Contents:
Graphs 3
Basic Graphs 3
Trigonometric Graphs 7
Addition & Subtraction of Ordinates 11
Reflection in Axis 13
Rules for Graphing 15
Multiplication of Ordinates 20
Division of Ordinates 21
Behaviours at Critical Points 23
Index Rules 24
Implicit Differentiation 26
Inequalities 30
Complex Numbers 32
Arithmetic of Complex Numbers 32
Geometrical Representation 35
Basic Proofs 38
Vectors 41
De Moivres Theorem 44
nth Roots 46
Loci of Complex Numbers 47
Regions 49
Conics 51
Ellipse 51
Tangents & Normals 56
Equation of a Chord 56
Chord of Contact 56
Basic Proofs 57
Hyperbola 63
Tangents & Normals 65
Equation of a Chord 68
Chord of Contact 68
Basic Proofs 68
Rectangular Hyperbola 69
Equation of a Chord 71
Tangent 72
Normal 73
Chord of Contact 74
Basic Proofs 74
Loci 76
Conics in Cones 78
Eccentricity Range 78
Volumes 84
Volumes Using Limits 85
Volumes by slicing 86
Volumes by shells 87
Volumes with non-circular slices 89
Mechanics 90
Projectile Motion 91
Simple Harmonic Motion 93
Mathematical Descriptions of Motion 95
Upwards Motion 96
Downwards Motion 97
Circular Motion 99
Uniform Circular Motion 100
Conical Pendulum 101
Banked Circular Track 104
Polynomials 107
Integer Roots of Polynomials 107
Factoring Polynomials 109
Roots & Coefficients of Polynomials 111
Partial Fractions 114
y = mx + b
Gradient = m
y-intercept: y = c
y
m
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
(0, -3)
-5
-10
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
3 2
y = x + 4x x 3
Graph a quartic Steps:
function. 1. Find factor of whole equation.
y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + 2. Use polynomial division.
dx + e 3. Find roots of remaining equation.
Steps:
1. Find stationary points and their nature.
2. Find points of inflexion.
3. Find intercepts.
4. Use table of values.
Properties:
o Has at most four roots.
10
-4 -2 2 4 x
-5
-10
4 3 2
y = x 2x 2x + 4x 1
Graph a Properties:
rectangular Asymptote: x ? 0
hyperbola. Use limit to find horizontal asymptotes.
xy = k y
y= k 10
x
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
xy = 4
Graph a circle. x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c 1. Complete the square to get equation into the form
=0 below.
2 2 2 2 2 2
(x h) + (y k) = r (x h) + (y k) = r
Centre of circle: (h, k)
Radius of circle = r
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
(x 3) + (y + 2) = 9
Graph an a>1
exponential Properties:
function. y-intercept: y = 1
y = ax Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
For both cases: The large the value for a, the steeper the curve.
a>1&0<a<1 The graph is always increasing.
y
10
-4 -2 2 4 x
-5
-10
x
y= 4
0<a<1
Properties:
y-intercept: y = 1
Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0
The graph is always decreasing.
10
-4 -2 2 4 x
-5
-10
x
y = 0.2
Graph a Function can be re-written as:
logarithmic x=ay
function.
y = loga x
Properties:
Root: x = 1
Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Graph Basic Sine Curve:
trigonometric
functions.
y = a Sin bx
y = a Cos bx
y = k + a Sin (bx + c)
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y = Sin x
Basic Cosine Curve:
y
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y = Cos x
-2
-4
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y = Sin x
Inverse Sine Curve:
360
180
-180
-360
-1
y = sin x
Properties:
Domain: -1 = x = 1
Range: -90 = y = 90
Odd Function
Passes through origin.
All movements are the same as for normal sine curve.
y = x 10
&
1
3
y= x
5
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
1
2
y= x
Properties:
-4 -2 2 4 x
-2
-4
1
3
y= x
Properties:
Odd Function
Inflexion point at (0,0)
Can be moved by constants.
Drawing graphs by Addition and Subtraction of Ordinates:
addition and
subtraction of
ordinates
y = f(x) c 10
by initially graphing
y = f(x)
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2 2
y = (x 2) , y = (x 2) + 4 & y = (x 2) 4
y = f(x) c
Rules:
If c is positive, the function is moved up by c.
If c is negative, the function is shifted down by c.
Graph a function Addition & Subtraction of Ordinates:
y = f(x) g(x) y
By initially graphing:
y = f(x) & y = g(x) 6
-2
-4
-6
y = f(x). 10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2
f(x) = (x 2) 2 y = f(x)
Rules:
Function is reflected about the x-axis.
