choose, install, test & service brakes.

Disc- & drum-brake

sign. Brake materials for racing or street. Air cooling &
water ceding. Proportioning valves & balance bar
Practical da'ta & formulas.

Fred Puhn
 HPBooks@

11ArlDBOOK Fred Puhn

Fred
Registered Puhn Engineer
Professional
Registered Professional Engineer

3
3

1. Corvette rotor-ano-caliper assembly by Girlock, modifiedfor racing by Tilton Engineering.

2. Neal Products brake-pedal , balance-bar, bracket & dual master-cylinder assembly ; Airheart master
1. Corvette rotor-and-caliper
cylinders shown. ' . _ _assembly
_ . . by
- Girlock,
'modifled
. for racing
- by Tilton
-- Engineering.
2.
3. Neal Products
Tempilaq brake-pedal, balance-bar,
temperature-sensing paintfrornbracket & dual
Big"Three master-cylinder assembly; Airheart master
Industries;
4. cylinders shown.
Alston proportioning valve. ....
3. Tempilaq temperature-sensing paint from Big-Three Industries.
4. Alston proportioning valve.
 Contents
............................................ 33
Introduction ............................................
Introduction
11 Basics ................................................. 44
Basics.................................................
2 Drum Brakes
Drum .......................................... 1155
Brakes ..........................................
33 Disc Brakes
Disc ........................................... 23
Brakes ........................................... 23
4 Friction Material
Friction ....................................... 34
Material ....................................... 34
5 Hydraulic
Hydraulic Systems
Systems .... .....................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
42
66 Brake Pedals
Brake Pedals && Linkages ............................... 66
Linkages ............................... 66
7
7 .......................................... 77
Power Assist .......................................... 77
88 Types of Brakes
Other Types ................................. 82
Brakes ................................. 82
9
9 High-Performance
High- Performance Brakes .............................. 88
Brakes .............................. 88
10
10 Testing ............................................. 104
Testing ............................................. 104
11
11 Maintenance ........................................ 1121
Maintenance ........................................ 21
11 22 Modifications ........................................ 1 37
Modifications........................................ 37
.............................. 166
Trouble-Shooting Guide .............................. 1 66
Suppliers List ........................................
Suppliers List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 169
69
Reference Tables .....................................
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 71 71
...............................................
Index ............................................... 174 174

THANKS
brake suppliers and
Thanks to the many brake and experts
experts who helped
helped with technical information
and photographs.
and photographs. Special Tilton Engineering, Bill
Special thanks to Mac Tilton of Tilton Bill Neal
Neal of Neal
Neal
Products, and John Moore of AP Racing
Products, Racing for their personal contributions.
cohtributions. Thanks also to
Carroll Smith of Carroll
Carroll Smith Carroll Smith Consulting for helpful
helpful suggestions given
given after reading
reading the
finished manuscript.
Special thanks to Garrett Van Camp,
Camp, Van Camp RacingRacing Enterprises, Inc., 25192
Maplebrooke, Southfield, MIMI 48034. His
His heroic efforts and
and great technical knowledge
gained
gained over the years as a Ford
Ford Motor brake-design engineer and and race-car brake-design
consultant made
made a significant contribution to the content and completeness of this book.
book. It
could
could not have been
been this quality without him. Thanks Garrett.

NOTICE: The information contained in

NOTICE: in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. All
recommendations on parts and procedures
procedures are made without any guaranteeson
guarantees on the part of the author or
HPBooks. Because thequality
the quality of parts, materials and methods are beyond
beyond our control,
control, author and
publisher disclaim all liability incurred in connection with the use of this information.
information.

Publisher:
Publisher: Rick Bailey;
Bailey; Executive Editor:
Editor: Randy Summerlin; Editorial Director: Tom Monroe,
Editorial Director: P.E., S.A.E.;
Monroe, P.E., SAE.; Senior
Editor:
Editor: Ron
Ron Sessions,
Sessions, A.S.A.E.;
A.S.A.E.; Art Director: Don Burton;
Director: Don Burton; Book Design:
Design: Paul Fitzgerald;
Fitzgerald; Production
Production Coordinator:
Coordinator:
Cindy J. Coatsworth;
Coatsworth; Typography:
Typography: Michelle
Michelle Carter;
Carter; Director of Manufacturing:
Manufacturing: Anthony B. B. Narducci;
Narducci; Photos:
Photos: Fred
Fred
Puhn,
Puhn, others noted;
noted; Cover Photo: Bill Keller
Photo: Bill

Published by HPBooks
A Division of HPBooks, Inc.
P.O.
P.O. Box 5367,
5367, Tucson, A2
AZ 85703 6021888-21 50
602/888-2150
ISBN 0-89586-232-8
0-89586-232-8 Library of Congress Catalog Number 84-62610
84-62610
01985
1985 HPBooks, Inc. Printed in U.S.A.
HPBooks, Inc. U.S.A.
2nd Printing
Printing

2
Introduction

When driving down a long hill on a crowded freeway, a situation can occur that demands good brakes. Many of the cars in this photo are
going over 55 mph . If an emergency were to happen, the resulting chain-reaction braking would result in some drivers locking the wheels.
When driving down a long hill on a crowded freeway, a situation can occur that demands good brakes. Many of the cars in this photo are
Most
going of55usmph.
over onlyIf an
think about were
emergency brakes problems,
to happen, too. chain-reaction braking would result in some drivers locking the wheels.
the resulting
when a panic stop occurs ahead in traf- I talk about brakes as a system. This
ficMost
and allof we
us only think
see are about brakes
brakelights and problems, too. lines, pedals, levers
includes fluid,
when
the undersides of cars. Theseinnear-
a panic stop occurs ahead traf- and linkages, brakes
I talk about as wellas asa system.
the brakeThis
fic and all weillustrate
emergencies see are brakelights
how important and includes fluid, lines,
units. Wheels, bodywork and even pedals, levers
the
brakesundersides
are to our of safety.
cars. These
Brakesnear-
are and linkages,
the frame as well
structure as the
become a partbrakeof
emergencies
also a vital part illustrate
of highhow important,
performance units.
the brakeWheels,system bodywork
when they and affect
even
brakes
as are can
any racer to our safety.
tell you . Brakes are the
brake frame structure This
performance. become booka part
covers of
also a vital part of high performance,
Because everyone wants higher per- the brake system when they
each part of the system and how it re- affect
as any racerand
formance cansafety,
tell you.
brakes deserve a braketoperformance.
lates overall brakeThis book covers
performance. It
Because
great deal everyone
of attention. wants Wehigher per-
not only each help
will part ofin the
the system andofhow
selection it re-
compo-
formance
want our car to go fast , but it shoulda
and safety, brakes deserve lates
nents toif overall
you prefer braketo performance.
design a brake It
great dealquickly
also stop of attention. We not
and safely. Anyonlycar will
system.help in the selection of compo-
want powerful
with our car toand go fast, but it should
consistent brakes nents
The iffirst
yousection
prefer of to the
designbook a brake
deals
also stopconfidence
instills quickly andin safely. Any car
the driver. It system.particular parts of a brake
with
with powerful and consistent
also increases driving pleasure. brakes
Bad The first
system. Thesection
secondofsection,
the book deals
starting
instills
brakes are confidence
terrifying. in the driver. It with particular parts
with Chapter 9, describes how to of a brake
also increases
If racing driving
is your game,pleasure.
you needBad to system.
design , Theinstall,second
test,section,
maintain starting
and
brakes are
know moreterrifying.
about brakes than the with
modifyChapter
a brake 9, system
describesfor how racingto
If racing
casual is your
driver. game, what
No matter you need to
type of design, install, test, maintain
applications. Race-car concepts also and Braking is essential in winning races.
know more about brakes
racing you do, brake performance is than the modify toa brake
apply system for racing
high-performance road These stock cars are competing on a road
casual driver.racing
NO matter
is mostwhat type of vehiCles. I alsoace-bar
applications. concepts
there also
course-the
Braking is most severe
essential in duty for automo-
winning races.
vital. Road demanding note where are tive brakes. cars
Notice
racing
on you do,
brakes, brake drag
although performance
racing and is apply
important to differences
high-performance
between racing road aresmoke from On thea right
road
front tire on most
course-the car that's
severebraking hard
duty for in the
automo-
vital. Road
oval-track racing
events is most
havedemanding
special vehicles.
and road use I also
. note where t'here are brakes. Notice smoke from the right
corner.
tive
on brakes, although drag racing and important differences between racing front tire on car that's braking hard in the
oval-track events have special and road use. corner.
3
Basics I

Good brakes are essential to overall vehicle performance. Even though engine performance, suspension and body aerodynamics approach
perfection, race cars, such as this GTP Corvette, will not be competitive without good brakes. Photo by Tom Monroe.
Good brakes are essential to overall vehicle performance. Even though engine performance, suspension and body aerodynamics approach
perfection, race cars, such as this GTP Corvette, will not be
Brake competitive
systems are without goodtobrakes.
designed do Photo by Tomthe
brakes, Monroe.
friction materials rub
one thing-stop the vehicle. Sounds against metal surfaces . Different types
Brake
easy, but systems
problemsare designed
start to do
when brakes brakes,
of brakes the friction materials
are arranged differently,rub or
one
mustthing-stop
stop a vehicle the from
vehicle.
highSounds
speed against
use different methods of forcing types
metal surfaces. Different rub-
easy, but problems
in a short distance, andstartdowhen brakes
it over and of
bingbrakes are together.
surfaces arranged There
differently,
are alsoor ..
must stop a vehicle from
over again . We expect no failures high speed
or use different methods of forcing
differences in dissipating heat once it rub-
in
lossa short distance,All
of control. andbrake
do it over and
systems bing surfaces together. There are also
is generated.
should stop We
over again. expectThe
a vehicle. no failures or
difference differences
Either drum in dissipating
brakes or disc heat once or
brakes, it
loss of control. All brake
between a good system and a bad one systems ais combination
generated. of the two, are used on
should stop ita vehicle.
is how well The difference
will perform under the mostEither drum brakes
vehicles. Theseortermsdisc brakes,
refer or to
between
most adversea good system and a bad one
conditions. ahowcombination of the two,
friction surfaces are designedare usedand on
is All
howvehicles
well it will
haveperform
brakes, under the
and they most vehicles. These terms refer to
configured.
most adverse conditions.
always did . Ever since m an discovered how
Drum friction surfaces are
Brakes-All eadesigned
rly vehicles and
theAll vehicles
wheel have itbrakes,
, stopping and they
was a problem. configured.
used drum bra kes ; many of today's
always did.
Carts, Ever since
wagons and man discovered
carriages had Drum
vehicles Brakes-All early vehicles
still do . The rubbing surface
the wheel,
brakes, stopping
usually simpleit was a problem.
blocks rubbing used drum
is a metal brakes;called
cylinder many of today's
a brake drum ,
Carts,
on a wheel.wagons This and carriagesa basic
established had vehiclesmade
usually still do. Theiron
of cast rubbing
. surface
brakes, usually simple blocks
that has yet to change, even with the rubbing is aEarly
metal drum
cylinderbrakes
called awere brake drum,
exter-
Most production sedans have drum brakes
on a wheel.
most This established
sophisticated brake system: a basic
All usually
nal-rubbingmade ofsurface
cast iron.was outside of
on the rear and disc brakes on the front. that
brakes hasuse
yetfriction
to change,
to stopeven with the
the vehicle. theEarly
drum.drum brakes internal
More modern were exter- drum
Drum brakes are sedans
Most ~roduction preferred
haveon drum
rear wheels
brakes
~ - - -
most sophisticated brake system: All nal-rubbing surface
brakes have the rubbing surfacewas outside
insideof
because a parking
on the rear and discbrake is easily
brakes adapted
on the front,. brakes usefiiction
BRAKE TYPES to stop the vehicle. the drum. More modern internal
the drum. There are shoes inside the drum
This
Drumlarge drum
brakes are ispreferred
on the rear of awheels
on rear 2-ton brakes with
have frict
the ion
rubbing surface inside.
sedan. a parking brake is easily adapted.
because When two parts rub together, the drum material attached
This large drum is on the rear of a 2-ton resulting TYPES
BRAKE friction generates heat. In the drum.
This frictionThere are isshoes
material called inside
lining.theIt
sedan. When two parts rub together, the drum with friction material attached.
4
resulting friction generates heat. In This friction material is called lining. It
Honda disc brake is typical of front brakes Earliest automotive brakes were drum type
Iused on small sedans. Exposed rubbing I with the rubbing surface on the outside of
surface of disc
Honda disc brake
brake aids cooling.
is typical of front brakes the drum.
Earliest Because brakes
automotive frictionwere
material sur-
drum type
used on small sedans. Exposed rubbing rounds
with thethe outside
rubbing of theon
surface drum,
the little
outsidecool-of
surface of disc brake aids cooling. ing air
the contacts
drum. Becausethe friction
hot rubbing surface.
material sur- Prewar MG used mechanical brakes. Front
Externalthe
rounds drum brakes
outside are drum,
of the simplelittle
and cool-
easy brakes are operated by cables that flex as
to
ingservice, but have
air contacts thehorrible coolingsurface.
hot rubbing ability. the
Prewar MG used
wheels steer mechanical
and move up and down.
brakes. Front
is designed to rub against the drum
External drum brakes are simple and easy Finned aluminum
brakes drums
are operated by give better
cables that cooling
flex as
without burning, melting or wearing to service, but have horrible cooling ability. thanwheels
plain cast iron.and move up and down.
is designed the steer
rapidly. The to rub are
shoes against
forcedtheagainst
drum
Finned aluminum drums give better cooling
without burning, melting
the inside surface of the drum when or wearing than plain cast iron.
rapidly.
the driver Thepushesshoes arethe forced
brake against
pedal,
the insidefriction
creating surfacebetween
of the drum when
the lining Caliper
the driver pushes the
and the drum surface . Drum brakes brake pedal,
creating
are covered friction between
in Chapter 2. the lining
and the drum surface. Drum brakes P = Clamping Force
Disc Brakes - A modern brake on Rotor
are covered in Chapter 2.
design is the disc brake. The drum is p
P = Clamping Force
Disc
replacedBrakes-A
by a flat metal modern
disc, or brake
roto;; on Rotor
design is the disc
with a rubbing surface on brake. Theeachdrum is
side.
replaced by a flat metal disc,
The rotor is usually made of cast iron. or rotot;
with a rubbing
Friction materials surface on each
are inside side.
a caliper, Caliper Mounting
The rotor is usually made
which surrounds the rotor. Disc-brakeof cast iron. Bolt
Friction materials are inside
friction material-one on eacha side
caliper,
of - - - Axle
which surrounds the rotor.
the rotor- is called a brake pad, puckDisc-brake Centerline
friction
or lining.material-one
This caliper on each side of
is designed to Axle
the rotor-is Centerline
clamp the padscalled a brake
against pad,ofpuck
the sides the
or lining.
rotor This caliper
to create friction.is Disc
designed
brakesto
clamp
are the pads
covered against 3.
in Chapter the sides of the
rotor to create friction. Disc brakes Wheel
Stud
are covered in Chapter 3.SYSTEM
BRAKE-ACTUATING ~Rotor
Between the driver's foot and the Stud
BRAKE-ACTUATING
wheel SYSTEMthat
brakes are components -\ Rotor
Disc brake operates by clamping rotor between two stationary pads. Rotor turns with the
Betweenforce
translate the from
driver'sthefoot and into
driver the wheel;
I caliper is mounted to a fixed part of the suspension, usually the spindle or upright. I
wheel brakes are components
friction force at the brake-rubbing that Disc brake operates by clamping rotor between two stationary pads. Rotor turns with the
translate force
surfaces. I callfromthis the
thedriver into
actuating wheel; caliper is mounted t o a fixed part of the suspension, usually the spindle or upright.
friction force at the brake-rubbing
system. This system can be mechani- of a brake system. The pedal is the fa- It is also a factor in determining how
surfaces.
cal, I call
hydraulic this theor aactuating
, pneumatic combi- miliar lever that the driver pushes solid the brakes feel to the driver.
system. This system
nation of these . Future canvehicles
be mechani-
could of a brake
with system.
his foot to The
applypedal
the is brakes.
the fa- It Trade-offs
is also a factor in determining
are made how
when designing
cal,
use hydraulic, pneumatic
electric systems. or a combi-
Whatever the miliar lever that the driver
Regardless of the type of brake- pushes solid
brakethe brakesLong
pedals. feel to the driver.
pedals reduce the
nation
type ofof these. Future
actuating system, vehicles could
the result is with his system
actuating foot toused,
apply the applica-
system brakes. Trade-offs
pedal are madetowhen
force required stop adesigning
vehicle.
use electricWhen
the same: systems. Whatever
the driver the
operates Regardless
tion always ofbegins
the with
type theof brake-
driver brake
However,pedals.
longLongpedals
pedals have
reducelong
the
typesystem,
the of actuating
brakessystem, the .result is
are applied actuating
operating system used, system
a pedal-or lever applica-
in rare pedal force required to stop a vehicle.
travel. They can also feel spongy to the
the same: When the
Brake Pedal & Linkage-Brakedriver operates tion always
cases. beginsdesign
Brake-pedal with determines
the driver However,
driver. long pedals
Brake-pedal design have long
is detailed
the system,
pedals brakes areare
and linkages applied.
integral parts operating
the leg forcea pedal-or
required tolever in rare
stop the car. travel. They6. can also feel spongy to the
in Chapter
Brake Pedal & Linkage-Brake cases. Brake-pedal design determines driver. Brake-pedal design is detailed
pedals and linkages are integral parts the leg force required to stop the car. in Chapter 6 .
5
Although most mechanically actuated
brakes are found on antique cars, some are
still being used.
Although most Developed by APactuated
mechanically Racing
for
brakesuseareonfound
competition
on antiquerally
cars,cars,
somethis
are
modern
still beingcaliper
used. isDeveloped
mechanically
by AP actuated.
Racing
Independent
for use on of the hydraulically
competition actuated
rally cars, this
brakes,
modern these calipers
caliper are used onactuated.
is mechanically the rear
for high-speed
Independent of control on slick surfaces.
the hydraulically actuated
Photo courtesy
brakes, AP Racing.
these calipers are used on the rear
for high-speed control on slick surfaces.
Photo courtesy AP Racing.
Early race cars had no front brakes. Although this Peugeot was a winner with its advanced
high-speed dual-overhead-cam engine, it used cable-operated rear-wheel brakes.
Early race cars had no front brakes. Although this Peugeot was a winner with its advanced
high-speed dual-overhead-cam engine, it used cable-operated rear-wheel brakes.
tems were mechanical and are still brakes soon were improved to the
used for parking brakes on present- early external- type drum brakes, all
temsvehicles.
day were mechanical
The mechanical and are still
linkage brakes
with soon were improved
mechanical-actuating to the
systems.
used fortheparking
moves brakes onin present-
shoes outward a drum early
Early external-type
brakes were drum on brakes,
the rear all
day vehicles.
brake, or clampsThe mechanical
the pads against linkagea with
wheels mechanical-actuating
only. The major reason systems.
for this
moves the shoes
disc-brake rotor. outward in a drum wasEarly brakes were
the difficulty on thean rear
in designing ac-
brake,
Hydraulic Brakes-Modern cars usea
or clamps the pads against wheels only. The major
tuating system on wheels that reason for this
are
disc-brakebrakes.
hydraulic rotor. In a hydraulically ac- was the difficulty
steered. Engineersinavoideddesigningthe an ac-
prob-
Hydraulic
tuated system,Brakes-Modern
the cables or cars rodsuse of tuating
lem system on
by omitting wheels that
front-wheel brakes are.
hydraulic
the mechanical system are replaced ac-
brakes. In a hydraulically by steered.
Another Engineers
reason foravoidednot usingthe prob-
front
tuated system,
fluid-filled lines the
and cables
hoses. The or rods of
brake'- lem
brakes was concern that the carbrakes.
by omitting front-wheel might
the mechanical
pedal system are
linkage operates replacedinbya
a piston Another
tip over on reason for not
its nose usingbrakes
if front front
In the '20s, Duesenberg introduced hy- fluid-filled
master cylinderlinestoand hoses. The
pressurize thebrake:
fluid brakesapplied
were was concern
hard! that the car might
draulic brakes with large finned drums . pedal linkage operates a piston in a tipEarly
over external-type
on its nose if drum front brakes
This was
In the probably
'209, the firstintroduced
Duesenberg road car with
hy- inside the lines and hoses. Fluid pres- brakes
enough horsepower
draulic brakes with that
large required
finned adrums.
great master cylinder to pressurize
sure in each wheel cylinder forces the the fluid were applied hard!
used a band of friction material out-
improvement
This in braking.
was probably It didroad
the first not car
use with
flex inside the
friction lines and
material hoses.the
against Fluid
drum pres-or Early
side external-type
the drum. This typedrum of brakebrakes
was
hoses, but
enough instead ranthat
horsepower fluidrequired
through internal
a great sure
rotor.inSee
eachChapter
wheel cylinder
5 for aforces detailedthe used to
easy a band
design, of but
friction materialmate-
the friction out-
passages in the
improvement in suspension.
braking. I t did not use flex friction material
explanation of how against the drum
a hydraulic system or side the drum. thehisdrum
rial prevented typefromof brake
cooling.was
hoses, but instead ran fluid through internal rotor. See Chapter for a detailed
passages in the suspension. works. 5 easy to design, but the friction
Also, exposed friction materials were mate-
The brake pedal is connected to a explanation of how a hydraulic
Pneumatic Brakes-In system,
a pneumatic rial prevented
su bject the drum
to dirt, oil fromand cooling.
water
linkage that transfers force to the ac- works.
or air-brake, system the brakes are Also, exposed friction
contamination. When the materials were
brake shoes
The brake
tuating system.pedal
Thisislinkage
connectedcan be to asa Pneumatic by
controlled Brakes-In
compressed a pneumatic,
air. Air subject to dirt, oil
were relocated inside the drum, a and water
linkage asthat
simple transfers force
a push/pull to the ac-a
rod operating or
brakes are generally usedbrakes
air-brake, system the on large are contamination.
modern drum brake Whenwas the born.
brake These
shoes
tuating hydraulic
single system. This linkage
master can beOr,
cylinder. as controlled
commercial by compressed
vehicles and trucks. air. AirAn were
were firstrelocated
used oninside
the 1902 theRenault.
drum, a
simple
the linkage may be a complicated, ad-a
as a push/pull rod operating brakes are of
advantage generally used on brake
the pneumatic large modern
Although drumfour-wheel
brake was braking
born. These was
justablehydraulic
single balance-barmaster
systemcylinder.
for chang-Or, commercial vehicles and
system is safety. Small leaks cannot trucks. An were first used on the 1902
tried early in the 20th century, Renault. most
the linkage
ing the maybetween
balance be a complicated,
front and rear ad- advantage of the pneumatic
cause a total loss of braking because brake Although
early cars hadfour-wheel
rear brakes braking
only. Then, was
justable balance-bar system
brakes. Early-design, mechanical- for chang- system
air is safety. supplied
is constantly Small leaks by acannot
com- triedtheearly
in 1920sin the
it was20thdiscovered
century, most that
ing the balance
actuating between
linkage extendsfront
all and
the rear
way cause
pressora andtotal stored
loss ofinbraking because
large volume. early
front cars hadadded
brakes rear brakes
greatlyonly.
to aThen,car's
brakes. Early-design,
to the brakes themselves. Brake- mechanical- air is constantly
Pneumatic suppliedoperation
brake-system by a com- is in the 1920s it was discovered
stopping a bility, and they were judged that
actuating linkageis extends
linkage design discussed all inthemore
way described briefly in Chapter 8. volume.
pressor and stored in large front brakes added greatly
safe. Four-wheel brake systems soon to a car's
to the brakes
detail in Chapter 6. themselves. Brake- Pneumatic brake-system operation is stopping ability, and they were judged
became universal.
linkage
MechanicaldesignBrakes-The
is discussed in more
simplest described briefly in Chapter 8.
BRAKE HISTORY safe. Four-wheel
Mechanical- brake systems
ac tuating systems soonwere
detail in Chapter 6.
brake-actuating system is a mechani- The earliest brakes were derived became universal.
still used on most cars until the late
Mechanical
cal system. The Brakes-The simplest
brake pedal operates BRAKE
from HISTORY
those used on horse-drawn Mechanical-actuating
'20s when hydraulic systems systems camewere
brake-actuating system is a
cables or rods that apply the brakes mechani- The earliest
wagons. As carsbrakes
becamewere derived
heavier and still
into useduse . onMechanical
most cars until brakesthewerelate
cal system.
when The isbrake
the pedal pedal
pushed operates
. Early sys- from
more those used
powerful, on horse-drawn
these primitive '20s when hydraulic systems
used for auto rac ing long after hydrau- came
cables or rods that apply the brakes wagons. As cars became heavier and into use. Mechanical brakes were
when the pedal is pushed. Early sys- more powerful, these primitive used for auto racing long after hydrau-
6
Internal details of early Duesenberg hydraulic drum brake: Notice fluid passages through axle, kingpin and spindle. Sealing was a problem
Ieventuallysolved by use of flexible hydraulic lines. I
Internal details of early Duesenberg hydraulic drum brake: Notice fluid passages through axle, kingpin and spindle. Sealing was a problem
eventually solved by use of flexible hydraulic lines.

This little disc brake started it all-first

disc brake used on a mass-produced car.
Goodyear-
This little Hawley discstarted
disc brake brakesit were of-
all-first
fered on Crosley
disc brake Hotshot
used on and Supersports
a mass-produced car.
roadsters in the early
Goodyear-Hawley '50s. A were
disc brakes Crosley
of-
Hotshot
fered won theHotshot
on Crosley first Sebring 12-hour
and Supersports Since the mid-'50s, disc brakes have been highly developed for both racing and road use.
endurance in
roadsters race with
the these
early brakes.
'50s. In later
A Crosley Companies such as JFZ Engineered Products have taken brake development far beyond
years,
Hotshot they were
won thepopular for small 12-hour
first Sebring sports- the early
Since thedisc-brake concept.
mid-'50s, disc Rotors,
brakes havepads
beenand brake-mounting
highly developed forhardware haveand
both racing all benefited
road use.
racing cars.race with these brakes. In later
endurance from rigors of
Companies faster
such as race
JFZ cars. Photo courtesy
Engineered Products.IFZ Engineered
have Products.
taken brake development far beyond
years, they were popular for small sports- the early disc-brake concept. Rotors, pads and brake-mounting hardware have all benefited
racing
lic cars. were developed for passen-
systems from
the rigors
'50s. ofDisc
fasterbrakes
race cars.
soonPhoto courtesy JFZ
became Engineered
design, there Products.
have been many impor-
ger cars. The simple mechanical brake popular on many race cars. Indiana- tant improvements. Brake systems
lic systems
system waswere developed
reliable, easy for
to passen-
under- the '50s.
polis Disc used
500 cars brakes
discsoon
brakesbecame
early design,
today arethere havesafe;
very beenandmany impor-
complete
ger cars. The simple mechanical
stand and maintain, and not subject brake
to popular on many race cars. Indiana-
too, but they had little effect on the tant improvements. Brake
system failure occurs rarely. Modernsystems
system was
sudden loss reliable, easy that
of braking to under-
could polis 500 of
outcome carsraces
usedondisc
thisbrakes early
fast track. today are
brakes can very
go forsafe;
yearsandwithcomplete
little or
stand
happenandto maintain,
a hydrau and not subject
lic system with toa too, but
Only at they had little
LeMans, where effect
carsonmust
the system failure in
no attention occurs rarely.use
highway Modern
, but
sudden loss of
failed line or seal. braking that could outcome of races on this fast
decelerate from 180 to 30 mph every track. brakes
therein can
lies go
a for years with
problem: Whenlittle or
really
happen
After World War II, disc brakesa
to a hydraulic system with Only
lap, andat do
LeMans,
it for 24where
hours,carsweremust
disc no attention in highway use,
needed , performance may be marginal but
failed
began line or seal. The first production
to appear. decelerate
brakes testedfromto 180 to limit.
their 30 mph every
Even in therein
because lies a problem:
of inattention When
. This bookreally
will
carAfter
with World War 11,wasdisc
disc brakes thebrakes
1949 lap, anddrum
racing, for 24 hours,
do it brakes are stillwere
useddisc
in needed,
help you performance
keep that from may be marginal
happening.
began to appear. The first production
Crosley Supersport. Disc brakes were brakes classes,
certain tested tobut their
mostlimit. Evenrace
modern in because of inattention. This book will
car
usedwithsuccessfully
disc brakes on was thethe 1949
24- racing,
cars use drum brakes are still used in
disc brakes. help you keep& that
FRICTION from happening.
ENERGY
Crosley Supersport. Disc brakes
hours-of-LeMans-winning Jaguarwere
in certain
Beyondclasses, but most
the basic changesmodern race
in brake Friction is resistance to sliding . Any
used successfully on the 24- cars use disc brakes. FRICTION & ENERGY
hours-of-LeMans-winning Jaguar in Beyond the basic changes in brake Friction is resistance to sliding. Any
7
 Type of Energy Example
Heat Energy stored ina hot brake rotor.
Type of Energy Example
Sound Noise from exhaust.
Heat
Ught Energy stored
Light from in a hot brake rotor.
headlights.
Sound
Stored Mechanical Noise
Energyfrom exhaust.
stored in a compressed coil spring.

-
Light
Chemical Light from
Energy headlights.
in agallon of gasoline.

Friction
.. Stored Mechanical
Electrical
Chemical
Radiation
Electrical
Kinetic
Energy stored
Current
Microwave
Current
from a in
Energy in a energy
from a ina
Energy stored
a compressed
battery
gallon of
turning a coil
in gasoline.
battery
a microwave oven.
turning
speeding
spring.
starter.

a starter.
bullet.
Force Radiation Microwave energy in a microwave oven.
Friction Kinetic
Friction between the box and floor is what Energy Energy
can be changed from one form stored
to another, initacan't
but speeding bullet.
be created or destroyed. Here
Force
makes the box difficult to slide. If box are some different forms of energy. Most forms are transformed into heat after energy
weight
Friction or frictionthe
between between
box andthe
floorfloor and
is what does itscan
Energy useful work.
be changed from one form to another, but it can't be created or destroyed. Here
box
makesincreases,
the box sodifficult
must thetoforce to slide
slide. it.
If box are some different forms of energy. Most forms are transformed into heat after energy
Heat is or
weight developed on slidingthe
friction between surfaces as
floor and does
handsitstogether
useful work.
rapidly back and forth. varies as the square of speed. To calcu-
box is moved. so must the force to slide it.
increases, You can feel the warmth. This friction late kinetic energy of a car, use the fol-
Heat is developed on sliding surfaces as hands
can together
help warm rapidly
your hands back andon aforth.
cold varies as
lowing the square of speed. To calcu-
formula:
two isobjects
box moved. in contact with and trying You can feel the warmth. This friction late kinetic energy ofS2a car, use the fol-
to move relative to each other have day. In brakes, friction is used to Wc
two objects in contact can help
create warm
heat. Theyour handsofo ncreating
process a cold Kinetic formula:
lowing
friction. It can be high with
or lowand trying
depend- day. In brakes,
energy = - -
to move
ing on therelative
types ofto each other
surfaces have
in contact. heat stops the car. friction is used to 29.9
W,S2
friction. It can be high or low depend- create heat.
The amount T h eofprocess
frictionof between
creating Kinetic energy = -
in foot-pounds (It-Ib)
Friction helps keep your feet from heat stops the car. 29.9
ing o n the two rubbing surfaces depends on the W = Weight of Car in pounds (Ib)
sliding outtypes
fromof surfaces
under you.in contact.
When T h e amount of friction between in c=
foot-pounds
Friction helps keep your feet isfrom materials and their roughness. The S Speed of(ft-lb)
car in miles per hour
you are standing on ice, friction low two rubbing surfacesis depends W, = Weight of Car in pounds (Ib)
sliding
and it is out fromto prevent
difficult under you. When
slipping. amount of friction describedo nbythea (mph)
materials called
and their S = Speed of car in miles per hour
youIf aretwostanding
surfaceson ice,
in friction
contactis loware number the roughness.
coefficient T hof e Converting Energy-The first law of
amount of friction is described by a (mph)
sliding, the friction createsslipping.
and it is difficult to prevent heat. You friction. A high number means a large thermodynamics says: Energy can
number ofcalled
amount the a coefficient
friction; low number of Convertingbe Energy-The
created nor first law of
canIf confirm
two surfacesthis byin rubbing
contact your are
.friction. A high number means a large
never destroyed.
sliding, the friction creates heat. You means a small amount of friction. thermodynamics
However, energy says:
can beEnergy
convertedcan
can confirm this by rubbing your amount
Read more of about
friction;
frictiona lowat thenumber
begin- neveronebeform
from created nor destroyed.
to another.
KINETIC ENERGY means a small
ning of Chapter 4. amount of friction. However,
Differentenergy
forms ofcanenergy
be converted
are heat,
OF ROTATION Read moreisabout
Energy frictionto atdothe
the ability begin-
work. A from o n e form to another.
sound, light, stored mechanical,
KINETIC
Strictly ENERGYan object with
speaking, ning of Chapter
moving 4.
car develops energy. The Different electrical
chemical, forms of energy
and are heat,
radiated.
OF ROTATION
kinetic energy can be either moving Energy
faster is the ability
it moves, the more to doenergy
work. A it sound, electrical
Stored light, stored
energy in mechanical,
a battery
Strictly speaking,
in a straight an object
line or rotating about with
its moving car
develops. Thisdevelops
type of energy energy. The
is called chemical,
will convert electrical
energy intoandheatradiated.
or light
kinetic
own energyofcan
center be either
gravity (CG).moving
In a faster
kinetic it moves,
energy. When thespeedmoreis energy
doubled,it Stored
by connecting the batteryin toa battery
electrical energy a light
in a straightcar,
speeding line or rotating
kinetic about its
energy is develops. This type of energy is called will
own
four times the kinetic energy is bulb.convert
Stored energy into heat
mechanical or light
energy in a
mostlycenter
in the of gravity
moving car. (CG).
UnlessInthe a kinetic energy. W h e n speed is doubled, by connecting
speeding
car car, down
is spinning kinetic the energy
road, less is developed. That is, kinetic energy spring can be the battery to
converted to kinetic
a light
four times the kinetic energy is bulb. Stored mechanical energy in a
mostly
than in the
10% of themoving
total car. Unless
kinetic energythe
developed. That is, kinetic energy spring can be converted to kinetic
car is spinning
is stored in rotatingdownpartsthe of road,
the less
car. TEMPERATURE & HEAT changes temperature one degree F
than 10%parts
Rotating of theinclude
total kinetic energy
tires, wheels, The difference between temperature when one BTU of heat is added,
is storedengine
brakes, in rotating parts line.
and drive of the car.
Addi~ TEMPERATURE
and heat may be confusing. & HEAT We all changes
other temperature
materials do not one react
degree theF
Rotating
tional partsenergy
kinetic include tires, in
stored wheels,
these The familiar
are difference withbetween temperature
temperature, mea- when
sallle. oneTheirBTU of heat change
temperature is added, is
brakes, engine
rotating parts must and drive line. Addi-
be absorbed in and heat
sured in may
eitherbedegrees
confusing. We all
Farenheit other
different materials
when one do BTU
not ofreact
heattheis
tional
the kinetic
brakes. energy stored
However, to makeincalcu-
these are familiar
(F) or degrees with temperature,
centigrade (Cl. mea- same. Their temperature change is
added.
rotating simpler,
lations parts must be absorbed
I ignore the small in sured
Heat inis either
a formdegrees
of energy.Farenheit
When different when one BTU
The relationship of heat
between tem-is
the brakes.
amount However,
of kinetic to make
energy calcu-
stored in (F) or isdegrees
heat added centigrade
to a material, (C).itstem- added.
perature change and heat-energy
lations simpler,
rotating parts. I ignore the small Heat is arises;
perature form of whenenergy. heatWhen is The relationship
change is governed betweenby a propertytem-
amount
At high of kinetic
speed, energy kineticstoredenergy in heat is added
removed, its totemperature
a material, its tem-
drops. perature
ca change
ll1ed specific andEach
heat. heat-energy
material
rotatinginparts.
stored the rotating tire-and-wheel perature
Thus, rises; when
temperature heat of
is the effect is change
has its own is governed
specific heatby aasproperty
shown
At high speed,
assemblies increases kinetic energy
significantly. removed, its temperature
adding or subtracting drops.
heat energy. called
for specific
typical heat. in
materials Each
the material
accom-
stored
If you inhitthetherotating
brakestire-and-wheel
hard at high Thus, ,Itemperature
When say something is the effect
heats up, ofI has its own
panying specific
table. Specificheatheat
as shown
is the
assemblies
speed, increases
the rotating significantly.
parts must be addingheat or subtracting
is added. heat Whenenergy. for typical materials
mean I say temperature rise for in one thepound
accom- of
If you hitbefore
stopped the brakes
the wheel hardcan at high
lock When
cools off,I say something
I mean heats up, InI
heat is removed. panying table.
material when Specific
one BTU heat is the
of heat is
speed,
and the Itrotating
slide. takes time partsand mustpedalbe temperature rise forspecific
one pound
mean case,
either heat is theadded. When of
temperature I say
the added. A material's heat ofis
stopped
effort to before
stop this the rotating
wheel can lock
weight, cools off,
object I mean heat is removed. In
changes. material
very when one
important to aBTU of heat is
brake-design
and slide.
even if the Itcar takes time slow
doesn't and at pedal
all. either case, the
I measure temperature
kinetic energy inoffoot- the added. A material's
engineer spec~ficheat
for calculating brake- is
effort to stop this
Consequently, rotating
it is more weight,
difficult to object changes.
pounds (It-I b). However, it could be very important
temperature changeto a for brake-design
each stop.
even if the
lock the car doesn't
wheels slow at all.
when traveling at I measure
measured in kinetic
British energy
ThermalinUnits foot- engineer for calculating
Ideally, brakes should be brake-made
Consequently,
higher speeds. it is Ironically,
more difficultthis to pounds
(BTU's), (ft-lb).
just asHowever,
engineers it could
do .. Onebe temperature
from materials change
with for eachspecific
a high stop.
lock the
makes wheels
a car saferwhen
at high traveling
speed at if measured
BTU is the in British
amount of Thermal
heat it takesUnits to Ideally,
heat. This brakes should inbea made
would result small
higher
the driver speeds.
panics Ironically,
and hits this the (BTU's),
raise the just as engineers
temperature of onedo. One
pound from materials
temperature r isewith
for aa given
high specific
amount
makes a
brakes toocar
hard.safer at highinspeed
However, racing,if BTU
of IS theby
water amount of heat Farenheit.
one degree it takes to heat.kinetic
of This would
energyresult put ininto
a small
the
the driver panics
it increases pedal and effort hits
as the raise BTU
One the temperature
is equal to of778 oneIt-Ib
pound of temperature
brakes. A small rise for a given amount
temperatur e rise
brakestries
driver too hard.
to reach However,
the tractionin racing,
limit of waterorbyone
energy, oneft-Ib
degree
equals Farenheit.
0.0013 of
means kinetic energywouput
the brakes intofewer
l1d have the
it the
of increases
tires. pedal effort as the One
BTU. BTU is equal
Although to 778 offt-lb
one pound water of brakes. A small temperature rise
problems.
driver tries to reach the traction limit energy, or one ft-lb equals 0.0013 means the brakes would have fewer
of the tires. BTU. Although one pound of water problems.
8
 SPECIFIC
MELTING TEMPERATURE
HEAT
Material Degrees F Degrees C SPECIFIC
BTU/1 b/F
MELTING TE'MPERATURE
Water HEAT
32 0 1.00
Material Degrees F Degrees C BTU/l b/F
Beryllium - pure 2340 1282 0.52
Water
Beryllium-QMV 32
2340 0
1282 1.oo
045
Beryllium-pure
Magnesium-AZ 31 B-H24 2340
1100 1282
593 0.52
0.25
Beryllium-QMV
Aluminum-6061- T6 2340
1080 1282
582 0.45
0 .23
Magnesium-AZ
Aluminum -2024-T331 6-H24 1100
940 593
504 0.25
0.23
Aluminum-6061
Carbon-pure -T6 1080
6700 582
3704 0.23
0 .16
Aluminum-2024-T3
Titanium-pure 940
3070 504
1688 0.23
0.14
Carbon-
Titanium-Bpure120VCA 6700
3100 3704
1704 0.1 6
0 .13
Titanium-pure
Magnesium-HK 31 A-H24 3070
1100 1688
593 0.1 4
0 .13
Titanium-B 120VCA
Stainless Steel-304 31 00
2600 1704
1427 0.1 3
0 .12
Magnesium-HK
Cast Iron 31A-H24 1100
2750 593
1510 0.1
0.103
Stainless Steel-304
Steel-C1020 2600
2750 1427
1510 0.1
0.102
Cast Iron
Copper-pure 2750
1980 1510
1082 0.10
0 .09
Steel-C1020 Car parked at top of hill has zero kinetic
2750 1510 0.10
Specific heats of various materials are1980 listed from the highest energy. However, its position at top of the
Copper-pure 1082 to lowest. Specific
0.09 heat is
hill gives
Car it potential
parked at top ofenergy"
hill hasThis
zeropotential
kinetic
amount of heat energy required to raise one pound of material by one degree Fahrenheit .
Material heats
with highest specific heat are
is not necessarily energy is
energy. changeditsinto
However, kinetic
position at energy as
top of the
Specific of various materials listed from the the besttoforlowest.
highest brakes. To be a
Specific good
heat is
brake material,
amount of heat it must withstand
energy required tohigh
raisetemperature,
one pound ofconduct heat
material by rapidly and have
one degree a good
Fahrenheit. car gives
hill coastsit down hill. energy. This potential
potential
rubbing surface.
Material with highest specific heat is not necessarily the best for brakes. To be a good energy is changed into kinetic energy as
brake material, it must withstand high temperature, conduct heat rapidly and have a good car coasts down hill.
energy when a wind-up toy car is
rubbing surface. the brakes. By minimizing braking ,
released. Chemical energy stored in you increase mileage.
energy
gunpowder whenis converted
a wind-up int toy car is
o sound, theIf brakes.
you slow By the minimizing
car without braking,
using
released. Chemical
heat and kinetic energy energy
when storedignited in . you
the increase
brakes, the mileage.
kinetic energy can be
gunpowder
A car moving is converted
down the intoroad sound,has If you into
changed slow two the different
car without forms.using If
heat
kineticandenergy.
kinetic energy
To stopwhen the ignited.
car, you the brakes, the kinetic
you are driving on a flat road and take energy can be
mustA car moving
dispose downkinetic
of this the road energy.has changed
your foot into
off thetwothrottle,
differenttheforms. car will If
kinetic
Becauseenergy.energy To stop bethedestroyed,
cannot car, you you
slow.are driving
Kinetic on a flat
energy road
is lost in and take
air drag,
must
it mustdispose of thistokinetic
be converted anotherenergy. form. your
friction foot(heat)
off the throttle,
in the engine theandcardrive
will
Because
This energy
kinetic energy cannot
could be be destroyed,
convert- slow. Kinetic energy is lost
line, and rolling resistance of the tires. in air drag,
it
edmust
into anybe converted
of the forms to another
listed onform. page friction
Because (heat)
these in items
the engineget hot, andkinetic
drive
This
8, but conversion to heat isbe
kinetic energy could convert-
easiest. By line, and rolling
energy resistance of
is converted intothe tires.
heat.
ed into anyfriction
forcing of the forms listed on
material page
against Because these
However, becauseitems slowing
get hot, kinetictakes
8, but conversion
drums or rotors , to heatheatis iscreated
easiest.and By energy
longer andis theconverted items beinginto heatedheat.are
forcing
the car slows friction
. If the material
brakes or against
tires However,
much larger,because drive-line slowing
components takes
drums, orsome rotors, heat energy
is created and After coasting half way down the hill, car
squeal sound is also longer
a nd tires anddon'tthe items
reachbeing the heated
high tem" are- has lost half of its potential energy, but has
the car slows. If the
produced, but the amount of kinetic brakes or tires much larger, drive-line
peratures achieved by the brakes. But, components gainedcoasting
After kinetic half
energy.
way Kinetic energy
down the in-
hill, car
squeal, some sound
energy converted energy isis small
to sound also and
the heat tires isdon't
therereach
. Put the yourhigh handtem- on creases
has as car
lost half of speed increases.
its potential energy, but has
produced, tobut
compared heattheenergy.
amount of kinetic peratures
your tires achieved
after a fast by runthe onbrakes. But,
the high- gained kinetic energy. Kinetic energy in-
energy creases as car speed increases.
If youconverted
had an to soundcaris using
electric small the heat
way and seeis there.
how they Put feel your hand the
. Touch on
compared to heat energy.
batteries, you could brake the car by your tires after a fast
rear-axle housing and the trans- run on the high-
If you had
converting the an electric
electric motor car inusing
to a way
mission and. see how they
A portion of the feel. Touch
power of the
the
batteries, you
generator. Thiscould could brakebe the done car byby rear-axle
engine washousing lost supplying and the trans-
the energy
converting the
switching the electric motor into
connections. Thea mission.
to heat those A portion
parts. of the power of the
generator.
motion of This the car could wouldbe done turn the by engine
The other waysupplying
was lost yo u can the slowenergy
a car
switching putting
generator, the connections.
electric energy The into to heat those parts.
without the brakes is by coasting up a
motion
the of the
batteries. Thecarcarwould
would turn s low be-the The
hill. The other way you
car loses energy can toslow draga the
car
generator, putting electric
cause power- kinetic energy in this energy into same as on a fl at road , but it slowsa
without the brakes is by coasting up
the batteries.
case - turns the The car would
generator. Some slowelec-be- hill. TheThe
quicker. car kinetic
loses energy
energyto drag the
is convert-
cause
tric carspower-kinetic
maintain their energy battery in this
charge ed into potential energy as ittheslows
same as on a flat road, but car
case-turns
by using thistheform generator.
of brakingSomecalled elec- quicker.the
climbs The kinetic energy is convert-
hill.
tric cars maintain
regenerative braking. their battery charge edPotential
into potetltiol
energyetiel,gy is just as another
the car
byItusing
wouldthis be form
wonderful of braking
if fuel called
could climbs the hill.
form of stored mechanical energy. It
regeneralive
be put in the braking.
gas tank by hitting the Potential when
is increased energy is justis raised
a weight another to
It would
brakes. be 'twonderful
It can , however,if so fuelallcould
that aform of stored
greater height.mechanical
As the carenergy. climbs Ita All potential energy of coasting car is con-
be put in the gas tank
kinetic energy is lost. On the other by hitting the is increased
hill, some ofwhen a weight
its kinetic is raised
energy is con-to verted into kinetic energy at bottom of the
brakes.if Ityou
hand, can't,
drivehowever,
more slowly so allor thatan- averted
greaterto potential energy. This pote n-a
height. As the car climbs hill where carenergy
All potential reachesof maximum speed
coasting car and
is con-
kinetic everyenergystop, is lost. kinetic
verted energy.
into kinetic energy at bottom of the
ticipate you Oncould theuseotherthe hill, energy
tial some ofcan its be
kinetic
changed energy backis con-
into hill where car reaches maximum speed and
brakes less and, th us , conserveorfuel.
hand, if you drive more slowly an- verted
kine tic to potential
energy by allenergy.
ow in gThis the poten-
car to speed
kinetic when
energy.you began to coast up the
ticipate every stop, you
Try this while driving to work. The could use the tial energy
coast down can the be hillchanged
with the backe nginto
ine hill because some energy is lost in fric-
brakes
fuel less and,
energy used thus,
to move conservethe car fuel. is kinetic energy by allowing
shut off. The speed at the bottom the car ofto speed
tion andwhen
dragyougoing
beganuptothe
coast
hill,upplus
the
Try in
lost thisheat
while
energydrivingeachtotime work. youThe hit coasthilldown
the will the
be lesshill than
with the the original
engine hill energy
the becauselost
some energy
going downisthe
losthill.
in fric-
fuel energy used to move the car is shut off. The speed at the bottom of tion and drag going up the hill, plus
lost in heat energy each time you hit the hill will be less than the original the energy lost going down the hill. 9
 Tempera ture
(OF) Rubbing Surface
Temperature
(" F) Brakes Re leased Rubbing Surface
Interior of Rotor _
Materi al
Temper
Brakes at ure of
Released Interior of Rotor
/ Rubbing Surface
of Drum or Rotor
Material
Temperature of

Rotor
Cross
,/ In te rior Section
Rotor
of Drum Cross
'\.. Te mpe rature of
Material
Interior Section
" I nterior of of Drum
Drum or Rotorof
Temperature
Mater ia of
Interior l
T s L---__~--------------------------
Drum or Rotor

~ Time
of
Stop

T m = Maximum temper ature reached at r ubbing surface .

