
size=2000:*&output-format=image/jpeg&output-quality=75 [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
60
 I LOVE TATTOOS I THINK THEY
LOOK BEAUTIFUL, AND IVE LOVED
EXPERIMENTING WITH TATTOOS
BECAUSE IT JUST FEELS GOOD TO
HAVE THEM ON MY BODY. []
ITS LIKE EMBELLISHMENT, IT
WASNT LIKE AN ADDICTION.56
If we consider Dennis Duttons theory once again, that
humans are most attracted to a job well done,57 it
could be a reason why so many people are drawn to
how Grace Neutral looks. Her modifications have all
been done to a high standard of quality, as she obviously
cares about the negative effect she could have on her
body if she was careless in her decisions. Although most
of her alterations look unnatural and have often been
obtained through very intrusive and painful means, the
fully healed result of each modification generally shows
no obvious trace of exactly how it was achieved; at this
final stage each alteration becomes a seamless addition
to her body, as though it had always been a part of her.
In an industry that is still very heavily lead by men, Grace
Neutral has managed to gain a mass following. She
performs her femininity in a refreshing and fascinating
way, and has found a way to empower herself as a
woman through body modification and tattooing. She
may not perform gender in a traditional sense and
she definitely does not look how most people expect a
woman of 28 to look, but she is helping to redefine what
it means to be female in our society. She is well respected
within the industry, and she is proof that if you love and
believe in yourself other people are often more willing
to accept that despite their often challenging exteriors,
those that are heavily modified are still only human.

56 Godhart, J. (2016). Grace Neutral on Happiness. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkxjWZTfZ-U [Accessed 17
Apr. 2017].
57 Dutton, D. (2010). A Darwinian Theory of Beauty. [video] Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/denis_dutton_a_darwinian_theo-
ry_of_beauty [Accessed 2 Mar. 2017].
58 Godhart, J. (2016). Grace Neutral on Beauty. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoD8AGzpqUE [Accessed
23 Apr. 2017].
IMAGE Cuba, A. (n.d.). Portrait of Grace Neutral by Ana Cuba. [image] Available at: http://s3.r29static.com//bin/en-
try/70d/x,80/1748700/image.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
61
I DONT THINK [BEAUTY] HAS
ANYTHING TO DO WITH THE WAY
YOU LOOK, AS IN YOUR SIZE, YOUR
SHAPE, YOUR COLOUR, WHAT YOU
DECIDE TO WEAR, WHAT YOUR STYLE
IS [] I THINK ITS AN ENERGY
[WHICH JUST] POURS OUT OF
PEOPLE WHEN ITS RIGHT AND
ITS SO INTOXICATING.58

62
 VICELAND (n.d.). Needles and Pins, Series 1 Episode 6: TRIBES & TONGUE SPLITTING IN THE UK. [Documentary] Available at: https://www.
63 viceland.com/en_us/video/tribes-and-tongue-splitting-in-the-uk/58bf190c186d627b29a2ef28 [Accessed 19 Apr. 2017].
CONCLUSION