All positive values become negative
All negative values become positive.
Graph y = |f(x)| by y = | f(x) |
initially graphing
y = f(x)
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2
f(x) = (x 2) 2 y = |f(x)|
Rules:
All negative y-values become the positive equivalent.
All positive values remain the same.
Graph y = f(-x) by y = f(-x)
initially graphing y
y = f(x) 10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2
f(x) = (x 2) 2 y = f( x)
Rules:
Reflected about the y-axis.
The initial Ways to Graph complex graphs:
emphasis in this Break graph into two or more parts. (Eg: y = logex can be
topic is operating broken into y = x and y = logex)
on graphs of Multiply the y-values of each of these.
these basic
-5
-10
y = ln x , y = x , y = x ln x .
The notations Basic Fact:
logex and ln x are logex = ln x
used to denote the
natural logarithm
of x and students
should be familiar
with both
notations.
Students will need Rules for graphing:
to be able to 1. Look for families or recognise graph type. Mark original
produce quickly a function and y = 1.
neat sketch of y
these basic 2
y
functions in order |y|
to use them in the 1
sketching of y
further functions. 2. Find x & y intercepts.
3. Find asymptotes:
Vertical
Horizontal
Oblique
4. Find Stationary points
y = 0
5. Find inflexion points
y = 0
6. Find critical points
y = 8
7. Find domain & range
8. Use symmetry.
these functions at
x = 0. They must
be familiar with 2
the term critical
point and with
the possibility of
curves having
-4 -2 2 4 x
vertical tangent
lines at points on
them.
-2
-4
1
1
2
y =
y = x 2 x
Properties of the derivative:
Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
1
3
y = x
1
y' =
3 2
3 x
-4 -2 2 4 x
-2
-4
1 1
3
y = x y' =
3 2
3 x
Properties of the derivative:
Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
Symmetrical about the y-axis.
Critical Point:
A critical point is where a tangent drawn to a curve is exactly
vertical. That is, where the gradient of a graph is equal to
infinity or where the first derivative returns a math error.
m=8
y = ERROR (Usually division by zero or square root of
negative)
Tangent to curve is vertical.
Typical functions y = 1 + 3sin 2x for 2 x 2
involving addition
of ordinates could
include y = 1 + 3
sin 2x for 2p = x
= 2p and y = cos
1
x p. Students
should realise that
the graph of 3 sin
2x can be
transformed to the
graph of 1 + 3 sin
2x by either
translating the
upwards or 4
translating the x-
axis one unit in 3
the opposite
direction.
2
-1
-2
-3
The graph has been shifted one unit up, or the x-axis has
been moved one unit down.
Other types could f(x) = 3sin x + x
include graphing y
functions such as 10
f (x) = 3 sin x + x
for 0 < x < 4. This
may be developed
from the graphs of 5
y = x and y = 3 sin
x. The points
where y = 3 sin x
cuts the x-axis -10 -5 5 10 x
correspond to the
points where y = 3
sin x + x cuts y = -5
x. Once the shape
of the curve has
been roughed out
using addition of -10
ordinates the
position of y = x
stationary points
and points of
inflexion may be
obtained when
appropriate.
-1
-2
-3
-4
y = 3sinx
Combined Graph:
y= 3sin x cuts the x-axis at 0, 180 & 360.
y = 3sin x + x cuts y = x at the same points.
Basically, y = 3sin x is transposed over y = x.
A function such Reflection of Graphs:
y
as y = logex may
be graphed by
reflecting the
4
graph of y = logex
in the x-axis. The
graph of y = 2
2
logex may then be
obtained by a
suitable
translation. -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-2
-4
y = ln x y = ln x y = 2 ln x
The graph is reflected in the x-axis.
The translation is achieved by moving the reflection up
two units.
The relationship Relationship between y = f(x) & y = f(x-a)
between the If a is positive, the graph is moved by a units to the right.
graphs of y = f (x) If a is negative, the graph is moved by a units to the left.
and of y = f (x a)
discussed and 2
used also in
examples
involving the
1
reflection
properties, such
as, for example,
the graph of |1
sin (x 2)|. -360 -180 180 360 x
-1
-2
y = | 1 sin(x 2) |
Sketching functions
by multiplication of
ordinates.
Graph a function y y = C . f(x)
= c.f(x) by initially y
graphing y = f(x). 10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2 1 2 2
y = (x 2) y = 3(x 2) y = (x 2) y = (x 2)
3
Rules:
If C > 1, then the function becomes steeper. All y-values
are multiplied by C.