T a = Average temperature after stop.
%
Rubbing
Surface
Cross
Section
Drum
Cross
Section
Drum
The heavier a drum or rotor, the lower its
temperature rise during a single stop. De-
signed
The for a a3000-lb
heavier
by a 300-HP
temperature
weighs for
signed 22 lb.
drum or sports
rise engine,
during a this
car lower
rotor, the powered
large
single
a 3000-lb sports car powered
its
stop.drum
De-

T, s == Starting
Maximum temperatur e before
temperature stop.at rubbing surface.
reached by a 3 0 0 - H P engine, this large drum
T, = Average temperature after stop. weighs 2 2 Ib.
T, = Starting temperature before stop. cause errors in opposi te directions.
During a stop, brake rubbing-surface temperature increases more rapidly than interior tem- Thus, the error in the brake-
perature of a drum or rotor. Eventually, temperatures equalize after brake is released . Aver-I cause errorscalculation
temperature in opposite is smadirections.
ll.
During
age a stop,
brake brake rubbing-surface
temperature temperature
occurs at a point betweenincreases
rubbing - more rapidly
surface and than interior
interior tem-
tempera- Thus,
Ignorethecooling error ofinbrakes the during brake-
tures before
perature of amuch
drum cooling
or rotor.takes place. temperatures equalize after brake is released. Aver-
Eventually, temperature calculation is small.
age brake temperature occurs at a point between rubbing-surface and interior tempera- stop. Heat flo w into rotor or drum
tures before much cooling
Ignore iscooling
material rapid comparedof brakes to cooduring
ling
Potential energy is takes place. in
measured a brake. The problem is that heat is stop.
units of foot-pounds (ft-Ib). Potential- constantly being transferred from the time. Heat flow into rotor or drum
Potential energy afriction
brake.surface
The problem is that heat to is material
The first is step
rapidiscompared
to calculatetothe cooling
tem-
e nergy change equalsis the measured
weight of in of the drum or rotor time.
units of foot-pounds
the object mUltiplied (ft-lb). by the Potential-
change in constantly being transferred
air and cooler interior metal. This from the perature change of the drum or rotor.
energy friction surface of surface
the drumtemperature
or rotor to AnyTheincrease
first step in istemperature
to calculate isthe tem-
known
height. change
If a 3000-1 equals b car thecoastsweightup ofa makes the exact perature change of the drum or rotor.
the objectghmultiplied
100-ft-hi hill , it gains by the change
300,000 in
ft-lb air and to
difficult cooler interior
calculate. metal. This
However, it is as tempera ture rise. Temperatures are
makes Any increase
always relatedin temperature
to energy is known by
height. If a energy.
of potential 3000-lbIf al car coasts
l this energy up isa easy to the
calculexact
ate thesurface temperature
average tempera- as tetnperature
100-ft-high back
converted hill, itinto gains 300,000
kinetic ft-lb
energy, difficult
ture of a to drum calculate.
or rotor However,
after one stop'.it is change -not byrise. Temperatures
the absolute valuesare of
of potential energy. If all this energy is easy to calculate the average tempera- always or related
energy temperature to . It energy
is importan byt
the speed of the car can be calc ul ated The difference between surface tem- change-not by the
converted
from the formulaback into on page kinetic8. Byenergy,
chang- ture of a and
perature drum aveorrage
rotor after one stop.
temperature of a to think of this as aabsolute
change in values
energyof
The energy or temperature. It is important
the
ing speed of the carusing
the formula can bealgebra,calculatedit drumdifference
or rotor is showbetween surface tem-
n above. causing
to think
a change
of this
in temperature.
as abrakechange inused
Tem-
energy
from the formula
comes out as follows: on page 8. By chang- perature and average
In calculating temperature
the average tempera- of a perat ure rise in the is ca by
ing the formula using algebra, it drum or rotor is shown above. causing a
a kinetic-energy reduction inTem-
change in temperature. the
comes outf29.9E:
tu re of a drum or rotor, you must peraturecar. rise in the brake is caused by
Speed =y as follows:
~---p in miles per hour In calculating
make so me ass um theptions.
average Thistempera-
makes moving
a Forkinetic-energy
We ture caoflcualatidrum
the or rotor,
on easier and the youanswer
must a particular reduction stop, figure in thethe
(mph) in miles per hour make some assumptions. This makes moving car.
change in kinetic energy using th e
more accurate. Tests have shown that For a onparticular stop,results
figurein the the
Ep = Potential energy of car in the fo
the calculation easier and are
llowing assumptions thevalid:
answer formula page 8. This
foot-pounds (ft-Ib) more accurate. change
followinginrelationship:
kinetic energy using the
Ep =
We = Potential
Weight ofenergy of car in (Ib)
car in pounds Assume that Tests haveenergy
all heat shownfrom that
formula on page 8. This results in the
the following assumptions
the stop fl ows into the drum or rotor.are valid: Ke = Kinetic energy change in foot-
foot-pounds (ft-lb) following relationship:
W,
Fo r=ourWeight
examp of le
car, in pounds (Ib) In Assume
fact this thatis anall heatteenergy
accura assum ptionfrom pounds = Ks - KAin foot-pounds
,.,.."..~";"-~.....,.....,...-,.- the stop flows into the drum
because th e frict ion material insulates or rotor. Ks Kinetic energy
K c == Kinetic energybefore change the instopfoot-
in
In pounds = K, - K, in foot-pounds
For our=example.
Speed (29.9)(300 ,000) = 55
3000 mp .
h thefact
rest this
of theis an
brakeaccurate assumption
from heat and the foot-pou nds
in
because the friction material insulates K, =
KA = Kinetic
Kinetic energy
energy beforeafter the the stop
stop in
metal drum or rotor is a very good foot-pounds
Speed the foot-pou nds
Obviously,
= this3000 is much faster th an heatrest of the brake from heat and the
conductor. K, = Kinetic energy after the stop in
would happen if you tri ed it with a real metal
Assume drumdrag or rotor
on the is car
a very fromgood all Obviously, if the car comes to a
foot-pounds
car.Obviously, this is much
The difference betweenfaster than this heat conductor.
sources is zero, including the effects complete halt , KA is zero . The change
would happen if you
sample problem and a real with tried it test isa real
the of Assume
air drag,drag on the
rolling car fromand
resistance all in Obviously,
kinetic energy if the car comes
is used to comptoutea
car. The
kinetic energy difference
lost in dragbetween and friction. this sourcesbraking.
engine is zero,This including
is a good theassump-
effects complete halt, K rise
the temperature A is ofzero.
theThe brake. change
For
samplehot
How problem
do brakes and aget realduring
test is one the of
tionairfor drag, rolling100resistance
stops below mph because and in kinetic
the weight energy
of the is used use
brake, to compute
only the
kinetic energy lost in
stop? -Because the brake-rubbing drag and friction. engine braking. This is a good
air drag is small compared to braking assump- the temperature
weight of the drums rise of and/
the brake.
or rotors.For
How hotaredoheated
surfaces brakes get during
by friction, it is one
im- tion for stops below 100 mph because
forces. the weight of the brake,
The temperature rise must be added use only the
stop? -Because
portant to know what the thebrake-rubbing
temperature air drag is kinetic
Ignore small compared
energy to braking
stored in weight
to of the drums
the temperature of theand/or
brake rotors.
before
surfaces
is after oneare stop
heated . P.byhigh friction,
surface it istem-
im- forces.
rotating parts of the car. This assump- The
the temperature
stop to obtain rise must finabe l added
brake
portant to know what
perature can cause fade or damage to the temperature Ignore
tion and the kinetic energyof stored
assumption zero drag in to the temperature
temperature . of the brake before
is after one stop. P. high surface tem- rotating parts of the car. This assump- the stop to obtain final brake
perature can cause fade or damage to
10 tion and the assumption of zero drag temperature.
 The temperature rise of the brakes
is calculated as follows:
The temperature rise of the brakes
is calculated as follows:Kc
Temperature rise = - - -
77.8
KcW B
Temperature rise = -
in degrees Fahrenheit (F)
W B = Weight of all 77.8the
W, rotors and
in degrees
drums Fahrenheit (F)
in pounds
W, = Weight of all the rotors and
For inexample,
drums pounds let 's compare the
temperature rise in the brakes of a
For example,
3500-lb let's compare
sedan stopping from 60 mph the
temperature rise in rise
to the temperature the of brakes of a
a 3500-lb
3500-lb sedan
stock-car's stopping
brakes slowing fromfrom
60 rnph
120
to the temperature
mph to 60 mph. rise of a 3500-lb
stock-car's
First let'sbrakes
figure slowing from 120
the temperature
rnph to 60
rise for themph.
sedan. Assume the brakes
First 5let's
weigh figure forthea temperature
Ib each, total brake
rise for the sedan. Assume the
weight of 20 lb. Calculate the change
brakes
weigh 5 Ib each, for
in kinetic energy slowing from a total brake
60 Tires on this car have reached their maximum coefficient of friction. Although a car stops
weight faster if the wheels are not locked, most drivers hit the brakes too hard during a panic stop.
mph to of 20 From
stop. Ib. Calculate
page 8, the the change
kinetic This
Tirestest, being
on this carconducted
have reachedat Goodyear's San Angelo,
their maximum Texas,
coefficient test track,
of friction. is to see
Although howstops
a car tires
in kinetic
energy energy car
of a moving slowing
is: from 60 react during
faster a paniC are
if the wheels stop.not
Photo courtesy
locked, Goodyear.
most drivers hit the brakes too hard during a panic stop.
rnph to stop. From page
W S2 8, the kinetic This test, being conducted at Goodyear's San Angelo, Texas, test track, is to see how tires
KinetiC energy
energy of a moving
= _ ccar
_ is:
react during a panic stop. Photo courtesy Goodyear.
29.9 time, racing on a medium-speed track INERTIA FORCES
W,S2
Kinetic energy
For our - at 60 mph:
sedan= traveling with short straights might result in More than 200 years ago, Sir Isaac
29.9 time, racing
higher brakeon temperatu
a medium-speed
res than tracka INERTIA
Newton FORCES
wrote the basic law relating a
KB = (3500 Ib)(60 mph)2/29.9
For our sedan traveling at 60 mph: with short straights might result
high-speed track with long straights. in More
force on than 200 years
an object to itsago, Sir Isaac
acceleration.
= 421,000 ft-Ib . Newton wrote Newton's
the basic Law
law relating a
KB = Kineticlb)(60
K, = (3500 energy 1nph)~/29.9
before stop
Both temperature rise per stop anda
higher brake temperatures than Simply stated, is:
high-speed trackarewith long to
straights. force on an object to its acceleration.
= 421,000 ft-lb. cooling time critical brake Acceleration of an object = ~ in g's
Kinetic energy after
K, = Kinetic energy before stop = 0,
thestop Both temperature
performance. Rotorsriseweighing
per stopmore and Simply stated, Newton's Law is:
because car now has zero speed. cooling time are critical to brake F
than 5 Ib would normally be used on a Acceleration
F = Unbalancedof an object
force = in g's in
on object
Kineticin energy
kinetic after the =stop = 0, performance.
Change
because car now
energy
has zero
421,000
speed. 3500-lb race Rotors weighing rotors
car. Heavier more pounds
ft-Ib. From the above formula tem- than 5 Ib
reduce thewould normallyrisebeper
temperature used on a
stop. F == Weight
W Unbalanced force
of object on object in
in pounds
Change
perature in
risekinetic
of the energy
brakes is:= 421,000 3500-lb race car. Heavier rotors pounds
In this formula, the force F causes
ft-lb. From the.
above formula tem-
_ (421,000 ft-Ib) reduce the temperature rise per stop.
DECELERATION W = Weight of object in pounds
acceleration. If a car weighing 3000 Ib
perature rise rise
Temperature of the
- brakes is: Ib)
(77.8)(20 Deceleration is a measure of how hasIna this formula,
braking forcethe of force
-1500F lb, causes
the
DECELERATION acceleration.forceIf isa car weighing 3000 Ib Ib
Temperature rise = (77,i)(20
(421 000 ft-lb)
= 270F (132C)quickly a car slows. Deceleration
Decele~.a/ion is a measure of how
stopping
has a braking force
-1500
of -
Ib -7- 3000
1500 Ib, the
means slowing the car-acceleration = -0.5 g.
For stock car slowing from 120 to 60 quickly a car itslows. Deceleration stopping force pushes
is - 1500
means speeding up. If the force in aIbdirection
+ 3000 to Ib
mph, change in kinetic energy is: means
For stock car slowing from 120 to 60 Both slowing
accelerationthe car-acceleration
and deceleration = -0.5theg.object to speed up , the force
cause
K = (3500 Ib)(1 20 mph)2 means speedinginit units
are measured up. of gravity-g's. is If the force
positive andpushes in a direction
acceleration is a posi- to
mph,
B change29.9in kinetic energy is: Both acceleration and deceleration cause the object to speed up, the force
(3500 IbI(l20
One g is the force exerted by an object tive number. If the force causes the
= 1,686,000 ft-IbmphI2 are
K, =
29.9 due measured
to gravity in units at ofthegravity-g's.
Earth ' s is positive
object and acceleration
to slow, the force is isnegativea posi-
K = (3500 Ib)(60 mph)2 One g is the
surface- howforce
much exerted by anweighs
an object object tive number. If the
and acceleration force causes
is negative. the
We call
A = 1,686,000
29.9 ft-lb due to gravity at the Earth's object to slow, the force is negative
= (3500 lb)(60
421,000 ft-Ib rnphI2 while at rest. One g is also a measure the negative acceleration deceleration .
K, = surface-how
of accelerationmuch or an object weighs
deceleration - 22 andTheacceleration
force referred is negative. We call
to in Newton's
29.9
Kc = KB - KA
= 421,000 ft-lb
while
mph per at rest. One Zero
second. g is also a measure
g occurs in a the
Lawnegative acceleration
is unbalanced force. decele~.arion.
That means
Kc = (1,686,000) - (421,000) of acceleration or deceleration-22 Theforce
forceis referred to inby Newton's
weightless environment. Acceleration if the not resisted opposing
Kc = 1,265,000 ft-Ib. rnph per second. Zero isg negative.
occurs in a Law is unbalanced force. That means
is positive; deceleration force, the object is free to move, or
KA
K, == Kinetic energy
1,265,000 ft-lb.after stop
weightless environment. Acceleration
Once the brakes are applied, a car is if the force is not resisted
accelerate. If I push on a tree with a by opposing
KB = Kinetic energy before stop is positive;
stopped by deceleration
the friction is negative.
force between force,
force ofthe100object
Ib, theistreefreewillto not
move,move. or
K, == Kinetic energy after stop accelerate.
Kc Kinetic-energy
K, Notice
change
= Kinetic energy before stop theOnce the brakes
tires and the are applied, a car is
road. During The 100-lb If I push
force on a tree
is resisted by the with
treea
how much greater this stopped by the friction force
braking, friction acts on the tires in a between force
roots of 100a Ib,
with the tree
100-lb will so
force, notthere
move. is
Kc = Kinetic-energy change
change in kinetic energy is compared the tiresopposite
direction and the road. During
to movement. The The
no unbalanced force on the tree.tree
100-lb force is resisted by the To
to Notice
the sedan. howEven much
thoughgreater this
the speed braking,the
higher friction acts on the
deceleration, thetires in a
greater roots with
cause a 100-lb either
acceleration, force, positive
so there or is
change in was
kinetic
the energy is compared no unbalanced force
reduction
to the reduction
sedan. Even
same 60
thoughatthe
mph, the
speed
direction
this friction opposite to movement.
force becomes . Maximum The negative, the force on onthe the
objecttree.
mustTo
speed occurring a higher higher the
possible deceleration,
deceleration the greater
occurs at the cause acceleration, either positive or
be unbalanced.
reduction was the same 60 mph,
initial speed resulted in much greater the this friction force becomes. Maximum negative, the force on the object must
speed reduction occurring maximum coefficient of /riction be- To understand how unbalanced
energy put into the brakes at a higher
. The tem- possible
tween the deceleration occursThis
tires and the road. at hap-
the be unbalanced.
forces work on a car, assume you are
initial speedrise resulted in much car greater
perature
energy put
for the stock
into the brakes.
in the
The tem-
maximum the tires areofabout
pens just as coeflicient fiiction be-
to skid. To understand
driving a car on a drag how strip. unbalanced
At the
race is: tween the tires and the road.
Once tires lose traction and skid, This hap- forces work on a car,
start, you let out the clutch andassume youpush
are
perature rise for the stock car in the pens just as the tires are about drivingona the car accelerator,
on a drag strip. At fric-
the
Temperature rise =
race is: (1,265,000 ft- deceleration drops. Read on to
forskid.
an down and the
Ib)/(77.8)(20Ib) = 813F (434C). Once tires of
explanation losecoefficient
traction ofand skid,
friction, start, you let
tion force out thetheclutch
between tires andand push
road
Temperature rise = of
However, because (1,265,000 ft-
less cooling deceleration
or si mply frictiondrops. Read on for an
coefftcient. down on the accelerator,
pushes the car forward . At the and thestart,
fric-
lb)/(77.8)(20Ib) = 81 3F (434C). explanation of coefficient of friction, tion force between the tires and road
However, because of less cooling or simply ,f,.ictiot7 coeJficient. pushes the car forward. At the start,
11
air drag is zero, so the forward force is
not resisted by anything but drive-line
friction and tire drag, or rolling
resistance. The forward force is
almost unbalanced. Consequently, ac-
celeration is maximum at the start. start.
As the car gains speed, air drag
increases. It opposes the forward force
. . Inertia Force

- -
on the tires that is trying to accelerate
the car. The unbalanced force is the
forward force minus the rearward
force. As speed increases, the unbal- Friction Forces
Friction ForCes on Tires
anced force becomes smaller because
of air drag. Consequently, acceleration
also gets smaller.
Near the end of the drag strip, the
car is moving so fast that the air-drag
force approaches the forward force of -- -

Tire friction forces are external forces that cause deceleration.

deceleration. The road pushes on the
road pushes
the tires against the road. Assuming
tires in
in the opposite
opposite direction
direction of motion.
motion. Inertia
lnertia force of the car acts in the same direction
engine rpm and track length aren't as motion equals friction
motion and equals friction force.
force.
limiting factors,
factors, speed will increase
until no force unbalance exists and ac-
celeration becomes zero. The car has
reached its maximum speed. The only Therefore, if a car accelerates, the
way to accelerate the car to a higher inertia force acts toward the rear; if it
speed would be to increase the forward decelerates, the inertia force acts
force (more engine power), or reduce forward.
forward.
the rearward force (less (Jess air drag).
drag). Inertia force in g's is equal to car's
car's
Every race-car designer knows that acceleration or deceleration.
deceleration. Inertia
more power or less drag will increase forces are easy to calculate in pounds
car speed.
speed. acceleration.
if you know the acceleration.
In addition to the basic relationship W == Weight of the
W theobject in pounds
object in
between force force and acceleration, a== Acceleration of the object in
in g's
Newton came up with other important
laws ofof nature.
nature. He t l e discovered that Inertia force is measured in pounds. If
every moving object has inertia. That decelerating, the inertia
the car is decelerating,
is, an object always
always moves at the same same negative-it acts in a forward
force is negative-it lnertia forces
Inertia forces act onon every
every part of a car.
car.
direction.
direction. This passenger resists
This resists inertia
inertia force on
on his
his
speed and in the same same direction until body with his
body his arms
arms against thethe dash,
dash, feet
acted on by an unbalanced force. force. Iner- visualizing what happens when
Try visualizing against the floor,
against floor, and
and seat belt around
around his
his
tia is
is what keeps the Earth moving decelerates. It is easier to visual-
a car decelerates. waist. Inertia
waist. lnertia force
force on
on his
his hat is
is not
not resist-
around the Sun and keeps satellites in ize the forces if you imagine a driver ed by
ed by anything,
anything, so
so it
it flies
flies forward
forward into
into the
stop so
trying to stop so quickly that he locks windshield.
windshield.
orbit. There is no air drag in outer
orbit.
space,
space, soso once an an object is is at speed, it wheels. Imagine a car skidding
the wheels.
keeps moving forever. forever. Only a force force all four wheels locked and smoke
with all smoke
can change its speed or direction.
direction. pouring off the the tires.
tires. Assume the
the car Acceleration of car == FF/Wc
IW c
A car also acts acts according to New- weighs 3000 lb Ib and the coefficient of F == Unbalanced
F Unbalanced force
forceon in pounds
on car in ~ounds
ton's laws.
laws. Once
Once it is moving, a car friction between the tires and road is
friction is Wc == Weight of car in
We in pounds
pounds
wants to continue in a straight line line at 0.7. The
0.7. The friction
friction force
force on all
all four tires Acceleration of
Acceleration of car =
= (-2100 lb)/(3000
00 Ib)/(3000
the
the same
same speed.
speed. Every part of the the car is:
is: Ib) == -0.7
Ib) -0.7 g.
g.
and its passengers also want to keep Friction
Friction force == f.L
p FN
FN The unbalanced force
The force has a minusminus
moving.
moving. When the brakes are applied, applied, p =
f.L Coefficient of friction
= Coefficient friction between
between two
sign because it acts
sign acts in
in a direction
direction
a force
force is is applied to to the
the car by the sliding surfaces
sliding
F, == Force
FN Force pushing
pushing the
the two surfaces opposite to the car.car. Remember:
Remember: Nega-
deceleration.
tires, causing deceleration. tive acceleration means deceleration;
tive deceleration;
together in
in pou nds
pounds
Because passengers
Because passengers tend to to con- itit causes the car
- car to
- - - to slow.
~ slow.
~-~

tinue at the the same

same speed,
speed, they will will this example,
In this example, deceleration is
Because deceleration is 0.7
0.7 g, everv
E., every
-
forward in
move forward in the seatseat and strike
strike 0.7 and
p == 0.7
f.L and FN
FN== 3000lb
3000 Ib part of the car has an inertia forceforce on it
the instrument panel unless held by
the Friction force =
Friction force = (0.7)(3000 Ib) =
(0.7)(3000 Ib) = 2100 of 0.7 g. g. The inertia force
force on a 200-lb
devices, legs or friction
restraint devices, friction Ib.
lb. passenger is:
passenger is:
against the the seat.
seat. This
This forward
forward force
force lnertia force
Inertia force == Wa
Wa
that tends
tends to to "throw"
"throw" a passenger for- for- This friction
This friction force
force on the
the tires tries
tries to
to Ww == Weight
Weight of the passenger
of the passenger in
in
during braking is
ward during is called
called inertia decelerate the
decelerate the car.
car. The
The deceleration
deceleration is is pounds
pounds
,force. Inertia force
force. force acts
acts on
on everything easy to calculate
easy calculate from
from Newton's law,law, aa == Acceleration
Acceleration of the
the passenger
passenger in
in
in aa car as
in as itsits speed
speed changes.
changes. 11:
page 11: g's
g's

12
If there were some way to support a car at
its center of gravity (CG), it would be
balanced.
If there were Rotate the tocar
some way to another
support a car at
position,
its centersuch as on a (CG),
of gravity side, and it would
i t would be
remain
balanced. balanced.
RotateThe
theCGcar
is theto only sup-
another
port pointsuch
position, where
asbalance exists
on a side, andregardless
it would
of position.
remain balanced. The CG is the only sup-
port point where balance exists regardless A front-wheel-drive car, such as this VW, has majority of weight at front. When brakes are
of position. applied hard, more weight is transferred to the front. The nose drops and tail rises during
I nertia force = (200 Ib) (-0. 7 g) braking due to weightcar,
transfer.
A front-wheel-drive such as this VW, has majority of weight at front. When brakes are
=-140Ib. applied hard, more weight is transferred to the front. The nose drops and tail rises during
Inertia force = (200 Ib)(-0.7g) braking due to weight transfer.
The minus = sign
-1 40means
Ib. the force is
forward. If there is little friction be-
The
tweenminus sign means
the passenger and thethe seat,
forcetheis
forward. If there is little
140-lb inerti a force acts on his seatfriction be-
tween
belt or the
legs.passenger and the seat, the
140-lb
In thisinertia
example,forcetheactscar on his seat
decelerates
belt or legs.
at only 0.7 g. With the wheels locked
andIn sliding,
this example, the car decelerates
the coefficient of friction
at
is only
and
lower0.7 g. With
th an
sliding, the
the wheelspossible
its maximum
coefficient
value. Maximum deceleration of a car
is determined
lis lower than by
value. Maximum
itsmany
maximum
of
locked
friction
factors,possible
deceleration
includ-
~I
t
ing tires, aerodynamic forces,of aroad
car
pis determined by many factors,
condition and brake-system design. includ-
ing tires,
Most cars aerodynamic
on street tires forces, road
can reach
condition
about 0.8-gand deceleration
brake-system on design.
dry F, = vertical force on front tires Ob)
F = W _F + We fJ.I Y cg
Most cars Race
on street tires can reach F, = vertical force on rear tires (Ib) , e ,
pavement. cars can decelerate at Xeg
Ff ==vertical
horizontal
forcedistance
on frontfromtiresfront
(Ib) axle to
about
well over0.8-g
1 g. deceleration on dry F, =(in
CG vertical
.) force on rear tires (Ib) Ff=Wc-F,+- wc P YYCg
pavement. Race cars can decelerate at F =WcXCg_W c fJ.Y I eg
Xcg = horizontal
I = wheelbase distance
length (in.) from front axle to 'I I
well over 1 g. YCG eg = CG height (in.)
(in.) wc xc;- WC P Ycg
WEIGHT TRANSFER We Car weight
I = =wheelbase (Ib) (in.)
length F, = I I Yea
== Coefficient Weight transfer = W efJ.
Ycg
fJ. CG heightof(in.)
friction I
A car's inertia force acts at its center
WEIGHT TRANSFER Wc = Car weight (Ib)
of gravity, or CG, of the whole cal'. The p. = Coefficient of friction
Weight transfer = Wcfi Ycq
I
CGA iscar's
the inertia
point aboutforcewhich
acts attheits entire
center Ignoring aerodynamic forces, these forces act on a car during hard braking.
weight transfer can be calculated if tire coefficient of friction is known.
Maximum
of
car is balanced. If you could hang The
graviry, or CG, of the whole car, the Ignoring aerodynamic forces, these forces act on a car during hard braking. Maximum
CG by
car is the pointattached
a cable about which a t itsthe
CGentire
, the weight transfer can be calculated if tire coefficient of friction is known.
car would
car is balanced.
balanceIf in you
anycould hang the
position. The weight of the whole car does not before they skid. To produce this
carThe
by aCG cableis attached
the center at itsofCG,
all the
the change. Weight added to the front extra friction force, front brakes have
car would balance in any position.
weight. All the inertia forces on the in- The
tires weight of the whole
is subtracted from thecar rear
doestires
not before
to work they
harder skid.
thanToif there
produce was this
no
The CG
dividual partsis ofthethe center
car added of togeth-
all the change. Weight added to
during weight transfer. The forcesthe front extra
weightfriction
transfer.force,
At thefront brakes
same time,have
the
weight.
er are Allthe thesameinertia
as forces
a single on the in-
inertia tires is on
acting subtracted from the
a car during rear tires
braking are to
rearwork hardercan
brakes than doif there
less was no
work.
dividual parts of the car added
force for the whole car acting at its togeth- during
shown inweight transfer. Thedrawing
the accompanying forces. weight transfer. At the same
Typically, front brakes supply about time, the
er
CG.areBecause
the same as a CO
a car's single inertia
is always acting on a car
In this simple during aerodynam-
illustration, braking are rear brakes
two-thirds of thecantotaldo less force
braking work.in
force for
above thethe whole
road, car acting
inertia force at fromits shown in the accompanying
ic forces are not shown. Aerodynamicdrawing. Typically,
a hard stop. front
Thebrakes
ratio issupply about
even higher
CG.
brakingBecause
always atries car'sto CG
load isthealways
front In this simple
forces changeillustration,
the amount aerodynam-
of the two-thirds
on of the total
an extremely braking car.
nose-heavy forceBe-in
above
tires and theliftroad, inertia
the rears . Thisforce from
effect is ic forcesbut
forces, arenot
not the
shown.
basicAerodynamic
principle of acause
hard the
stop. T h e ratio is even
front brakes do most of the higher
brakingweight
called always tries to load the front
transfer. forces change the amount of the
weight transfer. on an they
work, extremely
need tonose-heavy
be larger thancar. rear
Be-
tires and lift
Weight the rears.
transfer meansThis that
effecttheis forces,
Becausebut weight
not thetransfer
basic principle
loads theof cause
brakes.theThefront brakes
forces are do most higher
usually of the
called weightare
front tires transfer.
loaded more during a weight transfer.
front tires, additional friction force work,
on frontthey need to
brakes, so be larger
they mustthan rear
absorb
Weight
stop, and the transfer
rear tiresmeans that the
are unloaded. canBecause weight transfer
be developed loads tires
by the front the brakes. The forces
more heat energy. are usually higher
front tires are loaded more during a front tires, additional friction force on front brakes, so they must absorb
stop, and the rear tires are unloaded. can be developed by the front tires more heat energy. 13
 BRAKE FADE
Brake fade is loss of braking due
to overheating. It can cause lo'nger
pedal travel as the brakes get
hotter-maybe to the paint where
the pedal goes to the floor. Pedal
effort may also increase as heat
bu'ilds up, even to the point where
pushing with maximum force won't
lock the wheels! Many times, fade
causes a combination of both
longer pedal travel and increased
pedal effort.
Whatever fade is, the driver is
faced with a panic situation. Brake
fade typically occurs at the worst
posSible moment-going down a
long hill pulling a trailer, at the end
of a long race, or during a panic
stop from freeway speed in heavy
traffic. This is when you need your
brakes the most. Consequently,
brake fade is always scary, and
often dangerous. Geoff Brabham is at the traction limit of his Toyota Celica in this turn. Combination of brak-
ing and cornering forces causes tires to slip and pOint at extreme angles to the direction of
travel. When carisisatat
Geoff Brabham theitstraction
tractionlimit
limit,
of any attempt
his Toyota to corner,
Celica in thisaccelerate or brakeofharder
turn. Combination brak-
will throw
ing and it into a forces
cornering skid. causes tires to slip and point at extreme angles to the direction of
travel. When car is at its traction limit, any attempt to corner, accelerate or brake harder
will throw it into a skid.
BRAKING LIMITS reducing master-cylinder size, putting long race. Wear limits can be eliminat-
With a modern brake system, how on different lining, using power-assist ed or reduced by changing linings,
BRAKING
good LIMITS
can brakes be? What determines reducing
brakes, ormaster-cylinder
other methods. size,I putting
discuss long
usingrace.
largerWear limitsorcanbybedissipating
brakes, eliminat-
theWith a modern
limits to brakebrakeperformance?
system, how on different lining, using
how to reduce the force a driver power-assist
has to ed
heat.orBrake
reduced wear by changing inlinings,
is discussed Chap-
good can brakes be?
What makes your car stop What determines
quicker brakes,later
exert or inother methods.
the book. In some I discuss
cases, using larger
ters 4 and 12. brakes, or by dissipating
the
than thelimits
nexttocar,brake
or vice performance?
versa? ahow to reduce
force the force
limit occurs whena driver has to
the brakes heat. Brake wearlimit:
Temperature is discussed
Brakesincannot
Chap-
What
Theremakes are your
limits car thatstop quicker
determine get hot . This is called brake fade.cases,
exert later in the book. In some The ters 4 and
absorb the12.full power of an engine
than the next car, or vice
how quick a car can stop. Some of versa? a force limit
answer here is occurs when the
dissipating heat.brakes
Per- Temperaturewithout
continuously limit: someBrakes time cannot to
There
these arecanlimits
limits that determine
be altered by design get
hapshot.
theThis
forceis called brake fade.
limit you've The
encoun- absorb the full power
cool. When the temperature limit of an engine is
or maintenance, so onlystop.
how quick a car can Somelaws
the basic of answer
tered is herereally is dissipating
a temperature heat. limit.
Per- continuously
reached , you can without
reachsome a force time to
limit,
these
of limits
nature cana car
limit be ' altered
s stoppingby ability.
design haps to
How the forceexcess
handle limit heat
you've encoun-
is discussed cool. Whenlimit,
deflection the temperature
or greatly increaselimit is
or maintenance, so only
Brake-performance limitsthe
are:basic laws tered is really
in Chapters 10 and 12. a temperature limit. reached, you can reach
the wear at the same time. Other a force limit,
of l.nature
Force limit a car's stopping ability. How to handlelimit
Deflection excess is heat is discussed
reached as the deflection limit, or greatly
things can happen , too , such as com- increase
Brake-performance
2. Deflection limits are: brake pedal 10
in Chapters andat12.
stops the floor or stop. the
pletewear at theofsame
destruction time. orOther
the brakes total
1. Wear
3. Force Deflection
This means the pedal limit is reached
is moving as the
too things can
collapse of ahappen,
structural too,part.
suchExcessive
as com-
2. Deflection
4. Temperature brake pedal stops at the
far to get maximum efficiency from floor or stop. plete destruction.
temperature is aofcommon
the brakescause or totalof
3. Wear
5. Tire traction This means Athedeflection
the brakes. pedal is limit
moving can toobe collapse of a structural part. Excessive
brake problems.
4. Temperature far to get maximum
eliminated by design changesefficiency suchfromas temperature
Traction limit: is a Ifcommon
brakes arecauseproper- of
5.
A Tire
braketraction
system should be designed stiffening deflection limit
the brakes.theA pedal-support can be
structure, brake problems.
ly designed and maintained, and don't
and maintained so that tire traction eliminated
increasing by design changessize,
master-cylinder such in-as getTraction
too hot,limit:the onlyIf brakes
stoppingare proper-
limit is
A brake system
determines should your
how quickly be designed
car can stiffeningstiffer
stalling the pedal-support
brake hoses , structure,
changing ly
tiredesigned
traction.and maintained,
If you try to stop and don't
quicker
and maintained
stop. If any of the so other
that tire
fourtraction
limits increasing master-cylinder
to stiffer calipers, or other size,
modi-in- get
thantoothe hot,traction
the onlylimit stopping
allows,limittheis
determines
keep you from howstopping
quickly quicker,
your caryourcan stalling stiffer brake hoses,
fications. Maintenance can eliminate changing tjre traction. If you try to
wheels lock up and the tires skid. The stop quicker
stop.
brakesIfare
anynotofadequate.
the other four limits ato deflection
stiffer calipers,
limit if or other
air is modi-
trapped in than
traction thelimit
traction
is always limittheallows,
limit with the
keep you from
Force limit stopping
means quicker, your
the driver fications. Maintenance can eliminate
the brake lines. wheelsbrakes,
good lock upbut andit thecantires
be skid.
increasedThe
brakes are not adequate.
pushes as hard as possible with his a deflection
Wear limit limit if airhappen
won't is trapped when in traction
through limit correct is always
adjustment the limit with
of brake
Force
foot and limit
the car meanscan't thestopdriver
any the brake lines.
brakes are new. However, if friction good brakes, but it can
balance. Adjusting brake balance is be increased
pushes as
quicker. In hard
otheraswords,
possible with
if the his
driver Wear limit
material is wornwon't happen it when
excessively, may through correct
discussed in Chapteradjustment of brake
10. Modifica-
foot
could and
push the
harder,carthecan't stop stop
car would any brakes
be wornare outnew.just However,
when you ifneed friction
the balance.
tions to Adjusting
allow brake-balancebrake balance adjust- is
quicker. This
quicker. In otherlimitwords,
can beif altered
the driver
by material is worn excessively,
brakes most-such as at the end it may
of a discussed in Chapter
ment are described in Chapter 12. 10. Modifica-
could push harder, the car would stop be worn out just when you need the tions to allow brake-balance adjust-
quicker. This limit can be altered by brakes most-such as a t the end of a ment are described in Chapter 1 2 .