64
 In some way or another, ORLAN, Cindy Jackson and Grace
Neutral have all been able to become their own brand, but
only because they are doing things that are considered
outside of the norm in terms of modifying the female body.
All three of them can be considered narcissistic in their
self-indulgent and expensive pursuits to change the way
they look, despite them having very different motivations
and perceived end aesthetic goals to one another. But are
we not all victims of ascribing to a narcissistic and self-
obsessed way of thinking because of the beauty industry
and the media? There seems to be a general consensus that
as a woman, if you do not take pride in your appearance
then you are acting unprofessionally or do not wish to
be taken seriously. Since women have often historically
struggled to gain power and recognition for exhibiting the
same skills as men it is no wonder that so many people
feel pressured into spending so much time and money on
their appearance. The problem is that as soon as you step
away from what has been prescribed as feminine by the big
corporations of the beauty industry, the fashion industry
and the media, you are disrupting peoples perceptions of
what it means to be a woman in the west; the best way
to make money is to guilt people into buying products by
advertising them as necessities. It seems to be the case that
65
many women are scared to break away from the typical
female stereotypes because of fear: the fear that they
will not be taken seriously or accepted into mainstream
roles because such an alternative image can change other
peoples perceptions of them drastically, and there is still
a lot of prejudice that body modifications are some kind
of clear indication that there is something negatively
abnormal about that person.
Social media has enabled mass distribution of imagery of
these heavily modified women, which allows for a much
larger and wider potential audience; subcultures are no
longer so niche because images of these lifestyles can be
shared worldwide instantaneously. It seems as though
social media has been a catalyst for changing perceptions of
the female body, and has caused a rapidly growing interest
in body modification. I would say that subcultures still exist,
however you no longer need to be close geographically to
other like-minded people to be able to feel like you are part
of a sub-culture together, because the internet provides
this connection and sense of belonging. In Western society
we are consumers first and foremost, and this consumerist
lifestyle causes us to never be satisfied with all that we
have. We see someone else with something that we decide
we like, and we want it, but because we can obtain almost to have these modifications without any pain or risk they
anything incredibly fast, the sense of gratification is often will never be able to truly be a part of the mainstream.
fleeting. Then we see an image of something else we want, For some people caring for their body means keeping it
and the cycle begins again. away from harm as much as possible, for others it means
enduring pain and healing in order to grow and care for
I really believe that with the way that western society themselves on a more emotional or even spiritual level.
works it is truly impossible to ever design, dress or present
ourselves without an awareness of how it will be perceived More and more women are breaking away from the
by other people. Whether people believe that they are culturally defined boundaries of their gender, but these
truly conforming or not to certain societal constructs, definitions are, and always have been and will always
everyone is conforming to an extent because there is only remain, fluid and transitional. If our perceptions of gender
so much that we can imagine outside of what already had never changed, women would still be being burnt at
exists. The way we look is absolutely intrinsic to the way the stake or drowned, or being arrested for protesting for
other people see us and I believe than any decision made their rights. I think that a century from now, we will look
about how we present ourselves aesthetically has to be back on this period of history and see a completely alien
taken within its immediate cultural context. Many things world to the one we will know then. We cannot predict the
that are acceptable now would once have been absolutely changes that will happen, but we can impact on them.
obscene and unfathomable and so would not, or could
not have existed. Of course, technological, medical and I do not think there is anything wrong with choosing to
scientific advances have helped to make all areas of body perform femininity in a traditional way because I believe
modification a lot safer, cheaper and of better quality and that everyone has the right to express themselves in
this will only continue to grow. Although the popularity whatever way they choose regardless of whether it is to
of tattooing, piercing and plastic surgery have grown my taste or not. It seems as though the corporate world
exponentially in recent years, I think that until it is possible and its dictates over the female body are definitely in the

66
 midst of radical change, because if big companies do not and Neutral, on the other hand, hope to inspire people to
respond to what their customers want then there will be modify their bodies however they see fit. They are however,
economic crisis. We are beginning to understand that it both conforming to trends whether they are modifications
is a lot healthier to celebrate everyones differences and that 10 or 10,000 people have, whereas Orlan is doing a
appreciate one another for them, and I predict that many lot of things to herself that no one else has publicly done
more extreme forms of body modifications will become before to challenge societal preconceptions of the body.
even more expected and commonplace in the near future Grace is kind of doing this too, because although she has
as it is the younger generations that are most exposed to been through a lot of modification procedures that other
this imagery. people have too, things like her tattooed eyeballs and belly
button removal are significant because not only have few
These women seem extreme now in their immediate people been through them, but they are very dangerous
cultural context, but eventually their looks will seem pass procedures. Grace seems to challenge herself, whereas
and there will be new forms of extreme body alteration. Orlan challenges society. Orlan will not do any surgical
It is interesting that ORLAN remains distanced from both performances if she cannot eliminate the pain factor,
Cindy Jackson and Grace Neutral in the sense that she whereas the pain/danger of Graces modification is about
is very protective over her work that steps outside of the getting through the pain as symbolic to herself that she can
norm, judging from the dramatic reactions she has when get through anything.
anyone attempts to imitate her modifications. ORLANs
assumed prejudice against more normalised modifications To perceive the body as a malleable and indeed plastic
like tattoos seem to make the message of her work a shell which is defined by personal taste and a desire to
little confusing; it seems that she worries about her work make it match what one feels on the inside may be totally
losing its validity if people choose to copy her looks. It superficial, but so what? It is hard not to be superficial in
seems as though she is so against what she perceives as our current culture. I think that all people should have the
people conforming to the dictates of society that she has right to perform gender in whatever way makes them feel
become bitter and has somewhat estranged herself from the most comfortable. To modify the body is a personal
society with deep intent to stay there; it is as though it is choice, and one that I think should be openly encouraged
acceptable for her to modify her body because it is in the as such. Diversity and creativity should be celebrated. Do
name of art and makes a statement about society, and not let yourself be defined by cultural stereotypes, let
yet she seems against the people that want to change yourself be defined by who you truly believe you are.
the perceptions of femininity and beauty. Both Jackson

59 Godhart, J. (2016). Grace Neutral on Beauty. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoD8AGzpqUE [Accessed 23
Apr. 2017].
IMAGE Renteria, F. (n.d.). Portrait of Vinny Ohh! by Fausto Renteria. [image] Available at: https://m.elitestatic.com/m/526a7ade6d-
400dac/alien-art.jpg [Accessed 30 Apr. 2017].
67
THERES NOTHING MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN
SOMEONE [WHO IS] COMPLETELY COMFORTABLE
WITH WHO THEY ARE AND THEY JUST OWN IT.59

68
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