If 0 < C < 1, then the function becomes shallower. All y-
values are multiplied by C.
If C < 0, then the function is reflected in the x-axis. Then
apply the rules for a positive value of C in terms of
initially graphing y 10
= f(x) & y = g(x).
-5
-10
y = 4sinx y = x y = x (4sin x)
100 100
Rules:
Y-coordinates are multiplied together.
Sketching functions
by division of
ordinates.
Graph a function y = 1
y = 1 by
f(x)
y
f(x)
initially graphing y
= f(x).
4
-2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
1
2
y = 2
y = (x 2) 3 (x 2) 3
Rules:
5 10 15 x
-2
2
2 y = (x 3)
y = (x 3) y = x x
Rules:
Where the denominator is equal to 0, (where the
denominator graph, g(x), cuts the x-axis), a vertical
asymptote occurs at that point.
Can be graphed using reciprocal rule . Eg: graph y = f(x)
1
and y = g(x) . Then use multiplication of ordinates.
f(x)
Where f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0.
f(x)
Where g(x) = 0, g(x) is undefined and a discontinuity
of functions of the 3
form y = f(x)g(x)
may be obtained
2
by examining the
graphs of y = f(x)
and y = g(x) 1
independently. To
graph y = xex, the
x
functions y = x -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
and y = e x may be
-1
graphed on the
same set of axes.
Important features -2
of the graph of y =
xex can be
-3
obtained.
x x
y =x y = e y = xe
Properties:
For x < 0, xex < 0
For x = 0, xex = 0
For x > 0, xex > 0
As x -8, xex -8
As x 8, xex 0.
This enables a rough shape to be quickly sketched. The
exact positions of the stationary points and points of
inflexion may be determined by calculus.
To graph y = x (x + 1)
x2
y = x (x + 1) , the
x2
graphs of y = x, y
= x + 1 and y = x
2 can be first
sketched. The
regions in the
number plane, in
which the graph
exists, can be
then shaded,
discontinuities
determined,
points of
intersection with
coordinate axes
marked on and the
behaviour of the
function for x
Exact positions of 15
stationary points
and points of
inflexion could
lastly be 10
determined if
required.
-2 2 4 6 x
-5
y = 1
y = x y = x + 1 x 2 y = x (x + 1)
x2
Properties:
Asymptotes of the inverse function of the denominator
are also asymptotes for the overall graph.
Roots occur where the numerator functions roots occur.
10
-2 2 4 6 x
-5
x
-1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
-1
-2
2 2 2 2 3
y = (x 2) 3 y = ((x 2) 3) y = ((x 2) 3)
Rules:
If n is even, y is always = 0.
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2 2
y = (x 2) 3 y = (x 2) 3 y = (x 2) 3
Properties:
For a positive square root, only values above the x-axis
are shown.
For a negative square root, only values below the x-axis
are shown.
For the graph of y2 = f(x), both values above and below
the x-axis are graphed.
Where f(x) < 0, the square root graph does not exist.
Where f(x) > 1, the values of y are decreased.
Where 0 < f(x) < 1, the values of y are increased.
Where f(x) = 0 or 1, the values of y do not change.
If y = (f(x) then y' = f'(x) .This leads to the
2 f(x)
position of stationary points.
General approach to
curve sketching.
Use implicit Implicit Differentiation:
differentiation to
dy Differentiate each part separately.
compute dx for dy
curves given in Any part containing a y, multiply that derivative by dx
implicit form. dy
Make dx the subject.
dy = y
2
dx
1
x 2
dy = 4 x 2
dx
1
x 2
Curves graphed 4
x
could include: y = 2
4 x 1
x y
y = 2
x 1
2 x
y = x e 6
2
y = x ln (x 1)
2 2
y = x 9x 4
2 2
x + 2y = 4
sinx
y = 2
x
y = x cosx
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-2
2 x
y = x e
-2 2 4 6 8 x
-2
2
y = x ln (x 1)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
y = x 9x
10
-5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
x + 2y = 4
y
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
-3
sinx
y =
x
0.04
0.02
-0.02
-0.04
y = x cosx
y
360
180
-180
-360
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
Rules:
Graph each function separately.
Where the blue function has a higher y-value than the
red graph, the inequality is fulfilled.
Find the number Graph Solutions:
of solutions of an For the graph:
equation by 2
x 3 = 2x
graphical The number of solutions can be determined by the number
considerations. of times the graphs cross. The x-values at which they cross
are the solutions to the equation.