14
DrumBrakes 2
Drum Brakes
Backing ~~
PI"e~

Hole Covers ~

!; Wheel Cylinder
Assembly

&(
) Anchor-Pin Plate ~Secondary
Hold-Down
Pin or Rod fJa ~
rr;;
Return
Spring

Adjusting Lever
Cup
Spring r
Retainer

Retainer

hoe Hold-Down

Modern drum brake automatically adjusts shoes outward as friction material wears. Drum is not shown. Drawing courtesy Chrysler
Corporation.
Modern drum brake automatically adjusts shoes outward as friction material wears. Drum is not shown. Drawing courtesy Chrysler
Most cars have used internal drum
Corporation.
brakes over the years. They continue
to Most
be usedcarson have
theused
rear internal
of most drum
road
brakes over the years. They continue
cars.
to Even
be used on thedrum
though rear brakes
of most share
road Cable Guide
cars.
common features, details may differ.
Even
Each
common
hasthough
a metaldrumdrum,brakes
usuallyshare
cast ~ Cable Guide
iron. Thefeatures,
drum details
rotates maywithdjffer.
the
Each
wheel.has a metalthedrum,
Within drumusually cast
are brake Adjuster cable! ""
iron. The with
shoes lined drum rotates
friction with This
material. the
wheel. Within the drum are
material, consisting of various organic brake
lined with
shoesmetallic friction material. This Adjuster-Lever
and compounds, is the brake Spring
material, consisting of various
lining. The brake shoes are moved organic
and metallic
against
lining. *The
compounds,
the inside
brake shoes
tons inside the wheel cylinders.
is thebybrake
of the drum
are moved
pis-
Hy-
I
rgIiUlil4S---'
against the
draulic fluidinside
under of the drum by
pressure in pis-
the
tons inside the wheel Hy- Pa ing- Pivot
wheel cylinders moves cylinders.
the pistons.
Nt/~~
Brake Strut
draulic fluid under
Wheel cylinders and pressure
brake shoesin the
are
wheel cylinders moves the pistons. " t"
Ad JUS
mounted on a metal backing plate. 109 u Adjusting Screw
Wheelbacking
This cylinders and isbrake
plate boltedshoes are
to the Shoe Hold-down Parts
mounted Automatic-Adjuster Parts
car's axleonhousing
a metal orbacking plate.
suspension
This
upright.backing plate is bolted to the Shoe Hold-down Parts Automatic-Adjuster Parts
car's axle housing or suspension Bendix duo-servo rear brake is typical of drum brakes found on American cars. Brake fea-
upright. tures automatic adjuster and high servo action. Included is linkage to operate shoes from
the parking-brake
Bendix duo-servo cable. Drawing
rear brake courtesy
is typical Bendix
of drum Corp.found on American cars. Brake fea-
brakes
tures automatic adjuster and high servo action. Included is linkage t o operate shoes from
the parking-brake cable. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
15
 Trailing Shoe Leading Shoe

r Wheei Cylinder
Hydraulic Force
Pressurized Hydraulic
on Leading Shoe Fluid
\Trailing Shoe
r Hvdraulic~Leading
Force
~ Shoe
Trailing 'Leading
Friction Shoe Shoe
Friction Pivots
Force Force on Pivots
Leading Away Toward
on
Friction From
1//

-
Trailing
Force Shoe Drum
Drum
Shoe
on
Trailing
~Friction
Force
Shoe on Shoe

~
Drum
Rotation
Drum
I L ~ h o Pivots
Single leading-shoe drum brake-sometimes e called a lea ding-
and-trailing-shoe brake-has one leading and one trailing shoe. As I Shoes in this single leading-shoe brake both pivot toward the right
Rotation
when acted on by friction forces. Although wheel-cylinder force
drum
Singlerotates clockwise,
leading-shoe drumfriction force on leading
brake-sometimes shoea forces
called it
leading- keeps
Shoes inboth
thisshoes
singleagainst the drum,
leading-shoe brakefriction forces
both pivot modify
toward thepres-
right
against drum, creating
and-trailing-shoe servo one
brake-has action, or force
leading multiplication.
and one Drum
trailing shoe. As sure
when exerted
acted onbybyeach shoe.
friction Leading-shoe
forces. pressure increases;
Although wheel-cylinder force
rotation
drum tends clockwise,
rotates to reduce shoe-to-drum
friction forceforce of trailing
on leading shoeshoe.
forces it trailing-shoe
keeps both shoespressure decreases.
against the drum,There is forces
friction little overall
modify servo
pres-
against drum, creating servo action, or force multiplication. Drum action with thisbytype
sure exerted eachof shoe.
brake, Leading-shoe
as friction-force effectsincreases;
pressure on shoes
rotation tends to reduce shoe-to-drum force of trailing shoe. cancel out each
trailing-shoe other. decreases. There is little overall servo
pressure
action with this type of brake, as friction-force effects on shoes
cancel out each other.
SERVO ACTION reversed direction of the wheel rota-
There are many varIatIOns of tion changes all the leading shoes into
SERVO ACTION design. Designs
simple drum-brake reversed direction
trailing shoes. The of the wheel
driver noticesrota- this
differ in are
There the many amount variations
of force- of tiona changes
as huge increaseall the leading
in pedalshoes forceinto re-
simple drum-brake design.
multiplication, or servo action . Imagine Designs trailing toshoes.
quired stop the Thecar. driver
For notices
this reason,this
differ
driving in one thecar with amountstandardof brakes
force- as
druma huge
brakes increase in pedal of
have a mixture force
leadingre-
and another or
multiplication, with Imagine
servo action.
equipped power- quired to stop
and trailing the -car.
shoes two For this reason,
leading shoes
driving one car
assist brakes . The withamount
standardofbrakes
pedal drum
on thebrakesfront have
wheels a mixture
and one of leading
leading
force is greatly reduced with
and another equipped with power-
power- and one trailing shoe on eachshoes
and trailing shoes-two leading rear
assist brakes. Servo
assist brakes. The amount
action acts of much
pedal on the front
wheel. wheelssome
This gives and one amountleading of
force
like poweris greatly
assist-itreduced
reduceswiththepower-
force and one
servo actiontrailing
and stillshoe on one
allows eachsetrear of
assist
required brakes.
on the Servobrakeactionpedal
acts much
for a wheel. toThis
shoes workgives some shoes
as leading amount when of
like power
given amount reducesHowever,
assistof- itbraking. the force servo action
braking in reverse. and still allows one set of
required on the brake
servo action occurs within the brake pedal for a shoes to work as leading
Duo-Servo-Another typeshoes when
of brake,
given
itself. amount of braking. However, braking in reverse.
which differs from leading- or trailing-
servo
Leading action occurs withinhelp
or Trailing-To theunder-
brake Single leading-shoe brake is generally Duo-Servo-
shoe types, Another type of brake,
is the duo-servo drum
itself.
stand servo action, let's look at how found on rear wheels only. Although brake which
brake. Its features are shownorintrailing-
differs from leading- the ac-
Leading
brake or Trailing-To
shoes are mounted.help under-a
Imagine has low leading-shoe
Single servo action, itbrake
works is
equally well
generally shoe types, drawing.
companying is the duo-servo drum
stand in bothon
found directions.
rear wheelsonly. Although brake
brake servo
shoe piaction,
voting let's
at one look
endatand howa
has low servo action, it works equally well
brake.
The Its featuresbrake
duo-servo are shown
does in notthe ac-
have
wheel cylinder pushing on the other.a
brake shoes are mounted. Imagine in both directions.
companying drawing.
a simple pivot on its brake shoes. The
brake shoe
There are twopivoting
ways to at mount
one enda brake
and a plying the brake shoe. A trailing shoe The are
shoes duo-servo
connected brake to does
each notother haveat
wheel ascylinder
shoe, leading pushing
shoe or ason/railing
the other.
shoe. is just the opposite-the friction force athe
simple
end pivot
opposite on itsthebrake
wheel shoes. The
cylinder
Theredepends
This are two ways to mount
on which end aofbrakethe plying
moves the the brake shoe.from
shoe away A trailing shoe
the drum, shoes are connected
by a floating link. This to link
eachtransmits
other at
shoe, aspivots
shoe leaditillginshoe or as trailing
relation shoe.
to drum is just the opposite-the friction
thus counteracting the force of the force the
the force and motion of one cylinder
end opposite the wheel shoe to
This
rotationdepends
. If theonbrake whichdrum end rotates
of the moves the shoe away from the drum,
wheel cylinder. by
the aother
floatingshoe. link.
AnThis
anchor linkpintransmits
next to
shoe
from the pivots in relation to end
free (wheel-cylinder) drum of thus counteracting
With a leading shoe, the drum
forcerotation
of the the
the force
wheeland motionkeeps
cylinder of one theshoeshoes to
rotation. If the brake
the shoe toward the pivoted end, it isdrum rotates wheel
increasescylinder.
pressure between the shoe the
fromother shoe.with
rotating An anchor
the brake pin nextdrum. to
from
a leadingthe freeshoe.(wheel-cylinder)
If the brake end drum of andWith
drum,a leading
givingshoe, drum rotation
increased friction the wheel cylinder keeps
The two shoes are called the primary the shoes
the shoeistoward
motion from the the pivot
pivoted endend, it is
toward increases pressure between
and braking force. This is servo theaction.
shoe from
shoe and rotating with the shoe.
the secondaty brakeThe drum.
pri-
atheleading
free end, shoe.
the shoe If the brake drum
is trailing. and driver
The drum, doesn't
giving increased
have to push friction
the The
mary two shoe shoespushesare called
on thethe primary
secondary
motion is from the
Now let's look at the forcespivot end applied
toward and
pedalbraking force.
as hard Thisa isleading-shoe
with servo action. shoe and
shoe the secondary
through the link; shoe. The pri-
the secondary
the free end, the shoe
to each type of brake-shoe ar- is trailing. The
drumdriverbrake.doesn't have the
It is just to push the
opposite mary shoe pushes on
shoe pushes on the anchor pin. When the secondary
Now let's The
rangement. look at the forces
friction forceapplied
on a pedal as hard with a leading-shoe
with a trailing-shoe brake. The driver shoe
braking through the link;
in reverse, the secondary
the action reverses
to eachshoe
leading typetendsof to brake-shoe
rotate the shoe ar- drum brake.
has to push It hard.
very is just the opposite shoethe
and pushesshoes onchange
the anchor roles.pin.The When
pri-
around its pivot and against the drum.a
rangement. The friction force on with
When a
a trailing-shoe
car with brake.leading-shoe
The driver braking
mary shoein reverse,
then becomesthe action reverses
a secondary
leading
This shoethe
assists tends to rotate
wheel cylinder theinshoe
ap- has to push very hard.
brakes on all wheels is backed up, the and the
shoe in theshoes
way change
it works.roles. The pri-
around its pivot and against the drum. When a car with leading-shoe mary shoe then becomes a secondary
This
16
assists the wheel cylinder in ap- brakes on all wheels is backed up, the shoe in the way it works.
 Anchor Pin Anchor Pin

Anchor Pin Anchor Pin

rimaf
hoe

Primary
Shoe
Forward Braking Reverse Braking

Typical duo-servo front brake used on

large front-engine, rear-drive American
Duo-servo drum-brake Forward Braking
operation: Notice that primary shoe Reverse
is pushedBraking
away from anchor pin
in forward braking. It moves until it is stopped against the drum. When backing up, rotation
I
cars;
Typicalanchor pin is front
duo-servo above brake
wheel used
cylinder.
on reverses
Duo-servoand other shoeoperation:
drum-brake acts as primary
Noticeshoe.
that Drawing courtesy
primary shoe Bendix
is pushed Corp.
away from anchor pin
Adjuster joins lower rear-drive
large front-engine, ends of shoes. Only
American in forward braking. I t moves until i t is stopped against the drum. When backing up, rotation
.cars;
rigid connection
anchor pin isbetween backing
above wheel plate
cylinder, reverses and other shoe acts as primary shoe. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
and shoesjoins
Adjuster is at anchor pin. of shoes. Only
lower ends 160
rigid connection between backing plate
and shoes is at anchor pin.
Duo-servo brakes have servo Single Leading-Shoe or
action regardless of rotation. The Leading-and- Trailing-
140
Duo-servo
brake is designed brakes have forward
for mostly servo SingleDrum
Shoe Leading-Shoe
Brake or
action Leading-and-Trailing-
motion or rotation. Lining wearThe
regardless of rotation. is Shoe Drum Brake
brake is designed
equalized betweenforthemostly primaryforwardand
motion or shoes
secondary rotation.by Liningputtingwear more is 120
Two Leading-Shoe
equalized between the
lining on .the face of the secondary primary and Drum Brake
secondary
shoe. However, shoes the by driver
puttingcanmore feel Two Leading-Shoe
liningdifference
little on .the face of theaction
in servo secondary
when 100
shoe.
brakingHowever,
in reversethe driver can
. Duo-servo feel
brakes
little difference in servo
were used on most American cars action when
brakingrear-wheel
with in reverse. drive Duo-servoand brakes
drum Pedal
were Effort 80
brakesused before onthe mostuse American
of disc brakes. cars (I b)
with
Because rear-wheel
duo-servo drive brakesand havedrum the
brakes
most servo before the use
action, theyofwork
disc well
brakes. on
Because
heavy carsduo-servo
. brakes have the 60
most
Pedal servo action, they
Effort-Let' work well the
s compare on
heavy
three cars.
types of brake-shoe arrange-
Pedal
ments and Effort-Let's
see how the servo compareaction the af-
fects pedal effort. Pedal effortarrange-
three types of brake-shoe is the 40
mentsthe
force anddriver
see how the servo
applies action
to the pedal.af-
fects effort. Pedal effort 40 -
In thepedal
accompanying ch art , it is isobvi-
the
forcethat
ous thethe driver appliesbrake
duo-servo to thehaspedal.
less 20
In
pedal effort for a given it rate
the accompanying chart, is obvi- of
ous that the duo-servo brake has less
deceleration. 20 -
pedal
Now effort
comes the for bad a given
part-we rate
never of
deceleration.
get something for nothing. Let 's see .2 .3 .4 .5
Nowhappens
what comes the whenbad brakes
part-we getnever too I I I

get Lining Coefficient of Friction

I
hot. something
With most for nothing. Let's see I

brake-lining material, .2 .3 .4 .5
what happens
friction decreaseswhen with brakesincreasing
get too Duo-servo drum brake gives lowest pedal
Lining effort for
Coefficient all practical friction coefficients.
of Friction
hot. With most brake-lining
temperature. As an example, assume material,
friction
the friction decreases
coefficient withbetween
increasing the Duo-servo drum brake gives lowest pedal effort for all practical friction coefficients.
temperature. As lining
an example, assume Pedal Effort at Pedal Effort at Percent Increase
brake drum and drops from 0.5 Brake Type CF=O.5 CF=O.4 in Pedal Effort
the
to 0.4friction
when itcoefficient
gets hot. The between
compari- the Pedal Effort at Pedal Effort at Percent Increase
brakeisdrum
son shown andinliningthe drops from 0.5
accompanying Duo-servo
Brake Type 50lb
CF = 0.5 107.61b
CF = 0.4
115.2%
in Pedal Effort
to 0.4 when it gets hot. The compari- Two-leading shoe 50lb 99.81b 99.8%
table for each type of drum brake . The Duo-servo 50 1b 107.6 Ib 15.2%
176.0%
son is shown Leading-trailing 50lb 88.01b
duo-servo druminbrake the loses
accompanying
the most Two-leading
Disc brake shoe 50 Ib
50lb 99.8 Ib
62.51b 99.8%
25.0%
table
brakingfor force.
each type Thus of ,drum brake. The
the brake that Leading-trailing 50 Ib 88.0 1b 76.0%
duo-servo
has drum brake
the greatest servo loses
actiontheis most
also 50 could
Ib 62.5 fade. 25.0%
1b Pedal effort
A 0.1Disc brake
friction-coefficient drop occur from brake more than doubles
braking
the one force.
affected Thus,
the themostbrakeby a thatde- with duo-servo drum brakes. Disc brakes have no servo action, so effect of fade is consid-
has thein greatest
crease friction . servo action is also A 0.1 friction-coefficient
erably less. drop could occur from brake fade. Pedal effort more than doubles
the one affected the most by a de- with duo-servo drum brakes. Disc brakes have no servo action, so effect of fade is consid-
crease in friction. erably less.
17
Cast-iron brake drum is large and heavy
compared to disc-brake rotor of equal
effectiveness.
Cast-iron brakeMany
drum'60s and '70s
is large and Ameri-
heavy During later days of race-car drum-brake
can cars have
compared drums of this
to disc-brake rotortype. This
of equal development, a great deal of work was
front-brake drum
effectiveness. has'60s
Many integral wheel
and '70s hub
Ameri- spent
Duringon cooling-fin
later design. This
days of race-car type of
drum-brake
and
can bearings.
cars have drums of this type. This radial-finned drum
development, pumps
a great dealcooling
of work air was
be-
front-brake drum has integral wheel hub tween
Duo-servo spent the wheel and drum.
on cooling-fin design. This type of
and bearings. brakes are most sus-
radial-finned drum pumps cooling air be-
ceptible to the type of brake fade Racers soon discovered that bigger brakes tween the wheel and drum.
Duo-servo
where brakes
a force limit are most
is reached. Thus sus-
, if are better. This old Talbot Grand Prix car
ceptible
they are everto theusedtype
in a of brake
racing fade
or high- used
Racers18-in. wheels-brake
soon discovered drums
that bigger are
brakes
where a force limit is reached. Thus, if bigger! Fitting
Swept Area-The brake-drum inside
performance application, care must are better. Thisdrum into wheel
old Talbot Grandlimits its
Prix car
they are ever used in a racing or high- size.
used 1 8-in. wheels- brake drums are circumference multiplied by lining
be taken to use linings that do not Swept
performance width isArea-The
the brake brake-drum
swept area, an inside
im-
have a drastic application,
drop in friction carewithmust
in- bigger! Fitting drum into wheel limits its
size. circumference multiplied by lininga
be takentemperature.
to use linings portant measure of how effective
creasing Carsthat do with
fitted not it resists warpage when repeatedly width is. the brakea car's
sweptbrake an im-
area, specifi-
have a drastic brake is Usually
duo-servo frontdrop in friction
brakes have a with in-
tenden- portant measurea ratio
of how effective
creasing temperature. Cars fitted with
heated and cooled.
it However,
resists warpage whenis repeatedly cation includes of brake swepta
cy to pull to the right or left if the fric- cast iron not the brake tois. the
Usually a car's brake specifi-
duo-servo front brakes have a tenden- area car weight. A figure of
tion in one brake is slightly higher heated andmetal cooled. cation
cy to the
pullother.
to the right or left if the fric-
strongest in the world; it tends square includes
inches a(sq ratioin.)of brake
per tonsweptis
than to However, cast iron Tois avoid
crack if overstressed. not this,the area to Athecarcar
typical. withweight.
a highAswept figurearea
of
tion
Morein one
is saidbrake
aboutis linings
slightlyin higher
Chap- strongest metal in the world; it tends square
than the other.
thick sections are used in a drum . per ton inches
will have(sqlong-wearing,
in.) per ton is
fade-
ter 4. to crack
This extra if overstressed.
metal not only Tostrengthens
avoid this, car with
typical. Abrakes, a high swept area
More is said about linings in Chap- resistant with all other factors
thickdrum,
sections
but itare used the in astiffness
drum. per tonequwill
ter 4.
the
This extra metal
increases
not only strengthens being al. have long-wearing,
A typical road carfade-
has
BRAKE DRUMS resistant brakes, with all other
of the drum. It also reduces tempera-
the about 200 sq in. per ton of sweptfactors
area;
The brake drum is a large, critical turedrum,
buildup but during
it increases
hard theuse.stiffness
When abeing equal.
race car may A havetypical
twice road car has
this amount.
part of a DRUMS
BRAKE brake system. If the drum is of thearedrum.
fins used,It they
also help
reduces tempera-
reduce tem'- about 200 sqdrum-brake
in. per ton of swept area;
Calculate swept area by
tooThe brake
small or drum
flexible, is athelarge,
brakecritical
will ture buildup
peratures duringby hard
quickly use. When
exposing more athis
race car may have twice this amount.
part of a poorly
brake system. If the drum is fins formula:
perform under severe use, no metalare used, tothey
surface help reduce
the cooling tem-
air. When Calculate drum-brake swept area by
too
matter small
howorgood flexible,
the systemthe brakemay will
be. peratures
all quicklyarebyused,
design tricks exposing
a drummore will Swept area = 3.14 DL in square inches
this formula:
perform
Let ' s seepoorlywhat under severe ause,
constitutes no
good metal surface to strength.
have adequate the cooling In air. When
addition,
D = Brake-drum inside diameter in
matter how good the system may be. Swept
inches area = 3.14 DL in square inches
brake drum. The important properties all
heatdesign tricks are
dissipation used, a drum
is improved with will
the D Brake-drum inside diameter in
Let's see what constitutes a good have adequate strength. In addition, L = =Lining width in inches
are: fins and extra metal. inches
brake
Must drum.
haveThe a important properties
hard wear-resistant heat dissipation
Drum is improved with the
Cooling-High-performance L=ToLining
calculate
width swept
in inchesarea per ton,
are:
rubbing surface and the surface finish fins
brake anddrums
extra metal.
must be BIG; bigger the divide swept area of all four brakes by
Must
must not have
damage a the
hardlining.wear-resistant Drum
befter is the Cooling-High-performance
key for reducing tempera- theTo calculate
car's weight in swept
tons. area per ton,
rubbing surface divide swept area of all four
andbrakes by
Must be strongand enoughthe surface finish
to withstand brake drums
tures and eliminatingmust be BIG; fade. bigger
A large the To help remove heat cool the
must not damage the lining. better is the key has for reducing tempera- the car's weight in tons.
drum, fins are necessary. If the fins
the hardest braking, while at high drum diameter the added advan-
Must be strong
temperatures . enough to withstand tures ofand eliminating fade. A large andTowheel
help remove heat and
are designed as acool
unittheto
tage reducing pedal effort because
the hardest braking, while toatdistor-
high drum diameter has the added advan- drum,
promotefins are necessary.
airflow, they can act If as
theanfins
air
Must be stiff and resistant of the increased "leverage" of the
temperatures. tage of reducing pedal effort and wheel are designed as a unit to
tion and warping. friction material-similar to abecause
longer pump. Some older race-car drum
Must bedissipate
stiff and heat resistant to distor- of promote airflow, they can act as an air
Must rapidly and pry the increased
bar. Racing drum "leverage"
brakes are of the
usual- brakes were highly sophisticated in
tion and warping.
withstand excessive temperatures. friction material-similar to a longer pump. air
forcing Somearoundolder race-car
the hot drum
parts, as the
ly the largest possible diameter that
Must dissipate
drumsheat rapidlyof grey
and pry bar. Racing brakes show.
were highly sophisticated in
Most brake are made will fit inside thedrum
wheel. brakes are usual- photos
withstand excessive
cast iron, because it temperatures.
is hard and wear- ly The
the largest
size and possible
weightdiameter
of a brake that forcing air around
Bimetallic the hot further
Drums-To parts, as im-
the
Most brake
resistant. Castdrums iron contains of grey
are madecarbon, will fit inside
drum the wheel.in determining
are important
photos show.
prove cooling, a high heat-conducting
cast iron, because it
which prevents galling and seizingis hard and wear- how Themuch size heat
and energy
weightit of can aabsorb.
brake Bimetallic
material Drums-To
is used outside thefurther im-
cast-iron
resistant. Cast iron contains
when hot. It's also a good d,y rubbing carbon, drum are important
Brake drums are measured by the in determining prove cooling,
rubbing a highThis
surface. heat-conducting
is usually
which without
surface preventslubrication.
galling and seizing how much
inside diameterheat of energy
the drum it canandabsorb.
width
material is used
aluminum, outside
although the has
copper cast-iron
been
when
Casthot.ironIt's also arigid
is very good dry rubbing
, compared to Brake
of drums The
the linings. are drum
measured rubbing by sur-
the rubbing surface. This is
tried. Such drums are called bimetaflic.usually
surface without lubrication.
most metals. Therefore, the drum re- inside diameter of the drum
face is slightly wider than the lining to and width aluminum, although
Aluminum carries copper
heat from hasthe been
rub-
Castdistortion
sists iron is very under rigid,load
compared
. Because to of the linings.
allow clearance. The Don drum ' t rubbing
measuresur-a
tried. Such drums
bing surface to theare called fins
cooling bimetallic.
more
most
the drum metals. Therefore,
is cast the drum re-,
at high temperature face istoslightly
drum determinewiderlining
than width.
the lining to Aluminum
rapidly than carries
iron. Anheat from thebene-
additional rub-
sists distortion under load. Because allow clearance. Don't measure a bing surface to the cooling fins more
the drum is cast at high temperature, drum to determine lining width. rapidly than iron. An additional bene-
18
 Drum

l
+
A
Bellmouthing, which results from overheat-
ing and hard use, createsBrake
angle Shoe
A between
drum and shoe. This angle causes shoe
distortion, extra pedal movement, and
faster lining wear on inside edges.

Airflow
Bellmouthing, which results from overheat-
Vintage sports car is powered by fuel-injected Chrysler hemi. Because of its high weight ing and hard use, creates angle A between
and a top speed of over 160 mph, it needed all the brakes it could get. Buick drum and shoe. This angle causes shoe
aluminum/cast-iron bimetallic drums were some of the best ever produced for passenger- distortion, extra pedal movement, and
car use. faster lining wear on inside edges.

Airflow
Vintage sports car is powered by fuel-injected Chrysler hemi. Because of its high weight Plate Wheel Rim
and a top speed of over 160 mph, it needed all the brakes it could get. Buick
aluminum/cast-iron bimetallic drums were some of the best ever produced for passenger-
car use.
Angled lip on drum can help cooling. If lip
lron

A Sheet Steel

Composite Cast- lron

.
has fins, drum rotation can pump air be-
tween the wheel and drum. If lip extends in-
board past wheel and backing plate, addi-
tional cooling is realized.

Drum Drum tion of the composite drum uses a

stamped sheet-steel drum with a cast-
Cast Iron Angled lip on drum
iron rubbing can inside
surface help cooling.
it. LastIf islipa
has fins, drum rotation can pump air be-
bimetallic drum, made of aluminum
tween the wheel and drum. If lip extends in-
and cast
pastiron.

'
Sheet Steel board wheel and backing plate, addi-
Drum
tional Design-The
cooling is realized. design of the
open edge of the brake drum is critical

y
Composite Cast-Iron
Drum Aluminum Drum tion of the performance.
to a drum's composite drum uses a
The stiffness
stamped
of the lip sheet-steel
at the edge drumwill
withkeep a cast-
the
cast 1.0"
iron
drum rubbing
from surface
going inside it. Last (egg
out-of-round is a
bimetallic
shaped) ordrum , made of
bellmouthing aluminum
(diameter in-
and cast iron
creasing at . open end) under severe
Bimetallic Centrifugally Drum Design-The design of Also, the
Drum Cast Composite loads and high temperatures.
Cast Drum open edge ofofthethe
the shape brake
lip drum is critical
can determine
Aluminum tohow
a drum's
well aperformance.
drum cools. The stiffness
An angled lip
Of commonly used designs, bimetallic drums cool best due to high heat transfer of ofcanthehelp
lip promote
at the edge will around
airflow keep the the
aluminum. Bimetallic drums are also the lightest. drum
drum.from Because going out-oj-round
airflow around a drum (egg
shaped) or bel/mouthing
is complicated (diameter
and affected in-
by other
fit is that aluminum
Bimetallic is lighter. minum around the iron, known as the
Centrifugally creasing at open end) under
parts on the car, drum cooling can severe
For an Drumaluminum/iron drum to A /-fin process.
Cast Composite loads
only beand high temperatures.
determined by tests. Also,
work properly, the aluminum must be There Drum
are four basic types of brake- the Besides
shape of the lip and
stiffening can cooling
determine the
attached tightly to the iron. The drum drum construction. The simplest is how
drum,wellthe a lip
drum alsocools.
matesAn withangled
the back-lip
Of commonly used designs, bimetallic drums cool best due to high heat transfer of can
will not cool sufficiently if there are
aluminum. Bimetallic drums are also the lightest. cast in one piece from iron. Another, ing help
plate.promote
This helpsairflow around
keep dirt the
and
air gaps between the two metals. A lighter drum style, is the composite drum.
water Because
out of airflow
the drum. around The a drum
usual
once-popular type of bimetallic drum drum. This type uses a sheet-steel isdesign
complicated and affected
has a groove at the edgeby other
of the
fitused
is that aluminum
a special is lighter.
process for casting alu- minum around
h u b with therim
an iron iron,
castknown
to it. Aasvaria-
the parts
brakeondrum. the car,T h e drum
outer cooling
edge ofcan the
For an aluminumliron drum to A I-fin process. only be determined by tests.
work properly, the aluminum must be There are four basic types of brake- Besides stiffening and cooling the
attached tightly to the iron . The drum drum construction. The simplest is drum , the lip also mates with the back-
will not cool sufficiently if there are cast in one piece from iron. Another, ing plate. This helps keep dirt and
air gaps between the two metals. A lighter drum style, is the composite water out of the drum. The usual
once-popular type of bimetallic drum drum. This type uses a sheet-steel design has a groove at the edge of the
used a special process for casting alu- hub with an iron rim cast to it. A varia- brake drum . The outer edge of the

19
Fins on Alfa-Romeo aluminum/cast-iron
drum are designed to pump air between
drum and Alfa-Romeo
Fins on tight-fitting aluminum/cast-iron
wheel. Drum goes
with brake
drum assemblyto
are designed pictured on page
pump air 22.
between
Photo and
drum by Ron Sessions. wheel. Drum goes
tight-fitting Early race-car drum brake has finned back- Large forward-facing scoop was used on
ing plate to help cooling. Unfortunately, the 520-HP Auto Union Grand Prix cars from
with brake assembly pictured on page 22.
Photo by Ron Sessions. designer neglected
Early race-car drum to usehas
brake vents. And,
finned be-
back- the
Large mid-'30s. These cars
forward-facing usedwas
scoop huge drums
used on
backing plate is flanged. This flange cause thetobacking
ing plate plate Unfortunately,
help cooling. doesn't get very
the and
5 2 0 -hydraulic
H P Auto actuation, butPrix
Union Grand brake cooling
cars from
fits into the groove, but does not hot, theseneglected
designer cooling fins
to don't help much.
use vents. And, be- withmid-'30s.
the that muchThese
powercars
was used
a realhuge
problem.
drums
backing
touch theplate
drum.is This
flanged. Thisfor
is a seal flange
dirt cause the backing plate doesn't get very and hydraulic actuation, but brake cooling
fits water,
into the groove, but does not hot, these cooling fins don't help much. with that much power was a real problem.
and making it difficult for for- magnesium casting is sufficiently
touch the drum. This is a seal
eign matter to blow or splash into the for dirt beefed up to equal the strength of a
and water,
drum. The making it difficult
brake-lining for for-
surfaces are magnesium
steel backing plate,castingit willis be sufficiently
nearly as
eign
thus matter to from
protected blow contamination.
or splash into the A beefed up to equal the strength of a
heavy.
drum.
problemThewithbrake-lining
this seal is surfaces
it also pre-are steel
Thebacking
backing plate,
plateit will
is be nearly as
a precision
thus protected
vents cooling from contamination.
air from entering the A heavy.
part. Brake-shoe mounting points
problem with this
interior of the brake. seal is i t also pre- Thebebacking
must aligned platewith the is brake
a precision
drum
vents cooling air from entering the part.proper
for Brake-shoe
operation.mounting points
A bent or twisted
interior of the
BACKING brake.
PLATE must be aligned
backing plate is with the brake
useless, drum
so inspect
The backing plate is a bracket on for proper operation. A
each one carefully for damage when bent or twisted
BACKING
which the PLATE
brake shoes and wheel backing plate
working on your is useless,
car. You so inspect
should
The backing
cylinders mount.plate is serves
It also a bracket on
to pro- each one
never pry carefully for damage
on a backing platewhento
which
tect thetheinterior
brake ofshoes and wheel
the drum from working a on
remove brake yourdrum. car.ThisYouwillshould
bend
cylinders mount. as
contamination, It also serves
just to pro-
discussed. neverbacking
the pry onplate a backing
and misalign plate theto
tect the interior of the
Braking torque is transmitted from drum from remove
brake shoes.a brake drum. This will bend
contamination, as just discussed.
the shoes to the suspension of the car theA backing
backing plate plate isand misalign
usually boltedtheto
Braking
through torque is transmitted
the backing plate. A goodfrom abrake shoes. upright or axle flange
suspension Although most brake shoes are made of
the shoes to the suspension
backing plate must be stiff and strong of the car A backing
with plate high-strength
tight-fitting, is usually bolted to
bolts. steel plate, cast aluminum has been used.
through the backing plate.
so the shoes stay in alignment with A good aIt suspension upright or
is important that this joint is tightaxle flange Aluminum most
Although is lighter,
brakebut weakens
shoes at ex-
are made of
backing plate musta be stiff and strong with tight-fitting, treme temperatures. If youhas
arebeen
building a
the drum. When backing plate de- and cannot shift high-strength
under load. bolts. This steel plate,
car
cast aluminum
with aluminum
Aluminum is lighter,shoes, make sure
but weakens
used.
at they
ex-
so the excessively
flects shoes stay inunder alignment
load, with
the It is important
brings that this joint
up an important point. isWhen
tight won't temperatures.
be subjected Iftoyouextremely high
treme are building a
the drum.
driver feels When
this asa abacking
spongy plate
pedalde- or and
workingcannot on shift
brakes,under makeload. sure This
the temperatures.
car with aluminumNever use metallic
shoes, make sureracing-
they
flects
as excessively
excessive under load, the
pedal travel. brings
bolts are the correct lengthWhen
up an important point. and brake linings
won't on aluminum
be subjected to shoes.
extremely high
driver
Mostfeels this asplates
backing a spongy pedal or
are stamped working for
strength on thebrakes, make sure the
application. temperatures. Never use metallic racing-
as excessive pedal travel. bolts are theCooling-The correct length and brake linings on aluminum shoes.
from heavy sheet steel. Ridges, Drum-Brake backing plates is that the venting may allow
Most and
bumps backing
edge lip plates are stamped
stamped into the strength for the application.
plate has little brake-cooling effect. It entry of water, dirt or other
from heavy sheet steel.
backing plate increase its strength Ridges,
and Drum-Brake
never gets as Cooling-The
hot as the otherbacking brake plates is that the
contamination. venting
This maybraking
creates allow
bumps andCritical
stiffness. edge lipareasstamped into the
for strength plate has
parts. little brake-cooling
Therefore, fins or air effect.
blowing It entry
problems,of particularly
water, dirt if oneor sideother
of
backing
are the plate increase its strength
brake-shoe-pivot and wheel- and never
on the gets
backingas hotplateasisthe other brake
ineffective. Ef- contamination.
the car is affected This more
createsthanbraking
the
stiffness. Critical areas for
cylinder mounting points. Any cracks strength parts. to
forts Therefore,
cool a drum fins orbrakeair blowing
should problems,
other. particularly
Grabbing if one
or pulling sideside
to the of
areother
or the brake-shoe-pivot
weakness in thoseand wheel-
areas can on the backing plate
always be directed to the drum. is ineffective. Ef- the car is affected
while braking can result. more than the
cylinder
cause mountingsituation.
a dangerous points. Any cracks forts
Some to backing
cool a drum plates are brake should
vented or other. Grabbing
A scoop shouldorbepulling to the
designed side
to keep
or Some
other backing
weaknessplatesin those areas race
on older can always be directed
have scoops mountedto theon drum.
them. The while braking can result.
out contamination. To do this, some
cause a dangerous situation.
cars are cast aluminum or magnesium Some backing
purpose is to direct plates are vented
cooling air intoor A scoop
people placeshould be designed
a screen to keep
flush with the
forSome backingThese
lightness. plates are
on older
not goodrace have scoops mounted
the interior of the brake drum. Thison them. The out contamination. To do this,
scoop intake. This restricts airflow some to
cars are cast
materials for aluminum or magnesium
this application because purpose
setup is to direct
is found on most cooling
drumair into
brakes people
the place
brake, a screen
thus defeatingflush
the with
purposethe
for
they lightness. These are
lack sufficient not good
stiffness and the interior
used for racing,of the brake
if the drum.
rules allowThis
it. scoop
of intake. AThis
the scoop. goodrestricts
solutionairflow
is to useto
materials for this application
strength. By the time an aluminum because or setupproblem
The is found with on most drumbacking
ventilated brakes the brake, thus defeating the purpose
a long air duct with a coarse screen re-
they lack sufficient stiffness and used for racing, if the rules allow it. of the scoop. A good solution is to use
strength. By the time an aluminum or The problem with ventilated backing a long air duct with a coarse screen re-
20
 Adjuster
Cab le

Hold -

Return springs and hold-downs have been

removed from these brake shoes. Spring-
loaded hold-downs
Return springs and keep
flats on the
removed frombacking
these plate.
the shoes
hold-downs
brakeThe
against
have been
shoeSpring-
shoes. edges
Adjuster ~)
~
1
rub against
loaded these flats
hold-downs keepasthe
they moveagainst
shoes in and Levers
out. on the backing plate. The shoe edges
flats
.,-
rub against
cessed intothese
the flats
duct asinlet.
they Thus
move ,inonly
and
out.
fine partic les are likely to reach the
cessed
brake . into
The the ductwill
screen inlet. Thus,
tend only
to repel Adjusting-Hole
fine particles are likely to reach the Cover Adjusting-Screw
stones and other large objects entering Spring
brake. Thebut
the duct, screen
won'twill tendairflow
block to repel
as
stones
much . and other large
However, objectsthat
be aware entering
dust ~~ ~
the Adjust in g-Screw Assemb ly
will duct, but brake
enter the won't and
block
mayairflow as
increase
much. However, be aware that
lining wear and drum-surface scoring. dust
will enter the brake and may increase Various types of springs are usedAdjusting-Screw Assembly
in the typical drum brake. This is a duo-servo rear brake
with an automatic adjuster. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
lining
BRAKE wear and drum-surface scoring.
SHOES Various types of springs are used in the typical drum brake. This is a duo-servo rear brake
Brake shoes are rigid metal assem- should be lubricated
with an automatic withDrawing
adjuster. specialcourtesy
high- Bendix Corp.
BRAKE
blies to SHOES which friction material is temperature grease for maximum life .
Brake shoes
attached. Friction are rigid
material, metalorassem-
brake should
Brakebeshoeslubricated with special
have holes in them high-
for
blies
lining, tois which
ri veted friction
or bonded material
to theis temperature grease for
locating pins and return springs.maximum life.
attached. Friction material,
brake shoe. Brake shoes are usually or brake Brakebuying
When shoes newhave shoes,
holes inmake themsure for
on isan riveted
lining,
sold exchange or basis
bonded to can
so they the locating
the holes in pins and ones
the new return
match springs.
those.
brake shoe.by Brake
be rebuilt shoes
installing newarelining
usually
on When
in the buying
old shoes.new shoes,
Shoes makeoften sure get
sold on an
the old exchange
shoes. Brakebasis shoesso they
can can
be the holes in the new ones
mixed up when relining is performed match those.,
be rebuiltandby used
relined installing new lining
repeatedly on
unless in carefully
so the old comparing
shoes. Shoes old ofter!
to newget is
the
they old
haveshoes. Brake shoes can be
been damaged. mixed up when
worthwhile. Whenrelining is performed,
installing the new
relined and used
Most brake shoesrepeatedly
are fabricated unless
of so carefully
shoes, pay comparing
attention to oldwhere
to newthe is
they have been damaged.
sheet steel with a tee-shaped cross worthwhile. When installing
return springs connect. Some shoes the new
Most brake
section. Someshoes are are made fabricated
of castof shoes,
have pay attention
extra holes toforwhere the
various
sheet steel. The
aluminum with shoea tee-shaped
is shaped cross
to return springs
applications. If aconnect.
spring isSome placedshoes
in a
section.
match the Some insidearediameter
made ofof cast the have hole,
wrong extra poor holes
brake for various
performance
aluminum.
drum , with The shoe is shaped
new full-thickness to
lining applications.
can result, in Ifthea spring
form of is grabbing
placed inora Girlock of Australia manufactures this
match the
installed inside diameter
. Accurate fit between of the
the wrong hole,
dragging brakes.poor brake performance lightweight mechanically-operated brake
canBrake
result, for use asofa parking
Girlock brake
Australia on '84-and-later
manufactures this
drum, and
lining withdrum newisfull-thickness
assured by machin- lining shoesthe
in getform
very ofhotgrabbing
in racing or
lightweightCorvettes.
Chevrolet mechanically-operated brake
It has all the features
installed. Accurate fit between
ing the lining after it is attached to the the dragging brakes.
use, but not nearly as hot as the drum . of
forause
standard drum brake,
as a parking brake on including an ad-
'84-and-later
lining This
shoe. and drummachiningis assured
process by machin-
is called Brake
If the shoeshoes
gets get
too very
hot andhot the
in racing
lining Chevrolet
juster and Corvettes. It hasDrum
return springs. all theinstalls
features
in
ing thethe
arcing lining afterThe
lining. it is exact
attached to the
radius of use, butworking,
is still not nearly as hotofasthe
failure the lining-
drum. the
of a disc-brake-rotor
standard drum brake, hat. including
Photo courtesy
an ad-
shoe. This machining process
the arc is determined by the inside is called If the shoe
to-shoe gets toocould
bonding hot and the lining
occur. For-
Girlockand
juster Ltd.return springs. Drum installs in
arcing the lining. TheIfexact radiushas
of the disc-brake-rotor hat. Photo courtesy
radius of the drum. the drum tunately, most heat generatedlining-
is still working, failure of the by a backing plate with a spring clip or
Girlock Ltd.
the arc
been is determined
turned to an oversize by the inside
diameter, to-shoebrake
drum bonding
goes tocould
the drum occur.andFor-
not spring-loaded pin. This pin lightly
radius
the of the drum.
lining-arc radius Ifis the drum has
increased to tunately,
the shoes,most heat generated
so overheated shoesbyarea
backing platebrake
presses the with shoe
a spring clip the
against or
been
match. turned to an oversize diameter, drumBrakes
rare. brake goes
using to theed
bond drum and lin-
metallic not spring-loaded pin. This pin
backing plate. Flats are provided onlightly
theBrake
lining-arc
shoes radius
have is increased
rubbing to
points the shoes, so overheated
ings are the type for which bonding shoes are presses
the backithe brakeforshoe
ng plate against
the edge the
of the
match.
that are contacted by wheel-cylinder rare. Brakes
strength using bonded
is extremely metallic lin-
important. backing
shoe plate.against.
to rest Flats are provided
Pressure on
of the
Brake shoesand
mechanisms havebrake rubbing points
adjusters. ings are the type design
Lining-material for which bonding
is more im- the backing plate for the edge of
shoe hold-down springs is low, so fric- the
that are contacted by
Also, there's a mechanical linkage wheel-cylinder strength is extremely important.
portant than brake-shoe design . See
shoe
tion isto rest against. Pressure of the
minimal.
mechanisms
connected to theandparking
brakebrake adjusters.
, which Lining-material
Chapter design is discussion
4 for an in-depth more im- shoe hold-down springs is low, so fric-
Also, there's
operates the rear a mechanical
brake shoes. linkage These portant
of than brake-shoe design. See
brake linings.
tion is minimal.
RETURN SPRINGS
connected
rubbing to the
points areparking
subjectbrake,to wear which
and Chapter
Usually4, brake
for anshoes
in-depth discussion
are held to the Drum-brake shoes are pulled away
operates the rear brake shoes. These of brake linings. RETURN SPRINGS
rubbing points are subject to wear and Usually, brake shoes are held to the Drum-brake shoes are pulled away
21
Brake adjuster is operated by turning star
wheels. This type adjuster is used between
the
Brake brake
adjuster shoes on byaturning
is operated leading-
star
and-trailing-
wheels. This shoe drum brake.
type adjuster Adjuster
is used between
housing
the is mounted
brake shoesto backing
on plate.leading-
a
and-trailing-shoe drum brake. Adjuster
housing is mounted to backing plate.
from the drum-retracted-after ap-
plication by a set of return springs. Be-
from the
cause the drum-retracted-after
force exerted by these ap-
plicationisbyhigh,
springs a set of return springs.
a special tool is Be-re-
cause to
quired theinstall
forcethem.exerted
Thereby are these
vari- Prior to disc brakes, some drum-brake designs got pretty exotic. This three-leading-shoe
springs is high, a and
ous arrangements special
mounts tool for
is the
re- drum brake was used on some Alfa Romeo sports cars. Although they did a good job of
quired
return tosprings,
install them. There are
depending on vari-
the stopping the little
Prior to disc brakes,sports
somecars, they weredesigns
drum-brake heavy and
got complex. Notice
pretty exotic. that
This each shoe has its
three-leading-shoe
ous arrangements and mounts for the own
drumwheel
brakecylinder.
was used on some Alfa Romeo sports cars. Although they did a good job of
specific design. stopping the little sports cars, they were heavy and complex. Notice that each shoe has its
return
If the springs,
brake hasdepending on thea
any servo action, own wheel cylinder.
specific design.
loss of return-spring force can cause thread mechanism to move the brake the shoes. These are actuated manual-
shoes toward or away from the drum. ly by turning a bolt that protrudes
theIf brake
the brake
to lock hasorany
grabservo
. Thisaction,
may bea thread mechanism
lossdangerous
of return-spring The duo-servo tobrake move the usesbrakea the shoes.the
through These are actuated
backing manual-
plate or by using
as as a lossforce can cause
of braking. For shoes toward or away from the drum. ly by turning a bolt that protrudes
the brake ifto only
lock or grab. Thisloses
may be turnbuckle-like threaded link between a screwdriver through a hole in the
instance, one wheel its The duo-servo brake uses
as dangerous as a loss of side
braking. For the primary and secondary shoes.a through the backing plate or by using
brake drum.
return-spring force , that can lock turnbuckle-like threaded link between a screwdriver throughisa covered
hole in the
instance, if only one swerve
wheel or loses There are right-hand threads on one Adjusting brakes in
up and cause a sudden skidits. the primary and secondary shoes. brake drum.
return-spring force, that side can lock end and left-hand threads on the Chapter 11 .
Some manufacturers provide dif- There Adjusting brakes is covered in
up and return
cause a springs
sudden swerve or skid. other. A star-shaped wheel, whichone
are right-hand threads on is
ferent that give a dif-
Some manufacturers provide dif-
end
rotatedand left-hand
manually withthreads on thea
a tool through WHEEL1CYLINDERS
Chapter 1.
ferent force when installed. Springs other. star-shaped wheel,
ferent return springs bythatcolor.
give Check
a dif- hole inA the brake drum or which
backing is Brakes are applied by hydraulic
are usually identified rotated CYLINDERS
ferent force when installed. Springs plate, turns the threaded link. This ro-a
manually with a tool through WHEEL
fluid inside wheel cylinders. One or two
with your parts supplier to be sure you hole Brakesin areeachapplied
cylinderbyarehydraulic
are usually identified by color. Check tation in makes
the brake the drum or backing
link shorter or pistons moved
have the correct ones on your vehicle. plate,
longer,turns the threaded
increasing link. This
or decreasing ro-
shoe- fluid
outwardinside
by wheel cylinders.
brake-fluid One orwhen
pressure two
with your
This parts supplier
is particularly to be if
important sure
theyou
car tation makes the link shorter or pistons in each cylinder are moved
have the correct ones on yourorvehicle. to-drum clearance. the driver pushes on the brake pedal.
is fitted with heavy-duty racing longer, increasing
Automatic adjusters or decreasing shoe-
have a linkage outward by brake-fluid
Piston movement pressure when
is transmitted to
This is particularly important if the car the
brakes. to-drum
that clearance.
rotates the star wheel as the vehi- the driver
movable pushes
end ofonthe
thebrake
brakeshoe
pedal.
by
is fitted with heavy-duty or racing
brakes. cleAutomatic
is backedadjusters
up and have a linkage
brakes are aPiston
pushrodmovement is transmitted to
or other linkage.
BRAKE ADJUSTERS that rotates the star wheel
applied. This is a ratchet-type as the vehi- theThere
movable are end
manyof the brakeofshoe
types wheelby
The return springs pull the brake cle is backed only
mechanism-it up and worksbrakes are
in one acylinders.
pushrod or other linkage.
Cylinders are made from
BRAKE
shoes away ADJUSTERS
from the drum a minimum applied. . Automatic
This is adjusters
a ratchet-type There are
aluminum or many types are
iron. There of single-
wheel
The return springs pulldistance
the brake direction are not
specified distance . If the the mechanism-it
actuated in forward only worksThere
driving. in one
is a cylinders.
or dual-pistonCylinders are made
cylinders, from
depending
shoes away from the drum
shoes must travel before contacting a minimum direction. Automatic adjusters are not aluminum or iron. Duo-servo
on brake design. There are single-
brakes
specified limit to the stroke of the actuating
the drum distance. If theexcess
is too great, distance the
brake- actuated in forward
linkage. When driving.
clearance There the
between is a or
havedual-piston
one cylindercylinders, depending
operating two
shoes must results.
travel before
Thus , contacting limit and
to the on brake twodesign.
pistons Duo-servo brakes
pedal travel
the drum must is toobegreat,
some ad-
excessto brake- shoe the stroke of the actuating
drum reaches a certain shoes- are used with this
justment provided mini- linkage.theWhen clearance between the have
design. one
Otherscylinder
have oneoperating
cylinder two
on
pedal value, actuating linkage jumps
mize shoe clearance and to some
travel results. Thus, ad-
compen- shoe and the drum reaches
over the next tooth on the star wheel. a certain shoes-two pistons are used
each shoe-one-piston with this
cylinders are
justment mustwear.be provided to mini- value,feature
the actuating design.
used. Others have one cylinder on
sate for lining
mize shoeare clearance and to of compen- That prevents linkage jumps
the automatic each shoe-one-piston cylinders are
There two types brake over the next
adjusters fromtooth on the star wheel.
overtightening the Wheel cylinders and other hydraulic
sate for lining wear. That used.
adjusters, ma nua I and a uloma lie.
There are two and types automatic-
of brake brakes.feature prevents the automatic components are discussed in more
Wheel cylinders5. and other hydraulic
Both manual- adjusters
Other typesfrom overtightening
of brake adjusters use thea detail in Chapter
adjusters,designs
adjuster man~/alanduse aautomatic.
cam or screw- brakes. components are discussed in more
Both manual- and automatic- cam or an eccentric bolt for adjusting
Other types of brake adjusters use a detail in Chapter 5.
adjuster designs use a cam or screw- cam or an eccentric bolt for adjusting