= ac + iad + ibc bd
ac iad + ibc + bd
= 2 2 2
c id
(ac + bd) bc ad
= 2 2
+ i 2 2
c + d c + d
2 2 2
x + 2xyi + i y = a + ib
2 2
(x y ) + (2xy)i = a + ib
2 2
x y = a
2xy = b
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
x y = 5 2xy = 9
Solve quadratic Expand
equations in the
form:
2
ax + bx + c = 0 ,
where a, b & c are
complex.
Geometrical
Representation
Appreciate that The complex number a + ib , represents an ordered pair of
there exists a one (a, b) on the argand diagram.
to one y
correspondence 6
between the
complex number a 5
+ ib and the
ordered pair (a, b). 4
1 + 4i
Plot the point For the complex number a + ib.
corresponding to The x-value = a
a + ib on the The y-value = b
Argand diagram.
1 + 4i
Define the The modulus of z is the distance from the origin to the
modulus ( |z| ) and complex number z. It can be referred to |z|.
argument (arg z)
of a complex The argument of z is the angle that a line drawn from the
number z. origin to a complex number, z, makes with the x-axis in the
positive direction. It can be referred to as arg (z).
Find the modulus The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is:
and argument of a 2 2
|z| = x +y
complex number.
The argument of the complex number z = x + iy is:
Tan = y
x
Write a + ib in Modulus-argument form is also known as:
Modulus- Mod-Arg form
argument form. Polar form
Remember:
2 2
Mod z = |z| = |x + iy| = x + y = zz = r
Arg z = = ph z
x + iy
(r, )
r
y
x x
= 1 = 2
-1 z
z
z |z|
geometrical
10
relationships
between the point
representing z and
points 5
representing
z , cz (c is real) &
iz.
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
z = 4 + 3i z = 4 3 i iz = -3 + 4i
cz = 8 + 6i where c = 2
Rules:
2
i = -1
3
i = i
4
i = 1
Multiplying a complex number by i is equal to a quarter
turn about the origin.
z is a reflection of z in the x-axis.
Multiplying a complex number by a real value, c, results
in both the real and imaginary part being multiplied by
that number.
Students should Proof #1:
be able to prove |z 1z 2| = |z 1| |z 2| & arg (z 1z 2) = arg z1 + arg z 2
these relations. Let z1 = r1cis1
z2 = r2cis2
z1z2 = (r1cis1 )(r2cis2)
= r1r2 (cos1 + isin1)(cos2 + isin2)
2
= r1r2 (cos1cos2 + isin2cos1 + isin1cos2 + i sin1sin2 )
= r1r2 [(cos1cos2 sin1sin2) + i (sin1cos2 + cos1sin2)]
= r1r2 [cos(1 + 2) + isin(1 + 2)]
= r1r2 cis(1 + 2)
|z1z2| = r1r2
|z1z2| = r1r2 = |z1||z2|
arg (z1z 2) = 1 + 2
arg ( z1z2) = 1 + 2 = arg z1 + arg z2
Proof #3:
Let z 1 = a + ib
z 1 = a ib
z 2 = c + id
z 2 = c id
z1 + z2 = (a ib) + (c id)
= (a + c) ib id
= (a + c) i (b + d)
z1 + z2 = a + ib + c + id
= (a + c) + i (b + d)
= (a + c) i (b + d)
= LHS
Proof #4:
Proof #5:
n n
|z | = |z|
Let z = rcis
n n
z = r cis n
n n
|z | = r
z = rcis
|z| = r
n n
|z| = r
n n
|z | = |z|
Proof #6:
n
arg(z ) = n argz
Let z = rcis
n n
z = r cis n
n
arg(z ) = n
z = rcis
argz =
n argz = n
n
arg(z ) = n argz
Sample Question Answer:
Q4 (1987) a.
a. Let OABC be a Let z = 3 + 2i
square on an iz = -2 + 3i
argand diagram
where O is the
origin. The points
b.
To rotate a complex number about the origin by 45 is the
equivalent of multiplying a complex number by:
|z|
2
z
|z|
A' = z
|z|
B' = z + iz
|z|
C' = iz
|z|
Appreciate that a The complex number z = x + iy can be represented as a
complex number vector OZ .
can be
represented as a
vector on the
Argand diagram.
Appreciate the For the addition of two complex numbers. Use vector
geometrical addition to find the resulting vector.
z1
z2 - z1
z1 z2
z 1 = 1 + 4i z 2 = 3 + 6i z2 z1 z 1 z 2
z1
z2
z 1 = 1 + 3i z 2 = 3 + 2i z1 z2
Prove
geometrically that
|z 1 + z 2| |z 1| + |z 2| . z1 + z2
z2
z1
r2
D
A
r1
Using z1 = 2 + 2i = A
z2 = 1 + 3i = B
z1 + z2 = 3 + 5i = C
Let |z 1| = r1
|z 2| = r2
Let AD be perpindicular to OC
ADO is a right where OA is the hypotenuse
ACD is also a right where AC is the hypotenuse
OD r1 (Pythagoras' theorem)
DC r2 (Pythagoras' theorem)
|OD| + |DC| r1 + r2
|z 1 + z 2| |z 1| + |z 2|
Prove, by Proof:
induction, that
n
(cos + i sin ) =
cos n + i sin n
for positive
integers n.
Using z = r cis + 2k
n
where k = 0,1,2,3,4
n
z1 = cis 0 = 1
z2 = cis 2
5
z3 = cis 4
5
z4 = cis 6
5
8
z5 = cis
5
z4
z5
Re(z) = c, Im(z) = 4
k, sketch lines
parallel to the
appropriate axis.
2
-4 -2 2 4 x
-2
-4
Re(z) = 3 Im(z) = 2
Rules:
For Re(z) = c, the real part of z becomes the graph.
Therefore the locus of the graph is x = c.
For Im(z) = k, the imaginary part of z becomes the
graph. Therefore the locus of the graph is y = k .
Given an For this type of locus, let z1 and z2 represent points on the
equation, argand diagram. If the distance from P to z1 is equal to the
|z z 1| = |z z 2| , distance from P to z2 , then we know from plane geometry
z2
z1
z 1 = 2 + 0i z 2 = -1 + i
Rules:
Let z1 and z2 be normal Cartesian co-ordinates.
Find the midpoint of z1 and z2.
Find the gradient of the line joining z1 to z2 .
Inverse the gradient to find the gradient of the line
perpendicular to it.
Use point-gradient formula to find equation of the line
representing the point P.
Given equations These two equations represent the locus of a circle.
|z| = R and
|z z 1| = R , |z| = R
sketch the Is the locus of a circle with a centre at the origin and radius
corresponding R units.
circles.
-4 -2 2 4 x
-1
-2
-3
|z| = 2 |z z 1| = 2 where z 1 = 2 i
Rules:
The value of R becomes the length of the radius.
The point z1 becomes the centre of the circle.
Given equations The graph is a ray which originates from either the origin or
arg z = and z1, and goes off at angle in the positive direction.
arg (z z 1) = ,
sketch the
corresponding
rays.
z1
arg z = arg (z z 1) = where z1 = -3 + 2i
4 3
Rules:
The graph is just a ray that starts at z1
The ray makes an angle with the positive direction.
Sketch regions The graphs are sketched exactly the same way but the area
associated with in which the equation is fulfilled must be determined.
any of the above
curves. Remember:
showing points of
intersection with
the axes of
symmetry. (0, b)
x
(-a, 0) (a, 0)
(0, -b)
2 2
x y
2
+ 2
= 1
a b
Find the lengths y
x
2b
2a
Rules:
Major axis length = 2a
(acos , bsin )
x
2 2
2 2 2 x y
x + y = a 2
+ 2
= 1
a b
(-ae, 0) (ae, 0)
(-a, 0) O (a, 0) x
(0, -b)
D D
2 2
x y
2
+ 2
= 1
a b
The major properties of an ellipse are to be proven for both
a general ellipse with centre O and for ellipses with given
values of a and b.
Use implicit 2 2
x y
differentiation to 2
+2
= 1
find the equations a b
of the tangent and Implicitly Differentiating Gives:
the normal at 2x 2y dy
P(x1, y1) on an 2 + 2 = 0
a b dx
ellipse. 2y 2x
dy = 2
2
b dx a
2
dy = 2xb
dx 2
2a y
2
dy = b x
2
dx ay
Let P = (x1, y1)
2
Gradient = b x1
2
a y1
2
a y1
Gradient of the Normal = 2
b x1
Equation of the Normal:
2
a y1
y = y1 = 2 (x x1)
b x1
2 2
b x1 (y y1) = a y1 (x x1)
2 2 2 2
b x1y b x1y1 = a y1x a x1y1
Dividing everything by x1y1 gives:
2 2
b y b 2 = a x a2
y1 y1
2 2
a x b y = a2 b 2
x1 y1
Find the equation The equation for the chord of an ellipse is:
of a chord of an x cos + + y sin + = cos
ellipse.
a 2 b 2 2
Find the equation Let PT and PQ be tangents of an ellipse.
of a chord of
contact.
tan = tan
=
RPS' = TPS
QR is a focal chord
Prove that part of
the tangent
between the point
of contact and the
directrix subtends
a right angle at the
Rules:
Cuts the x-axis at (-a, 0) & (a, 0)
The asymptotes are: y = bx
a
The shape of the hyperbola should be examined as
b varies.
a
Find the length of Rules:
the major and Length of major axis = 2a
minor axes and Length of minor axis = 2b
semi-major and Length of semi-major axis = a
semi-minor axes Length of semi-minor axis = b
of a hyperbola.