22
Disc Brakes 3

Racing-brake setup on this March Indy Car uses four-wheel disc brakes with dual master cylinders pressurized by remotely adjustable bal-
ance bar. Brake cooling is critical at Phoenix International's one-mile oval. Photo by Tom Monroe.
Racing-brake setup on this March lndy Car uses four-wheel disc brakes with dual master cylinders pressurized by remotely adjustable bal-
ance bar. Brake cooling is critical at Phoenix International's one-mile oval. Photo by Tom Monroe.
Disc brakes are used on the front of ADVANTAGES OF DISC BRAKES
most modern road cars, and on all The auto industry changed from
Disc
four brakesofaremost
wheels usedrace
on the front
cars. of
Disc ADVANTAGES
drum brakes toOF DISC
disc BRAKES
brakes for a
Rotor Caliper most modern road cars, and
brakes were first introduced on cars in on all The auto
number of reasons: industry changed from
four wheels
the late '40s. ofBymost race cars.
the early '70s, Disc
disc drum brakes to disc
More resistant to brake fade. brakes for a
brakes
brakes were first introduced
had replaced on carson
drum brakes in number
Better of reasons:
cooling.
the late
the front. '40s. By the early '70s, disc More resistant
Water to brake fade.
and dirt resistant.
brakes had replaced
Two common typesdrum brakes
of disc on
brakes Better cooling.
Less maintenance.
the front.
are single and multiple disc, both with Water andsurface
Greater dirt resistant.
area for a given
Two common
rotating discs or types of disc
rotors. brakes
Single-disc Less of
weight maintenance.
brake.
are single and multiple disc,
types have a rotor, which is clamped both with Greater
The main surface area for
advantage disc a brakes
given
rotating discs or rotors. Single-disc
on by friction material called brake weight of brake.
have over drum brakes is their in-
types Multiple-disc
pads. have a rotor, whichtypes, is clamped
commonly The main
creased advantage
resistance disc reasons
to fade . The brakes
on byonfriction
used aircraft,material
have acalled
number brake
of havethisover
for are : drum brakes is their in-
pads. Multiple-disc types, commonly
rotating discs separated by stators, or creased
Frictionresistance
surfacesto fade. Theexposed
directly reasons
Shield used on aircraft,
stationary have a number
discs. Operation is by ofa for this are:
to cooling air.
rotating discs separated by stators,
large-diameter hydraulic piston in the or Friction surfacesis directly
Drum deflection eliminated.exposed
Transfer Tube Splash Shield stationary
backing plate discs.
movingOperation
outward,isclamp-
by a to cooling
Disc air. have no servo action.
brakes
Major parts of disc brake are caliper, rotor
and splash shield. A transfer tube connects large-diameter
ing the rotors hydraulic
and stators piston in the
together. Drum
The deflection
lack of servoisaction
eliminated.
is a disad-
hydraulic
Major parts cylinders on opposite
of disc brake sides
are caliper, of
rotor backing plate
Multiple-disc moving
brakes outward,
are clamp-
100% vantage with a heavy servo
Disc brakes have no action.
car. Resulting
this fixed caliper.
and splash shield. Many othertube
A transfer fixedconnects
calipers ing the , rotors
metallic while and stators types
single-disc together.
use pedal effort is too high. As aa result,
The lack of servo action is disad-
have internal
hydraulic fluid passages.
cylinders Photosides
on opposite courte-
of Multiple-disc brakes are 1000/o
organic/metallic friction material. vantage
disc with almost
brakes a heavyalways
car. Resulting
require
sy Bendix
this Corp. Many other fixed calipers
fixed caliper.
have internal fluid passages. Photo courte-
metallic, while single-disc types use pedal effort is too high. As a result,
sy Bendix Corp. organic/metallic friction material. disc brakes almost always require
23
 AHeatlnput
Air
Cooling Heat Input
" I_\J"
~

Drum
Heat lnput
Drum
Drum Brake
Rotor
Drum Brake Disc Brake
Rotor
Why a disc brake has superior cooling is illustrated here. Heat generated by brake drum
Disc Brake
must flow through drum before air can cool the brake. On a disc brake, hot rubbing surfaces
are directly exposed to cooling air; heat-to-air transfer begins immediately
Why a disc brake has superior cooling is illustrated here. Heat generated by upon
brakebrake
drum
application.
must flow through drum before air can cool the brake. On a disc brake, hot rubbing surfaces
are directly exposed t o cooling air; heat-to-air transfer begins immediately upon brake
application. Expansion Expansion
Direction Direction
Expansion Expansion
Direction Direction
Adapted to a hot rod, early Chrysler Impe-
rial disc brake looks like a drum brake and
works like Pad
Adapted toaaclutch.
hor rod,Although
early ~ nneat
r y s llooking,
e Impe-
r
_
d$$
it
rialdoesn't worklooks
disc brake as well
like as a modern
a drum brakediscand
brake. like
works Rubbing surfaces
a clutch. on brake
Although are on
neat looking, Drum . _ . ..__-_....
... -..._. , .
..
inside of finned
i t doesn't work housing.
as well as a modern disc ...
..,..
&pad
8 . ...
..I

brake. Rubbing surfaces on brake are on Drum

inside of finned housing. Drum
Shoe
Brake
Drum Disc
Brake Rotor Brake
Disc
Expansion of hot brake drum is away from brake shoes. This requiresBrakeextra pedal travel. A
disc-brake rotor expands slightly toward the pads. Therefore, extra pedal travel due to
heat expansion
Expansion is brake
of hot not a problem
drum is with
awaya from
hot disc brake.
brake shoes. This requires extra pedal travel. A
disc-brake rotor expands slightly toward the pads. Therefore, extra pedal travel due to
heat expansion is not a problem with a hot disc brake.

SPOT BRAKES & used on large aircraft. Light aircraft

DISC BRAKES -, typically use more conventional
SPOT
The BRAKE9
disc & first called a
brake was used on large
spot-type discaircraft.
brakes.Light alrcraft
There's a
DISC BRAKES
spot brake or spot disc brake. typlcelb use more
brief discussion convent~onal
of aircraft brakes
The dlsc
This brake was
distinguished first acalled
it from type ofa spot-type disc brakes. There's a
in Chapter 9.
spot brake
disc brake that has adisc
or spot brake.
clutch-like brief discussion
To keep things of aircraft
simple, brakes
I call the
This dlstlnguished
full circle of frictionIt from a type
material. of
This 9.
in Chapter automotive
standard disc ', brake
disc brake
unusual type disca brake
thatof has ctufcblike
was To keep
-simply th'inggsimple,
a disc brake becauseI call the
the
full
usedcircle
on the of frlction
Chrysler material.
ImperialThis
in term spot automotive
standard brake is nodisc brake
longer in
unusual
the '50s, of
early type was brake
butdisc was
discOritin- simply a use.
common brake I beaause
disc And, the
call aircraft
Disc brakes were used on many race cars ued i'non
used theofChryder
favor Imperial
the traditional drumin term spotbrakes
multidisc Is no longer
brake simply multidisc in
in the mid-'50s. This car, built in 1955, is the early '50s, but was discolltln--
brake. m m n use. And, I oall aircraft
cbrakes.
powered by were
Disc brakes a 300-HP
used onChevy.
many Tiny
race solid
cars ued In favor ofmultidisc
Full-circle the traditional
brakesdrum
are multidisc brakes simply multidiso
rotors would never
in the mid-'50s. becar,
This used today
built on such
in 1955, is brake. brakes.
a powerfulby
powered car.a 300-HP Chevy. Tiny solid Full-circle multidisc brakes are
rotors would never be used today on such
apower assist,
powerful car. while drum brakes with exterior by surrounding air. A disc material rather than away from it.
high servo action may not. On race brake is cooled immediately by air Squeezing a disc cannot cause suffi-
power
cars assist, while
, weight drumless,
is much brakesso with
disc exterior
blowing byonsurrounding
the disc'sair. rubbing
A disc material
cient rather tothan
deflection affectaway from it.
performance.
high servo action may not.
brakes usually do not require power On race brake
surfaces.is cooled immediately by air Squeezing
The lack of servo action meanssuffi-
a disc cannot cause that
cars, weight is much less, so disc
assist. blowing
A on
brake the
drum disc's rubbing
expands-ID cient
a disc deflection
brake to is affect performance.
affected little by
brakes usually part
The hottest do not
of arequire
brake power
is the surfaces.
increases-when it gets hot, increas- The lack
changes in of servo action
friction. As I means
mentionedthat
assist.
metal surface contacted by the friction ingA pedalbrake
travel.drum
The drumexpands-ID
can also aearlier,
disc drum
brake brakes
is affected little by
with maximum
The hottest
material. On a part
drumofbrake,
a brake thisis sur-
the warp from temperature hot,
increases-when it gets or increas-
braking changes in friction.
servo action As I mentioned
are also affected the most
metal surface contacted by
face is inside the drum; on a disc the friction ing
force.pedalBrake-drum
travel. The deflection
drum can also de- earlier,
by friction changes. Awith
drum brakes maximum
slight drop in
material.
brake, it is Onthea drum brake,
exterior of thethisrotor.
sur- warp
creasesfrom temperature
performance or braking
and causes fade. servo action
friction, suchareas also
thataffected
caused the most
by heat,
face is inside the drum;
For a drum brake to cool, the tem- on a disc force.
However, Brake-drum
a disc-brake deflection
rotor is essen-de- by friction changes.
is magnified A slight
by the servo actiondrop in
. The
brake, it is the exterior of
perature of the entire drum must firstthe rotor. creases performance and causes
tially a flat plate. Temperature expan- fade. friction, such as that caused
driver senses this as fade. Disc brakesby heat,
For aThen
rise. drumthebrakedrumto iscool,
cooled theattem-the However,
sion of thearotor
disc-brake rotortheisfriction
is toward essen- is magnified
are simply not by the servo action.
as sensitive The
as drum
perature of the entire drum must first tially a flat plate. Temperature expan- driver senses this as fade. Disc brakes
rise. Then the drum is cooled at the
24 sion of the rotor is toward the friction are simply not as sensitive as drum
JFZ disc brake is designed to stop a Changing brake pads on most disc brakes
Ipowerful oval-track race car. Four-piston, I is easy. Pads are sometimes retained with
lightweight caliper is
JFZ disc brake is massive
designedto reduce
to stopde-a quick-release
Changing brake pins. New
pads on pads
mostare being
disc in-
brakes
flections
powerful and minimize
oval-track temperature.
race Photo
car. Four-piston, stalled
is easy. in thisare
Pads transaxle-mounted caliper
sometimes retained with
courtesy JFZ
lightweight Engineered
caliper Products.
is massive to reduce de- for bedding in. pins. New pads are being in-
quick-release Rotor bolts to lightweight aluminum hat.
stalled in this transaxle-mounted caliper Assembly then bolts to wheel hub or axle . .
flections and minimize temperature. Photo
courtesy JFZ Engineered Products. for bedding in. Deep
Rotor hat flexes
bolts when rotor aluminum
to lightweight expands from
hat.
high temperature
Assembly and to
then bolts minimizes brake
wheel hub heat
or axle.
transferred to thewhen
Deep hat flexes wheelrotor
hub expands
and bearings.
from
Photo
high courtesy JFZ
temperature Engineered
and minimizesProducts.
brake heat
transferred to the wheel hub and bearings.
Photo courtesy JFZ Engineered Products.
brakes to changes in friction. action of the pads against the rotor
The shape of a drum brake also con- keeps the surfaces clean. Also, cen- The rotor may either be solid or it can
brakes
tributestotochanges
fade. Manyin friction.
organic brake action
trifugal of the tends
force pads toagainst
throwthe rotor
material be vented with cooling passages
linings expel gases brake
The shape of a drum when also con-.
heated keeps the surfaces clean. Also,
off the rotor. Because water is wiped cen- The rotorit.may either be solid or i t can
through
tributesgases
These to fade.
can act Many as aorganic
lubricant brakebe- trifugaltheforce
from tends
rotor, discto brakes
throw material
are less be vented
Hats- The rotor with iscooling passages
usually attached
linings
tween the expel
lininggases when causing
and drum, heated. off the rotor.
sensitive Because
to this water is wiped
contamination than through
to a hat, it.which in turn is attached to a
These
frictiongasesloss can
andact as a lubricant
severe brake fade. be- from
drum brakes. On the otherarehand,
the rotor, disc brakes less Hats-The
wheel hub or rotoraxleis flange.
usually The attached hat
tween the lining and
The cylindrical surface of a brake drum, causing sensitive to this contamination
water lubricates a drum brake well. than to a hat, which in turn is
gives a long path for heat to travel attached to a
friction
drum is loss and severe
similar to bearings brake infade. an drum more
And, brakes. On action
servo the other
meanshand, less wheelthe
from hub brakeor rubbing
axle flange. surfaceThe hat
to the
The
engine. cylindrical
For example, surfacehigh-pressure
of a brake water
braking. lubricates a drum brake well. gives
wheel a bearings.
long pathThis for heat
keepsto wheel-
travel
drum
oil is similar
between a main tobearing bearings in an
and crank- And, more servo
Disc-brake action
pads are easymeans
to changeless from
bearing thetemperature
brake rubbingdown. surface The to the
hat
engine. For example,
shaft journal keeps the surfaces aparthigh-pressure braking.
on most cars. Usually, disc pads can wheel bearings. This
sometimes is cast integral with the keeps wheel-
oil between
and friction atomain bearing and
a minimum. A crank-
brake beDisc-brake
changed after padsremoving
are easy theto change
wheel bearing
rotor, and temperature
sometimes down. it is a The
separate hat
shaft journal
drum and shoes keeps the surfaces
act much like an apart
oiled on most
and cars.locking
a simple Usually, disc Some
device. pads 'canin- sometimes
part. is cast integral with the
and
bearingfriction to a minimum.
and journal when hot A gas
brake is be changed after
stallations removing
requires the wheel
removing the rotor,
Hatsand are sometimes
made of iron it is aorseparate
lighter
drum and shoes
expelled between act much
them.like an oiled
They are and a simple locking device. Some in-
caliper. part.
material, such as aluminum. Pro-
bearing
pushed and apartjournal
by the when hot gas is
high-pressure stallations requires removing
Another advantage of disc brakes the Hats are hats
duction-car madeareof usually
iron oriron lighter
and
expelled
gas , reducing between them.andThey
friction causingare caliper.drums is adjustment. Drum
over material,
integral with such the as
rotor.aluminum.
Most race-car Pro-
pushed
brake fade. apart by the high-pressure Another
brakes mustadvantage
be manually of disc brakes
adjusted or duction-car
hats are separate hats areand usually
made of iron and
alumi-
gas,
Thereducing
small surface frictionarea andof causing
a disc- over
must have the added complexityDrum
drums is adjustment. of an integral
num alloy. with the rotor. Most race-car
brake
brake fade.
pad and the flat face of the rotor brakes must be manually
automatic-adjusting adjusted
system . Disc or hats are non-integral
With separate and rotors,made ofthe alumi-
hat-
doThenot small
simulate surface area of
a bearing a disc-
container. must
brakeshaveare the added to
designed complexity
run with of an
little num alloy.attachment can be either of
to-rotor
There may be some gas coming rotor
brake pad and the flat face of the from automatic-adjusting
clearance, system. each
and are self-adjusting Disc twoWith
typesnon-integral rotors, the
, bolted or dog-drive. hat-
A dog-
do
the not simulate
lining, a bearing
but because it iscontainer.
not con- brakes are designed
time they are applied . to run with little to-rotor attachment can
drive is a series of radial slots in thebe either of
There
tained maywell,betheresomeisgas coming
little effect.fromTo clearance, and are rotor
The disc-brake self-adjusting each
has a contact two types, bolted or dog-drive.
rotor with metal driving dogs attached A dog-
the lining,
repeat, any but
dropbecause it is on
in friction nota con-
disc time they are applied.
surface on each side; the brake drum drive
to the ishat.a They
seriesact of asradial
a splineslots
to in the
trans-
tained well, there
brake affects it lessis thanlittleon effect.
a drum To hasThe a disc-brake rotor has
contact surface onlya oncontact
the rotor with metal
mit torque driving
between dogs and
brake attachedhat.
repeat, any drop in friction
brake because the disc brake has no on a disc surface on each side;
inside. Disc-brake sweptthearea
brake drum
is larger to the hat.
These dogsTheyallow actthe
as arotor
splinetotoexpand
trans-
brake action
servo affects. it less than on a drum has
whena compared
contact surface
to a drum only brake
on the of mit torque between brake
freely while keeping the rotor cen- and hat.
brake because cooling
Disc-brake the discisbrake betterhasthan no inside.
the same diameter and weight. larger
Disc-brake swept area is More These
tered on dogsthe allowhat.theThisrotorfreedom
to expand to
servo action.
drum-brake cooling because the rotor- when compared
swept area means to a drum
better brake of
cooling. freely
expand while
eliminateskeepingloadsthe therotor
hat wouldcen-
Disc-brake
contact surfaces cooling is better
are directly than
exposed the same diameter and weight. More tered
otherwiseon get thewhenhat. theThis rotorfreedom
gets hot.to
drum-brake
to cooling air. cooling becausethis
However, themakes
rotor- swept
ROTORSarea &
means
HATSbetter cooling. expand
If the eliminates
hat is bolted loadstothe thehat would
rotor, it
contact
the contactsurfaces are directly
surfaces exposed
"potentially" The rotor, usually made of cast otherwise
must expand get when
with the the rotor
rotor gets
as it hot.
gets
to cooling air. However,
more vulnerable to damage from this makes
cor- ROTORS
iron, HATSand heaviest part of
is the&largest If the
hot. If the hathatis bolted to the thin
is relatively rotor,andi t
the contact surfaces
rosive dirt or water contamination. "potentially" a disc brake. Itusually
The rotor, is a flatmade of disc
circular cast must expand with the rotor
flexible, it works without breaking. as i t gets
more vulnerable
Fortunately, theto damage
constantfrom cor-
wiping iron, is the largest and heaviest part
with a contact surface on each side. of hot. Ifbolted
The the hat is relatively
connection thin and
between the
rosive dirt or water contamination. a disc brake. It is a flat circular disc flexible, it works without breaking.
Fortunately, the constant wiping with a contact surface on each side. The bolted connection between the
25
 Slots on
Surface
Slots on
Surface
Rotor
Rotation
Direction

, Curved
Vent
Holes
Curved
Vent
Holes

Racing rotor from AP Racing uses a dog-

drive rather than bolts to transfer braking A rotor that has curved vent holes or
action
Racing to the from
rotor hat. Dogs on hatuses
AP Racing fit ina slots
dog- angled slots must rotate in a particular di-
machined
drive ratherin than
edge bolts
of rotor 10. Slightbraking
t o transfer clear- rection Here's what eventually happens to a rotor
A rotor tothat
be has
effective.
curvedCorrect rotation
vent holes or
ance between
action t o the hat.hatDogs
dogsonand hat rotor
fit in slots relative slots
to vents and slots in
is ashown. when thermal stresses are high. Because
angled must rotate particular di-
allow rotorintoedge
machined expand uniformly,
of rotor but remain
ID. Slight clear- race-car
Here's whatrotors undergo
eventually such atobeating,
happens a rotor
rection to be effective. Correct rotation
centered.
ance Cleverhat
between mounting
dogs and arrangement
rotor slots is they should
when thermalbestresses
inspected
are frequently and
high. Because
relative t o vents and slots is shown.
called rotor
allow castel/a ted drive
t o expand by AP
uniformly, but Racing.
remain replaced ifrotors
race-car cracksundergo
are detected.
such a beating,
Photo courtesy
centered. CleverAPmounting
Racing. arrangement is they should be inspected frequently and
called castellated drive by AP Racing. replaced if cracks are detected.
Photo courtesy AP Racing. with accurately machined unthreaded
shanks.
with accuratelyhats
Aluminum machined
reduce unthreaded
weight and
shanks.
thermal stress on the rotor. Because
Aluminum
aluminum hatse xpands
alloy reduce atweight
a gre aterand
thermal
rate thanstressiron , itontends
the torotor. Because
equalize the
aluminum alloy
expansion expands
difference at a greater
caused by ex-
rate
treme thantemperature
iron, i t tends of to equalize
the roto ther.
expansion difference caused
Additionally , aluminum alloy is about by ex-
treme temperature
one-third as rigid as iron, of theso there rotor. is
Additionally,
much less force aluminum
put on the alloy is about
rotor fo r a
one-third
given amount as rigid as iron, .so
of e xpansion Thetherelight-is
er aluminum hat aids the car ' s per-a
much less force put on the rotor for
given
formance amount of expansion.
and handling . One The light-
disadvan- Tiny cracks on race-car-rotor surface are
On this racing rotor, metal is removed at er
tage of the aluminum-alloy hat is per-
aluminum hat aids the car's thal caused by thermal stresses. Rotor should
outer edge to reduce weight and slots are formance be replaced before larger cracks form.
cut in rotor
On this faces
racing to reduce
rotor, metal ispossibility
removed at of it conductsand handling.
heat better thanOne iron.
disadvan-This Tiny
Small
cracks on
caised surface
race-car-rotor
cracksstresses.
by thermal
surface
can oftenRotor
are
be removed
should
fade. Photo
outer edge tocourtesy
reduceAP Racing.
weight and slots are
tage of the
causes the aluminum-alloy
wheel bearingshattois that* run by
be grinding.
replaced before larger cracks form.
cut in rotor faces to reduce possibility of conducts heat better than iron. This
ithotter. Small surface cracks can often be removed
fade. Photo courtesy AP Racing. causes the wheel bearings
Rotor Design-A disc-braketo rotor run by grinding.
good brake design, high swept area
hotter.
has many features common with that per ton indicates a high-performance
Rotor
of a brake Design-A
drum. The disc-brake
material is usual- rotor good
brake brake
system. design,
Brake high
swept swept
area area
for
has
ly greymany castfeatures
iron forcommon
the samewith reasonsthat per ton cars
various indicates
is givena on
high-performance
page 28 .
of a brake drum. The material
it is popular for brake drums. Cast is usual- brake
Somesystem. Brakeslots
rotors have swept area ma-
or holes for
ly greyhas
iron cast good
iron for the same
wear and reasons
friction various cars is given on page
chined in their contact surfaces . 28.
itproperties,
is popularis rigidfor brake drums.
and strong at Cast
high Some
These rotorshot-gas
reduce have slots
and or holes ma-
dust-particle
iron has good
temperatures, and wear and friction
is inexpensive and chined in their pad
buildup between contact
and rotor.surfaces.
Al-
properties,
easy to machine.is rigid and strong at high These reduce hot-gas and dust-particle
though fade caused by gas buildup is
temperatures,
A rotor is measured and is inexpensive
by its outside and buildup
less for abetween
disc brakepadthan
and for rotor. Al-
a drum
easy to machine.
diameter and its total thickness across though fade caused by gas
brake , some fade can still occur. Thisbuildup is
theA tworotorcontact
is measured
surfaces. by its
A outside
vented lessmore
is for a prevalant
disc brakewiththan large
for a brake
drum
diameter
rotor is alwaysand its total
thickerthickness
than aacross solid brake, some fade
pads , because the can stillhas
hot gas occur. This
a harder
the two
rotor. Thecontact
diameter surfaces.
of the rotorA vented
is usu- is more prevalant with
time escaping than with small pads. large brake
Highly developed AP Racing Sphericone
rotor-notice projections cast inside ventJ rotorlimited
ally is alwaysby thethicker
wheel size.than a solid pads, because
Therefore, theorhot
slots gas have
holes has a greater
harder
holes-transmits
Highly developedheatAP to cooling
Racing air more
Sphericone rotor.
SweptTheareadiameter of theisrotor
of a brake is usu-
an impor- time escaping
effect in racing,than wherewithpadssmallare pads.
large
efficiently
rotor-noticethan standardcast
projections vented
insiderotor.
vent ally
tant limited
measure by of
theitswheel size.
effectiveness. The Therefore,
and temperaturesslots orareholes
veryhavehigh.greater
Holes
Design is used onheat
holes-transmits Grand Prix cars,
t o cooling airwhere
more effect in racing, where pads
every ouncethan
efficiently of rotor weight vented
standard counts. Photo
rotor.
Swept
swept areaarea of of a brake
a disc brakeis isantheimpor-
total increase the tendency for are large
cast-iron
courtesy
Design isAP Racing.
used on Grand Prix cars, where
tant measure
area contactedofbyitsboth effectiveness.
the brake pads The and temperatures are very
rotors to crack, so they should be high. Holes
every ounce of rotor weight counts. Photo swept
in one area of a disc brake is the total
revolution. increase
used only the whentendency
required. for cast-iron
courtesy
two itemsAP Racing.
must use high-strength areaThe contacted
combined by both
swept thearea
brakeofpads a ll rotors
Vented to crack, so they
Rotors-Many rotoshould
rs are castbe
bol ts wi th close-fitting, un threaded in one revolution.
brakes divided by the weight of the used only when required.
with radial cooling passages in them.
two items
shanks mustbolts
. Aircraft use are
high-strength
often used carTheis onecombined swept area
way of indicating how of effec-all Ventedact
These Rotors-Many
as an air pump rotors are cast
to circulate
boltsthiswith
for close-fitting,
purpose, because unthreaded
they come brakes
tive its divided
brakes are by thelikelyweight
to be.ofWith the withfrom
air radialthecooling passages
rotor center in them.
through the
shanks. Aircraft bolts are often used car is one way of indicating how effec- These act as an air pump to circulate
for
26
this purpose, because they come tive' its brakes are likely to be. With air from the rotor center through the
 1m
I
Tension
Tenslon Compression
Compression Shear

Three ways stress act on a material: Tension pulls; compression crushes; and
and shear rips
rips
Each stress occurs simultaneously in
sideways. Each in a hot brake component, particularly
particularly if one
area of the part is hot and
area and another is cool.

.' THEflMALSTRESS Lightweight race-car rotor has has no hat.

'Stress is a measure of the internal Rotor heat flows directly from rotor tot o alu-
force' inasolio material, usually minum hUb.
minum hub. Such a design
design should only be be
giVen. in pounds per square inch used
used on light cars with small small engines,
(psj).:.,..the same units for measuring where little heat is generated. Wheel bear-
'l1y<;lraulic pressure. Stress acts in ings
ings in
in this hub
hub have to
t o be
be replaced
replaced several
compressIon, tension orin a sliding. times a season.
dfrectioti '.. called ,shear. Typically,
. only 'tension stress-pulling..:.-
causes cast ironto crack., The
stress at wl1ich. a material breaks, in
tension is called.its fensiJes.trengt1:),
. Tl1e tensile 'strength of g(eyca~t
,jrortJs apout 25,000 psI. . ,".
Wh~m . a metal is heated, it;
expands. If the metal is' restrained"
so it can't expand freely, it,r:lI:essss .,
against its restraint with atorce:.
The restraining force ,causes,ao',
additional stress in the: metaLt'hi.S" '
streS$ caused by a changeinlem,,;. "
peratl,Jre is called a thermalsfr.ess,'.~'
Thermal stress occurs.' .WR,el'] , Rp
Rp == radius to outside of pad
pad
metal is hotter in one area.l(acqlo
brake rotor is suddenlyusedfcir' a RR
RR == radius to the outside of the rotor
wp
wp == pad
pad width
If Rp
R, nearly equals RR.
RR, use the following
following
formula
formula to find swept area of brake:
brake:
passages to the outside of the rotor. Racing rotors often have curved
This type of rotor is referred to as a cooling passages, which increase air- Disc-brake
swept area =
= 6.28 wp (2RR-- w
w, (2RR wp)
),
rotor. Vented rotors are used
vented rotor. pumping efficiency.
efficiency. Because these
larg-
on most heavy cars requiring the larg- vents are curved, there are different Disc-brake swept area is area on both both
est possible rotors.
rotors. Lighter cars usual- rotors for the right and left sides of sides of rotor rubbed
rubbed by pads.
pads. ItI t is more
more
ly use solid rotors. car. If your brakes use curved-vent
the car. use Rp
accurate to use R, instead
instead of RR'
R,. However,
However,
because the two radii radii are nearly equal
Powerful race cars use vented rotors, don't get them mixed up!up! in most brakes, RR
in R, is used
used for conven-
Sometimes there is a difference
rotors. Sometimes A problem with vented rotors used R, is easier to
ience. RR t o measure than Rp.R,.
in the thickness of the rotor sidewalls.
sidewalls. in severe service is cracking.
cracking. This is
On many race-car brakes, the rotor caused by thermal stresses and by cracks to appear.
appear. Even though crack-
crack-
side closest to the wheel is thicker brake-pad pressure against the unsup- ing may not occur, coning causes
than the side away from the wheel. ported metal at each cooling passage.
passage. uneven lining wear.
This is done to try to equalize the tem- Thermal stresses on a rotor with a Rotor cracking is greatly reduced
perature on each side of the rotor. cast- or bolted-on hat are caused by for two reasons with curved vents:
The wheel tends to prevent cooling the contact portion of the rotor being First, curved vents provide better sup-
air from reaching the outboard rub- hotter than the hat portion. Because port for the sides.
sides. And, because
bing surface of the rotor, making it heat causes expansion, the outer por- curved-vent rotors cool better, ther-
run hotter than the inboard surface. tion of the rotor expands more than less.
mal stresses are less.
The extra thickness next to the poorly the cooler hat. This distorts and bends Composite Rotors-
Rotors-The
The latest
cooled outboard surface tends to the rotor into a conical shape.
shape. Repeat- rotor material was developed for
equalize temperatures. ed expansion and contraction cause heavy aircraft brakes and is being

27
 TYPICAL SWEPT AREAS PER TON OF VEHICLE WEIGHT
Swept Area Swept Area
Car Make and Model TYPICAL Sq
SWEPT AREAS PER TONCar
In.lTon OFMake
VEHICLE
and ModelWEIGHT Sq In.lTon
Alta Romeo Spyder Veloce Swept Area
259 Mercury Lynx RS Swept
188 Area
Car Make
Audi 5000 and
TurboModel S q In./Ton
245 Car Make and
Mitsubishi Model
Cordia LS S196
q In./Ton
Alfa Romeo
Audi Quatro Spyder Veloce 259
254 Mercury Lynx R
Mitsubishi Starion S Turbo 188
236
Audi
BMW5000528eTurbo 245
259 Mitsubishi
Nissan Cordia LS
Sentra 196
272
Audi
BMWQuatro
745i 254
302 Mitsubishi
Nissan Starion Turbo
Stanza 236
174
BMW 528eCamaro Z28
Chevrolet 259
176 Nissan Sentra
Peugeot 505 STI 272
269
BMW 7451Citation X11 HO
Chevrolet 302
180 Nissan Stanza
Pontiac Firebird Trans-Am 174
277
Chevrolet Corvette
Chevrolet Camaro 228 176
284 PeugeotGrand
Pontiac 505 ST1National Racer 269
236*
Chevrolet
Datsun Citation X 1 1 HO
200SX 180
266 Pontiac J2000
Pontiac Firebird Trans-Am 277
173
Chevrolet
Delorean Corvette 284
346 Pontiac Grand
Porsche 944 National Racer 236*
303
DatsunAries
Dodge 200SXWagon 266
145 Pontiac J2000
Renault Alliance 173
190
Delorean
Dodge Challenger 346
230 Porsche Fuego
Renault 944 Turbo 303
185
Dodge Aries Wagon
Charger 2.2 145
161 Renault Alliance
Renault LeCar ISMA GTU Turbo 190
348*
Dodge Challenger
Ferrari 308GTSi 230
263 Renault 5Fuego
Renault TurboTurbo 185
175
Dodge
Fiat Charger 2.2
Brava 161
154 Renault LeCar
Renault 18i I S M A GTU Turbo 348'
189
Ferrari
Fiat 308GTSi
Turbo Spyder 263
221 Renault
Saab 9005 Turbo 175
275
Fiat Brava
Ford Mustang GT 5.0 154
162 Renault GL
Subaru 18i 18 9
169
Fiat Turbo
Honda Spyder
Accord 221
177 Saab
Toyota900
Celica 275
208
Ford Mustang
Honda Civic GT 5.0 162
171 SubaruCelica
Toyota GL Supra 169
224
HondaI-mark
Isuzu AccordLS 177
209 Toyota Starlet
Toyota Celica 208
196
Honda Civic
Jaguar XJ-S 171
219 Toyota CelicaQuantum
Volkswagen Supra 224
183
lsuzu I-mark LJalpa
Lamborghini S 209
227 Toyota Starlet
Volkswagen Rabbit GTI 196
216
Jaguar XJ-S Carlo GP.5 Turbo
Lancia Monte 21 9
537* Volkswagen
Volkswagen SciQuantum
rocco 183
198
Larnborghini
Mazda GLC Jalpa 227
174 Volkswagen
Volkswagen SciRabbit
rocco GTISCCA GT3 21 6
304*
Lancia Monte Carlo
Mercedes-Benz GP.5 Turbo
380SL 537*
237 Volkswagen Scirocco
Volvo GLT Turbo 198
242
Mazda
Mercury GLC
LN7 174
173 Volkswagen Scirocco
*Indicates race car. SCCA GT3 304*
Mercedes-Benz 380SL 237 Volvo GLT Turbo 242
ListedMercury
are brake swept areas per ton for typical 1981
LN7 and '82 cars as published in Road & Track magazine. Notice that high-performance
173
cars tend to have higher swept areas per ton than
'Indicates race car.
economy sedans. Those for race cars are indicated by asterisks. Race-car brakes are
larger and race cars are generally lighter. The 537 sq-in./per ton area for the Lancia Monte Carlo GP 5 Turbo long-distance racer indicates
long-wearing
cars powerful
tend to have brakes.
higher swept areas per ton than economy sedans. Those for race cars are indicated by asterisks. Race-car brakes are
larger and race cars are generally lighter. The 537 sq-in./per ton area for the Lancia Monte Carlo GP 5 Turbo long-distance racer indicates
long-wearing powerful brakes. used on Grand Prix cars. These new on weight reduction and the cost of
rotors are made of carbon-graphite, composites become reasonable, there
used
borononcomposite.
Grand Prix A cars. These rotor
composite new on
mayweight reduction
be composite and on
brakes theyour
cost car
of
rotors are made of carbon-graphite,
is lighter than a cast-iron rotor- composites become reasonable,
some day. The problem is that com- there
boron 30-lb
about composite. A composite
less total weight onrotor the may be composite
posite brakes on your
brakes experience car
extreme
is lighter F-l
Brabham than a cast-iron
car-and rotor-
it can operate some day.toThe
wear due problem
road-dirt is that com-
contamination.
about
at much 30-lb less temperatures.
higher total weight onTem- the posite brakes experience extreme
Brabham F-1 car-and it
peratures up to 1700F (927C) havecan operate wear due to road-dirt contamination.
CALIPERS
at
beenmuchobserved
higher temperatures.
without damage. Tem- Disc-brake calipers contain brake
peratures up to 1700F
Graphite-composite pads( 9 2are
7 0 have
used CALIPERS
pads and hydraulic pistons that move
been composite
with observed rotorswithout
due damage.
to high theDisc-brake
pads against calipers contain
the rotor brake
surfaces.
Graphite-composite
operating temperatures. pads are used pads and hydraulic pistons
There are many types of calipers. that move
Curved-vent AP Racing rotor has slots with composite
Because rotorsrotors
composite due to are high
ex- the pads
They against
differ the rotor structural
in material, surfaces.
angled so rotor rotation will tend to throw operating
perimentaltemperatures.
for racing use, there is no There are
design andmany pistontypes arrangement.
of calipers.
off dust. As viewed,
Curved-vent AP Racingrotorrotor
should
hasbeslots
in- Becausethey
certainty composite
will everrotors
find theirare way
ex- They differ all
Regardless, in material,
disc-brake structural
calipers
stalled
angled so sorotor
it rotates
rotation counterclockwise.
will tend to throw perimental for racing use, there is no design and piston arrangement.
Photo courtesy AP Racing. into production cars. However, if the operate on the same principle-when
Off dust. As rotor be in- certainty
car they will ever
manufacturers find their
continue way
to work Regardless,
the all disc-brake
driver pushes the brake calipers
pedal,
stalled so it rotates counterclockwise.
Photo courtesy AP Racing. into production cars. However, if the operate
brake fluid forces theprinciple-when
on the same pistons against
car manufacturers continue to work the driverpads
the brake pushes
, causingthe them
braketo pedal.
clamp
brake
the rotor.fluid forces the pistons against
theCalipers
brake pads,
usedcausing
on most them to clamp
production

I
the rotor.
cars are made of high-strength nodular
castCalipers used low-cost
iron. This on most material
productionis
suited to mass production, andnodular
cars are made of high-strength makes
cast
a rigidiron. This
caliper. low-costcast-iron
However, materialcali-
is
suited
pers tendto mass
to beproduction,
heavy. Race and cars
makesor
ahigh-performance
rigid caliper. However, cars cast-iron
usually cali-
use
pers tend to be heavy.
aluminum-alloy brake Race cars or
calipers. A
high-performance
light aluminum-alloy carscaliper
usuallyweighs
use
aluminum-alloy
about half as muchbrake calipers.
as cast-iron A
caliper
Brabham Grand Prix car is fitted with graphite-composite brake rotors. Exotic material
from the aerospace industry can operate at extreme temperature. Brakes work while rotors
light aluminum-alloy
of the same size. caliper weighs
glow red! Grand Prix car is fitted with graphite-composite brake rotors. Exotic material
Brabham about
Fixed half& as much as cast-ironarecaliper
Floating-There two
from the aerospace industry can operate a t extreme temperature. Brakes work while rotors of the same size.
glow red! Fixed & Floating-There are two
28
Rotor on dragster rear axle has been given
the swiss-cheese look by cross-drilling.
Care
Rotor onmust be exercised
dragster rear axle has whenbeendrilling
given
rotors
the to avoid weakening
swiss-cheese look bythem or ruining
cross-drilling. JFZ racing caliper is typical fixed-caliper design; caliper is fixed and only pistons move.
their
Care balance.
must be Drilling reduceswhen
exercised rotor drilling
weight
Two pistons on each side are housed in cylinders bored in caliper body. Caliper assembly is
and, therefore, the heat it can
weakening absorb.
them This
Or ruining bolted
LFZ to axle
racing housing
caliper or suspension
is typical upright
fixed-caliper through
design; ears at
caliper is bottom. Fluid-transfer
fixed and only pistonstube is
move.!
is no balance.
their problem Drilling
for a dragster
reduces because the
rotor weight sometimes
TWO pistonsinsulated
on each to prevent
side fluid boil.
are housed Photo courtesy
in cylinders bored inJFZ Engineered
caliper Products.
body. Caliper assembly is
brakes
and, are coolthe
therefore, for heat
each itstop.
can Such
absorb,drilling
This
is more critical bolted to axle housing or suspension upright through ears at bottom. Fluid-transfer tube is
is no problem foron oval- or because
a dragster road-racing
the sometimes insulated t o prevent fluid boil. Photo courtesy JFZ Engineered Products.
cars. Beare
brakes careful!
cool for each stop. Such drilling
is more critical on oval- or road-racing
cars. Be careful!
~
Guide-Pin Boot

.; " I

, Outer Pad & Spring

Assembly I

1984 Corvette floating caliper uses

finned-aluminum caliper housing with one
piston
1984 on inboard floating
Corvette side of rotor. Mounting
caliper uses
bracket is darker caliper
finned-aluminum portiol housing
to right of finned
with one
housing.
piston onHousing
inboardslides on rotor.
side of two guide pins
Mounting Blowup of '84 Corvette floating caliper. Guide pins are retained in close-fitting holes in
when brakes
bracket are applied
is darker portiol tot oclamp rotor
right of be-
finned anchor plate. Pins are in line with piston to minimize twisting of housing as it slides. Drawing
tween pads.
housing. See separate
Housing slides on parts in follow-
two guide pins courtesy
Blowup ofGirlock Ltd.
'84 Corvette floating caliper. Guide pins are retained in close-fitting holes in
ing drawing.
when brakesPhoto courtesy
are applied Girlock
t o clamp Ltd .be-
rotor anchor plate. Pins are in line with piston t o minimize twisting of housing as it slides. Drawing
tween pads. See separate parts in follow- courtesy Girlock Ltd.
ing drawing.
basic typesPhoto
of courtesy
calipers:Girlock
fixedLtd.and Floating-caliper mountings vary. than a floating caliper. In severe use,
floating. The difference is obvious Some are mounted on guide pins and it will take more hard stops to make
basic
when you typeslookofat them.
calipers:
A fixed and
fixedcaliper areFloating-caliper
held between machined mountingssurfacesvary. than a floating
the fixed caliper.
caliper In severe
overheat. And,use,a
The Some are mounted on guide pins anda it will take more hard stops to make
floating.
has one or twodifference
pistons on isboth obvious
sides to take braking torque. Others have fixed caliper generally will flex less
when are held between machined surfaces the fixed caliper overheat. And, a
of the you looka at
rotor; floating A fixed usually
them. caliper caliper flexible mount or are mounted on a than a floating caliper.
to take braking torque.
on Others have a fixed calipera generally will flex less
has one piston on only one side ofsides
has one or two pistons on both the linkage. Depending their mount- However, floating caliper is more
of theThe
rotor. rotor; a floating
housing of a caliper usually
fixed caliper is ing, they are also called slidingonora
flexible mount or are mounted than a floating
compact, thuscaliper.
packages better in a
has onerigidly
piston toon the
onlyspindle
one sideorofaxlethe linkage. Depending on their mount-
hinged calipers. However,
wheel. With athefloating
pistoncaliper is more
an d fluid on
bolted
rotor.
housing. TheAhousing
floating of a fixed
caliper caliper is
is mounted
ing,
Floating are
they also are
calipers called
usedsliding
on mostor compact, thus packages better
the inboard side of the rotor, a floating in a
bolted rigidly to the spindle
so it moves in the di recti on opposite or axle hinged calipers.
production cars; fixed calipers are pre- wheel. With better.
caliper cools the piston
The and fluidcali-
floating on
housing.
the pistonA(s). floating
Becausecaliper is mounted
a floating cali- Floating
ferred for calipers are used on most
racing applications. This the
per inboard
has fewer side of the parts
moving rotor, and
a floating
seals,
so
per itonly
moves has in
thethe direction
piston (s) onopposite
the in- production cars;
does not mean one type fixed calipers are pre-
is good and caliper
so is lesscools
likelybetter.
to leakThe floating
or wear out.cali-
On
the piston(s).
board side of the Because
rotor, athefloating cali-
entire cali-
ferred
the other foris bad-each
racing applications. This
has advantages. per
the has fewerside,
negative moving
the parts andfeature
floating seals,
per only has the piston(s)
per must shift inward for the outboard on the in- does
Thenotfixedmean one has
caliper typemore
is good and
pistons so
mayis cause
less likely to leak
the pads or wear
to wear at anout. On
angle
board
pad to side
contactof the
the rotor,
rotor. the entire cali-
the other is bad-each has advantages.
(two or four) and is bigger and heavier the negative side, the floating
due to caliper motion. One advantage feature
per must shift inward for the outboard The fixed caliper has more pistons may cause the pads to wear at an angle
pad to contact the rotor. (two or four) and is bigger and heavier due to caliper motion. One advantage
29
-
Anti-Rattle Clip