Write down the Parametric Coordinates:
(-ae, 0) (ae, 0)
Use implicit
differentiation to
find the equations
of the tangent and
normal at P(x1, y1)
on a hyperbola.
Gradient of Tangent
Gradient of Tangent
Gradient of PQ
Find the point of Use the equations for tangents and normals.
intersection of
tangents and of Solve these simultaneously to find the points of intersection.
normals.
Prove simple Area of the Triangle:
geometrical
properties of the
rectangular
hyperbola T
including:
o The area of the
triangle
P
bounded by a
tangent and
the asymptotes
is a constant.
o The length of R
the intercept,
cut off a
tangent by the
asymptotes,
equals twice
Length of Intercept:
T
O R
Midpoints of intervals:
cosax dx = 1 sinax + c
a
sec ax dx = 1 tanax + c
2
a
Integration of Squared Trig Functions:
sin ax = 1 x 1 sin 2ax + c
2
2 4a
cos ax = 12 x + 1 sin 2ax + c
2
4a
Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
1 -1
dx = sin x + c
2 2 a
a x
1 -1
dx = cos x + c
2 2 a
a x
a -1
2 2
dx = tan x + c
a + x a
2
1 + t
t
2
1
Integrate rational Completing a square will often result in an inverse tan result.
functions by
completing the
square in a
quadratic
denominator.
Integrate rational Partial Fractions:
functions whose Used in situations whereby the denominator is broken into
denominators parts so it can be integrated.
have simple
linear or Example:
quadratic 5x + 1
factors.
(x 1)(x + 2)
Let 5x + 1 = a + b
(x 1)(x + 2) x 1 x+2
5x + 1 = a(x + 2) + b(x 1)
Then solve for x = -2 & 1 to find values of a & b
Then integrate:
a
+ b
x1 x+ 2
as the limit of b
the
V = A(x) dx
corresponding a
approximating
sums. This can then be adjusted so a definite integral is reached.
radius = y
A(x)
V = lim
x 0
0
A(x) x
5
V = A(x) dx
0
5
2
V = ( y ) dx
0
5
2
V = y dx
0
Since y2 = x
V = 25 units
3
2
Notes:
Examples involving annular shells should include
questions as difficult as the following. The region R,
2 4
bounded by: 0 x 2 , 0 y 4x x , is rotated
about the y-axis. The solid so formed is sliced by planes
perpendicular to the y-axis. Express the areas of the
cross-sections so formed as a function of y, the distance
of the plane from the origin. Use this result to calculate the
volume of the solid.
Find the volume This is used when a graph is being rotated about the y-axis
of a solid of between x = a & x = b.
revolution by
summing the Take for instance, this example, where we rotate the area
volumes of enclosed between the line y = -x + 2 a nd the x & y-axes.
cylindrical
shells.
?x
2 x
Therefore:
V = Volume of a cylindrical shell .
2 2
V = [ (x + x) x ] y
2 2 2
V = [ (x + 2xx + x ) x ] y
2
V = y (2xx + x )
2
However, x is negligible, so:
V = 2 x y. x
V = lim
x 0 0
V
2
V = 2 xy dx
0
Since y = x + 2
2
V = 2 x ( x + 2) dx
0
2
2
V = 2 ( x + 2x ) dx
0
Notes:
A formula for summing by cylindrical shells should not be
learnt. Each problem should rather be developed from first
principles.
We are given the dimensions of the base and told the height
is 4m. That is, 4m right through the middle of the pyramid
from top to bottom.
a
b
x
c
a b c
5 4 3
a = x b = x c = x
5 4 4 4 3 4
a = 5x b = x c = 3x
4 4
5x
x 4
x
3x
4
We then use the area of a triangle.
A(x) = 1 bh
2
A(x) = 1 3x x
2 4
3x3 4
V =
24 0
3
V = 8 units
Notes:
The process of writing the limiting sum as an integral
should be extended to cases where cross-sections are
other than circular. These cases should only involve
problems in which the geometrical shape is able to be
visualised, eg prove that the volume of a pyramid of height
1 2
h on a square base of side a is a h
3
x = vt cos
.
x = v cos
..
x = 0
Vertically:
2
y = vt sin gt
2
.
y = v sin gt
..
y = g
Cartesian Equation of Motion:
2 2
h = V sin
2g
Range:
Since projectile motion is a parabola, the time taken for the
entire journey will be double that taken to reach the maximum
height.
F = ma
where F - Force in Newtons
m - Mass in kg
2
a - Acceleration in ms
p = mv
where p - Momentum
m - Mass
1
v - Velocity in ms
1 kg wt = 9.8 N
t = 1 dv
f(v)
Then rearrange
Derive an .. 2
If x = f(x), use d 12 v
expression for dx
velocity as a d 1 v2 = f(x)
function of
dx 2
displacement.
1 2
2
v = f(x) dx
Derive an .. 2
d x
expression for If x = f(t), use 2
displacement as dt
2
a function of d x = f(t)
time. 2
dt
Then intergrate twice
Motion Vertically
Upwards
Derive, from Remember F = ma,
.. n
Newtons laws of x = (g + kv )
motion, the n
equation of F = m (g + kv )
motion of a
particle, moving Typical cases to consider include those in which the
vertically resistance is proportional to the speed and to the square
upwards in a of the speed.
medium, with a Analysis of the motion of a particle should include
resistance R consideration of the behaviour of the particle as t becomes
proportional to large. Graphs can offer assistance in understanding the
the first or behaviour of the particle.
second power of The origin should be placed at the point of projection.
its speed. The maximum height reached by the particle can be
obtained from the expression relating speed and
displacement.
The time taken to reach this maximum height can be
t = 1 dv
f(v)
Then rearrange
Derive an .. 2
d x
expression for If x = f(t), use 2
displacement as dt
2
a function of d x = f(t)
time. 2
dt
Then intergrate twice
Solve problems Use the above equations and substitute in values.
by using the
expressions
derived for
acceleration,
velocity and
displacement.
Motion of a Particle
Falling Downwards
Derive, from Remember, F = ma
Newtons laws of a = g kv
n
motion, the
equation of F = ma
n
motion of a F = m (g kv )
particle falling in
a medium with a Cases, other than where the resistance is proportional to
resistance R the first or second power of the speed, are not required to
proportional to be investigated.
the first or Students should place the origin at the point from which
v = n
g
k
Derive Time:
..
expressions for If x = f(t), use dv
velocity as a dt
function of time dv = f(t)
and for velocity dt
as a function of
displacement. v = f(t) dt
..
If x = f(v), use dv if initial conditions are (t,v)
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv f(v)
t = 1 dv
f(v)
Then rearrange
Displacement:
.. 2
If x = f(x), use d 12 v
dx
d 1 v2 = f(x)
dx 2
1 2
2
v = f(x) dx
.
= d =
dt
Deduce, from Through differentiation
this definition of = d
angular velocity, dt
expressions for . 2 ..
= d2 =
angular
acceleration of a dt
point around a
fixed point.
Prove that the Velocity:
instantaneous v = Change in arc AB
velocity of a Change in time
particle moving
v = d R
in a circle of dt
radius R, with
v = Rd
angular velocity dt
, is R .
v = R
Vertically:
T cos mg = 0
Radially:
2
2
T sin = mv = mr
r
Derive results
2 2
Tension = 4 mn l
2
tan = v
Rg
Calculate the
optimum speed
around a banked
track given the
construction
specifications.
v = Rg tan
2
F = mv cos mg sin
r
If P b = 0 then:
a
(ax b) is a factor of P(x)
b is a factor of P(x)
a
Where b is a factor of the constant term and a is a factor of
the leading term.
Example:
3 2
P(z) = 2z 3z + 2z 3 = 0
z could potentially be any of the following:
3 , 1 , 32 , 12
In this case, P 3 = 0.
2
(2z 3) is a factor of P(z)
Therefore:
r
P(x) = (z a) .Q(x)
Write down the The order of a root is the number of times it appears as a
order factor.
(multiplicity) of a
root.
Prove that if r
P(x) = (x a) .S(x) where r > 0 and S(a) 0
r
P(x) = (x a) .S(x) r
, where r > 1 and u = (x a)
S(a) 0 , then du = r (x a)r 1
P'(x) has a root a dx
of multiplicity v = S(x)
(r 1).
dv = S'(x)
dx
r r 1
P'(x) = (x a) .S'(x) + r (x a) .S(x)
r 1
= (x a) [(x a)S'(x) + r S(x)]
r 1
= (x a) Q(x)
Solve simple These can include examples whereby the derivative of a
problems function must first be established.
involving
multiple roots of
a polynomial.