Dust Boot- ffiJ

Seal
Piston

Seal Steel Balls

~
~ Operating Shaft

/ ~ Th'''' Be,,,o,

End Retainer
@ ~. a)~ B"'eLe,.,

Pad and Plates

'o'tRo"tioo Pto /~~"W
Thrust Screw Seal
Pad and Plates
Thrust Screw

Floating caliper used on rear of some larger Ford cars features an integral parking-brake mechanism. As parking-brake shaft rotates, steel
balls roll up ramps and push on piston to apply brake. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
r l u a i l l l y CiaIIper useu UII rear UI aume laryer roru cars raarures an lnregral parnlng-urane meclnanlsm. n s parnlng-urane snarr roiares, ateel
balls roll up ramps and push on piston t o apply brake. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
Bridge
Deflection
0-._ DuetoP
\1
I
Caliper

I
Rotor

One-piece AP RaCing caliper is used on Two-piece caliper is for small race cars
small
I race cars using 10-in.-diameter,I Iusing 10.5- in.-diameter, 0.44- in.-thickI Fluid pressure in disc-brake-caliper body
0.375-in.-thick solid rotors.
One-piece AP Racing Caliper
caliper is used onis solid rotors.caliper
Two-piece Caliperisuses
for 2.00-in. pistons.
small race cars exerts a force P on each side of caliper and
available
small withcars
race 1.625 or 1.750-in.
using pistons.
10-in.-diameter, Photo courtesy
using AP RaCing. 0.44-in.-thick
10.5-in.-diameter, tries
Fluid to bend caliper
pressure bridge. Caliper-bridge
in disc-brake-caliper body
Photo courtesy AP
0.375-in.-thick Racing.
solid rotors. Caliper is solid rotors. Caliper uses 2.00-in. pistons. stiffness P onpart
is critical
exerts a force eachofside
caliper design.
of caliper If
and
available with 1.625 or 1.750-in. pistons. Photo courtesy AP Racing. caliper
tries to bridge is too bridge.
bend caliper thick, wheel may not
Caliper-bridge
Photo courtesy AP Racing. fit over it. is
stiffness On the inside, of
criticalpart most car deSigners
caliper design. If
of the floating caliper on road cars is You can visualize caliper flex using want largest
caliper bridge possible rotorwheel
is too thick, diameter, so
may not
the ease of using a mechanical parking a C-clamp. The frame of the C-clamp bridge
fit overthickness
it. On the is limited.
inside, most car designers
of the floating
brake. caliper on road
The single-piston cars is
design is You cantovisualize
is similar caliper flex body.
a disc-brake-caliper using want largest possible rotor diameter, so
the easeoperated
easily of using abymechanical parking
a parking-brake aAsC-clamp. The frame of the C-clamp
the C-clamp is tightened , it simu- bridge thickness is limited.
brake. while
cable, T h e asingle-piston
fixed caliper design
with pis- is is similar
lates the to a disc-brake-caliper
clamping action of a body.disc-
easily
tons onoperated
both sidesbyof the
a parking-brake
rotor is more As
brakethe caliper.
C-clampAfteris tightened, it simu-
the C-clamp is allow caliper flexing.
cable, while a fixed caliper with pis-
difficult. lates
tight, the clamping
continued action
turning of ahandle
of the disc- Because bridge design is a
tons
A on bothbody
caliper sidescanof the
be rotor is more
one piece of brakedistort
will caliper.
the After
C-frame. the This
C-clamp
is whatis allow caliper flexing.
compromise, most calipers have
difficult.
metal or it can be several pieces tight, continued turning of
happens to a flimsy caliper when the the handle Because
about the same bridge
bridge design
thickness.is Buta
A caliper
bolted body Boiled
together. can be one pieceuse
designs of will
brakesdistort the C-frame.
are applied hard. This is what
compromise, most calipers
racing calipers are designed with havea
metal or it can be
only high-strength, highseveral pieces
torque-value happens to a flimsy
The portion of the caliper
caliper when the
body that
about the same bridge
wider bridge to gain additional thickness. But
bolted together.
bolts because Boltedmust
a caliper designs use
not flex brakes are applied hard.
spans the outside of the rotor is called
racing calipers are designed with a
stiffness.
only high-strength, high torque-value
during heavy brake application. Be- theThe portion
bridge. of the
Bridge caliperdetermines
stiffness body that wider bridge piston
A disc-brake to gain additional
is installed in a
bolts because
cause it spansa the caliper must
rotor, thenot flex
caliper spans
overallthe outside
caliper of the Bridge-design
stiffness. rotor is called stiffness.
machined bore in the caliper body.
during
body acts as a curved beam loadedBe-
heavy brake application. by the bridge. Bridge
requirements call stiffness determines
for stiffness, which
A disc-brake
Usually, floatingpiston
calipersis have
installed in a
a single
forces it
cause spanseach
against the pad
rotor,
. If the
the caliper
caliper overall caliper stiffness.
requires a thick cross section andBridge-design machined
piston boreside
on one in ofthethecaliper body.
rotor. Fixed
body acts
flexes, theasdriver
a curved beam
senses thisloaded by
as a soft requirements
weight. Because call the
for caliper
stiffness,
mustwhich
fit Usually, have
calipers floating
one calipers
or twohave a single
pistons on
forces againstIteach
brake pedal. will pad.
also If thetocaliper
tend cock requires
between athethick cross side
outboard section of and
the piston on one side
each side of the rotor. of the rotor. Fixed
flexes, the driver
the pistons. senses this
This reduces as acon-
braking soft weight.
rotor andBecause
inside thethe wheel
caliperrim,
must fit
space calipers
When have one or are
big calipers tworequired
pistons on on
brake pedal.
sistency It will the
and makes alsopads
tendwear
to cock
in a between the dictate
requirements outboard side ofcross
a thinner the each side
heavy, of the rotor.
powerful cars, a single piston
the pistons. This reduces braking con-
taper. rotor and inside
section. the wheel rim,
Unfortunately, this space
may willWhen
not dobig the
calipers
job. Itareis required
difficult on
to
sistency and makes the pads wear in a requirements dictate a thinner cross heavy, powerful cars, a single piston
taper.
30 section. Unfortunately, this may will not do the job. It is difficult to
 caliPer
Pad

;; Seal

-
.. . '

Brakes
,
..
,' Applied
.
... .

. , Brakes
' Applied Piston
. . Piston
* ,
Piston

Frank Airheart, working for Alston Industries, designed this racing Cross section through caliper-piston seal shows position of seal
caliper with noncircular pistons. Kidney-shaped pistons closely Iwithbrakes applied and released. When brakes are released, seal I
match the pads,
Frank Airheart, resulting
working in more
for Alston even pad-to-rotor
Industries, clamping
designed this racing retracts piston through
Cross section from rotor. As pad wears,
caliper-piston seal seal slides
shows on piston
position to
of seal
pressure. Drawing
caliper with courtesy
noncircular Alston Kidney-shaped
pistons. Industries. pistons closely compensate.
with brakes applied and released. When brakes are released, seal
match the pads, resulting in more even pad-to-rotor clamping retracts piston from rotor. As pad wears, seal slides on piston to
pressure. Drawing courtesy Alston Industries. compensate.

Flu id Fluid
Pressure Pressure
Fluid Fluid
Pressure Pressure Piston
Piston
Y'
Pad Pad

Pad

. .-:. -:-;
,. . -.;:: :::,.'
Pressure of Lini ng 11113-1 Pressure of Lining
on Rotor
on Rotor Dual- Piston
Single-Piston Pressure of Lining Pressure of Lining
Caliper Caliper
on Rotor Dual-Piston on Rotor
Single-Piston
Caliper Caliper
Wide brake pad used with large single piston results in uneven pressure on rotor. Unsupported ends of pad deflect and apply little pressure.
Wide pads should be used with multiple-piston calipers. More-even pad-to-rotor pressure resulting from two smaller pistons gives improved
Wide brake pad used with large single piston results in uneven pressure on rotor. Unsupported ends of pad deflect and apply little pressure.
braking.
Wide pads should be used with multiple-piston calipers. More-even pad-to-rotor pressure resulting from two smaller pistons gives improved
braking.
make a large single-piston caliper that tortion with this design . way into many racing app lica tions yet,
fits inside a wheel. As the caliper gets Multiple-piston calipers are used on even though it should work quite well
make
larger, aitlarge
gets single-piston
wider. If a singlecaliper that
piston tortion
most large with this
and design.
powerful cars. Most way
where into many
f1uid boilracing applications yet,
is a problem.
fits
wereinside
useda wheel.
with a As the caliper
wide gets
rectangular raceMultiple-piston
cars with over calipers
lS0-HPare used on
engines even
A though it should
disc- brake workisquite
piston well
usually
larger,
pad, theit pad
getssurface
wider. would
If a single piston
not contact most large and powerful
use multiple-piston calipers. These cars. Most where
sealed fluid
with boil is a problem.
a square cross-section 0-
were used with a wide rectangular
the rotor evenly. If the pad overhangs race
usuallycarshave over or150-HP
with four more engines
pistons . A This
ring. disc-brake piston as istheusually
seal stretches piston
pad,
the the pad surface
piston, it will wouldbend notwhencontact
the use
The multiple-piston
largest calipers calipers.
are found These
on sealed
moves withtowarda square cross-section
the rotor. When the 0-
the rotor
brakes areevenly.
applied. If Only
the padthatoverhangs
pad por- usually
racing stockhaveand fourGTorcars.
more pistons.
These cali- ring.
brakesThis areseal stretchesthe
released, as the piston
stretched
the
tion piston,
directly it behind
will bend the when
piston theis The largest
pers cover calipers
nearly arerotor.
half the found on
Usual- moves toward
rubber seal the rotor.
retracts Whenelim-
the piston, the
brakes are applied. Only
loaded aga inst the disc. Multiple that pad por-
pis- racing stock and G T cars. These
ly larger, multiple-piston calipers use cali- brakes
inating theare need
released, the stretched
for return springs.
tion directly this.
tons minimize behind the piston is pers cover
a fixed nearlyFloating
mount. half thecalipers
rotor. Usual-
using rubber
Becausesealthe retracts
pad and therotorpiston,
surfaceselim-
are
loaded
In anagainst
effort tothespread
disc. caliper-piston
Multiple pis- ly larger, pistons
multiple multiple-piston
are rare incalipers
racing,use
al- inating the need for return
flat, only a slight movement is needed springs.
tons minimizethis.
load evenly against the pad and athough
fixed mount.
BMW Floating
uses a big calipers
ATE using
two- Because
to obtain the pad and rotor surfaces
pad-to-rotor are
clearance.
In an effort
achieve maximum to spread caliper-piston
piston area for a multiple pistons aluminum
piston f10ating are rare in caliper
racing, al-
on flat, only a slight
Consequently, discmovement
brakes neveris needed
need
load evenly
given-size against
caliper, FranktheAirheart
pad and de- though BMW uses a big ATE two-
the M 1 coupe. to obtain The
adjusting. pad-to-rotor
piston moves clearance.
to take
achieve
veloped a racing caliper with a for
maximum piston area non-a piston
Most floating
caliper aluminum
pistons arecaliper
made on of Consequently,
up wear. disc brakes never need
given-size
circular pistoncaliper,
for Frank
AlstonAirheart de-
Industries. the M1 coupe.
steel, aluminum or cast iron. Molded- adjusting. The piston
Some calipers are moves
designed to with
take
veloped
This a racingkidney-shaped
unusual caliper with apiston non- Most caliper
phenolic plastic pistons are made
is becoming popularof up wear.springs on the pistons. Airheart
return
circular
roughly piston
matches for theAlston Industries.
shape of the steel, aluminum or cast iron.
on road cars because of its low cost Molded- Somecalipers
racing calipershave are this
designed with
mechanical
This unusual kidney-shaped
brake lining . Consequently, there pistonis phenolic
and lowplastic is becoming
thermal popular
conductivity. return springs
retraction on theto pistons.
feature Airheart
make sure the
roughly
little pistonmatches
overhang the andshape of dis-
lining the on road cars
However, becausehasn't
phenolic of its found
low costits racing calipers
pad never dragshaveon this mechanical
the rotor. With
brake lining. Consequently, there is and low thermal conductivity. retraction feature to make sure the
little piston overhang and lining dis- However, phenolic hasn't found its pad never drags on the rotor. With
31
 Caliper

-
Rotor
r------1 - - -
- -
- -
- _ ~FF
- ..- - - 1- --"'--------,

- - - - - - -FF- -
. - , - - - Caliper
Mounting
~
y Caliper Bracket
R T
Mounting
Bracket
Bolt

Bolt

Forces on brake pads, indicated by FF' are resisted by a force R at Husky bracket attaches caliper to spindle on this sprint car. Be-
caliper bracket. Because force R is not in line with the rotor, twist- cause spindle was not designed to mount a disc-brake caliper,
ing torque
Forces T is pads,
on brake also applied
indicated toby the
Ffibracket. Effect
are resisted by aofforce
twisting
R at mounting bolts attaches
Husky bracket are too far from to
caliper caliper. Risk
splnale on of
tnlsbracket twisting
sprlnr car. Be-
torque on the bracket
caliper bracket. Becauseisforce
shown R isinnotlower
in linedrawing. If mounting
with the rotor, twist- excessively
cause is reduced
spindle was notbydesigned
heavy plate.
t o mount a disc-brake caliper,
bracket
ing is not
torque sufficiently
T is also appliedrigid,tocaliper cocks against
the bracket. Effect rotor, caus-
of twisting mounting bolts are too far from caliper. Risk of bracket twisting
ing uneven
torque on thepad wear, is spongy
bracket shown in pedal,
lowerand excessive
drawing. pedal
If mounting excessively isreducedby heavy plate.
movement.
bracket Usesufficiently
is not a stiff caliper bracket
rigid, and
caliper this will
cocks not happen.
against rotor, caus-
ing uneven pad wear, spongy pedal, and excessive pedal
movement. Use a stiff caliper bracket and this will not happen.
vents mud, dirt and water from being
thrown up against the inboard surface
vents
of the mud,
rotor. dirt and water
It does not havefrom being
a struc-
thrown up against
tural function the inboard
. If splash shields surface
are not
of the road
used, rotor. debris
It doesmay not have
cause a excess
struc-
tural function. If splash shields
scoring and wear on the inboard side are not
used,
of road debris may cause excess
the rotor.
scoring and wear on
Unfortunately, the shields
splash inboard tend
side
of the rotor.
to block cooling air from reaching the
Unfortunately,
rotor. This is why splashsplash shields
shields tend
nor-
to block cooling air from reaching
mally are not used on race cars. Race- the
rotor. This usually
car brakes is why needsplashallshields nor-
the cooling
mally
they canare get.
not Road-debris
used on race contamina-
cars. Race-
car
tion is a secondary problem. cooling
brakes usually need all the There-
fore, can
they get. Road-debris
deleting the splash contamina-
shield is a
Tilton Engineering sells sturdy caliper- tion is a secondary
compromise betweenproblem. There-
brake cooling
Racing stock cars use the largest calipers. mounting brackets for popular race-car fore, deleting
and rotor the splash shield is a
protection.
This is the popular Hurst! Airheart caliper applications. Bracket
" adapts caliper to
-< compromise between brake cooling
with twostock
Racing pistons onuse
cars each side
the of rotor.
largest calipers. four-bolt
mounting pattern
brackets normally used to
for popular racemount
:;&
drum-brake
and rotor protecti.on.
This is the popular Hurst/Airheart caliper applications.backing
Bracket plate. Disc brakes
adapts caliper can
to
with two pistons on each side of rotor. be fitted pattern
four-bolt in place normally
of drum usedbrakes
t o with
mounta BRAKE PADS
bracket suchbacking
drum-brake as this. plate. Disc brakes can Disc-brake friction material is
be fitted in place of drum brakes with a BRAKE
mounted PADS on a brake-pad backing plare,
bracket such as this. Disc-brake
which is usuallyfriction material
a steel plate . This as- is
mechanical-retraction calipers such as rotor and caliper-mounting bracket lie mountedis on
sembly a brake-pad
called a brake backirlg plare,
pad. Friction
this, a slightly different master- in two different planes, the caliper which
materi aisl isusually
usu allya bonded
steel plate.
to theThis as-
back-
mechanical-retraction
cylinder design is used. calipers
This such as
is dis- rotor andhas
bracket caliper-mounting
a twisting force on bracket
it whenlie sembly is called a brake
ing plate during the lining-moldingpad. Friction
this, ain Chapter
cussed slightly 5.different master- in
the two different
brakes planes,If the
are applied. the bracket
caliper material
process, is but usually bondedit to
sometimes the back-
is joined in
cylinder design
Caliper is used. This is dis-
Mounting-It is essential bracket
is has aittwisting
too thin, forcecocking
will twist, on it when
the aingseparate
plate duringoperationthe with
lining-molding
rivets and
cussed in Chapter 5.
that a caliper not move or flex as the the brakes are applied. If the
caliper against the rotor. Generally,bracketa process, but sometimes
conventional it is joined in
bonding adhesives.
brakes are applied-other is
Caliper Mounting-It thanessential
the lat- is too thin, bracket
mounting it will twist, cocking
at least the
I/2-in. a separate operation
Brake pads are sold with with rivets and
friction
that movement
eral a caliper not ofmove or flex
a floating as the
caliper. If caliper againstbethe
thick should rotor.
used, Generally,ona
particularly conventional
material attached bonding adhesives.
as are brake shoes.
brakescaliper-mounting
the are applied-other structure
than the lat- is mounting bracket
large race cars such asatstock
least
cars 112-in.
. Brakedrum-brake
Unlike pads are sold shoes,withpadfriction
back-
eral movement
flexible, of a floating
the caliper can twistcaliper.
on itsIf thick should be used, particularly on ing plates usually are notbrake
material attached as are shoes.
reused. To
the caliper-mounting
mount. This causes uneven structure
pad wear, is large
SPLASHrace cars such as stock cars.
SHIELDS Unlike
make sure,drum-brake
check withshoes,your pad parts-
back-
aflexible,
spongy the caliper
pedal and can twist on
excessive its
pedal The inboard side of the rotor on ing plates
supply house usually
beforeare discarding
not reused.used To
mount.
movement. This causes uneven pad wear, SPLASH
most SHIELDS
production cars is shielded by a make sure,
disc-brake pads. check with your parts-
a spongy
A common pedalrace-car
and excessive
design error pedal
is steel plate that side
The inboard looksof similar
the rotor on
to the supply
The house
piston before
in thediscarding
brake caliper used
movement.
using thin, flexible brackets to mount most
backing plate on a drum brake. This isa
production cars is shielded by disc-brake
often doespads. not bear directly against
common
theA caliper race-car
to the design
spindle. errorthe
Because is steel plateshield.
the splash that looks similar
This shield to pre-
only the theThe
brakepiston in many
pad . On the brake caliper
cars, there is
using thin, flexible brackets to mount backing plate on a drum brake. This is often does not bear directly against
the caliper to the spindle. Because the the splash shield. This shield only pre- the brake pad. On many cars, there is
32
an anti-squeal shim between the
piston and brake pad. This sheet-metal
an anti-squesl
shim is supposed shimto reducebetween the
the noise
piston and brake pad. This Sheet-metal
caused when the pad chatters against
shimrotor.
the is supposed
Follow to reduce the noise
manufacturer's in-
caused when the pad
structions when servicing chattersthe against
brake
the
pads.rotor.
These Follow
shimsmanufacturer's
may require re- in-
structions when with
placement along servicing
the pads. the brake
pads. Theserace
On some shims
cars,may requirehave
insulators re-
placement along with the
been used between the brake pads pads.
andOncaliper
some race cars,This
pistons. insulators
is done haveto
been used between the
reduce brake-fluid and piston-seal brake pads
and caliper pistons.
temperature. ExcessiveThistemperature
is done to
reduce brake-fluid and
can cause seal failure or fluid piston-seal
boiling.
temperature. Excessive temperature
If an insulator is used, it must be stiff,
can cause
strong, andseal
notfailure or fluid
too large. Theseboiling.
con-

If an insulator is used,makeit must 1984 Corvette rear brake less rotor shows Racing brake pads look similar to those for
flicting requirements thebedesign
stiff,
splash shield. Thin circular plate mounted road use. Pads come with lining bonded to
strong,
ofa goodand not toovery
insulator large. These con-
difficult. behind rotor protects
1984 Corvette it from
rear brake lessroad
rotordirt and
shows a steel brake
Racing backing plate.
pads lookThese
similarpads are de-
to those for
flicting requirements make
Friction materials are covered the design in water.
splash Road
shield.cars usecircular
Thin splash plate
shields to pro-
mounted signed forPads
road use. JFZ come
racingwith
calipers
liningfor use on
bonded to
of a good
detail insulator
in the followingverychapter.
difficult. vide
behindgood braking
rotor in ait dirty
protects environment.
from road dirt and dragsters. Photoplate.
a steel backing courtesy JFZpads
These Engineered
are de-
Friction materials are covered in Most race
water. Road cars use bettershields
aresplash off without
t o pro- Products.
signed for JFZ racing calipers for use on
detail in the following chapter. splash shields
vide good because
braking in a they
dirty block cooling
environment. dragsters. Photo courtesy JFZ Engineered
air.
Most Photo
racecourtesy Girlock
cars are Ltd. off without
better Products.
splash shields because they block cooling
air. Photo courtesy Girlock Ltd.

33
Friction Matarial 4
Friction Matefzl

Stock car running on road course is hard on brakes. Stock cars are the heaviest road-racing vehicles, and are powerful. Brake ducts and
heavy-duty linings are a must on hot day at Riverside Raceway.
Stock car running on road course is hard on brakes. Stock cars are the heaviest road-racing vehicles, and are powerful. Brake ducts and
heavy-duty linings are a must on hot day at Riverside Raceway.

The material that rubs on a brake rotor rubbing surface. The problem is varies, usually between 0 and 1. The
drum or rotor is called friction material controlling the amount of friction friction coefficient for surfaces trying
or The material
brake lining. that rubs
Drum- on afriction
brake brake rotor and
force rubbing
usingsurface.
it to stop The
theproblem
car. is varies,
to slideusually between
is given 0 and
by the 1. The
following
drum or rotor
material is called friction
is attached to thematerial
brake controlling
The friction theforceamountdepends of friction
on two friction :coefficient for surfaces trying
formula
or brake
shoes. In alining. Drum-brake
disc brake, friction
friction material force
things:andtypes
usingof it tosurfaces
stop theincar.contact to slide is given by the following
material is toattached to the plates.
brake The friction force depends the on sur-
two formula:Friction Force
is attached steel backing and amount of force pressing f.1. = Perpendicular Force
shoes.
FrictionInmaterial
a disc brake, friction material
composition is simi- things:together.
faces types of surfaces in contact Friction Force
is
lar attached to steel
in both types
Friction
backing
of brakes, but itplates.
signed for higher temperaturesisinsimi-
material composition
is de-
disc
andEach
faces
amount of force
of these
together.
haspressing
its ownthe
The force pressing the two surfaces
sur-
name. 'the surfaces are slippery - the friction
If Perpendicular
= the coefficientForce
of friction is low )
lar in both types of brakes, but it is de-
brakes. Each ofis called
together these normal
has its force
own, orname.
per- If the
force coefficient
is low. of friction
If the friction is low,
coefficient
signed for higher temperatures in disc The force force.
pendicular pressing the two
Because onlysurfaces
engi- the surfaces are slippery-the
is high, the surfaces grip each other friction
brakes.
WHAT IS FRICTION? together
neers use is called
the normalword force,
normal or per-
for force
better- is the
low. If the friction
friction force coefficient
is high.
Friction exists when two contacting pendiclrlar force. Because
pelpendiculal; I'll use perpendicular only engi-
to is high,
Tires on the
dry surfaces
pavement griphave
eacha other
high
WHAT ISeither
surfaces FRICTION?
try to or do slide neers confusion.
avoid use the Itword should normal
be obvious for better-the
friction friction but
coefficient, force
on isice high.
they
Friction
against eachexists whenThere
other. two contacting
is always perpendicular,
that a higher 1'11 perpendicular
use perpendicular to
force Tires
have a olow
n dry pavement
friction have a high
coefficient.
surfaces
resistance to sliding. This or
either try to do slide
resistance is avoid confusion. It should be
causes a higher friction force. Ifsliding obvious friction
To make coefficient, but on ice
life complicated, the they
fric-
againstfriction
called each force.
other. The
There is always
friction force that a are
surfaces higher perpendicular
slippery, friction force forceis have a low friction coefficient.
tion coefficient has two different
resistance
acts on the to sliding.
sliding This resistance
surfaces is
at their causes
low. If athe
higher friction
surfaces force.
resist If sliding
sliding, fric- To make
values. It is life complicated,
somewhat higher the fric-
if there
called friction force. The friction
point of contact in a direction opposite force surfaces
tion forceare is slippery,
high . Thefriction force is
"slipperiness" tion coefficient has two
is no sliding. As soon as the surfaces different
acts on the sliding surfaces at their
to movement. low. If the surfaces resist
of a surface is described by a numbersliding, fric- values.
start to Itmove
is somewhat
relative higher
to eachif other,
there
point
In aofbrake,
contact in aisdirection
there friction opposite
between tion force
called its iscoefficient
high. Theof"slipperiness"
friction. The is nofriction
the sliding. coefficient
As soon as drops
the surfaces
to a
to movement.
the friction material and the drum or of a surface
value of thisis described
friction by coefficient
a number start
lower to move
value relative
. This is whytoit each other,
is harder to
In a brake, there is friction between called its coefficient of jiction. The the friction coefficient drops to a
the friction material and the drum or value of this friction coefficient lower value. This is why it is harder to
34
 W = Weight
FF = Friction Force
W = Weight
W = Perpendicular Force
Coefficient of Friction =~
FF = Friction Force
W = Perpendicular Force
Coefficient
To slide box, tractorofhas to pull=
Friction IL
with
W a force
equal to friction force Fp Friction force is
related
To slideto perpendicular
box, tractor has toforce
pull pushing two
with a force As first car brakes in turn, inside front wheel locks. Tire smokes as it slides on pavement
sliding
equal t osurfaces
friction together.
force F, In this example,
Friction force is due to heat from friction. Following car can slow quicker because its wheels aren't locked.
the perpendicular
related force force
perpendicular is boxpushing
weighttwo
W.
Static-nonsliding-coefficient
As of front
first car brakes in turn, inside friction is higher
wheel locks. than dynamic-sliding-coefficient
Tire smokes of
as i t slides on pavement
Frictionsurfaces
sliding coefficient is friction
together. force
In this divided
example, friction.
due t o heat from friction. Following car can slow quicker because its wheels aren't locked.
by
theperpendicular
perpendicular force,
forceorisFF/W.
box weight W' Static-nonsliding-coefficient of friction is higher than dynamic-sliding-coefficient of
Friction coefficient is friction force divided
friction.
by perpendicular force, or F,/W.
start something sliding than It IS to Friction coefficient must be high. to emphasize a particular characteristic
keep it sliding. The friction coefficient Friction coefficient must not or several of them. The ideal friction
start
beforesomething slidingis than
sliding occurs is to
calledit static Friction
change withcoefficient
increasingmust be high.
temperature. to emphasize
material a particular
for severe characteristic
or racing use is not
keep it sliding. The friction
coefficien t of friction. After sliding coefficient Frictionnot coefficient
Should wear rapidly. must not or
theseveral
same ofasthem.that The
for ideal friction
lowest-cost
before it's
starts, sliding
calledoccurs
dynamic is called static
coefficient change
Should with
notincreasing
damage temperature.
surface it rubs material for severe
passenger-car use. or racing use is not
coefficient
of friction. of friction. After sliding Should
against. not wear rapidly. thePopular
same friction
as thatmaterials
for lowest-cost
fall into
starts,
Eitherit'stype
called dynamic
of friction coefficient
coefficient is Should not damage
Must withstand highsurface it rubs
temperature passenger-car
one use.categories:
of these basic
of friction.
calculated by the previously given against. failing.
without Organic material materials
Popular friction fall into
held together by
Either type
formula. Justof remember
friction coefficient
that the is Must withstand
Should not be noisyhigh when
temperature
brakes one of these basic categories:
resin binders. Contains asbestos, glass
calculated
value drops by oncethe previously
sliding starts. given without failing.
are applied. or Organic fibers, held
syntheticmaterial together
and may containby
formula.
In a brake, Justweremember
are concerned thataboutthe Should not be there
Unfortunately, noisy iswhen brakes
no perfect resin binders.
metallic Contains asbestos, glass
particles.
value drops once sliding starts.
the coefficient of friction between the are applied.
friction material. Instead, there are or syntheticmaterial
Metallic fibers, fused
and mayor contain
sintered
In a brake,
friction we are
material andconcerned
the drum aboutor Unfortunately,
many thereeach
different types, is no
oneperfect
made metallic particles.
together. Almost entirely made of
the coefficient
rotor surface.of friction
For most between the
brake friction material. Instead, there are @ Metallic material fused or sintered

friction
rna terials,material and the
the friction drum or
coefficient is many different types, each one made together. Almost entirely made of
about 0.3. I'll discuss later howbrake
rotor surface. For most the FRICTION & SURFACE AREA engineers choose to change the
materials, the
coefficient friction affects
of friction coefficient
brake- is For sliding surfaces, the friction coefficient of friction rather than the
about 0.3. I'll discuss later how the
pedal effort. FRICTION
force depends & SURFACE
only on the AREA coeffi- engineers
fric choose to change the
t ion formula.
coefficient of Friction-The
Tire-to-Road friction affects friction
brake- For sliding
cientot surfaces,
friction the friction
and perpendicular coefficient
For tires of friction
with rather
all but widththan the
being
pedal effort.
coefficient between the tires and road force
force. depends
The amount onlyof on the or
sliding coeffi-
rub- friction
equal, the formula.
coefficient of friction in-
Tire-to-Roadhow
determines Friction-The
fast a car canfriction stop. cient of friction
bing surface areaanddoes
perpendicular
not affect For tires
creases as with
widthallincreases.
but widthThisbeing is
coefficient between the tires force. The
friction. Thisamount of sliding
holds true for all or rub-
condi- equal,
a majorthe coefficient
factor that makes of friction in-
the friction
This value varies from less and
thanroad0.1 bing surface
determines how0.5fast tions of s lidingarea
where does not affect
matertal isn't creases
coefficient as greater
width increases.
than 1.0 for This
wide is
on wet ice and on arain-slick
car can roads
stop.
friction.
removedThis fromholds true for
the sliding all condi-
surface. a majortires.
racing factorSo,thatthe
makes the friction
friction coeffi-
This
to morevalue thanvaries
l.0 from less than
for racing tires 0.1
on tions
Skidofmarks
sliding where
result material
from lockingisn't
up coefficient greater
cientcannot than 1.0than
be greater for wide
1.0
on wet ice and 0.5 on rain-slick
dry pavement. The friction coefficient roads removed from
the brakes onthedrysliding surface.
pavement. Each racing
unless tires.
material So,isthe frictionfrom
removed coeffi-
the
to more
for tires than 1.0 for racing
on pavement tires for
is critical on Skid
skid marks
mark is result
rubberfromthatlocking
was torn up cient
slidingcannot
surface.be greater than 1.0
dry pavement.under
performance The friction coefficient
all conditions. It the brakes
from the tires on and
dry deposited
pavement.onEach the unless
Whenmaterial
discussingis removed
handling,from the
I call
for tires onhow
determines pavement
fast a caris cancritical for
acceler- skid mark Because
pavement. is rubber material
that wasistorn re- sliding
the surface.of friction of a tire its
coefficient
performance
ate and cornerunder as well all as
conditions.
how fast It it from
moved the tires
from theand deposited
tires on the
during sliding, When
grip. Thisdiscussing handling,
differentiates grip I from
call
determines
can stop. how fast a car can acceler- pavement.
surface ar eaBecause
does affectmaterial is re-
the friction the coefficient
ordinary of friction
coefficient of a tirebe-
of friction, its
ate and corner as well as how fast it movedConsequently,
force. from the tires the during sliding,
greater the grip. This
cause differentiates
tire area grip from
affects "coefficient
can stop. surface
area area does
in contact, theaffect
greaterthethe
friction
fric- ordinary
of friction."lfcoefficient of friction,
the subject be-
of tires and
FRICTION-MATERIAL
force.force.
tion Consequently,
To makethethe greater the
friction cause
grip tire area
interests you,affects
read my"coefficient
HPBook
CHARACTERISTICS area in contact, of friction." If the subject of tires and
FRICTION-MATERIAL formula work forthe greater
tires the fric-
on pavement, "How to Make Your Car Handle."
A good friction material must have tion force. To make the friction grip interests you, read my HPBook
CHARACTERISTICS
these characteristics: "How to Make Your Car Handle."
formula work for tires on pavement,
A good friction material must have
these characteristics: 35
 In a molded lining, other materials organic materials. High-temperature
such as mineral or metallic particles organic materials usually have a high
wereIn aadded
molded lining, the
to change other materials
characteris- organic materials.
concentration High-temperature
of metai particles in
such
tics of the friction material.particles
as mineral or metallic Later, organic materials usually
them to increase the friction a high
have coeffi-
were
pads for added discto brakes
change were the characteris-
developed concentration
cient and resistof heat. metaiMostparticles
popular in
tics of
from the friction
molded material,material.
as well as Later,
semi- them
racing tolinings
increase are the friction coeffi-
high-temperature
pads
metallic for disc brakes were developed
high-temperature friction cient
organicand resist heat.
materials. The best Most popular
ones work
from moldedWoven
materials. material, as wellgradually
linings as semi- racing
well up tolinings
1250Fare high-temperature
(677C).
metallic high-temperature
became less popular because friction
the organic materials. Theorganic
High-temperature best ones work
material
materials. Woven was
range of materials linings
limited. gradually
Today, well up to
is stiff and1250F
brittle(677C).
compared to low-
became material
woven less popular is found because
in clutch the High-temperature
temperature organic material.
organic friction material
range of materials
discs, but not in brakes. was limited. Today, is
As stiff and itbrittle
a result, compared
is harder to attachtoitlow-
to a
woven
Organic material
friction is found has
material in a clutch
varie- temperature
shoe or pad. organic friction material.
The old-fashioned rivet-
discs. but not in brakes.
ty of ingredients. Manufacturers keep
As
ing amethod
result, itwon't
is harder
worktowell
attach it to a
because
Metallic linings for 1962 Corvette drum theOrganic
'exact friction material has
specifications a asecret.
varie- shoe or pad. tends
the material The old-fashioned
to crack at therivet- rivet
brakes were highly successful for racing. ty of ingredients. Manufacturers keep ing
holes.method
And won't
ordinary workbonding
well becausetech-
Prior to the use of disc brakes, drum Generally, a typical organic brake
the the materialhave tends to crack at the rivet
brakes with these
brakes were highly linings werefor
successful relatively
racing. lining.exact
contains specifications
these components: a secref. niques too low a temperature
holes. And ordinary bonding tech-
fade-free,
Prior to theeven
useonof a disc
3000-lb, 300-HP
brakes, drum Asbestos fia bers for friction andbrake heat limit. Therefore , great care must be
sports
brakescar.
with these linings were relatively lining contains thesematerial
components: niques
used inhave too low
attaching a temperature
high-temperature
resistance. Friction is usually
fade-free, even on a 3000-lb, 300-HP Asbestos fibers for friction and heat limit.
organicTherefore, great care
friction material. mustonly
Trust be
more than 50% asbestos.
sports car. resistance. Friction material used in attaching high-temperature
Friction modifiers, such is as usually
oil of an expert. The best attachment is one
organic
more than 50%
cashew-nut asbestos.
shells, give the desired in whichfriction material.
the friction Trust
material only
is mold
metal particles. Friction modifiers, such as oil of an expert.
bonded to The
the best
metalattachment is one
backing during
friction coeffici~nt.
Semi-metallic material held together cashew-nut shells, give the desired in which the friction
manufacture. materialofisbond-
A combination mold
Fillers, such
metal particles.
by resin binders. Contains steel fibers friction
reduce coefficient.as rubber chips,
noise.
bonded to the metal
ing and riveting also works well.backing during
Semi-metallic material held together
and metallic particles. Fillers, such as rubber chips, manufacture.
High-temperature A combination
organicof bond-
lining
Powdered lead, brass or aluminum
by resin binders. Contains steel fibers reduce
improves noise.
braking performance.
ing and
may riveting
require also works
a special well. opera-
finishing
and metallic MATERIALS
ORGANIC particles. Powdered lead, as brass or aluminum High-temperature
tion on the drums or organic
rotors. lining
The
Binders, such phenolic resin,
Most brake friction material on the improves braking together.
hold the material performance. may require a special finishing
manufacturer of the lining material opera-
ORGANIC MATERIALS
market is organiC. This means that the Binders, agents such as providephenolic proper resin, tion specify
will on the what drumsshould
or rotors.
be done. The
Curing
Most brake
friction friction
material, suchmaterial on the
as petroleum- hold the material together.
chemical reactions in the mixture
manufacturer of the lining
Always follow his instructions, or you material
market is organic.
based products andThis meanswas
plastics, thatonce
the Curing agents provide proper will
won'tspecify
achievewhat should be
the superior done.
perform-
during manufacturing.
friction material, such as petroleum-
a living plant or animal. Early friction chemical reactions in the mixture Always
ance follow
of this ma his instructions, or you
terial.
The friction coefficient and wear won't achieve the superior perform-
based
materialsproducts
wereandwood, plastics,leather
was once or during manufacturing.
a living impregnated
plant or animal. properties of friction material can be ance of this material.
cotton withEarly friction
asphalt or The friction
modified by changingcoefficient and wear
the components METALLIC MATERIALS
materialsThese
rubber. were old-fashioned
wood, leather or
linings properties of friction material can be In the mid- '50s, Chevrolet was
in this magic brew. When you change
cotton
did impregnated
not with
have many desirable asphalt or modified
lining materialby changing
, you are theprobably
components get-
METALLIC
competing MATERIALS
in road races with its new
rubber. These Ifold-fashioned
characteristics. used severely,linings they in this
ting magic brew.
a different WhenWhat
mixture. you ischange
actu-
In the mid-'50s,
V8 Corvette. Using drum Chevroletbrakeswasto
did
tendednot have
to catch many desirable
on fi re! liningin material,
ally you are
it is a secret. The probably
actual per-get- competing
stop in road
a 3000-lb car races
with with its new
its 300-HP
characteristics.
Superior friction If used severely,
material was they
ob- ting a different
formance of themixture.
materialWhat is also is actu-
diffi- V8 Corvette.
engine was a Using drum brakes
big technical problem, to
tended
tained to catch
by on fire!
weaving asbestos- ally
cult to in determine.
it is a secret. YouThe must actual
resort per-
to
stop a 3000-lb car with its
particularly in the 12-hour endurance 300-HP
Superior friction
impregnated fibers material
together was with
ob- formance of the material
a trial-and-error method based on ex- is also diffi- engine
race at was a big To
Sebring. technical
make the problem,
Cor-
tained
organic by
material weaving
to glueasbestos- them cult to determine.
perience to find the You best must
frictionresort
mate- to particularly in the with
vettes competitive 12-hour endurance
the lighter for-
impregnated
together. Today, fibers
asbestos together with
is still used arialtrial-and-error
for a particularmethod car. based on ex- race cars,
eign at Sebring. To make
the company the Cor-a
developed
organic material to glue
in most brake linings, along with vari- them perience to find theorganic
Conventional best friction mate-
materials vettes competitive
ceramic-metallic with the lighter
brake-lining for-
material
together.
ous Today,
binders andasbestos
frictionis modifiers.
still used rial for a particular car.
work well at low temperatures, but eign cars, the
that could company
operate developed
at extremely higha
in most brake
usuallylinings, along with holds
vari- Conventional organic ceramic-metallic brake-lining material
Binder, a plastic resin, their friction coefficient tendsmaterials
to drop temperatures.
ous binders and friction
the friction material together. The modifiers. work well
when hot. atThey low alsotemperatures,
usually wear but that couldcerametallic
These operate at extremely
linings worked high
Binder, provide
fibers usually astrength
plastic resin,
and holdsresist their friction coefficient
rapidly at high temperature. Above tends to drop temperatures.
well, but at the brutal Sebring 12-hour
the friction
wear. Glass and material
synthetictogether.
fibers The
are when
400F (204C),hot. They mostalso organicusually wear
materials These
race they cerametallic
tended to wear linings worked
through the
fibers
beginning provide
to replacestrength
asbestos andin some
resist rapidly
have fade at highandtemperature.
wear problems. Above well,
brakebutdrums!
at the brutal
AfterSebring
these12-hour
early
wear. Glass and
organic-lining synthetic
material. fibers
Friction are
modi- 400F (204C),
However, becausemostoforganic
their good materials
wear race they tendedless-harsh
experiments, to wear through the
materials
beginning to replace asbestos
fiers tune the friction of the material in some have fade and wear
properties when cool, low noise and problems. brake drums! After these
were developed, using an iron base early
organic-lining material. Friction modi-
to the desired level. However, because linings
low cost, organic of theiraregood usedwear on experiments,
rather than abrasive less-harsh
ceramic.materials
Iron-
fiers tune the
Molded brake friction
liningsofwerethe first
material
pro- properties
most road cars when . cool, low noise and were developed,
base metallic using
linings werean offered
iron base by
to the desired level.
duced in the '30s. Woven lining mate- low cost,
High- organic linings
Temperature Organic are Friction
used on rather thanforabrasive
Chevrolet street useceramic.
prior toIron-
the
rialMolded brake fibers
with small linings waswere manufac-
first pro- most road cars.
Material-A special organic lining, base metallic of
introduction linings
disc were
brakesoffered
on the by
duced in the a'30s.
tured using Woventechnique.
molding lining mate- In High-Temperature
called high-temperature Organic
organiCFriction
mater- Chevrolet The
Corvette. for street use metallic
Chevrolet prior to lin-
the
rial
this with
type small fibers was
of friction manufac-
material, the Material-A
ial, has improved special wearorganic
propertieslining,at introduction of disc
ings were excellent for brakes
the time.onOnlythe
tured using
binder, a molding
modifiers andtechnique.
fibers are In called high-temperature
high temperatures. organic mate/-
However, it has Corvette. The Chevrolet metallic
the superior characteristics of the disc lin-
this
pressedtype of friction
together in a mold material,
under heat the ial, has wear
poorer improved
and low wearfriction
propertiesat low at ings
brakewere excellent
has made themfor the time. Only
obsolete.
binder,
and modifiers
pressure and fibers
to produce a curved are high temperatures.
temperatures. It is alsoHowever,
harder on it has
the theMetallic
superior linings
characteristics of the disc
are designed to
pressed together
brake-shoe lining. in a mold under heat poorer and
drums wearrotors
and thanlow low-temperature
friction at low brake has made them obsolete.
operate at higher temperatures than
and pressure to produce a curved temperatures. It is also harder on the Metallic linings are designed to
brake-shoe lining.
36 drums and rotors than low-temperaf~rre operate at higher temperatures than
 Organic friction material attached by bond-
ing only didn't stay attached long under
racing
Organicconditions.
friction material attached by bond-
ing only didn't stay attached long under
racing conditions.
Why does a racer want to use a
"harder " friction material ? The
Grand Prix cars frequently run on courses with long straights and tight turns, which is ex-
Why isdoes
reason wear aandracer
fadewant to use a
characteristics
tremely hard on brakes. Friction-material hardness is selected to match the course. "Hard" "harder" friction material?
of the material. Unfortunately, " soft" The
linings are required
Grand Prix when running
cars frequently run ona courses
race likewith
this one
longon the streets
straights and of Long
tight Beach.
turns, which is ex- reason ismaterial
friction wear and fadetocharacteristics
tends wear rapidly ;
tremely hard on brakes. Friction-material hardness is selected to match the course. "Hard" of the material.
it also Unfortunately,
fades easier. "soft"is
"Soft" material
linings are
organic requiredmaterials.
friction when running
Alla organic
race like this one on the streets of Long Beach. friction material tends to wear rapidly;
the shoe or pad . Many metallic racing usuaJly organic. "Hard" material may
materials, such as plastic resin, disin- linings are dangerous if not warmed it alsoa fades
have highereasier. "Soft" ofmaterial
percentage is
metallics.
organic
tegrate at friction materials. All reached
high temperatures organic the
up. shoe
Whenorcold,
pad. Many
some metallic
metallic racing
mate- usually
A racer organic.
usually "Hard"
chooses material may
soft material
materials, such as plastic
in severe braking conditions. The resin, disin-
as- linings are dangerous if
rials either grab viciously or nothave
warmed
very haveshort
for a higher
racespercentage
or on tracks of metallics.
that are
tegrate at high temperatures
bestos fiber in organic linings can reached up. When
low friction.cold,
In some
racing,metallic
warmingmate-
up A racer usually chooses
easy on brakes. Hard materials soft material
are
in severe braking
withstand conditions. but
high temperature, Thewith as- rials either prior
the brakes grab viciously or have
to using them very
may be for
usedshort
whereraces or is
wear on high,
tracksorthat are
where
bestos
no binder fiber in organic
to hold it together linings
it hascan no low friction.butInnotracing,
acceptable, warming
for street usage . up easy on brakes.
very hard Hardlittle
braking and materials are
brake cool-
withstand. The
strength highmetallic
temperature,
materials but solve
with theSintered-metallic
brakes prior to using themmaterial
friction may be used where wear is high, or where
ing occurs.
no
thisbinder
problem to . hold it together it has no acceptable, but not for street usage.
is used extensively in heavy aircraft very hard braking and little brake cool-
strength. The metallic
Sintering-Metallic materials
linings are manu-solve Sintered-metallic
brakes, friction material
and some high-performance ing occurs.
FRICTION-MATERIAL
this problem.
factured using a sintering process . A is used clutches
racing extensively andin brakes.
heavy aircraft
Some ATTACHMENT
Sintering-Metallic
metal-powder mixture linings are manu-
is compressed brakes, and some high-performance
motorcycle disc brakes use st ainless- FRICTION-MATERI
Friction m aterial is AL attached to a
factured using a sintering
in a mold at high temperature and process. A racingrotors
steel clutches and brakes.
and sintered linings. Some ATTACHMENT
metal backing . On a drum brake, the
metal-powder
pressure. The mixture is compressed
metal partially fuses motorcycle disc brakes use stainless- Friction
backing material
is the brake isshoe. attached
On a to disca
in a mold
together intoata solid
high material.
temperature and steel rotors and sintered
SEMIMETALLIC linings.
MATERIALS metal
brake, backing.
a metal On a drum
backing brake,
plate is used.the
pressure. The metal
Sintered friction material partially
can be fuses
at- To solve some of the problems with backing is the brake shoe.
The friction material is either riveted On a disc
together
tached tointo the ashoe
solid or material.
pad by brazing, SEMIMETALLIC
organic MATERIALS
and sintered-metallic ma- brake,
or a metal
bonded to backing
the shoeplate or is used.
backing
or Sintered
it can be friction
fused onmaterial
during the can sinter-
be at- To ,solve
terial some of the
semimetallic problems
friction with
material The
plate.friction
This material
attachmentis eitheris riveted very
tached to the shoe or pad
ing process . Sometimes, the material by brazing, organic and sintered-metallic
was developed. Semimetallic liningsma- or bonded If
important. to itthecomes
shoe or apart backing
, the
or i t can be to
is sintered fused
a thin onplate
duringandthe thesinter-
plate terial, semimetallic friction material
contain no asbestos. This material is plate.
brakes can This attachment is very
fail suddenly.
ingthen
is process. Sometimes,
riveted to the shoe the material
or pad . was
madedeveloped. Semimetallic
of steel fibers linings
bonded together important.
Riveted-Although If it comes rivetingapart, is an theold
is sintered
This processesto a eliminates
thin plate and the thene~d plate
for contain no asbestos.
wi th organic This characteris-
resins to give material is brakes
way of can fail suddenly.
attaching friction material, and
is then riveted
organic adhesive. to the shoe or pad. made
tics ofof both
steel fibers
organicbonded together
and sintered- Riveted-Although
the method is very riveting
reliable is ,anrivet
old
This processes
Metallic eliminates
friction the need
material that for is with organic resins to give characteris-
metallic materials. Semi metallic lin- way of attaching friction
holes can cause cracks in the frictionmaterial, and
organicon
glued adhesive.
loses some of its high- tics
ings of both well
operate organic and sintered-
at temperatures of the method
material whenisit verygets hot. reliable,
The rivets rivet
Metallic friction
temperature capability. material
This that is be- is metallic
up to lOOOF materials.
(538C).Semimetallic lin-
The steel fibers holes can
seldom cause cracks
fail-usually it in the friction
is the friction
glued on loses some
cause the organic adhesive will fail atof its high- ingstheoperate
in materialwell
tendat totemperatures
melt and weld of material
material when gets hot.
itself. i tAlso, Thefriction
if the rivets
temperature that
temperatures capability. Thismaterial
the friction is be- up to lOOOF (538C). The steel
to the rotor when operated at higher fibers seldom fail-usually i t is
material wears out, the rivets can con- the friction
cause the organicWhen
can withstand. adhesive such will failure
fail at in the material tend to melt and weld
temperatures. material
tact the drumitself.or Also, if thewillfriction
rotor. This score
temperatures
occurs, that the
the friction frictioncomes
m aterial materialoff to the rotor when operated at higher material
the surface wearsand out,
usuallythe ruin
rivetsit. can con-
can withstand.
its backing, and Whenbrakingsuch failure
is severely temperatures.
FRICTION-MATERIAL tact the drummore
Bonded-A or rotor.
modern Thisa ttachment
will score
occurs, the
affected . friction material comes off HARDNESS the surface and usually
is bonding with high-temperature ruin it.
itsMetallic
backing,friction
and brakingmaterialis doesseverelynot FRICTION-MATERIAL
Racers often talk about hard or SO/I Bonded-A
adhesive. There more ismodern attachment
less tendency for
affected.
fade at high temperature, but it does HARDNESS
brake pads. This is slang for how high is
the bonding with high-temperature
friction material to crack because
Metallic
have otherfriction material does
bad properties. It costsnot theRacers often talk
coefficient about hard
of friction or soft
is. "Soft" adhesive.
it has no There holes. is less iftendency
And, the friction for
fade at high temperature,
more than organic material, works but it does brake pads. This is slang for how
friction material has a high friction high the friction material to crack
m aterial wears out, a bonded attach- because
have other
worse when bad cold, properties.
wears the drum It costs or the coefficient
coefficient; of friction
"hard" materialis.has"Soft"
a low it has does
ment no holes. And, to
less damage if the
the rotor
frictionor
more
rotor more,than and organic material,
is harder to attachworks to friction coefficient.
friction material has a high friction materialsurface.
drum wears out, a bondedbonded-
In addition, attach-
worse when cold, wears the drum or coefficient; "hard" material has a low ment does less damage to the rotor or
rotor more, and is harder to attach to friction coefficient. drum surface. In addition, bonded-37
Brake-specialty shop is best place to get facts for comparing Passenger car used for towing should have heavy-duty brake
lining materials. Because they often work with repeat customers, linings. Cheap linings may work in light-duty use, but will have high
shop personnel see
Brake-specialty long-term
shop is best results of using
place to different
get facts materials.
for comparing wear and may
Passenger car fade
used when towing should
for towing heavy have
loads. heavy-duty
Consider vehicle
brake
Stores selling brake
lining materials. linings
Because typically
they don'twith
often work seerepeat
resultscustomers,
of actual use when
linings. selecting
Cheap linings.
linings may work in light-duty use, but will have high
use. personnel see long-term results of using different materials.
shop wear and may fade when towing heavy loads. Consider vehicle
Stores selling brake linings typically don't see results of actual use when selecting linings.
use. with the posItIve mechanical-
attachment feature of riveting. Most
with the positive
racing disc-brake pads aremechanical-
made this
attachment
way. Unfortunatelyof
feature riveting.
, due to Most
their
racing disc-brake pads are made this
curved shape , it is difficult to produce
way. Unfortunately,
drum-brake due toassem-
shoe-and-lining their
curved shape,
blies with it is difficult to produce
this process.
drum-brake shoe-and-lining assem-
SELECTING
blies with this process.
FRICTION MATERIAL
SELECTING
Selection of t he proper friction
FRICTION
material depends MATERIAL
on the following:
Selection of the proper
Vehicle use-easy friction
street driving,
Riveted linings should be replaced when material
hard street depends
dri vingon theracing.
, or following:
rivets get close to touching the drums. Vehicle
Cost versus use-easy
budget. street driving,
Here's what
Riveted happens
linings shouldwhen warning when
be replaced signs hard
Maintenance youorare
street driving, racing.
willing to put'
are ignored.
rivets Most to
get close of touching
lining andthe
rivets are
drums. Shoes are fitted with different types of
gone
upCost
with.versus budget. lining. Upper shoe is darker due to extra
Here'sand
whatshoe is wornwhen
happens part warning
way through!
signs Maintenance you are willing
Drumignored.
are was alsoMost
ruined.
of lining and rivets are Easy Street Driving-For streettouse,
put' metallics
Shoes arein fitted
lining. with
This different
"harder" types
lining of
is
gone and shoe is worn part way through! up with.
most people choose the lowest-cost used
lining.for severe
Upper use.is darker due to extra
shoe
Drum
only was also ruined.
linings lasl longer because they Easy Street
friction Driving-For
material. However,streetyou use,get metallics in lining. This "harder" lining is
have more usable thickness; there are most
what youpeople paychoose the lowest-cost
for. Cheap linings or used for severe use.
the-counter general parts salesman.
onlyrivet
no linings
headslast longer because
to contend with. they friction
pads maymaterial.
squeal and However,
wear outyoufaster
get The problem with 1 easy street driv-
have more
The disadvantage of bonding isarea
usable thickness; there what you pay for. Cheap
than the more expensive ones. linings or the-counter
ing is gettinggeneralbothparts salesman.
good low-
no rivetresistance
lower heads to contend with.
to high temperature. pads may squeal and wear
Consequently, they may end up cost- out faster The problem
temperature withperformance
brake easy street driv-and
The disadvantage
Sometimes, riveting and of bonding
bonding isarea than
ing more. the Worse
moreyet expensive
, they may fade ones.in fade is gettingEven
ing resistance. both goodleisure-
the most low-
lower resistance
combined to secureto high temperature.
brittle material Consequently,
some unexpectedthey mayhard end up cost-
usage. So , temperature
ly street driver brake performance have
will occasionally and
Sometimes, riveting and
for high-temperature bondingRiv-
operation. are ing more.
even Worse
though yet, street
most they may fade in
driving is fade resistance. Even the
to make a hard stop from high speeds. most leisure-
combined to secure
ets are much stronger at extreme brittle material some unexpected hard usage.
easy, it is best to get high-quality fric- So, ly street
The brakes driver
mustwill be occasionally
capable of a havehard
for high-temperature operation. Riv-
temperatures. even though most street driving is
tion material. to make
stop. a hardlinings
Organic stop from
are high speeds.
the best for
etsThearebest
much strongeris achieved
attachment at extreme by easy,
An itauto-parts
is best to getstorehigh-quality
usually can fric-' t The brakes
this type must be as
of service, capable of a hard
they work best
temoeratures.
bonding during the lining-molding tion material.
judge friction-material wear or fade stop.
at lowOrganic
temperature.liningsTheareonethehard
beststop
for
he
process.best-attachment
This is called mold is achieved
bonding byor An auto-parts
resistance. Thereforestore usually a can't
, consult spe- this type of service, as they
should be within their capability, but work best
bonding during During
integral molding. the lining-molding
this process, judge friction-material
cialty shop that deals in wearbrakes.orThere
fade at
notlownecessarily
temperature. The one
repeated hardfrom
stops stop
process.
holes areThis is calledin mold
punched the bonding
brake-pador resistance.
are usually Therefore,
a number of consult a spe-
brake-repair should
high speed. be within their capability, but
integral molding. During
backing plate. A high-temperature this process, cialty
shops in every city or locale. There
shop that deals in brakes. They notIf you
necessarily repeated stops
' ve selected a lining correctly from
holes are ispunched
adhesive then applied in theto brake-pad
the plate are
deal usually
with alla number
sorts of of brake-repair
brake failures. high
matched speed. to easy street driving, dan',
backing
and plate. is Aputhigh-temperature
the plate into the lining shops
And theirin everyrepeatcity customers
or locale. allow
They LlseIf it
you've selected
for racing or ahard
lininguse.correctly
If you
adhesive
mold. During is thentheappliedmoldingto the plate
process, deal
them with all sorts
to judge of brake perform-
the long-term failures. matched
have to pull to aeasy street
trailer in thedriving, don't
mountains,
and the plate is put into
pressure forces the lining material the lining And of
ance their repeat
various customers
materials. The allow
shop either change friction material oryou
use it for racing or hard use. If go
mold.
into theseDuring
holes theand molding process,
high temperature them
foremanto judge the long-term
or service manager isperform-
usually have to
very pull a down
slowly trailer hills
in theinmountains,
low gear
pressure the
activates forces the lining
adhesive. This material
process ance of various
the person materials.
to ask. Take his Theadvice
shop either
withoutchangeriding the friction
brakes.material or go
into these holes
combines and high temperature
the advantages of bonding foreman or service manager
rather than that of an over- is usually very slowly down
Hard Street Driving-Use hills in lowheavy-
gear
activates the adhesive. This process the person to ask. Take his advice without riding the brakes.
combines the advantages of bonding rather than that of an over- Hard Street Driving-Use heavy-
38
duty friction material for hard street
driving or hauling heavy loads. This is
duty
usually friction material for
a semimetallic hardHeavy-
lining. street
driving or hauling heavy
duty material has greater wear resis- loads. This is
usually a semimetallic
tance and better braking performance lining. Heavy-
duty
at high material has greater
temperature. It willwearusually
resis-
tance
cost moreand better
initially,braking
but will performance
be more
at high temperature.
economical overall . It will usually
cost more initially,
Heavy-duty linings should but will bebe morepur-
economical
chased onlyoverall.
after consulting an expe-
Heavy-duty
rienced brake linings shouldSelect
specialist. be pur-a
chased only after consulting
brand that he is familiar with and a n expe-has
confidence in . Ask him what hea
rienced brake specialist. Select
brand that
would use on he his
is familiar
own vehicle with for
andsimi-has Racing caliper is fitted with Ferodo DS11
confidence in. Ask him lining material. This lining is popular for all
lar driving conditions. Go towhat several he
types
Racingofcaliper
racing. is
Photo courtesy
fitted AP Racing.
with Ferodo DSll
would use on his own vehicle
shops , if possible, to see if the advice for simi- lining material. This lining is popular for all Super Vee brake is typical of those used
lar driving
you are getting conditions.
is consistent. G o toBeseveral
aware types of racing. Photo courtesy AP Racing. on small race cars. Rules require using VW-
shops, if possible, to see if the advice brake components.
Super Vee brake is VW cast-iron
typical of those single-
used
that many American cars produced piston-one
on piston
small race cars. Rulesper side-caliper
require using VW-
you
afterare1979getting is consistent.
are fitted Be aware
with semimetallic clamps on solid rotor.
brake components. VWVW rotor bolts
cast-iron to
single-
that many American
disc- brake linings. Most European cars produced special aluminum
piston-one hat that
piston per allows quick-
side-caliper
and 1979
aftzr are fittedcars
Japanese with semimetallic
use high- change
clamps on wheel
solidmounting.
rotor. V WDesign is ade-
rotor bolts to
disc-brake
temperature linings.organic linings.Most European quate
special for light hat
aluminum carsthatwith 160-mph
allows quick-
and Japanese cars , use high- capability.
change wheel mounting. Design is ade-
For hard street driving you may be quate for light cars with 160-mph
temperature organic
tempted to use a high-temperature,linings. capability.
For hard
organic racingstreet driving,
friction you may
material. be
This
tempted
may workto use well a high-temperature,
under severe
organic racing
conditions, but friction
be prepared material. This
for trou-
may
ble during worknormal welldriving. underTheysevere actu-
conditions,
ally have some but be of prepared
the samefor trou-
charac-
ble during normal driving.
teristics when cold as organic linings They actu-
ally have
when hot. some of the same charac-
teristics
Racingwhen frictioncoldmaterial
as organic linings
cannot be
when hot.
kept hot enough to work on long trips Compare Indy Car brake with Super Vee
onRacing friction This
the highway. material would cannot
require be brake in photo, above right. Indy car uses
kept hot enough
repeated to work on long
brake applications trips
to keep dual-piston
Compare lndy aluminum caliper
Car brake with and
Supervented
Vee
on
them thewarm.
highway.
A panic This stop would
caused require
by an rotor.
brake Rotor diameter
in photo, aboveisright,
slightly
lndylarger be-
car uses
repeated brake applications to keep cause 15-in. aluminum
dual-piston wheels arecaliper
used. Indy
and car has
vented
unexpected emergency could have 210-mph
rotor. capability,
Rotor diameter and is hundreds
is slightly of
larger be-
disastrous results with cold brakes. an
them warm. A panic stop caused by pounds15-in.
cause heavier than are
wheels Super Vee.
used. Carcar
lndy speed
has
unexpected
Racing-Selecting emergency the correct couldfriction
have and weightcapability,
210-mph show in theandbrakes. Photo by
is hundreds of
disastrous results with cold
material for racing is easier than for brakes. Tom
poundsMonroe.
heavier than Super Vee. Car speed
Racing-Selecting
the street because the correct
driving friction
conditions and weight show in the brakes. Photo by
material Tom Monroe. Scoop for Indy Car rear brake projects
are more for racing is easier than
predictable-always severe.for most road-racing brakes operate at above body and into airstream. Because
the
Exact street
brakebecause
use depends driving on conditions
the partic- about the same temperature . drag
Scoopisforcreated,
lndy Cartherear smallest-
brake possible
projects
are
ular more
track, predictable-always
driver's technique and severe.
race most
Ferodoroad-racing
OSII operatesbrakesproperly
operateatata scoop body
above shouldandbe into
used . Smaller Because
airstream. scoops
Exact
length. Friction material mustpartic-
brake use depends on the meet about the same temperature.
disc temperature of 780-1100F mean aisfaster
drag car, but
created, thehotter brakes. Maxi-
smallest-possible
ular
thesetrack, driver's technique and race
requirements: Ferodo DSl The
(416-593C). 1 operates
frictionproperly at a
coefficient mum
scoopducting
shouldis be
necessary on shortscoops
used. Smaller ovals
length. Friction such asfaster
mean a Phoenix International
car, but Raceway.
hotter brakes. Maxi-
No fade during material
race. must meet disc
rises totemperature
its operatingofvalue 780-of 1100F
about Photoducting
mum by Tom Monroe.
is necessary on short ovals
these requirements:
Will not wear out during race. (41 6-593C).
0.3 The friction
and is reasonably coefficient
constant in this such as Phoenix International Raceway.
No fade during
Correct compositionrace. to withstand rises to its operating
temperature range. Outside this value of about
tem- Photo by Tom Monroe.
Will not wear
temperatures out during.race.
encountered 0.3 and isrange,
perature reasonably constant
the friction in this
coefficient improved, a harder friction material is
Correct
Because composition
road racing istousually withstand the temperature
is lower. range. Outside this tem- required. There are materials that can
temperatures encountered.
hardest on brakes, let's look at how to perature
Most race carsthe
range, canfriction
use thecoefficient
same fric- improved, atemperatures
withstand harder frictionovermaterial
1200F is
Because
select road racing
friction material is usually
for this the is lower.
tion material because car designers required. There are materials
(649C), but these have disadvantages. that can
hardest on .brakes, let's look at how to
application Most
size therace cars can
brakes use the same
in proportion to fric-
the withstand
Raybestostemperatures over 1200F
M 19 and Hardie-Ferodo
select
It turns friction
out that material for this
most road-racing tion
speedmaterial
and weight because
of thecarcar.designers
Try the (649C), are
1103 but these have disadvantages.
ultra-high-temperature
application.
cars use the same ma terial , Ferodo size
OS 11themabrakes in proportion
terial first and see how to theit RaybestosThese
materials. M 19 and Hardie-Ferodo
friction materials
OSItIIturns
. And out, nearlythatallmost road-racing
road-racing cars speed
works. Check rotor temperature tothe
and weight of the car. Try be 1103 are ultra-high-temperature
tend to wear out rotors and also take a
cars use brakes.
use disc the same OS 11 material, Ferodo
is so common D S l l itmaterial
sure is within firsttheand see how
correct range,it materials.
little time toThese friction
work after they materials
coolon a
DS11.
becauseAnd, nearly all brakes
road-racing road-racing are cars
de- works.
using aCheck rotor temperature paint.
temperature-indicating to be tend to
long wear outConsequently,
straight. rotors and alsoFerodo
take a
use disc brakes. D S l l
signed to be as light as possible, rela-is so common sure it is within the correct
Read Chapter 10 for more information range, little time to work after they
OS 11 is more popular than higher- cool on a
because
tive to the road-racing
power a ndbrakes weightare of de-
the using
on brake a testing.
temperature-indicating paint. long straight.mConsequently,
temperature Ferodo
aterial. It is better to
signed
car. Big,to fast
be as cars lighthaveas possible,
bigger brakes rela- Read Chapter
If the 10 wear
linings for more too information
fast or the D
useS l lbigger
is more popular
brakes than higher-
or improve brake
tive
than to the slow
light, power carsand. This weight
means of that
the on brake testing.
brakes fade, and cooling cannot be temperature
cooling than material.
to live withIt is extremely
better to
car. Big, fast cars have bigger brakes If the linings wear too fast or the use bigger brakes or improve brake
than light, slow cars. This means that brakes fade, and cooling cannot be cooling than to live with extremely
39
high brake temperatures. back is that 11 03 or M 19 material
If brakes run cool, that's good. You tends to wear rotor surfaces more
high
have brake temperatures.
two options: Use softer linings to than is
back otherthatcompounds.
1103 or M19 Also,material
pedal
giveIf brakes
lower pedalrun cool, that's
effort good. You
or reduce air- tends
effort will be higher and they more
to wear rotor surfaces take
have
flow to the brakes. However,linings
two options: Use softer because to than
longerother
to bed compounds.
in. Therefore, Also,usepedal the
give lower pedal effort
changes occur during a race that can or reduce air- effort will be higher
hard compound if youand havetheyto, take
but
flow
overheat to thethebrakes.
brakes,However,
reducing because
cooling longer to bed results
better overall in. Therefore, use the
will be obtained
changes
air is a betteroccur choice.
during Cooling
a race that can
airflow hard
if you can use the softer to,0 Pbut
compound if you have 11
overheat the brakes, reducing
increases aerodynamic drag , so slight- cooling better
material.overall results will be obtained
air is a better
ly smaJler choice.
ducts Cooling
or none airflow
at all will if Other
you can use theracing
heavy-duty softerpads D Parell
increases
reduce drag aerodynamic
and make drag, theso car
slight-go material.
available from various manufacturers.
ly smaller
faster. Thisducts or none
will also increaseat allbrake
will They Other
alsoheavy-duty
tend to be hard racing pads are
on rotors.
reduce
temperature drag. and makethethe
Usually, onlycarvalid go available from various
If you race on supers peed ways, manufacturers.
faster.
excuse This will alsosoft
for running increase
liningsbrake is a Thev
don't also
use tend
a hard to material.
be hard onSuch rotors.
mate-
temperature.
very high pedal Usually,
effort. the
If you onlycanvalid
run 1f you race on superspeedways,
rial cools off too much and the brakes
excuse for running soft
soft linings, Hardie-Ferodo Premium linings is a don't
don't use
worka hardwell material.
when an Such mate-
emergency
Size of caliper used on a stock car indi-
very
workshigh well.pedalIt iseffort. If you can
a low-copper run
organic cates how much energy brakes must
rial cools off too much and the brakes
occurs.
soft
materiallinings,
, with Hardie-Ferodo
a high Premium friction absorb.
Size Usually,
of caliper usedthe on abiggest-possible
stock car indi- don't
Drum work well when an emergency
Brakes-Although racing
works
coefficient.well. It is a low-copper organic brakes how
cates are used.
much Linings are brakes
energy varied tomust
suit occurs.
stock cars now use disc brakes, there
material,
Always run with a high
the same frictionfriction
mate- track and length
absorb. of race.
Usually, the biggest-possible Drum
are still Brakes- Although racing
some restricted-class ma-
brakes are used. Linings are varied to suit stock
coefficient.
rial on the front and rear. If you use track and length of race. chines using drums.disc
cars now use brakes,
If you racethere
in a
Always
OS11 run material
friction the sameatfriction
one end, mate-
use superspeedways. The type of lining
are
class still
that some restricted-class
is so limited, you mightma- be
rial
it aton thetheotherfrontendand
, toorear. If youwarm
. Brakes use that works best for each type of racing chines using drums.
required to use original-equipment If you race in a
DupSduring
l l frictiona racematerial
and reachat one end, use
steady-state superspeedways.
has been developed The overtype of lining
years of class
drum thatbrakesis so limited,
at the rear. you might be
it at the otherafter
temperature end,atoo.few Brakes
la ps . If warmthe that works best for each
experience . If you are new to the type of racing required
There are to several
use original-equipment
metallic or semi-
up during
brakes a racefriction
change and reach steady-state
differently from has
sport,beenconsultdeveloped over yearssup-
your brake-lining of drum brakes
metallic at the for
materials rear.use in stock-car
temperature
front to rearafter a fewthe
during laps.warmup
If the experience.
plier or other Ifracers
you forareadvice.
new to the There
racing aredrum
with several metallic
brakes. Oneorpopular
semi-
brakes change friction
period, front-to-rear brake balancedefer-encly from sport,
Manyconsult
gradesyour brake-liningracing
of high-quality sup- metallic materials for
brand is made by the Grey Rock divi-use in stock-car
front
will alsotochange. rear during
This canthe causewarmup
loss of plier or other racers for advice.
linings are available for stock cars. racing
sion ofwith drum brakes.
Raybestos ManhattanOne popular
Corp.
period, If
control. front-to-rear
you find a great brakedifference
balance ManyMany racing-brake
grades of high-quality
suppliers racingoffer brand make
They is made twoby metallic
the GreyliningsRock divi-
with
will also change. This
in temperature between the front can cause lossandof linings are available
Hardie-Ferodo linings.for stockPremi-
Again, cars. sion of Raybestoscapability:
high-temperature Manhattan 5262Corp.and
control. If you find a great
rear brakes, modify the cooling airflow difference Many racing-brake suppliers
um is the softest lining. Hardie- offer They
519l. make
The 5262 two metallic
compound linings
was with
first
in temperature
or the brake size, between the front
not brake and
friction Hardie-Ferodo
Ferodo Premium linings. Again, Premi-
is recommended for
high-temperature
developed for use capability:
on fast ovals 5262
andand su-
rear brakes, modify the cooling airflow
material. um is the ovals
high-banked softestandlining.
tracks, Hardie-
such as
5191. The 5262 compound
perspeedways with the characteristic was first
or the brake size, not brake friction Ferodo Premium where
superspeedways, is recommended
little braking for developed
of low change for use on in fast ovals and
friction undersu-
material.
STOCK-CAR BRAKE LININGS high-banked ovals and tracks, such as perspeedways with
extreme-temperature conditions. Thethe characteristic
is required . These soft pads are easiest
Because of their high weight, speed superspeedways, where
on rotors and require no warm-up' little braking of
5191low change
material in friction
is softer, but is saidunder to
STOCK-CAR
and horsepower, BRAKE
a racing LININGS
stock car is is
timerequired.
for full These soft pads areIf easiest
effectiveness. brake
extreme-temperature
wear faster. conditions. The
Because of their
the hardest on brakes. Thehigh weight,
mostspeed
diffi- on rotors andarerequire
temperatures low enough no warm-up
to avoid
5191For material
some types is softer, but is said
of oval-track racing,to
and horsepower,
cult track for brakes a racing
is onestock car is
consisting time or
fade forexcess
full effectiveness.
pad wear, Premium If brake is awear faster.
semi metallic or heavy-duty street
the medium-length
of hardest on brakes. The most diffi-
straightaways and temperatures
the best choice.are low enough to avoid For some
lining may be types of oval-track
suitable. racing,
This assumes
cult track for brakes
slow corners. And, racing is one consisting
stock-car fadeForor excess
runningpad atwear,higher Premium tem- is athat
semimetallic
speeds are low, cornersstreet
or heavy-duty are
of medium-length
brakes require more straightaways
attention on anda the best choice.
peratures, try the Hardie-Ferodo lining
banked,may andbe races
suitable. are This
short.assumes
Here,
slow corners.
road course thanAnd,
on aracing stock-car
superspeedway. OPllFor pads.running
These atare higher
the medium- tem- that
brakesspeeds
are usedaremostly low, forcorners
setting the are
brakes require
Certain more attention
medium-speed ovals are on alsoa peratures,
hardness racing try material.
the Hardie-Ferodo
The DPll banked,
car up forand races and
cornering are forshort. Here,
unexpect-
road course
hard on brakes. than on a superspeedway. D P l l pads.
material hasThese
more are the medium-
copper content edbrakes are used mostly
emergencies. The Chevroletfor setting the
semi-
Certain
Disc medium-speed
Brakes - Before stock ovalscars
arewere
also hardness racing material.
than Premium . Consequently, The itD Phas ll car up for cornering and
metallic linings or Bendix EOF heavy- for unexpect-
hard on brakes.
used on road courses , most used material has
increased more copper
temperature resistance content
and ed emergencies.
duty service linings Themight Chevrolet semi-
be suitable.
Disc Brakes-Before
drum brakes . Their huge stockdrums
cars were
with thanwear.
less Premium. Consequently, it has metallic linings or Bendix
Careful testing is required to see if a E D F heavy-
used onlinings
metallic road werecourses,
adequatemostforused
su- increased
For roadtemperature
racing, a hard resistance
lining mate- and duty service linings might
medium-temperature be suitable.
material will
drum brakes. Their
perspeedways hugesmaller
and most drums withoval less wear.
rial will be required on most stock Careful
work properly on your car. to see if a
testing is required
metallic liningshave
tracks. Things werechanged
adequatein for su-
stock- For Hard
cars. road racing,
materials a hard
willlining mate-
withstand medium-temperature material will
perspeedways
car racing. They andnowmostuse smaller oval
disc brakes. rial will
high be requiredbeston ofmost
temperatures all. stock
They work properly
BEDDING INon your car.
LININGS
tracks.calipers
The Things are havehuge,
changed evenin stock-
when cars. operate
will Hard materials
above 1200F will withstand
(649C) New linings must be bedded in
car racing. They now use
compared to the high-horsepower disc brakes. high temperatures
while the popular Ferodo best ofOSall. They
11 com- BEDDING
before they areI N LININGS
raced to ensure proper
The calipers
Indy cars. The are huge, speed
200-mph even poten-
when will operate
pound above 1200Fat (649C)
loses effectiveness about brake operation. must
New linings Bedding be inbedded
brakes inis
compared
tial of a stock to the high-horsepower
car combined with a while
1100F the popular Ferodo D S l l com-
(593C). before they are raced to ensure
similar to breaking in a new engine. properIf
Indy cars.
weight The3000
over 200-mphIb , speed
makes poten-
large pound loses
Two hard materialseffectiveness
are theatHardie-
about brake
an operation.
attempt Bedding
is made in brakes
to race on new is
tial of necessary.
brakes a stock car combined with a 1IOOF (593C).
Ferodo 1103 and Raybestos M19. similar
linings, togreen
breaking
fade incana new engine.
occur. Green If
weight
As with over road-racing
3000 lb, makes large
cars, brake BothTwohavehard high
materials
copper arecontent,
the Hardie- but an attempt
fade is severe is made
brake to racecaused
fade on new by
brakes necessary.
lining must be chosen according to Ferodo 1103 and Raybestos
are still considered organic linings. M19. linings, green fade can occur.
gas or liquid coming out of the friction Green
theAstypewithof road-racing
track and length cars, ofbrake
the Both only
Not have do hightheycopper content, high
withstand but fade is severe
material and lubrake fadethecaused
bricating rubbingby
liningTracks
race. must can be chosen
vary from according
short dirtto are still considered
temperatures. they wear organic linings.
long enough gas or liquid
surfaces. Thecoming
driver out of the
feels greenfriction
fade
the type
ovals, to ofroadtrack and length
courses, of the
to 200-mph Notlastonly
to do they
in a long withstand
hard race. The draw-high material
as a sudden andbrake
lubricating
loss. the rubbing
race. Tracks can vary from short dirt temperatures. they wear long enough surfaces. The driver feels green fade
ovals, to road courses, to 200-mph
40 to last in a long hard race. The draw- as a sudden brake loss.
 Brake-pad appearance changes greatly
after bedding in. Pad on left is bedded in,
but not raced.
Brake-pad Pad at right
appearance is new. greatly
changes If new
pad were
after used
bedding hard,ongreen
in. Pad left isfade could
bedded in,
result.
but not Pads should
raced. Pad atalways
right isbenew.
bedded
If newin
first. were used hard, green fade could
pad
Oval-track cars running on dirt are not ex-
result.
inspectPads
theshould
rotoralways be bedded
surface. in
Friction
tremely hard on brakes. For light cars such
first.
as this late-model
Oval-track stockon
cars running car, softer
dirt racing
are not ex- material should not transfer from the
linings or
tremely heavy-duty
hard on brakes.street
For lightlinings may
cars such inspectto the
lining the rotor.
rotor surface. Friction This machine was used to arc, or grind cor-
work.
as thisCareful testing
late-model during
stock car,a softer
long practice
racing material should not transfer from the rect radius, on brake linings before as-
session
linings oris desirable
heavy-duty before trying
street new may
linings lin- lining to the rotor. bestos was wasdiscovered to be a health
ings inCareful
a race. testing during a long practice
MACHINING This machine used to arc, or grind cor-
work. problem. Consequently,
rect radius, many shops
on brake linings beforehave
as-
session is desirable before trying new lin- FRICTION MATERIAL stopped was
arcingdiscovered
brake shoes.
MACHINING bestos to Better
be a braking
health
Organic
ings material in the lining tend~
in a race. When installing new drum-brake is achieved
problem. with arced shoes
Consequently, many ifshops
drumshave
are
to boil off rapidly when first heated. FRICTION
linings, you may MATERIAL
need to turn or grind turned. arcing brake shoes. Better braking
stopped
Organic
This material material
not only in theactslining tends
as a lubri- theWhen
drums.installing
However,new drum-brake
do not turn the is achieved with arced shoes if drums are
to boil off rapidly when
cant between the lining and rotor, but first heated. linings, you may need to
drums unless they are out-of-round turn or grind turned.
get tapered. In that condition, the
This
it canmaterial
also glaze notthe only acts surface.
lining as a lubri- A the drums. However, do
or deeply grooved. Regardless, brake not turn the braking gets worse, with higher pedal
cant between
glazed surface the lining by
is caused andthe rotor, but
organic drums unless be
linings should theymachined
are out-of-round
to fit the get
efforttapered.and In that condition,
longer pedal travel the
it can also
material glaze the
cooling and lining surface. on
resolidifying A or deeply
drums grooved.
for best Regardless,
braking performance. brake braking
required.gets Toworse,
restorewith full
higherbraking
pedal
glazed surface is caused
the pad surface. A glazed surface is by the organic linings should be machined
Because brake-lining material to fit the effort and longer
effectiveness, machine pedal the pads travelso
material
hard and cooling
slick, and andneverresolidifying
has the right on drums for best braking
usually contains asbestos fiber, performance. required. To restore
the rubbing surface is parallel to the full braking
the pad coefficient.
friction surface. A Once glazedglazed,
surfacethe is Because results
machining brake-lining
in dangerous material as- effectiveness,
back of the pad.machine Deglazing theandpadsminor so
hard andmaterial
friction slick, andmust neverbehas the right
refaced or usuallydust.
bestos contains
Due to recentasbestos fiber,
discoveries the rubbingmay
flattening surface is parallel to the
be accomplished by
friction
replaced.coefficient. Once glazed, the machining
of the hazards resultsof in dangerous
asbestos dust as- to back of the
rubbing thepad. Deglazing
lining and minor
on medium-grit
friction
Bedding material
in brakes mustshouldbe refacedbe done or bestos dust. Due to recent
human health, many new safety pre- discoveries flattening laid
sandpaper may onbea accomplished
flat surface, such by
replaced.
during a practice session, not during a of the hazards
cautions are required of asbestos
in brakedust shops. to rubbing the lining on
as a mill table or a piece of glass. medium-grit
Bedding
race. If theinpractice
brakes isshould long be done
enough, human health, many
Consequently, many new safety have
of them pre- sandpaper
Rebedding laid on a flat after
is necessary surface, such
machin-
during a practice session,
you can bed in more than one set of not during a cautions are required
stopped machining brakein brake
linings. shops.
You as
ing aor mill
sanding.table or a piece of glass.
race. If the practice
pads and have them race-ready foris long enough, Consequently,
may have to search for a shop tohave
many of them do Rebedding is necessary
Also, it sometimes after
helps machin-
to machine
you
later.can
It isbedwisein tomorehavethan one set
a spare set ofof stopped
this, but machining
it is worth brake linings.
it in terms You
of opti- ing or sanding.
a groove in the surface of the brake
pads
unworn andbedded-in
have them pads race-ready
as spares. for may have
mum braketoperformance.
search for a shop to do padAlso,
to get it sometimes helps to
rid of the lining machine
dust. Most
TheI tbedding-in
later. is wise to procedure
have a spare set by
starts of this, but it is worth
The drum-brake-shoe it in terms of opti-
machining apads
groove
haveina the surface
groove of theforbrake
in them this
unworn bedded-in pads as
taking the car out and gradually warm- spares. m u m brake performance.
process is called arcing the shoes. The pad to getIfrid
purpose. of the seems
it always lining dust.
to be Most
filled
ingTheup bedding-in
the brakes. procedure
This is followed starts byby The must
drums drum-brake-shoe
be measured,machining so bring pads have aa second
with dust, groove groove
in themmay forhelp.
this
taking
using the the car out and
brakes verygradually warm-
hard several process
them to isthecalled shop.the
brakearcing The shoes.
machine The purpose.
A grooveIfmachinedit always seems 90 totothebe stock
filled
ing
times.up the
Thebrakes.
car is Thisthen isbrought
followedinto by drums must be measured,
cuts the correct radius on the shoe so so bring with
one isdust, a second plan.
a reasonable groove Seemay help.
Chapter
using the brakes very
the pits for a cooling-off period. hard several them to thecontact
the shoes brake shop.
the drumThe machine
over a A groove machined 90"
12 for details on modifying brake pads.to the stock
times.
WhenTheFerodo car is DS then 11 brought
is properlyinto cuts
large the correct
area. If a radius
mismatch on the shoebe-
exists so oneIf is
you a reasonable
machine theplan. See Chapter
linings, be care-
the pits for
bedded in, aitcooling-off
changes from period.a black or the shoes
tween the drumcontactandtheshoes,drum brakeover fric-a 12 for
ful notdetails on modifying
to breathe the dust brake pads.
and chips.
When
dark grey to Ferodo
a lighter D Sgrey
l l oris brownish
properly large
tion mayarea. be If atoomismatch
high or exists too low, be- WearIf youan machine
approvedtherespiralOr
linings, be andcare-
do
bedded
tone near the surface. Variousblack
in, it changes from a brands or tween the drum and shoes,
depending on where the shoe contacts brake fric- ful
not notblow to dust
breathe withthe andust and chips.
air hose. Pick
dark grey to a lighter grey
of lining material have similar color- or brownish tion may beThetooworst
the drum. high possibility
or too low, is Wear an approved
up asbestos dust respirator
with a vacuum and do
tone nearcharacteristics,
change the surface. Various whichbrandsyou depending
when the right on whereand leftthewheels
shoe contacts
have a not blowThe
cleaner. dustdustwithin an
the air
shop hose.
mustPick be
of lining
learn material have similar color-
by experience. the drum.fit The
different worstthepossibility
between shoes and is up
cleanedasbestos up afterdust the withoperation,
a vacuum so
change
Metalliccharacteristics,
particles are visible which on youa drums. This will cause dangerous pull-a
when the right and left wheels have cleaner.
other people The dustwon'tinbreathe
the shop themust
poten- be
learn by experience.
worn racing-lining surface. Check different fit between the shoes and
ing to the side. cleaned
tially deadly up stuff.
after the operation, so
Metallic
your brake particles are visibleGet
linings frequently. onfa-a drums. This will
Disc-brake cause
pads for dangerous
racing usepull- are other
See people
your local won't breathe
health the poten-
authorities for
worn
miliar racing-lining
with the appearance surface. of Checkthe ing to the side.
often machined to make them flat. tially
safetydeadly stuff. before you take a
regulations
your
liningbrake
surfacelinings
when frequently.
the brakes G e t are
fa- Disc-brake
This can be done padsonfor racing machine
a milling use are See your
chance. local health
Remember, manyauthorities
organic lin- for
miliar with
working the appearance
correctly. This will help of you
the often machined to make
or surface grinder. Be careful. Some them flat. safety
ings contain more than 50% asbestos.a
regulations before you take
lining surface
visually detectwhen when the abrakes problemare This
typescan be done
of brake on a dull
lining milling machine
milling cut- chance.
Most, if Remember,
not ali, new many organic
road cars will lin-
use
working correctly. This
occurs. Make sure the surface is not will help you or
terssurface
in a hurry.grinder. Be careful. Some ings contain more
asbestos-free than 50% asbestos.
semimetallic or non-
visually detect when
polished, crumbling a problem
or cracking. Also types of brake
As brake pads lining
wear, dullthey
milling
tendcut- to Most,
asbestos if not all, new
organic linings road
by cars
1990.will use
occurs. Make sure the surface is not ters in a hurry. asbestos-free semimetallic or non-
polished, crumbling or cracking. Also As brake pads wear, they tend to asbestos organic linings by 1990. 41
Hydraulic Systems 5

Modern fast-fill tandem master cylinder, page 50, has plastic reservoir and integral proportioning valves. Cylinder must be mounted so fluid
is level in reservoir. -
Modern fast-fill tandem master cylinder, page 50, has plastic reservoir and integral proportioning valves. Cylinder must be mounted so fluid
is level in reservoir.