State the The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra asserts that every
fundamental polynomial P(x) of degree n over the complex plane has at
theorem of least one complex root.
algebra.
Deduce that a n n 1
Let P(z) = a nz + a n 1z + .... + a 1z + a 0 = 0
polynomial of
degree n > 0, Let z1 be a root. So P(z1) = 0
with real or P(z) = (z z1)Qn 1(z)
complex where Qn 1(z) is a polynomial of degree (n 1)
coefficients, has
exactly n By continuing this pattern we get:
complex roots, P(z) = a n(z z1)(z z2)....(z zn) where an 0
allowing for
multiplicities. Using this result, the factor theorem should now be used to
prove (by induction on the degree) that a polynomial of
degree n > 0 with real or complex coefficients has exactly n
complex roots.
Example:
Use De Moivre's theorem to express cos 3 in terms of cos
and sin 2 in terms of sin.
cos 3 + i sin 3
3
= (cos + i sin)
3 2 2 3
= cos + 3 i cos sin 3cossin i sin
Equating Real & Imaginary parts:
3 2
cos 3 = cos 3cossin
3 2
= cos 3cos(1 cos )
3
= 4cos 3cos
Roots &
Coefficients of
Polynomials
Write down the Quadratic Equations:
relationships 2
If & are roots of ax + bx + c = 0 then:
between the
roots and + = b
a
coefficients of
polynomial = c
equations of a
degrees 2, 3 & 4.
Cubic Equations:
3 2
If , & are roots of ax + bx + cx + d = 0 then:
++ = b
a
+ + = c
a
= d
a
Quartic Equations:
4 3 2
If , , & are roots of ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0 then:
+++ = b
a
+ + + + + = c
a
+ + + = d
a
= e
a
Use these Quadratic:
relationships to 2
P(x) = x (sum of roots )x + (Product of roots )
form a
polynomial Cubic:
equation given 3 2
its roots. P(x) = x (Sum of roots )x + (Sum of roots 2 at a time )x
(Product of roots )
Quartic:
4 3 2
P(x) = x (Sum of roots )x + (Sum of roots 2 at a time )x
(Sum of roots 3 at a time )x + (Product of roots )
=c a
a d
1 +1+1 = c
d
1 + 1 + 1
++
=
= b a
a d
1 + 1 + 1 = b
d
1 = a
d
3 2
x + cx + bx + a = 0
d d d
3 2
dx + cx + bx + a = 0
Form an 2 2
Roots are: &
equation, whose 2 2
roots are the +
squares of the 2
roots of a given = ( + ) 2
equation. 2
= b 2c
a a
2
2c
b
= 2
a a
2
b 2ac
= 2
a
Partial Fractions
Write a fraction
in terms of
quotient and
remainder.
2
f(x) = 2x + 3x + 8
x+ 2
2x 1
2
x + 2 2x + 3x + 8
2
2x + 4x
x+8
x2
10
f(x) = Q(x) + R(x)
B(x)
f(x) = (2x 1) + 10
x+ 2
Write a fraction
in terms of
distinct linear
factors.
x+ 3
f(x) = 2
x 6x + 5
x+3 a + b
2
x 6x + 5 x 5 x 1
x + 3 = a(x 1) + b(x 5)
Let x = 1
4 = -4b
b = -1
Let x = 5
8 = 4a
a = 2
Write a fraction
in terms of
distinct linear
factors and a
simple quadratic
factor. 2
6x 53x + 42 a bx + c
2
+ 2
(2x 3)(2x 5x 3) 2x 3 2x 5x 3
2 2
6x 53x + 42 = a(2x 5x 3) + (bx + c)(2x 3)
Let x = 1.5
-24 = -6a
a = 4
Let x = 0
42 = -12 3c
c = -18
Let x = 1
-5 = (-6 4) + (b 18)(-1)
-19 = b 18
b = -1
4 x + 18
f(x) = 2
2x 3 2x 5x 3
Write a fraction
in terms of the
product of two
different simple
quadratic
factors. 3 2
f(x) = 2x 2+ 7x 24x + 3
(x 1)(x + 1)
3 2
2x + 7x 4x + 3 ax + b + cx + d
2 2 2 2
(x 1)(x + 1) x 1 x +1
3 2 2 2
2x + 7x 4x + 3 = (ax + b)(x + 1) + (cx + d)(x 1)
Let x = 1
8 = 2(a + b)
a +b = 4 (1)
Let x = 0
3 = bd (2)