All modern cars use a hydraulic BASIC HYDRAULICS other. The area of each piston is deter-
system to operate the brakes. This hy- To understand how a hydraulic mined by its diameter.
All modern HYDRAULICS
BASIC operates, other. The area of each piston is deter-
draulic system cars use ofa cylinders,
consists hydraulic system we must first consid- Piston area = 0.785 Dp2
system to operate the
valves, hoses and tubing, all brakes. Thisfilled
hy- er the basics. For ahow
To understand a hydraulic
hydraulic system mined by its diameter.
Ap = Area of piston in square inches
draulic system fluid.
with hydraulic consists
The oftype
cylinders,
of hy- system operates,
to function it mustwebemustclosed first
andconsid-
com- Piston
Dp area =
= Piston 0.785 DP2
diameter in inches
valves, hosesused
draulic fluid andin tubing, all filled
brake systems is er the basics.
pletely filled Forwitha fluid
hydraulic
, andsystem
leak- A, = Area of piston in square inches
with liydra~ilic
called jlirid.
brake fluid. TheThe type proper-
special of hy- to function
free - no fluid it must
ou t orbeairclosed
in. and com- D pForce applied to the piston creates
= Piston diameter in inches
pletely filled properly
with fluid, andhydrau-
leak- pressure in the hydraulic fluid . Th e
draulic fluid used
fluid inarebrake systems is Force applied to thediv piston
ties of brake discussed later In a closed,
free-no
sealed pressure is the force ided creates
by the
called
in brake fluid. The special proper-
this chapter. lic system,fluidthe out or air in.laws are true:
following pressure in the
area of the piston: hydraulic fluid. The
tiesA of hydraulic
brake fluid system
are discussed
has later
two In a closed,
Fluid cannot properly sealed hydrau-
be compressed to a pressure is the forceF divided by the
in this chapter.
functions : move brake linings into po- lic system, the following
lesser volume, no matter lawsare
how true:
high area of thepressure
Hydraulic piston: =----E.
A hydraulic
sition against drums system has and
or rotors; two Fluid cannot. Pressure
the pressure be compressedis equal to overa Ap
F
functions: move brake linings
apply a force to brake linings, creating into po- lesser
all volume,
surfaces of theno matter how
containing system.high Hydraulic
in pounds pressure
per square= A
inch
sition against
friction force. drums or rotors; and theTurnpressure.
to pagePressure
63 for is equal
more on over
hy- F p = Force on piston inApounds
P
all surfaces in pounds per square inch
apply
When a force
you tothink
brakeabout
linings, creating
a hydraulic draulic fluidofforthe containinguse.
automotive system.
FpDon ' t refer to pressure In
= Force on piston in pounds
friction force.
system, remember these important Turn to Fluid
Pressure- page 63 for more on
is pressurized by hy-
the pounds-it is pounds per square in ch
When you
functions: think about
movemenf a hydraulic
and force. A hy- draulicoffluid
force for automotive
a piston . The pistonuse. moves in Don't
(psi). refer to pressure in
system,system
draulic rememberhas tothese
do both important
jobs to aPressure-Fluid
cylinder and isis sealed pressurized by the
to prevent pounds-it is pounds
Let 's illustrate per sqimre
pressure with itich
an
functions:themovement
operate brakes. and Theforce. A hy-
movement force of a piston. The piston
fluid from leaking out or air leaking moves in (psi).
example. See accompanying drawing
draulic system has to do both
must be enough to take up all clear- jobs to ain. cylinder and is sealed
The piston must move with little to prevent of Let's
a simple illustrate
hydraulicpressure with one
system with an
operateand
ances the deflections
brakes. Theinmovement a brake fluid from
friction in theleaking
cylinder.out or air leaking example.
piston. Fluid See accompanying drawing
pressure is measured
must be The
system. enough to take
force mustup be all clear-
great in.There
The piston must
is air on one move withof little
side the of a simple
with a gage orhydraulic system
calculated by a with one
formula.
ances and deflections
enough to stop the car. in a brake friction in the cylinder.
piston and hydraulic fluid on the piston. Fluid pressure is
The amount of pressure depends on measured
system. The force must be great There is air on one side of the with a gage or calculated by a forn~ula.
enough to stop the car.
42 piston and hydraulic fluid on the The amount of pressure depends on
 Stop Prevents
Movement of Piston 2

100 POUNDS
100POUNDS Piston 1

-".. . . . .,. >'-..1"1 in.

1 in.", 1 in.
t
'./'<-'---.-
.> 1 in. Hydraulic
PRESSURE
PRESSURE Fluid
--Force
P =~(PSi)
=--
- Force
Area
A1
A, =
A1 = Area of Piston
Piston 1
- 100 Pounds
100 Pounds A2 =
A2 = Area of piston
piston 2
1.OSquare
1.0 Inch
Square Inch F, =
F1 Force on Piston
= Force Piston 11
F2 =
F2 Force on Piston
= Force Piston 2 A
= 100 Pounds-Per-Square-Inch
= 100 Pounds-Per-Square-I nch P=
P Fluid Pressure
= Fluid F P = F, l ( l b )
A1

is force per unit area. A hydraulic

Pressure is Forces can
Forces can be
be multiplied
multiplied with
with a simple hydraulic system. In In this drawing, force F1
F, is
is applied
applied
piston exerts force on
piston on fluid like
like this table t o a small piston
to piston with area A
A,.1 . If large piston
piston A2
A, is resisted
resisted by a stop, F, is created. If
stop, force F2
leg exerts pressure on
leg on the floor. Pressure
Pressure this were a hydraulic jack, stop could be be the bottom
bottom of a car. Force
Force F,2 is greater than FF1 in a
1 in
is force divided by area on
is on which force is ratio that's directly related
ratio related to
t o piston areas.
areas. Because
Because fluid pressure
pressure is
is same throughout,
exerted. If leg-to-floor contact area is piston has bigger force.
bigger piston
reduced, pressure onon floor is
is proportionally
proportionally
Drawing by Tom
increased. Drawing Tom Monroe.
surfaces of the surrounding container.
Fluid pressure acts on the contact sur-
how much force you put on the piston. face
face of the piston, causing movement.
in.
If the piston has an area of 2 sq in. Force 2 will depend on the area of
and the force is 400 Ib, the pressure is piston 2.
follows:
calculated as follows: Force
Force on
on piston
piston == P A,
400lb
4001b . P = pressure in
= Hydraulic pressJ're in pounds per
Pressure = -
= -2--'
2 SQ In.
sq In.
= psi.
= 200 pSI. square inch
inch
A, == Area of piston
Ap piston in
in square inches
A smaller piston gives a higher
pressure. If a piston with only 1-sq in.
I-sq in. This is the same formula as on page
area is substituted for the 2-sq in. in. format. In the
42, in a different format.
example, assume piston 2 has an area
example, Piston Area
Piston Area = A, (sq
= Ap (sq in.)
in.)
piston, a pressure of 400 psi is ob-
tained with the 400-lb force.
force. in. The force
of 1 sq in. force on011 it at a fluid Fluid
Hydraulic Fluid
pressure of 200 psi is 200 lb. Ib. If we iI
Force Multiplication-Pistons
Multiplication-Pistons can be Sealed Container
used to multiply force in a hydraulic change piston 2 to an area of 4 sq in., in.,
the force Ib. The pres-
force increases to 800 lb. P= W (psi)
W
system. By choosing pistons of dif- dif- =- (psi)
Ap
A,
ferent sizes, any relationship with change-only the force
sure does not change-only
forces is possible. on the piston. The larger the piston,
A simple hydraulic system with two force with the same
the greater the force Simple hydraulic system with one piston piston
pistons is shown in the accompanying pressure. and pressure gage. By putting
and putting force on
on
s i m ~ l eformula
We can write a simple formula forfor piston, fluid is pressurized. Pressure is the
drawing. The pistons can have dif- dif- force-weight in
force-weight in this instance-divided
instance-divided by
areas. The relationship between
ferent areas. the relationship between the forces
forces on
area of piston. Fluid
Fluid pressure
pressure acts equally
the two forces
forces depends on the rela- the two pistons: on all surfaces of container.
on
tionsllip
tionship between the piston areas.
areas.
Assume piston 1 has an area of 2 sq _ F1A2 To increase the force on piston 2,
F ---
in. and a 400-lb force
in. it. I
force applied to it. 2 A1 you can reduce piston-l
piston-I area or in-
showed in the previous example that F1
F, == Force
~ o r c on
e piston
on piston 11 in
in pounds crease piston-2 area.
area. Force can only
this created 200-psi fluid pressure.
pressure. F,2 == Force
F Forceon piston 2 in
on piston in pounds be changed in a brake system by
A, == Area of piston
A1 piston 1 inin square
Piston 2 now is sUbjected
subjected to this inches
inches area(s).
changing piston area (s).
fluid pressure. Remember
200-psi fluid A, == Area
A2 ~ r e of is ton 2 in
a piston in square
sauare Do not use piston diameter in place
that fluid pressure acts equally on all inches
inches area! Piston area varies as the
of area!

43
 A*x
Piston
Area Ap
Area
Piston
Direction--.,,-/
of
Movement
Direction
of
Movement
1- --I
-
I
Input
t
Movement
Output
Force
Output
Force

Output
Movement
+ Movement Mp
+
~~---
lnput
Piston

/
Fluid Displacement

Fluid Fluid Displacement

displaced
=

by piston
ApMp (cu in.)
Movement M,
= ApMp (cuarea
equals in.) of I
Movement
t
piston
I multiplied by distance it moves. LikeI
aFluid
car engine,
displaceddisplacement can be given
by piston equals in
area of
cubic
pistoninches (cu in.).
multiplied by distance it moves. Like Hyraulic-brake system operates like this simple lever; increases force and reduces
a car engine, displacement can be given in movement. Input side is the brake pedal. Input force and movement are supplied by your
cubic inches (cu in.). leg. Output side is the brake. Output force is exerted perpendicular by brake linings against
rubbing surfaces.
movement. Output
lnput side movement
is the takeslnput
brake pedal. up all clearance
force in system
and'movement aresosupplied
brakes by
canyour
be
applied.
leg. Output side is the brake. Output force is exerted perpendicular by brake linings against
rubbing surfaces. Output movement takes up all clearance in system so brakes can be
applied.
To calculate movements in a hy- cu in. of fluid displacement, piston 2
draulic system, you need to consider must move 1/2 in.
To calculate
fluid movements
displacement when ain piston
a hy- cuThe
in. ofrelationship
fluid displacement,
betweenpiston
piston2
draulic system,
moves. you need
Displacement to consider
is the area of must move 112
movement in in.
a simple two-piston
fluid
the piston times when
displacement a pistonit
the distance The relationship
system is given by between piston
the following
moves. Displacement is
moves , or the same as cylinderthe areadis-
of movement
formul a: in a simple two-piston
the piston of times
placement a pistonthein distance
an engine.it system is given by the following
moves, stroke
Piston or the issame as cylinder
piston movement dis-; M1A1
formula:
M =--
placement of a piston in
greater piston movement means an engine. 2 A2
Piston displacement.
greater stroke is piston movement; M, = Movement of piston 1 in inches
greater piston movement means M 2 = Movement of piston 2 in inches
Fluid displacement = Ap M~
greater displacement.
Ap = Area of piston in square M, == Area
A1 Movement of piston
of piston 1 in inches
1 in square
Fluid inches
displacement = A, M, M, = inches
Movement of piston 2 in inches
A , = A = Area of piston
A,2 = piston 21 in
in square
Floor jack illustrates relationship between Mp = Area of piston
Movement in square
of that piston in
force and movement in a hydraulic system. inches
inches inches
Handle hasillustrates
Floor jack a low forcerelationship
and high movement
between M, = Movement of that piston in A, = Area of piston 2 in square
versusand
force high force and
movement in alow movement
hydraulic at
system. Because
incheshydraulic fluid cannot be To inches
increase the movement of
jack pad.
Handle has a low force and high movement compressed, the following relation- piston 2, increase the area of piston 1
versus high force and low movement at Because
ship exists: hydraulic fluiddisplacement
In ward flUid cannot be or To
reduceincrease
the area the movement
of piston 2. of
jack pad. piston 2, increase the area of piston
compressed,
= Outwardfluid displacement. relation-
the following Remember that fluid mo vement1
square oj the diameter. Calculate all ship exists:
If the Inward
hydraulic fluid has
system displacement
only two or reduce the
depends on area of piston
piston area 2.and dis-
piston areas first so you won't make = Out wardfluid displacement.
pistons, such as shown in in the ac- Remember
place ment. Mistakesthat fluid in movement
calcul ation
costly of the diameter. Calculate all
squaremistakes. If the hydraulic
companying system
drawing, thehas only dis-
inward two depends
occur when ondiameter
piston isarea usedand dis-
in place
piston areas first so you won't make
Piston Movement-Hydraulic sys- pistons, such
placement of asoneshown
pistoninmust
in the ac-
equal placement. Mistakes in
of area, and movement in place of calculation
costly
tems mistakes.
must provide both force and companying drawing, the
outward displacement of the other inward dis- occur when diameter
displacement. Use care is used within place
your
Piston
movement. Movement-Hydraulic
We just looked at how sys- placement
piston. Thisofbasiconerelationship
piston must equal
remains of area, and. Double-check!
calculations movement in place of
tems must provide both
forces relate. Piston movement also force and outward displacement
constant regardless of of the other
system com- displacement.
Force/Movement Use care with your
Relationships-
movement. We just looked
depends on piston areas, but not on at how piston. This
plexity. All basic relationship
inward-displa remains
cement tolals calculations. Double-check!
As seen from previous formulas,
forces relate. Piston
fluid pressure. Pressure movement also,
affects force constant
must total regardless of system com-
all outward-displacem ent Force/Movement
there is a relationshipRelationships-
between force
depends
not movement.on piston areas, but not on plexity.
totals. All incva1.d-displacemenr totals As a seen
on pistonfromand itsprevious
movement. formulas,
Both
fluid
If apressure.
system is Pressure affects force,
filled completely with must
Now,total
let's alluseoutwat,d-displacemen(
a simple example there is a relationship between
are related to piston area . It is possible force
not movement.
fl uid, that fluid cannot change totals.
with a two-piston system . Assume on a piston
to have forceand its movement.
without movementBoth , or
If a system
volume, no ismatter
filled completely
how high with the Now,1 let's
piston has an useareaa simple
of 2 sq example
in. If it are related to
movement piston force
without area. .ItHowever,
is possiblea
fluid,
pressure.that This fluid is cannot change
hydraulic-la'v with
movesa inward
two-piston
1 inch, system. Assume
its inward dis- to havesystem
brake force without
has both movement,
forces and or
volume,
number 1. no This
mattermeanshow that
high anythe piston
placement 1 has
is 2ancuarea of 2outward
in. The sq in. If dis-it movement
movements. The relationships be-a
without force. However,
pressure. This is hydraulic-la-v
motion inward on a piston must result moves inward
placement 1 inch,
of piston its inward
2 must also be dis-2 brake system
tween movement has andbothforceforces and
is very
number
in an outward 1. This motionmeans that any
elsewhere in placement is
cu in. If piston 2 has an area of 1dis-
2 cu in. The outward sq movements.
important. The relationships be-
motion
the system inward o n a piston
. A good mustsystem
hydraulic result placement
in., of piston
its outward 2 must will
movement also bebe 22 tween movement
Formulas for forceandand force is v&y
movement
in rigid,
is an outward motion should
so movement elsewhere occur in cu
in. To If pistonthe2 move
in. change has an men area
t ofofpiston
1 sq important.
both depend on piston area. However,
the
onlysystem. A good
at another hydraulic
piston. If the system
hoses , in., its outward movement
2, you must change its area . A larger-2 will be Formulas changes
piston-area for force cause
and movement
opposite
is rigid,
lines so movement
or cylinders expand should
when the occur
hy- in. Topiston
area changewillthemove
movementless; aofsmaller
piston both depend
changes on piston
in forces andarea. However,
movements.
only at another piston.
draulic fluid is pressurized, theIf the hoses, 2, you
one mustAssume
more. change now its area.
that Apiston
larger-2 piston-areain changes
Changes area thatcause create opposite
more
lines or will
system cylinders expandaswhen
not function the hy-
designed . area piston towill
is changed an move
area ofless;
4 sqa insmaller
. for 2 changes in forces and movements.
force on a piston result in less move-
draulic fluid is pressurized, the one more. Assume now that piston 2 Changes in area that create more
system will not function as designed.
44 is changed to an area of 4 sq in. for 2 force on a piston result in less move-
ment of that piston. The system
works like a simple lever, as shown in To
ment of that piston.
the accompanying drawing. The system Front
Brakes~
To
works
One like a simple
simple lever, as hydraulic
two-piston shown in --w- To Rear Brakes

-
the accompanying drawing. Front
system is used in a hydraulic jack. The Front-And-Rear
Brakes*
jackOne simpleboth
supplies two-piston
force and hydraulic
move- Split System
system Front -And-Rear
ment atis usedthe samein a hydraulic
time , suchjack. asThea Input Split System
jack
brakesupplies
system .both Theforce jack andhandlemove- is Force
ment
movedatwith theforce.
same This time,
forcesuch as a
is applied
brake system. ofThe jack Master
to the bottom a car and handle
it moves is Right Front Brake
Cylinder Right Rear Brake
moved
the car with force.When
This force is applied

~
upward. using a jack,
to
notethethat
bottom of a car
the handle forceandis less
it moves
than Right Front Brake Right Rear Brake
the car upward. When
the force on the car. You can easilyusing a jack,
lift
Diagonally
anote that the
2000-lb car handle
using lessforce is less
than than
50 Ib at Split
the
the force
handle. on Force
the car.is You can easily
increased lift
by the System
Diagonally
a 2000-lb car Input
difference in using
piston less thanNote
sizes. 50 Ib at
also ~Force Split
the handle. Force is
how great the movement of the increased by the lnput System
difference in piston tosizes. Note also
-
handle is compared the movement Force
howthegreat
of jack pad the ormovement
car. Movement of the is
handle
reduced,is but
compared
force istoincreased
the movement Left Front Brake Left Rear Brake
of the jack
creased pistonpadsize
or car.
that Movement
by in-
operates the is I I
reduced, but force is increased by in- Most modern carsLeft useFront
tandem master cylinders-two pistons
Brake Left in oneBrake
Rear bore. Each piston oper-
jack pad. ates brakes at two wheels. If one system fails, 50% braking is left. Most tandem master
creased
Input & piston
Outputsize that Operates
Pistons-A hydraulicthe cylinders
Most modernoperate
cars separate front
use tandem and rear
master systems. Another
cylinders-two pistonsone used
in one on road
bore. Eachcars hasoper-
piston a di-
jack
system pad.uses force and movement ap- agonally splitatsystem
ates brakes as shown.
two wheels. I deal
If one only fails,
system with front-and-rear
50% braking issplit
left.systems, because
Most tandem it's
master
Input
plied to& Output
an inputPistons-A
piston and hydraulic
provides the type most
cylinders high-performance
operate separate front cars use. systems. Another one used on road cars has a di-
and rear
system uses force and movement ap- agonally split system as shown. I deal only with front-and-rear split systems, because it's
force and movement on an ourput the type most high-performance cars use.
plied to an input pistoil
piston. With a hydraulic jack, the and provides
force
handleand movement
operates an inputonpiston.an o~ltput
The Filler Cap
~:;::::::::::::Lr-
piston. With a hydraulic
piston is connected to the jack pad, jack, the
handle operates an input
which raises th e car. With a brake piston. The
piston is aconnected to the the
jack input
pad, Pushrod
system, pedal operates
which
piston raises
and outputthe car.pistonsWithapplya brake
the
system,
brakes . a pedal operates the input
piston and output pistons apply the
brakes.
BRAKE-SYSTEM HYDRAULICS
These laws of hydraulics explain
BRAKE-SY
how a basic STEM HYDRAULICS
brake system works. Al-
though the basics are simple,explain
These laws of hydraulics there
how acomplications
are basic brake systemwith works. Al-
the auto-
though the basics
motive-brake are simple,
system. there
I'll describe Dust Boot
are separately.
each complications with the auto- Residual-Pressure
motive-brake system. I'll describe Check Valve
The input piston is in the master dual-Pressure
each separately.
cylinder. Modern brake systems use CheckFluid
Valveenters cylin-
Single master cylinder is basic. Fluid reservoir is directly above cylinder.
Theinput-piston
dual input piston master
is in the master
cylinders. der through ports in reservoir. Pushrod moves piston to right to pressurize brake fluid.
cylinder. Modern brake
Each piston operates two brakes. systems use Drawing
Single courtesy
master Bendix
cylinder Corp. Fluid reservoir is directly above cylinder. Fluid enters cylin-
is basic.
dual
Usually, input-piston
front brakesmaster are cylinders.
on one der through ports in reservoir. Pushrod moves piston to right to pressurize brake fluid.
Each piston
system and rearoperates
brakes two are brakes.
on the Drawing
tons arecourtesy
usually Bendix
twice Corp.
the diameter of quired to place the lining in contact
Usually,
other. But some dual systems on
front brakes are one
operate master-cylinder pistons. with each rubbing surface. The total
system and rear brakes
a diagonal pair of brakes with eachare on the tons
A are usually
simple twice the
approach to diameter
hydraulicsof quired
volume toofplace
movingthe fluid
liningmust
in contact
equal
other.
piston,Butsuchsome dual
as the systemsand
right-front operate
left- master-cylinder
seems to "say"pistons.
that large-diameter with each rubbingofsurface.
the displacement The total
all pistons that
diagonal
arear, and vicepair of brakes with each
versa. A simple
pistons could approach
be used at to thehydraulics
brakes to volume
move. of moving fluid must equal
piston,
Output pistons right-front
such as the are locatedand left-
inside seems to "say" that large-diameter
produce high forces at the brakes. displacement
theThis displacement of all pistons that
is provided by
rear, and vice versa.
the brakes. Disc-brake calipers use pistonswould
This could give
be used lowat the
pedalbrakes to
effort. move.
master-cylinder-piston movement.
Output
one or more pistons
outputarepistons
locatedto inside
move produce high
Therefore, forces
power assistatwould
the brakes.
not be This displacement
Because is provided
fluid volume doesn't change,by
the brakes.clamping
the pads, Disc-brake calipersDrum
the rotor. use This would
required. give low pedal
Unfortunately, effort.
this doesn 't master-cylinder-piston
the inward displacement of movement.
the input
one or more output pistons
brakes use one or more output pistons to move Therefore, power assist would
work. The problem is input-piston not be Because fluid volume
pistons must equal the doesn't
outwardchange,
dis-
the moving
for pads, clamping
the shoes thetorotor.
contactDrum
the required.
movement, Unfortunately,
which translatesthis doesn't
into the inward displacement of
placement of all output pistons in the input
the
brakes use
drums. one or moreoutput
Drum-brake output pistons
pistons work. brake-pedal
excess The problem is input-piston
travel. Let's take a pistons. This
system must rule
equal the outward
assumes dis-
a hydraulic
for moving
are about the thesame
shoesdiameter
to contact as the
the movement,
closer which
look at why translates
this is true. into placement
system so of all that
rigid output pistonsdeflects
nothing in the
drums. Drum-brake output
master-cylinder input pistons. Disc pistons excess
Pedal Travel-To take up clearancesa
brake-pedal travel. Let's take system. This rule assumes
from forces in the system. a hydraulic
are
brakesabout
havethenosame
servodiameter
action, soas they
the closer looksystem,
in a brake at why this is true.
pistons must move . system so rigid that nothing
If a small-diameter deflects
master-cylinder
master-cylinder
require higher input
force pistons. Disc
to operate. Pedal Travel-To
Clearance takeeach
is built into up brake,
clearances
and from
pistonforces
is usedin with
the system.
large pistons at the
brakes have nodisc-brake-caliper
Consequently, servo action, so they pis- in a brake system, pistons
is equal to the piston movement must move.
re- If a small-diameter
brakes, greater movement master-cylinder
is required
require higher force to operate. Clearance is built into each brake, and piston is used with large pistons at the
Consequently, disc-brake-caliper pis- is equal to the piston movement re- brakes, greater movement is required
45
 are created by the master-cylinder
piston . This piston is connected to the
are
brakecreated
pedal with by athe simplemaster-cylinder
linkage and
piston.
pushrod. This piston is connected to the
brake
The pedaltypical withmodern
a simpleroad linkage car and has
pushrod.
one master cylinder containing two
T h e typical
pistons, while modern
race carsroad are car has
usually
one master
equipped withcylinder
a separate containing
master cylin- two
pistons,
der for each whilepair race cars are usually
of brakes.
equipped with a
Single Master Cylinder-Theseparate master cylin- sim-
der
plestformaster
each pair of brakes.
cylinders, such as those
Girling single master cylinder is type found Typical master-cylinder piston with seals;
on many race cars, typically in dual master- larger seal at right seals high-pressure Single
used on Master
production Cylinder-The
cars with hydraulic sim-
cylinder setup.
Girling single It iscylinder
master small, issimple and
type found system. master-cylinder
Typical Left seal keepspiston
fluid with
that's be-
seals; plest master
brakes up to the early '60s, have a such as
on many raceWhite
lightweight. cars, nylon
typically in dual master-
cap/reservoir ex- tween
larger seals from
seal at leaking
right sealsouthigh-pressure
open end of used on piston
single production to cars with hydraulic
operate all four
tension setup.
cylinder increases
It is reservoir capacity.
small, simple and master
system.cylinder. Both
Left seal are cup-type
keeps seals.be-
fluid that's brakes upSeeto the
brakes. early '60s, have
accompanying photo.a
Cylinders areWhite
lightweight. also used
nylontocapheservoir
operate hydrau-ex- tween seals from leaking out open end of single piston to operate all four
lic clutches.
tension increases reservoir capacity. master cylinder. Both are cup-type seals. Today's safety laws have made them
Cylinders are also used to operate hydrau-
brakes. See
obsolete. accompanying
Regardless, single master-photo.
lic clutches. Today's safety
cylinder systems laws are have made them
still worth look-
obsolete.
ing at because Regardless, they single
are easy master- to
cylinder
understand. systemsAnd,are stillare
they worth used look-on
ing
most atracebecause
cars. they are easy to
Fluid-Inlet Port
Compensating Port understand.
Note thatAnd, most theyhydraulic-fluid
are used on
most race cars.
reservoirs are integral with their
Note cylinders
master that mostand hydraulic-fluid
are directly
reservoirs
above the piston. are integral
The piston with their
is moved
master in
forward cylinders
the cylinder and by area pushrod
directly
Force above the to
attached piston.
the The brakepistonpedal.is movedThe
On Piston-_~~
From
forward
piston is returned by a springpushrod
in the cylinder by a against
ForcePushrod
On Piston attached
the piston to when
the brake pedalpedal. forceThe is
Cup-Type piston is returned by a spring against
From Pus Seal removed.
Cup-Ty pe theTherepiston are two when holes,pedal
or ports, forcein the is
Seal removed.
reservoir that allow fluid to enter the
There are
cylinder. Thesetwo holes,
are calledor ports,the in the
fluid-
reservoir
inlet port and that compensating
allow fluid toport. enterWhen the
acylinder.
piston isThese at rest, arethe called the fluid-
compensating

As master-cylinder piston is pushed forward, sealL Cylinder

slides past compensating port and traps
fluid inside bore. Piston in this position can now pressurize brake fluid to apply brakes.
port is ahead and the fluid inlet When
inlet port
a piston
just behind
port of
face
just
is ahead
and

the piston.
compensating
is attherest,
and the
port.
the compensating
lip forming
fluidposition,
In this
the lip forming
port is
the front
inlet portthe
front
is
As master-cylinder piston is pushed forward, seal slides past compensating port and traps pistonbehind
rests against a clip or the retaining
fluid inside bore. Piston in this position can now pressurize brake fluid to apply brakes. face
ring ofthattheprevents
piston. Inthe thisreturn
position, springthe
at the master cylinder to take up piston rests against a
from pushing the piston out the end clip or retaining
Brake clearances.
clearances. The problem is, only so Designed clearances and wear in
ring
of thethat prevents the return spring
cylinder.
at
muchthe pedal
master cylinder
travel to take
is available up
at the Brakeclearances.
linkage. from
As the brakesthe
pushing arepiston
applied, outa pushrod
the end
clearances.
master cylinder.The Thisproblem
is whyis,you
only so
can't Designed of
Swelling clearances
hydraulicandhoseswearand in of the cylinder.
moves the piston forward in the
much pedal travel is available
design a system for forces without at the linkage.
other parts of the hydraulic system. As the brakes
cylinder. The piston are applied,
movesa pushrod
forward
master cylinder.
considering This is why you can't
movement. Swelling
Compression of ofhydraulic
hydraulichoses
fluid. and movesthethe
with lip ofpiston
the seal forward
covering in the the
design a system for
Unfortunately, the forces without
characteristics other parts of theofhydraulic
Compression system.
air bubbles in hy- cylinder.
compensating The port.pistonBefore moves thisforward
port is
considering movement.
of a real brake system are worse than a Compression
draulic fluid. of hydraulic fluid. with the piston
covered, lip of the motionseal forces
covering excessthe
Unfortunately,
theoretically perfectthe characteristics
hydraulic system. Compression
Bending of ofpedal, air bubbles
linkage in hy-
or compensating port. Before
fluid back into the reservoir. Look this port is
of a real
For brake system
example, are worse
the forces are asthan
cal-a draulic fluid.
brackets. covered, piston motion reservoir
into a master-cylinder forces excess and
theoretically
culated except perfect hydraulic
for a small system.
loss of force Bending
Deflection ofof pedal,
calipers, linkage
drums or or fluid
you see back slightintofluidthemotion
reservoir.
just as Lookthe
For the
at example,
outputthepistons
forces arefromas seal
cal- brackets.
other parts of brake system. into a master-cylinder
piston begins to move. Once the com- reservoir and
culated except for a small loss
friction. However, input-piston move- of force Deflection
When total of calipers,atdrums
movement the pedalor you see slight
pensating portfluidismotion just asfluid
covered, the
at
mentstheinaoutput pistons
real system from larger
are much seal other parts of brake
is excessive, system.
the pedal will hit the piston
trappedbegins in to themove. Once thesystem
hydraulic com-
friction. However, input-piston
than those of the theoretically perfect move- When
floor total movement
before the brakesat are the pedal
fully pensating
cannot escape, portprovided
is covered,there arefluid no
ments in'a
system due real system areormuch
to deflections, larger
hydraulic is excessive, the pedal
applied. Keeping pedal movementwill hit the trapped
leaks. Beyond this position, thesystem
in the hydraulic piston
than those of the theoretically
hose and line expansion, and bending perfect floor
within before
reasonablethe limits
brakes is are fully
a major cannot
moves fluidescape, provided
to apply there are no
the brakes.
system
and due toofdeflections,
twisting or hydraulic
brake components. applied.
problem inKeeping
brake-systempedaldesign.
movement leaks. Beyond
Initial fluidthismovement
position, thereduces piston
hose and line expansion,
Specifically, additional and bending
movement within reasonable limitsproblems
Brake-system-design is a major are moves fluid into apply
clearances the brakes.
the brakes. When all
and twisting of brake components.
comes from places other than clear- problem in brake-system
discussed in Chapter 9. design. Initial fluid
clearances in movement
the system reduces are
Specifically,
ances in a brakeadditional movement
system . Pedal move- Brake-system-design problems are clearances in the brakes.
eliminated, fluid stops moving and 'When all
comes
ment comes from the total ofclear-
from places other than the discussed Chapter 9.
MASTERinCYLINDERS clearances
pressure rises.inThethe system
driver's foot con- are
ances in a brake system. Pedal move-
following: Brake-fluid movement and pressure eliminated,
trols how high fluid
fluidstops moving
pressure gets. andAs
ment comes from the total of the MASTER CYLINDERS pressure rises. The driver's foot con-
following:
46
Brake-fluid movement and pressure trols how high fluid pressure gets. As
 C up-Type Seal

Force _ _. -04
Piston
Cup-Type on Piston
Seal

During rapid retraction of master-cylinder piston, fluid flows Cup-type seal expands outward against cylinder-bore walls when
through small holes in front face of piston and past seal. This pre- fluid is pressurized, making a tight seal. Flat end of cup-type seal
vents
Duringairrapid
bubbles from forming
retraction in front of seal.
of master-cylinder Fluid-inlet
piston, port
fluid flows goes toward
Cup-type piston
seal face;outward
expands cup end against
toward high-pressure fluid. when
cylinder-bore walls
through
keeps small
fluid holes
behind in front
seal at all face of piston and past seal. This pre-
times. fluid is pressurized, making a tight seal. Flat end of cup-type seal
vents air bubbles from forming in front of seal. Fluid-inlet port goes toward piston face; cup end toward high-pressure fluid.
keeps fluid behind seal at all times.

Cup-type seal can withstand high pressure Residual-pressure valves are used in spe- Some Airheart calipers use a pad-
while sliding easily within cylinder bore. cial applications. For example, Airheart retraction system to prevent pads from
Cup-type
Seal lips seal
presscantightly
withstand high pressure
against cylinder Residual-pressure
calipers valves areretracted
using mechanically used in spe-
pis- Some Airheart
dragging on rotors.calipers use aobjects
Two cylindrical pad-
while
walls sliding easily withinThe
when pressurized. cylinder
higherbore.
the cia1
tons applications. For example, valve
require a residual-pressure Airheart
to retraction
protruding system
from bodyto prevent pads1 75
of Airheart from
X
pressure,
Seal lips the tighter
press the seal.
tightly against cylinder calipers using mechanically
prevent pistons retracted
from retracting too far. pis- dragging on rotors.
206 caliper are Two
partcylindrical objects
of mechanical
walls when pressurized. The higher the tons require a residual-pressure valve t o retractors. from
protruding Residual-pressure valve 175
body of Airheart should
X
pressure, the tighter the seal. prevent pistons from retracting too far. 206used
be caliper are calipers.
with these part ofPhotomechanical
courte-
sy Hurst Performance.
retractors. Residual-pressure valve should
be used with these calipers. Photo courte-
sy Hurst Performance.
force on the pedal is reduced, hydrau- As the brakes are released, the the lip forces it against the cylinder
lic pressure drops, the drum- return spring may move the piston wall, creating a tight seal. The higher
force on thereturn
brake-shoe pedal springs
is reduced,
and /hydrau-
or disc- As than
faster the brakes
the fluidare can released,
move . When the the
the lip forces the
pressure, it against
tighter thethe cylinder
cup lip
lic pressure drops,
brake-piston seals retract, and the drum-the return springthemay
this occurs, seal move the piston
lip is drawn away wall,
seals creating
against the a tight seal.wall.
cylinder The Thishigheris
brake-shoe
master-cylinder returnreturn
springs and/ormoves
spring disc- faster
from the thancylinder
the fluid can
wall move. When
, allowing fluid the pressure, the
a reliable, long-life seal.tighter the cup lip
brake-piston
the piston back seals retract,
against and the
the retaining this
to flow through the small drawn
occurs, the seal lip is holes inaway
the seals against the cylinder
Residual-Pressure Valve-A cup- wall. This is
master-cylinder
ring. return spring moves from
seal lip.theThis
cylinder
keepswall,
fluidallowing
ahead offluid
the atype
reliable, long-life seal.
seal has one problem when used
theThepiston back against the
fluid-inlet-port function isretaining to flow at
piston through the small
a ll times holes in the
and prevents the Residual-Pressure
with a drum-brake wheel Valve-Acylinder.cup- As
ring.
more complicated . To understand it seal lip. This
formation of keeps fluid ahead
a gas bubble of the
in front of type seal ishas
the seal one problem
retracted, its lipwhen used
is relaxed
The look
better, fluid-inlet-port
at the drawingsfunction of the is piston
the pistonat all times andthe
. Otherwise, prevents
gas bubblethe with
and aairdrum-brake wheel cylinder.
can be introduced in theAs
more complicated. To understand
piston and seals. Note that the piston it formation
would cause of aa gas
soft bubble
pedal with in front of
exces- the seal is retracted, its
system . On drum-type brakes, this lip is relaxed
better, look at the drawings
has sma ll holes drilled through the of the the piston.
sive travel. Otherwise,
The secondary the gassealbubble
keeps and
motion air ofcan
the be introduced
cup-type seals ininwheel the
piston and lip
front-face seals.
. TheNote that the
cup-type sealpiston
is in - would
fluid fromcause a softout
leaking pedal with exces-
the open end of system.
cylinders On will drum-type
draw in air each brakes,time this
the
stalled ahead of this face , with the the
has small holes drilled through lip sive travel.
the cylinder. The secondary seal keeps motion
brakes are of released.
the cup-type seals in wheel
front-face
extending lip. The cup-type
forward. seal is in-
The fluid-inlet fluid from
Let's leaking
look closelyoutat the
theopen end of
function of cylinders
There are will two
drawdevices
in air eachthat time the
prevent
stalled aheadfluid
port allows of this face, the
behind withfront
the lip
lip the cylinder.sea l in the accompanying
a cup-type brakes are, released.
this . One called a cup expander, is a
extending
of the piston; forward.
the holesThein thefluid-inlet
lip allow Let's The
photo. look closely
cup alwaysat the faces
function of
high- There
thin metalarecup twoinstalled
devices thatbetween prevent
the
port allows
this fluid to fluid
contactbehind theface
the seal front lip
. This apressure
cup-typefluid. seal inFluid
the accompanying
pressure acts this. One, called a cup expander,
seal and the return spring . This device is a
of the piston; the holes in
is to help during brake release whenthe lip allow photo.
equally The on allcup alwaysasfaces
surfaces high-
it contacts thin
exertsmetal
pressurecup on installed
the lip anbetween
d prevents the
this fluid toreturns.
the piston contact the seal face. This pressure
the cup face fluid.and Fluid pressureagainst
lip. Pressure acts seal and the
air from return the
passing spring.
sealThis
when device
the
is to help during brake release when equally on all surfaces as it contacts exerts pressure on the lip and prevents
the piston returns. the cup face and lip. Pressure against air from passing the seal when the
47
 brakes are released.
The second is a simple spring
brakes are
loaded valvereleased.
in the master cylinder.
Reservoir Diaphrag The second is a simple spring
This valve, the reSidual-pressure valve,
loaded valve in
keeps slight fluid the pressure
master cylinder.
on the
This
system valve,
at all residual-pressure
thetimes-even whenvalve, the
keeps slight fluid
brakes are released. When fluid pressure on the re-
system
turns toat the all master
times-even cylinder when as thethe
brakes
brakes are are released.
released, When a spring fluid re-
closes
turnsvalve
the to the when masterpressurecylinder
dropsas tothea
Return brakes value-usually
preset are released, a6-25 spring psi.closes
This
Spring the valve when pressure
pressure is enough to keep the cup- drops to a
preset
type sealsvalue-usually
in wheel cylinders 6-25 psi. This
against
pressure
their is enough
cylinder walls, but to keep the cup-
not enough to
Secondary overcome return-spring force. against
type seals in wheel cylinders Excess
Piston their cylinder
residual pressure walls, but not
would cause enoughbrake- to
Secondary Primary Cup Primary Secondary overcome
shoe drag. return-spring force. ~ x c e s s
Cups Piston Cup residual
If youpressure change would master cause brake-
cylinders,
shoe drag.
make sure you get one designed for
Cross section of typical tandem master cylinder with integral fluid reservoirs. Pushrod is
theIf specific
you change system. masterIt must cylinders,
have the
Piston-Stop Bolt make sure
correct you get one designed
residual-pressure valve. Most for
retained on pedal, which is out of view to right, not on master-cylinder piston. Drawing
courtesy Bendix
Cross section ofCorp.
typical tandem master cylinder with integral fluid reservoirs. Pushrod is
the specificsystems
disc-brake system. and It mustsome havedrum-the
retained on pedal, which is out of view to right, not on master-cylinder piston. Drawing residual-pressure
brake systems do not use residual- Most
courtesy Bendix Corp. disc-brake systems and
pressure valves, so master cylinders some drum-
Reservoir Cover - - - - - , brake not
may systems do not even
interchange, use residual-
if they
pressureto valves,
appear be identical. so master
Checkcylinders
master-
Cover Retainer/Bail may notspecifications
cylinder interchange,to even be sure. if they
appear to be identical.
Residual-pressure valves are used Check master-
Cover Retainer/Bail cylinder specifications to be sure. that
on Airheart disc-brake calipers
Residual-pressure
have a mechanical-retraction valves aresystem used
on Airheart disc-brake
to pull the pads away from the rotors. calipers that
have
A a residual-pressure
2-psi mechanical-retraction valve system
is also
to pull the padsbyaway
recommended from the
Airheart for userotors.
on
brake systems where calipersis also
A 2-psi residual-pressure valve are
recommended
mounted higher by Airheart
than thefor master-use on
brake systems
cylinder reservoir.where This iscalipers
to prevent are
mounted
fluid flowing higher
back to thanthe the master-
reservoir by
cylinder Other
gravity. reservoir. This ismanufactur-
disc-brake to prevent
fluid do
ers flowing not back to the reservoir
recommend residual- by
gravity.
pressureOther valves.disc-brake manufactur-
ersThisdobrings not up recommend
an important residual-
point:
Piston-Stop Bolt pressure valves.
If you have a special car or a race car
This
with brings up
modified an important
brakes, always consult point:
Hydraulic lines from tandem master cylinder to front and rear brakes install in outlet ports.
Reservoir cover is retained with spring clip, or bail. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
If
theyou brake
have a special car or a race
manufacturer beforecar
Hydraulic lines from tandem master cylinder to front and rear brakes install in outlet ports. with
making any changes. brakes,
Reservoir cover is retained with spring clip, or bail. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp. the brake
Tandem Master manufacturer
Cylinders - Master before
making any
cylinders withchanges.
two pistons in a single
Tandem
bore are used Master on Cylinders-Master
modern road cars.
DIAGONALLY one system fails. cylindersarewithcalled
They two pistonstandem in amaster
single
SPLIT SYSTEMS Brake balance cannot be adjust- bore are used on modern
cylinders. Tandem master cylinders road cars.
DIAGONALLY
Most front-wheel-drive cars are one system
ed inthe fails. way withadiago-
normal They
were first are introduced
called tandem on American master
SPLIT SYSTEMS
designed with tandem master Brake
nally balance
split brake cannot
system. be I'm
adjust-
not cylinders.
passenger cars Tandem in 1962;masterthey've cylinders
been
Most front-wheel-drive
cylinders plumbed so theycars are
operate ed in the
aware of normal
any racewaycars
with or
a diago-
high- were first introduced on American
universal since 1967. A typical
designed opposite
diagonally with tandem wheels.master
Each nally split brake
performance sportssystem. I'm not
cars using di- passenger cars incylinder1962; they've been
cylinders tandem master is illustrated
half of the plumbed so they operate
cylinder operates a diag- aware
agonallyof split
any brakes,
race cars or high-
so hopefully universal since 1967. A typical
diagonally
onally opposite
opposite wheels.
pair of brakes.Each
The performance
you won't have sports cars using
to concern di-
yourself nearby.
half offront
the cylinder operates
tandem master cylinder
Each section of a tandem is illustrated
master
right brake and left rearabrake
diag- agonally
with them.split brakes,
If you have asocarhopefully
with di~ nearby.
onally oppos~te
comprise one pair of brakes.
system. The
Opposite you won't split
agonally havebrakes,
to concernthe yourself
system cylinder works as a single cylinder.
right front
pair brake and
of brakes are left rear brake
operated by with them.
would haveIftoyoube have
totallya redesigned
car with di- Each
Each hassection
fluid-inlet of and
a tandem
compensatingmaster
comprise
other half one
of thesystem.
master Opposite
cylinder. agonally
to split brakes, front-to-rear
use conventional the system cylinder
ports. Theworks pistonasclosesta single to the cylinder.
brake
pair
Becauseof brakes
a front areandoperated
rear brakeby would have techniques
balancing to be totally redesigned
discussed Each
pedal hasis fluid-inlet
the primary andpiston
compensating
and the
other half
always work of together,
the masterthiscylinder.
system to usebook.
in this conventional front-to-rear ports. isThe
other thepiston
secondary closest to the
piston. brake
Usually,
Because
is claimedatofront an3 inrear
be safer the brake
event balancing techniques discussed pedal is the primary
the primary operates the front brakespiston and the
always work together, this system in this book. the secondary
othertheis secondary piston. Usually,
is claimed to be safer in the event
and the rear brakes.
the primary operates the front brakes
48 and the secondary the rear brakes.
 Primary ,-L-----,_. Force
Piston
Force
Force
Force

To Front
To Rear Brakes
Brakes To Front
To Rear Brake Brake Brakes
If leak develops in front-brake system, primary piston moves for- If rear-brake
System system should leak, secondary piston moves forward
Brakes System
ward until it bottoms against secondary piston. Force from push- until it contacts end of master cylinder. This allows trapped fluid
rod is develops
If leak transmitted to secondary
in front-brake piston
system, by piston
primary piston-to-piston
moves for- between pistons
If rear-brake to be
system pressurized
should by primary
leak, secondary pistonpiston,
moves actuating
forward
contact.
ward untilThis allows against
it bottoms secondary piston to
secondary pressurize
piston. rear-brake
Force from push- front brakes.
until it contacts end of master cylinder. This allows trapped fluid
system.
rod is transmitted to secondary piston by piston-to-piston between pistons to be pressurized by primary piston, actuating
contact. This allows secondary piston to pressurize rear-brake front brakes.
system.
As the driver operates the brake
pedal, the primary piston moves
As the closing
forward, driver operates
the primGlY the brake
com-
pedal, theport.primary
pensating Fluid ispiston trapped movesbe-
forward,
tween theclosing primary the and primary com-
secondary
pensating
piston. This Fluid is fluid
port. trapped trapped be-
cannot
tween the primary and
compress, so it moves the secondary secondary
piston. forward
piston This trapped
to seal the fluidsecondary
cannot
compress, so itport.
compensating moves With the both
secondary
com-
piston forward
pensating ports toclosed,
seal the secondary
trapped fluid
compensating
builds pressure port. in frontWith both
of the com-
second-
pensating
ary piston,ports closed, trapped
and between primary fluidand
builds pressure
secondary in front
pistons. of the for
Except second-
the
ary piston, and return
primary-piston between primary
spring, thereandis
secondary pistons. Except
no direct mechanical link moving for thethe
primary-piston
secondary return spring,
piston-only pressure there
from is
no directfluid
trapped mechanical
. link moving the
secondary piston-onlyin the
When clearances pressure
brakesfromare
trapped fluid.
taken up, the pistons stop moving ,
When
fluid clearances
pressure in theand
increases brakes
forceareis
taken up,to the
applied thepistons
brakes.stop Whenmoving, the
fluid pressure
driver reduces increases
pedal force, and the forcetwois
Cross section of fast-fill master cylinder used on front-wheel-drive cars shows fluid-
applied to the brakes.
piston-return springs plus brake- When the control valve below primary reservoir (arrow). In-line proportioning valves are in rear-brake
driver reduces move
return springs pedal the force, the to
pistons twoa ports
Crossatsection
bottom of
of cylinder.
fast-fill Front-brake portsused
master cylinder are not
on shown.
front-wheel-drive cars shows fluid-
piston-return springs
retracted position. As mentioned plus brake- control valve below primary reservoir (arrow). In-line proportioning valves are in rear-brake
return , springs
before holes inmove the pistons
the front to a
lip of each ports
mentatisbottom of cylinder.
transmitted to Front-brake ports arethe
the secondary not shown.
pedal moves closer to the
retracted
piston allowposition.
brake fluid Asto flow
mentioned
to the piston , moving it forward and applying floor- travel is higher. During an
before,ofholes
front in the front
the cup-type seal lip of each
when the ment is brakes.
the rear transmitted
With tothis thecondition,
secondarya the pedal moves
emergency, with closer
one to the
system
piston allow brake fluid
brakes are released. Compensating to flow to the piston, moving it forward
driver will have to exert more and applying
pedal floor-travel
m alfunctioning, stopping distance an
is higher. During is
front of
ports allowtheexcess
cup-type fluidsealto when
return theto the rear brakes. With this
force than normal to stop the car. condition, a emergency,
greatly increased withbecause
one only system
two
brakes are released.
the reservoir when the Compensating
brakes are driver
Whenwilla have
leak to exert in
occurs morethe pedal
rear malfunctioning,
wheels are braking. stopping distance is
ports
releasedallow
. excess fluid to return to force thanfluid
system, normal to stop the
is trapped car. the
between greatly
When increased
designingbecause
a brakeonly two
system
theThereservoir
purposewhen of a thetandem brakes are
master When a leak occurs
primary and secondary pistons, in the with
rear wheels are braking.
using a tandem master cylinder,
released.
cylinder is to protect against total loss system, fluid is trapped
fluid leakage behind the secondarybetween the When designing
remember that all forcea brake
appliedsystem
to the
of The
brakes purpose of a tandem
when failure occurs. Withmastera primary and secondary
piston . This allows both pistons,
pistonswith
to using
master acylinder
tandem master to cylinder,
is applied primary
cylinder
leak in the is to protect
front brakeagainst
systemtotal loss
, almost fluid leakage in
move forward behind the secondary
the cylinder until the remember
and secondarythat pistons
all forceequally.
applied to the
Force
of
no pressure exists in the front brakea
brakes when failure occurs. With piston.
pushrod This
of theallows
secondaryboth piston
pistonscon-
to master cylinder is applied to
it is not split like a dual master- primary
leak in the
system. Notefrontthebrake
metal system,
pushrod almost
be- move forward in the cylinder
tacts the end of the master cylinder. until the and secondary
cylinder system pistons equally. bar.
using a balance Force
no pressure
tween the exists
primaryin the and front brake
secondary pushrod contact
When of the secondary
occurs, piston con-
secondary- it Some
is notmaster
split cylinders
like a dual master-
are designed
system.
pistons. As Notefluidtheleaks
metalout pushrod
of the front-be- tacts
pistonthe
motion of the allowing
end stops, master cylinder.
pressure cylinder
to be system
mounted usingata balance
an angle bar. to
tween the primary and
brake system, the primary piston con- secondary When
to build contact
up between occurs,
the twosecondary-
pistons. Some master cylinders are
horizontal. If so , the cylinder may designed
pistons.
tinues to As fluid
moveleaks out of until
forward the front-
this This pressure operates thepressure
piston motion stops, allowing front to
havebe mounted
a bleeder screw.at Thisanscrew
angle to
allows
brake
metal system,
pushrod the primary
contacts thepiston con-
secondary to build Again,
brakes. up between
the driverthe two
will pistons.
have to horizontal.
air trapped inIf the
so, master
the cylinder
cylindermayto
tinues
piston. toThen, move forward untilmove-
primary-piston this This pressure
exert more force operates
on the pedal.the Also,
front have
be bleda bleeder screw.
from the Thisfluid.
brake screwBleeder
allows
metal pushrod contacts the secondary brakes. Again, the driver will have to air trapped in the master cylinder to
piston. Then, primary-piston move- exert more force on the pedal. Also, be bled from the brake fluid. Bleeder
49
Dual master-cylinder setup manufactured by Neal Products, fitted Single master cylinders found on most race cars; from left to right
with Howe cylinders, is popular for use in racing stock cars and they are Airheart, Lockheed, Girling and Howe.
other special vehicles.setup
Dual master-cylinder Hurst! Airheart, Girling
manufactured or Lockheed
by Neal Products,master
fitted Single master cylinders found on most race cars; from left to right
cylinders
with Howe can be used with
cylinders, this setup.
is popular for use in racing stock cars and they are Airheart, Lockheed, Girling and Howe.
other special vehicles. HursVAirheart, Girling or Lockheed master
cylinders can be used with this setup.
buildup in the fast-fill bore would
result in high pedal effort. The fluid-
buildup valve
control in the fast-fillthisbore
prevents would
by divert-
result in high pedal effort.
ing fluid from the fast-fill bore to The fluid-
the
control
primary valve prevents
reservoir. this bycylinder
The master divert-
ing
thenfluid from the
operates the brakes
fast-fillinbore to the
a conven-
primary reservoir. The master
tional manner using the smaller main cylinder
then
bore. operates
During the the brakes
return instroke,
a conven- the
tional mannervalve
fluid-control usingallows
the smaller main
fluid unres-
bore.
tricted During
return tothe thereturn
fast-fill stroke,
bore. the
fluid-control valve allows
The major advantage of fast-fill fluid unres-
tricted return to the fast-fill
master cylinders is to increase fluid bore.
The major advantage
displacement during initial of fast-fill
pedal
Rubber bellows in nylon- reservoir cap master cylinders is to
travel. This allows smaller master-increase fluid
seals air from brake fluid. When reservoir displacement during
cylinder main-bore diameter, and re-initial pedal
Rubber
is bellows
full, bellows in nylon-reservoir
is compressed. Bellows cap
ex- travel. pedal
This effort
allowsand smaller
tends
seals airas from
fluidbrake
level fluid.
drops. Vented
When cap
reservoir Some reservoir caps have a float. When
duced travel master-
and/or
allows air to enter
is full, bellows and exit above
is compressed. bellows
Bellows ex- cylinder main-bore
disc-brake calipers diameter, and re-
with increased
fluid level falls too low, float activates an
tends as fluidforlevel
to compensate drops. Vented
fluid-volume changes.cap electrical
Some switch caps
reservoir that have
turns aonfloat.
a warning
When
duced pedal effort
piston retraction and travel
distance, and/or
or rollback,
allows air t o enter and exit above bellows light on
fluid instrument
level falls toopanel. This light,
low, float instead
activates an disc-brake calipers
for brake-drag reduction. with increased
t o compensate for fluid-volume changes. of brake loss,
electrical warns
switch of low
that turnsfluid.
on a warning piston retractionCylinders-Most
distance, or ~~ollback,
Dual Master race
light on instrument panel. This light, instead for brake-drag
cars reduction.
use two single master cylinders
of brake loss, warns of low fluid. Dual Master Cylinders-Most
mounted side by side with a link race be-
end of the bleeder has a taper that cars
tween them called a master
use two single balance cylinders
bar. Bal-
seals when it is tightened down on its mounted
ance bars side by side fully
are covered with ina Chapter
link be-
end ofWhen the bleeder has ais taper that tween
seat.
seals when it
the bleeder
is tightened down
loosened
on its 6. Dualthem called
master a balance
cylinders withbar:a Bal-
bal-
slightly, this seat seal is opened, then ance bars
ance are covered
bar allow the ratio fullyofinforce
Chapterbe-
seat. When the bleeder is loosened 6 . Dualfront
master
brake fluid and trapped air can come
slightly, thistheseathole
sealinisthe
opened, tween andcylinders
rear brakes with ato bal-be
out through bleeder.then ance bar This
adjusted. allowadjustment
the ratio of force be-
is necessary
brake
When fluidusing
and thistrapped
typeairofcan come
cylinder, tweento front and track
rear conditions
brakes to be
out through the hole in the bleeder. due changing or
make sure you mount it where it can adjusted. This adjustment
variations in car setup. This is necessary
arrange-
beWhen
bled. Forusing this type
a master of cylinder,
cylinder that is due
menttois changing track system
also a fail-safe conditions or
similar
make suretoyou
designed be mount
mounted it where can
level, itmake variations in car setup. This arrange-
be bled. For a master cylinder that is to the tandem master cylinder. Racing
sure it's level. ment is cylinders
master also a fail-safe system similar
are usually paired
designed
Fast-Fill toMaster be mounted level, make
Cylinders-Note to the tandem master cylinder. Racing
sure it's level. single master cylinders, often the
the master-cylinder drawing, page 49. masterascylinders
same those found are usually
on olderpaired road
Fast-Fill Master Cylinders-Note single
It differs from
the master-cylinder
a straight-bore master
49. cars. master cylinders, often the
Large translucent nylon reservoirs used on
this Indy Car make it easy to check fluid
cylinder in two ways:drawing,It has a page
stepped same as those found on older road
levels. Caps don't nylon
have reservoirs
to be removed. It
It differs from a straight-bore
primary, or fast-fill bore, and second, master cars.
Large translucent used on
helpslndy
this to have good i tlight
Car make easywhen checking
t o check fluid cylinder in twovalve.
a fluid-control ways: It has a stepped RESERVOIRS
fluid this
levels. way. don't have to be removed. I t
Caps primary,
Duringorinitial
fast-fill bore,
brake and second,
application, the The fluid reservoir is often integral
helps t o have good light when checking alarger
fluid-control
fast-fill valve.
bore provides fluid for RESERVOIRS
with the master cylinder. However,
fluid this way. Duringtakeup
initial bybrake application, the
screws look similar to grease fittings. 1 system forcing fluid past forThe fluid accommodation
service reservoir is oftenonintegral
some
have seen unknowing persons try to larger fast-fill bore provides
the primary-piston seal into the main fluid for cars the reservoircylinder.
with the master However,
is separate, or
screws look similar
shoot chassis greaseto into
grease
thefittings.
bleeder1 system
bore. Aftertakeup by forcing
clearances fluid uppast
are taken in for service
remote. accommodation
This type of fluid on some
reservoir
have seen
screws with unknowing
a grease gun!persons try to
The internal the primary-piston
the rotors and/or drums,seal intoany the main
pressure cars
usuallytheis made
reservoir is separate,
of translucent or
plastic
shoot chassis grease into the bleeder bore. After clearances are taken up in remote. This type of fluid reservoir
screws
50 with a grease gun! The internal the rotors and/or drums, any pressure usually is made of translucent plastic
 Dust

Dust Bc s t Boot

At left is remote reservoir for dual master

cylinders; reservoir at right mounts directly
on left
At Girling master-cylinder
is remote reservoir for outlet port.
dual master
Reservoirsreservoir
cylinders; are large enough
at right for directly
mounts racing
Piston disc-brake
on Girling systems.
master-cylinder outlet port.

Piston ' Cup' cup

Expander
I
kpring CUP'
Expander
'cup ' piston
Reservoirs are large enough for racing
disc-brake systems.

Wheel cylinders with two pistons are used on most modern duo-servo or leading-
and-trailing-shoe drum brakes. Spring keeps pistons or pushrod against shoes when
brakes cylinders
Wheel are released.
withPushrods are used
two pistons are inused
this cylinder
on most tomodern
operateduo-servo
brake shoes.
or Drawing
leading-
courtesy Bendix Corp.
and-trailing-shoe drum brakes. Spring keeps pistons or pushrod against shoes when
brakes are released. Pushrods are used in this cylinder to operate brake shoes. Drawing
courtesy Bendix Corp.
so the fluid level can be checked with- With either a tandem or dual
out opening the reservoir. Many of master-cylinder system, two separate
so
themthehave
fluid graduations
level can beon checked
the side with-
in- With either
reservoirs a tandem
or a single or with
reservoir dual
out opening
dicating full andthe lowreservoir.
levels. ManySeparate of master-cylinder
two compartments system,
shouldtwo be separate
used. If
them have graduations
fluid reservoirs are mounted above on the side in- reservoirs or a single
this isn't done, a leak reservoir
in one systemwith
dicating
and connect full to
andthelow levels.
master Separate
cylinder by two compartments should be
will drain the fluid available to both used. If
fluid
flexiblereservoirs
hose. are mounted above this isn't eliminating
systems, done, a leakthein fail-safe
one systemfea-
andTheconnect to the master
fluid reservoir mustcylinder
not allow by will
ture drain
of thethe fluid available
tandem and dual tomasterboth
flexible hose.
any contamination of the brake fluid. systems,
cylinders. eliminating the fail-safe fea-
TheThe fluid reservoir
reservoir cap, which mustscrewsnot on allowor ture of the tandem and dual
Race-Car Reservoirs - Most race cars master
any contamination of the
is fastened by nuts, clamps or bolts, is brake fluid. cylinders.
use remote reservoirs from road cars.
The
ventedreservoir
to thecap, which screws
atmosphere, on or
allowing Race-Car car uses a-
If your raceReservoirs Most race
road-car cars
master
is fastened
the fluid levelby nuts,to riseclamps
and or fallbolts,
freely. is use remote and
cylinder(s) reservoirs from calipers,
large racing road cars.a
vented to the atmosphere,
Water vapor in the air will contami- allowing If yourreservoir
larger race car uses
may aberoad-car master
installed. The Custom-built remote metal reservoir
the
nate fluid
brakelevel
fluid, to so
risemanyand fall freely.
reservoirs cylinder(s)
reservoir normally used with road-cara
and large racing calipers, mounted atop fro':,t bulkhead on this Indy
Water vapor diaphragm
in the air under will contami- larger Car is stronger remote
Custom-built than plastiC reservoir.
metal Cap
reservoir
use a rubber the cap masterreservoir
cylindersmay be small
is too installed. The
for large must be removed
mounted to check
atop front fluid on
bulkhead level.
this lndy
nate brake fluid,
that isolates it from so the
many reservoirs
atmosphere. reservoir normally used with
racing calipers. Larger reservoirs are road-car Car is stronger than plastic reservoir. Cap
use a rubber diaphragm
This diaphragm flexes easily, allowingunder the cap master cylinders
available is too small
from Tilton for large
Engineering, braking,
must so a tall
b e removed reservoir
to check is better
fluid level.
that isolates it from the atmosphere.
the rise and fall of fluid , while sealing racing calipers. Larger
Neal Products and other reservoirs are
suppliers. than a short one.
This
out airdiaphragm
and moisture. flexes Theeasily, allowing
diaphragm available
Custom-built fromreservoirs
Tilton Engineering,
can also be braking, so a tall
Often, special reservoir
remote is better
reservoirs are
the
must be removed on some sealing
rise and fall of fluid, while master Neal
used onProducts
race cars.and other suppliers.
than a short one.
used on off-road race cars. These cars
out air and
cylinders to moisture.
check or The diaphragm
replenish fluid. Custom-built reservoirs
Remote reservoirs are can
oftenalsoused
be Often, special
experience remote reservoirs
incredible up-and-down are
mustbest
The be overall
removed design on issome master
a translucent used strength
for on race cars.and reliability. Most used on off-road
bouncing race cars.This
and pounding. These cars
results
cylinders
reservoir withto checka rubberor replenish
diaphragm.fluid. Remote
remote reservoirson are
reservoirs often used
modern road experience
in severe slosh incredible up-and-down
and aeration of brake
The best overall design
Reservoir capacity must is a translucent
be large cars are plastic. However, withMost
for strength and reliability. the fluid. To prevent this, tallThis
bouncing and pounding. results
reservoirs
reservoirtowith
enough allow a rubber
fluid to diaphragm.
fill a system, remote reservoirs
risk of heat, fire oron modern
physical road
damage in
withsevere
bafflesslosh and .aeration of brake
are used
Reservoir
even when brake capacityliningsmust are be wornlarge cars are plastic.
associated with raceHowever,
cars, with the
all-metal fluid. To prevent this, tall reservoirs
enough to allow fluid
totally. A brake system must neverto fill a system, risk of heat, fire or physical
reservoirs offer extra protection. damage with baffles are used.
DRUM-BRAKE
even
run shortwhenofbrake fluid. linings
Otherwise, are worn total associated with raceis cars,
Another advantage all-metal
that mounting WHEEL CYLINDERS
totally.
braking A lossbrake system
can occur. must never
Disc-brake pis- reservoirs offer can
lugs or brackets extra protection.
be added to a DRUM-BRAKE
There are a number of drum-brake
run
tons short
displace of morefluid.fluid,
Otherwise,
so they total usu- Another advantage
metal reservoir for iseasy
that mounting.
mounting WHEEL CYLINDERS
wheel-cylinder designs . However, all
braking
ally loss can
require more occur. Disc-brake
reservoir capacitypis- lugs or brackets
Obviously, a metal canreservoir
be addedcanto bea There are
share common a number
features of drum-brake
. For instance,
tons displace more fluid,
than drum brakes. Reservoir volume so they usu- metal
made in any size and shape mounting.
reservoir for easy you need. wheel-cylinder designs. However,
all use cup-type seals. Some have all
ally
mustrequire
exceed more reservoir capacity
the displacement of all Obviously,
Remember, aairmetal mustreservoir
never enter can the
be share common
seals features. For
with internal instance,
springs, or
output pistons, plus allow forvolume
than drum brakes. Reservoir lining made in r-any
reservoi size and shape youpassage
to- master-cylinder need. all use cup-type
expanders, that keepseals.
the Some have
seal lips in
must exceed the displacement of all
wear. Remember,
during air must never
hard cornering, enter the
acceleration or seals with
contact with theinternal
cylindersprings, or
walls. With
output pistons, plus allow for lining reservoir-to-master-cylinder passage expanders, that keep the seal lips in
wear. during hard cornering, acceleration or contact with the cylinder walls. With 51
 -\ Wheel-Cyl~nderBody
Single-piston wheel cylinder is used on Bleeder screws allows trapped air to be re-
two-leading-shoe drum brakes. Each shoe moved from high spots in hydraulic system.
has its own wheel
Single-piston wheelcylinder.
cylinderReturn spring
is used on One is used
Bleeder at each
screws allowshigh spot air
trapped so to
airbe
bub-
re-
holds piston against
two-leading-shoe shoe
drum when brakes
brakes. are
Each shoe bles
movedcan be high
from bledspots
off toinprevent
hydraulica system.
spongy
Clever design combats brake fluid sloshing released.
has Drawing
its own wheelcourtesy
cylinder.Bendix
ReturnCorp.
spring pedal.
One isIfused
you at
mount
eachmaster
high spotcylinders,
so air drum
bub-
in main reservoirs. Caps to reservoirs were holds piston against shoe when brakes are brakes
bles canorbecalipers
bled offin t o
a prevent
differenta position
spongy
modified to accept
Clever design combatsplastic
braketube. Fluid
fluid is fed
sloshing released. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp. from
pedal.that
If youintended by thecylinders,
mount master manufacturer,
drum
from third
in main reservoir
reservoirs. mounted
Caps high inwere
t o reservoirs car. bleeder
brakes orscrews may in
calipers be a out of position.
different position
There's
modifiednoto way
accept air plastic
bubbles will Fluid
tube. develop in
is fed from that intended by the manufacturer,
the
fromtwo fullyreservoir
third filled reservoirs.
mounted Any highsloshing
in car. bleeder screws may be out of position.
and resulting
There's no way air air
bubbles
bubbleswillwill
be develop
contained in
in third
the reservoir.
two fully Modification
filled reservoirs. Any also in-
sloshing
creases fluid capacity.
and resulting air bubbles will be contained I
in third reservoir. Modification also in-
creases fluid capacity. c Cotter Pin

expanders in the cup-type seals, a

residual-pressure valve in the master
expanders
cylinder is not in required.
the cup-type seals, a
Caliper-Support Key
1
residual-pressure
Duo-servo drum valve in thepage
brakes, master
17,
cylinder is not required.
use a single wheel cylinder with two
Duo-servo
pistons. drum cylinder
The wheel brakes, page has both17,
use a open
ends singleand wheel
fluid cylinder
betweenwith two
the two
pistons.
pistons. The wheelbetween
A spring cylinderthehas both
pistons
ends
maintains slight pressure against two
open and fluid between the the
pistons.This
shoes. A spring
springbetween the pistons
also prevents the
maintains
pistons from slight pressure
blocking theagainst the
fluid-inlet
shoes. This spring
port in the wheel cylinder. also prevents the
pistons
There from blocking
is usually the fluid-inlet
a rubber dust boot
port
on in thetheopen
wheel endcylinder.
(s) of a wheel
There isThis
cylinder. usually a rubberlining
prevents dust boot
dust
on the open end(s)
and moisture from contaminating of a wheel the Caliper Housing
cylinder.cylinder,
wheel This prevents
possibly liningcausing dusta
and moisture
sticking piston.from
Dirtcontaminating
is a major enemy the Bendix CA floating disc-brake caliper has single piston on inboard side of rotor only. Caliper
wheel
of any cylinder, possiblyThe
brake system. causing
rubbera housing contains both pads. Not shown is sturdy mounting bracket that bolts to suspension
sticking and supports
Bendix and guides
CA floating caliper.caliper
disc-brake Drawinghascourtesy Bendix
single piston on Corp.
inboard side of rotor only. Caliper
boots piston.
also Dirt
hold is a the
major piston-
enemy
housing contains both pads. Not shown is sturdy mounting bracket that bolts to suspension
of any brake system.
to-brake-shoe push rods in position,The rubber and supports and guides caliper. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
boots
on systems also holdpush the
that use rods. piston-
to-brake-shoe pushrods have
Some wheel cylinders in position,
a single between a right-hand and left-hand the system. Wheel cylinders probably
on systems that use pushrods.
piston and a closed end, as shown wheel cylinder, so use care not to mix fail more often due to these than any
Some They
above. wheel arecylinders
usually have a single
found on between
wheel a right-hand
cylinders and left-hand
when installing them. the system.
other Wheel
reason. cylinders
Frequent probably
bleeding of
piston andleading-shoe
double a closed end, as shown
brakes-each wheel
Some cars have rubber not
cylinder, so use care capsto over
mix fail more often due to these than
brakes protects against rust and any
above.
brake shoe Theyis are usually
operated by afoundseparateon wheel cylinders
the bleeder whentoinstalling
screws keep out them.
dirt other reason. Frequent bleeding of
corrosion.
double leading-shoe bra
single-piston wheel cylinder. Similar kes-each Some
and cars have
moisture. rubber
This is a good caps
ideaover
for brakes protects against rust and
brake
to the shoe is operated
dual-piston type, by a separate
single-piston the bleeder
road screwsmost
cars because to keep out dirt
bleeder-screw corrosion.
DISC-BRAKE CALIPER
single-piston
wheel cylinders wheelhave cylinder. Similar
an internal and moisture.
breakage is fromThis is a goodcaused
corrosion idea forby Disc-brake calipers have one or
to the to
spring dual-piston type, single-piston
keep the piston and push rod road cars because
moisture. Moisturemost bleeder-screw
reaches the DISC-BRAKE
more CALIPER
pistons. They perform the same
wheel
in contact cylinders have shoe.
with the brake an internal breakage is fromseat
bleeder-screw corrosion
and caused
threadsby Disc-brake calipers have one
function as the wheel-cylinder or
pistons
spring to keep the piston
A wheel cylinder usually and pushrod is moisture. Moisture reaches
through the hole in its center. Brake the more pistons. They perform the same
in a drum brake. The caliper piston (s)
in contact with
equipped with thea brake
bleeder shoe. screw. It bleeder-screw seat in Chapter
bleeding is discussed and threads
11. function
is moved as the
by wheel-cylinder
hydraulic fluid pistons
and
A be
must wheel cylinderat the
positioned usually
highest is throughWheel
Note: the hole in its center.
cylinders Brake
are usually in a drum
pushes thebrake.
pads The caliper
against the piston(s)
rotor. As
equipped with a bleeder
point in a wheel cylinder so all trapped screw. It bleeding is discussed in Chapter
made of cast iron or aluminum. Most 11. is movedpressure
hydraulic by hydraulic
increases,fluid and
the pads
must be positioned at the
air can be bled off. Usually the posi- highest Note:
pistons Wheel cylindersThese
are aluminum. are usually
metals pushes the pads against the rotor.
are pushed harder against the rotor. As
pointofina ableeder
tion wheel cylinder
is the only so all trapped
difference made
can of and
rust castcorrode
iron or from
aluminum.
moistureMostin hydraulic
The caliperpressure increases,
is designed theequal
to apply pads
air can be bled off. Usually the posi- pistons are aluminum. These metals are pushed harder against the rotor.
tion of a bleeder is the only difference
52 can rust and corrode from moisture in The caliper is designed to apply equal
AP Racing/Lockheed caliper has one large
piston on each side of rotor. Caliper body
If brake balance is wrong for wet weather driving, you could be in trouble. Photo taken at
is Racing/Lockheed
AP bolted rigidly to caliper
suspension.
has one Fixed
large Goodyear proving ground near San Angelo, Texas shows how car behaves when wheels
calipers,
piston on such
each as this,
side are used
of rotor. on most
Caliper body lock up during
If brake balance braking . Here
is wrong forthey
wetare testingdriving,
weather difference
you between
could be various tires
in trouble. in wet
Photo condi-
taken at
race cars; road
is bolted cars
rigidly totypically use floating
suspension. Fixed tions near limit
Goodyear of adhesion.
proving Photo
ground near courtesy
San Goodyear.
Angelo, Texas shows how car behaves when wheels
calipers.
calipers, Photo
such courtesy AP Racing.
as this, are used on most lock up during braking. Here they are testing difference between various tires in wet condi-
race cars; road cars typically use floating tions near limit of adhesion. Photo courtesy Goodyear.
calipers.
pressurePhoto
to thecourtesy AP Racing.
pads. This is done with pulled back from the rotor.
one or more pistons on each side of Like drum-brake wheel cylinders ,
pressure
the rotor,to or thewith
pads.piston(s)
This is done'with
on one pulleddisc-brake
most back from calipers
the rotor.have bleeder
one and
side or more
a movingpistons on each side of
caliper. screws. The bleeder wheel
Like drum-brake cylinders,
screw must also
theDisc-brake-caliper
rotor, or with piston(s) cylindersondiffer one most disc-brake calipers have
be located on top of the caliper bleeder
so
side
fromand a moving caliper.
drum-brake wheel cylinders in screws.
trapped Theair bleeder
can be screw
bled must
from alsothe
Disc-brake-caliper
several ways. First, caliper cylinderspistonsdiffer
are be located
system. on top
Right- and of the caliper
left-hand so
calipers
from drum-brake
larger in diameterwheel than cylinders
drum-brake in trapped air can be bled from
often differ only by location of the the
several ways. First,
wheel-cylinder caliperThe
pistons. pistons are
reason system. Right- because
bleeder screw and left-hand
of this,calipers
so be
larger
for thisin isdiameter
disc brakes thanrequire
drum-brake
more often differ
careful not toonly
get by
the location
calipers of the
mixed
force because they have no reason
wheel-cylinder pistons. The servo up. Otherwise, you won ' t be able be
bleeder screw because of this, so to
for this is disc brakes require more
action. careful
bleed thenot to get
brakes the calipers mixed
properly.
force
Anotherbecause they have
difference no servo
between disc- up. Otherwise, you won't be able to
action.
and drum-brake cylinders is the type bleed the brakes
METERING properly.
VALVES
of Another
seals useddifference
with the between
pistons. Cup-disc- In a brake system with discs on the
and
type drum-brake
seals are used cylinders is the type
in drum-brake METERING
front and drums VALVES
on the rear, there i~
of sealscylinders;
wheel used with the pistons.
usually, O-ring Cup-
type In a the
often brake system
need for with discs on
a metering the
valve.
type seals are used
seals are used in disc brakes. The in drum-brake front and
This devicedrums on thea rear,
prevents there of
pplication is
wheel
O-ring cylinders;
m ay haveusually,
a roundO-ring or squtype
are often the need for a metering valve.
the front brakes below a preset pres-
seals are used in disc brakes. The This device
cross-section. sure in the prevents
hydraulic application
system. The of
O-ring may have
The O-ring seal on a round or square
most calipers re- the front
front brakes
brakes arebelow a preset
applied pres-
at about
cross-section.
tracts the piston and brake pad from sure in psi,
75-135 the depending
hydraulic onsystem. The
the system.
theThe O-ring
rotor, just seal on most
as return calipers
springs do inre-a front brakes are applied
The reason for a metering valve is at about
tracts brake.
drum the piston and brake
The amount pad from
of retraction 75-135
the forcepsi,and depending on the system.
fluid movement re-
the rotor, just by
is controlled as return
seal and springs do in a
seal-groove The reason
quired for a metering
to overcome valve is
drum-brake
drum brake. The amount
design. Movement is slight in a disc of retraction the force
return and Also
springs. fluid, disc-brake
movement pads re-
is controlled
brake becausebythe sealrubber
and seal-groove
parts only quired to overcome
lightly touch the rotor when not drum-brake
design.
flex a smallMovement amount, is slight in a disc
compared to return springs.
applied, Also,less
so it takes disc-brake
pressure padsand
brake
brake-shoe because the springs.
return rubber parts only
However, lightly touch the
fluid movement rotor contact
to make when with not
flex
a littlea motion
small amount,
is all that compared
is required to to applied,
the rotor.so Drum
it takesbrakes
less pressure
take much and Metering valves allow pressure to be ap-
release a disc brake. And, it However,
brake-shoe return springs. is desired fluid
more movement
force and to make contact
movement with
to bring I
plied to rear brakes before front brakes. I
atolittle
keepmotion
the padisveall ry that
closeis torequired
the rotorto the rotor. Drum brakes
their friction material into contacttake much Because
Metering they may
valves be combined
allow pressure with
to beother
ap-
release brake-system components,
plied to rear brakes before you
frontmay not
brakes.
so fluid amovement
disc brake.isAnd, slightit when
is desired
the more the
with force and movement
drums. The metering to valve
bring
recognize
Because theythem. If your
may car has awith
be combined metering
other
to keep are
brakes the applied.
pad very Otherwise,
close to the pedalrotor their friction material
balances these requirements and into contact valve, you maycomponents,
have to push or may
pull the
brake-system you not
so fluid movement is slight
travel would be e xcessive due to the when the with thethedrums.
allows front Theand metering
rear brakes valveto stem during
recognize them.bleeding.
If your carSee
has your shop
a metering
brakesdisc-brake
larger are applied. Otherwise, pedal
piston. balances
work more these
evenly. requirements and manual for may
valve, you specifics.
have Metering
to push orvalves
pull are
the
travel
Somewould be excessive
calipers have springs duemount-
to the allows
Withoutthe afront
meteringand valve
rear ,brakes
the front to used on roadbleeding.
stem during cars withSee combination
your shop
larger disc-brake piston. work more evenly. drum/disc brakes. Metering
manual for specifics. Drawing valves
courtesy
are
ed behind the pistons that hold the brakes do all the braking in an easy Bendix on
used Corp.
road cars with combination
Some
pads verycalipers
close have
to thesprings mount-
rotor surface. Without
stop with aa metering valve, thesefront
disc/drum-brake tup . drum/disc brakes. Drawing courtesy
ed behind
These the add
springs pistons
to the thatforce
hold sup-
the brakesaccelerates
This do all thefront-pad
braking wear.
in an Also
easy, Bendix Corp.
pads
plied very by close
the tohydraulic
the rotor surface.
system. stop with I-drive
rear-whee a disc/drum-brake
cars without meter-setup. Not all cars use metering valves
These
However, springs add to seal
the piston the provides
force sup-a This
ing valves tend to lock the Also,
accelerates front-pad wear. front with production disc/drum-brake
plied by the hydraulic
greater force; thus , the piston system.is rear-wheel-drive
wheels when stopping cars onwithout
snow or meter-
ice . Not
setups. all carshave
Some use ametering
metering valves
valve
However, the piston seal provides a ing valves tend to lock the front with production discldrum-brake
greater force; thus, the piston is wheels when stopping on snow or ice. setups. Some have a metering valve
53
 Front vs. Rear Fluid Pressure Relationships
For Maximum Decleration at Various
Traction
Front vs. Conditions
Rear Fluid Pressure Relationships Relationship
For Maximum Decleration atBrake
Various
System Without Proportioning
Traction Conditions Without Proportioning / Relationship
Valve

/ /
Valve ,
~o.
(/J / Without Proportioning
-.- ro~

&.
c2
E
Valve
Relationship With
(~rOportioning Valve
Ideal Relationship '-
(/J Changeover / Relationship With
OJ >-

:?:u~~
1.0g 1.2g ~(/) Proportioning Valve
Ideal Relationship (/J OJ
(/J.:.t:.
al x OJ ro
O.4g 0: cO
ldeal Relationship
0.2g For Maximum Deceleration
O~----~--~----~----~----~-
Pressure In Front-
Pressure in Front-Brake System (psi)
Brake System (psi)
Pressure In Front-
Pressure
Upper curve represents in Front-Brake
ratio of front-to-rearSystem (psi)pressures in
brake Ideal pressure curve plotted with curve from proportioning valve :
Brake System (psi)
system not using a proportioning valve. Pressure ratio is built into At pressures above changeover pressure A , proportioning valve
master cylinder
Upper curve or balance
represents ratiobar. Ideal pressure
of front-to-rear brakerelationship
pressuresfor in ldeal pressure
reduces curve
pressure riseplotted with
to rear curve Notice
brakes. from proportioning valve:
that proportioning
maximum
system notdeceleration, regardless
using a proportioning of surface,
valve. Pressure is ratio
shown in lower
is built into At pressures
valve does notabove changeover
reproduce pressure
ideal curve, but itA,comes
proportioning valve
close . Without
curve.
masterPressure
cylinder curve would bar.
or balance look ldeal
like this if brake
pressure system could
relationship for a proportioning
reduces pressurevalve
risemodifying pressure
to rear brakes. at pOint
Notice thatA,proportioning
pressure to
automatically
maximum deceleration, pressures ofto surface,
proportionregardless make front and rear
is shown tires
in lower valve does not
rear brakes reproduce
would continueideal
to curve,
rise in but i t comes
direct close.toWithout
proportion front-
reach
curve. traction-limits
Pressure curvesimultaneously.
would look likeThe this closer
if brake a system
proportioning
could brake
a pressure. valve modifying pressure at point A, pressure to
proportioning
valve comes toproportion
automatically this ideal curve, the faster
pressures a carfront
t o make will stop
and under any
rear tires rear brakes would continue t o rise in direct proportion to front-
condition.
reach traction-limits simultaneously. The closer a proportioning brakepressure.
valve comes t o this ideal curve, the faster a car will stop under
inside theany combination valve. Correct brake balance means that
condition.
Therefore, don't be concerned if you front-to-rear braking forces are pro-
inside find the
can't combination
a metering valve on valve.
your Correct so
portioned brake balance
neither frontmeans that
nor rear
Therefore, don't be concerned
car as a sepa rate unit. Metering valves if you front-to-rear braking forces
wheels lock first. Pu t another way, the are pro-
can't find a used
are seldom metering valve
on race on even
cars, your portioned
front so neither
and rear brakes wiJl frontlocknorsimul-
rear
car
withasdisc/drum-brake
a separate unit. Metering valves
setups because wheels lock iffirst.
taneously Put another
correctly way, the
balanced. If
are seldom
race braking used
is doneon very
race hard,
cars, andevena front
braking andwasrearadjusted
brakes will to be lock simul-
equal on
with disc/drum-brake setups
metering valve isn't needed in hard because taneously
both the front if correctly
and rear wheels balanced.
, a hard If
race braking is done very hard, and a
braking. braking
stop withwas high adjusted
weight to be equal
transfe r would on
metering valve isn't
The metering valve needed
operatesin much
hard both the
cause the front and rear
rear wheel wheels,
to lock a hard
up first. If
braking.
like a residual-pressure valve. A stop
the brakes were proportioned onwould
with high weight transfer thi s
The meteringpoppet
spring-loaded valve valve
operates much
is seated cause
car so the
more rearbraking
wheel tooccurred
lock up on first.the
If
like a residual-pressure valve.
with a precise amount of spring forc~. A the brakes were yropot.tiot?ed
front, the car could stop quicker. on this
spring-loaded
When hydraulic poppet valve
pressure is seated
exerts suffi- car so more
Greatest braking occurred
deceleration occurs onwhen the
with aforce
cient preciseon amount of spring
the poppet, force.
the spring front, the car could
both front and rear tires reach their stop quicker.
This proportioning valve looks like a brake
When hydraulic pressure
force is overcome and the poppet exerts suffi- Greatest
traction limitdeceleration
at the same occurs
time . when
Tires
fitting. It contains a spring-loaded valve
cient force on the poppet,
opens to aJlow fluid flow. Another the spring both frontmaximum
develop and rear grip tires jureach their
st before
that changes pressure-rise
This proportioning valve looksrate
like atobrake
rear force is allows
passage overcomefluid and the through
return poppet traction
they slid.limit at the same
Remember, time.
slatic Tires
friction is
brakes. IValves
fitting. sucha as
t contains this are found
spring-loaded in
valve opens to allow fluid
the valve when the brake(s) isflow. Another develop
higher than maximum
sliding/riction.grip just before
many changes
that production cars with disc
pressure-rise brakes
rate on
to rear passage allows fluid return through they slid. Remember, static.fr.iction is
front
brakes.andValves
drums such
on rear.
as Drawing
this are courtesy in re
theleased.
valve when the brake(s) is Correct slidingfriction.
higherthan brake balance is different
Bendixproduction
many Corp. cars with disc brakes on for high deceleration than for low .
front and drums on rear. Drawing courtesy BRAKE BALANCE Correct
Brakes brake for
balanced balance is different
dry pavement will
Bendix Corp. As discussed in Chapter 1, a car un- for
not high deceleration
be balanced for wet thanpavement.
for low.
BRAKE BALANCE
dergoes weight transfer during Brakes
For examp balanced for dry
le , a hard stoppavement
on wet pave- will
As discussed
braking. added to1, the
WeightinisChapter a carfront
un- not be balanced for wet
ment will give less deceleration than pavement.
dergoes
wheels as itweightis removed transfer
from the during
rear For example, a hard stop on wet pave-
fo r dry pavement; less weight transfer
braking.inWeight
wheels the same is amount.
added toThe the prob-
front ment will
occurs and give less wheels
the front decelerationlock up. than
lem is that braking force should berear
wheels as it is removed from the ap- forAdry pavement; less weight
system that corrects the various transfer
wheels
plied toineach
the samewheelamount. The prob-
in proportion to occurs and
traction the front iswheels
conditions needed. lockPropor-
up.
lem weight
the is that braking
on it-moreforce weight,
should be ap-
more A system that corrects
tioning valves are designed to do this. the various
plied
braking,to and
eachvice wheel in proportion to
versa. traction conditions issystem
A hydraulic-brake needed, hasPt.opor.-
a cer-
theWeight
weighttransfer
on it-more
depends weight, more
on vehicle tionirig valves are designed
tain ratio between front and to do this.rear
braking, and vice
deceleration. versa. deceleratio n
Maximum A hydraulic-brake
brake pressures. A system tandemhas a cer-
master-
Weight mostly
depends transferondependsfrictiononbetween
vehicle tain ratio between front and rear
cylinder brake system with equal
deceleration. Maximum deceleration
the tires and road surface. If the fric- brake pressures. A tandem master-
piston diameters has the same pres-
Kelsey- Hayes adjustable proportioning depends mostly of
tion coefficient on the
friction
tires between
is high , cylinder brake system with equal
sures front and rear. This means that
valve was used on 1965-'68 Corvettes
and some Ford products. It has been used
the tires and road
deceleration surface.
is high, as Ifis the fric-
weight piston
if you push on thehas
diameters pedalthewith
same pres-
enough
Kelsey-Hayes adjustable proportioning
for adjusting
valve was used brake
on balance
1965-'68on many race
Corvettes
tion coefficient
transfer. On a slick of surface
the tireswith is ahigh,
low sures front and rear. This means that
force to produce 100 psi in the front
cars. ValveFord
and some is adjusted
products,by has
loosening jam
been used deceleration
friction is high,
coefficient, bothasdeceleration
is weight if push , on
YOU lines
brake thetherearpedal
brake withlines
enoughwill
nut and
for turningbrake
adjusting threaded shaft.
balance on many race transfer.
and weight Ontransfer
a slick are
surface
low . with a low forcehave
also to produce
100 psi in 100them.psi inIf the
you front
step
cars. Valve is adjusted by loosening jam friction coefficient, both deceleration brake lines, the rear brake lines will
nut and turning threaded shaft. and weight transfer are low. also have 100 psi in them. If you step
54
down harder and raise the pressure to would be designed to lock all four flects high deceleration rates obtained
400 psi, both front and rear brakes wheels at once, regardless of weight with high tire grip and the resulting
down
will have harder and raise
400-psi the pressure
pressure. This is notto would
transfer.be designed to lock all four flects
weighthigh deceleration rates obtained
transfer.
400ideal
an psi, situation
both front for and
maximumrear brakes
stop- wheels
In theatgraph
once, onregardless
page 54, ofI plotted
weight with high tire grip and the resulting
will
pinghave
on all400-psi
surfaces. pressure. This is not transfer.
the relationship between front- and weight transfer.
PROPORTIONING VALVE
anLet's
ideal assume
situation that for maximum
we have astop- car In the graph
rear-brake on page
pressures for 54,
our Iexample
plotted Now that we have an ideal front-
ping
with on all surfaces.disc brakes . Disc
four-wheel the relationship
car. If between front-
master-cylinder-piston sizes and
are PROPORTIONING
to-rear brake-pressureVALVE curve for this
Let's have
brakes assume that we
no servo havesoa that
action, car rear-brake
equal , therepressures
is alwaysforequal our example
pressure car,Now
howthat can we
we have
modify an the
idealstraight-
front-
with four-wheel disc
simplifies this example. Let 's also brakes. Disc car. If master-cylinder-piston
in the front- and rear-brake systems. sizes are to-rear brake-pressure
line pressure relationship curve
to getforclose
this
brakes have
assume that no all servo action, are
four brakes so that
the This is the straight line in thepressure
equal, there is always equal graph . car, how can we modify the
to the ideal curve? Answer: It is done straight-
simplifies thisdiameter
same-rotor example.andLet's also
caliper- in
Whenthe the
front- and rear-brake
pressure systems.
in the front-brake line
with pressure relationship
a proportioning valve. to get close
assume
piston sizes thatare all the
four brakes
same. Thisare the
means This
system is the
is straight
doubled,linethe in the
reargraph.
also to Atheproportioning
ideal curve? Answer: It is done
valve reduces the
same-rotor diameter and
that the torque output of the brakes is caliper- When the pressure in the
doubles. This is not ideal for maxi- front-brake with a proportioning
pressure increase tovalve.
the rear brakes.
piston
the same sizesfront
are theand same.
rear ifThis
frontmeans
and system is doubled,
mum deceleration under thevarious
rear trac-
also This proportioning
A does not meanvalve reduces the
that pressure to
that the torquepressures
rear hydraulic output ofare thethebrakes
same.is doubles. This is not ideal for maxi-
tion conditions. pressnre
the rear brakes is preven tedbrakes.
increase to the rear from
theWesame frontassume
will also and rear thatif the
front
car and
has mumWithdeceleration under various
a high-traction trac-
surface, This does merely
rising-it not mean risesthat
at apressure
lower rate to
rear hydraulic pressures
a 50/50 weight distribution-50% are the same.of tion conditions.
weight transfer increases. This re- the rear
than brakes ispressure
front-brake prevented when froma
theWe will also
weight is onassume that wheels
the front the car and
has Withlessa pressure
quires high-traction
at the rearsurface,
brakes rising-it merely
specified pressure-riseschangeover
at a lower pres-
rate
a50%50/50
is onweight
the rear. distribution-50%
If we make a panic of weight transfer increases.
and more at the front because This there- than
sure-is reached. Th e curve of front-a
front-brake pressure when
the weight is on the front
stop on a slick surface , weight transfer wheels and quires
verticalless pressure
force on the at the reartires
front brakes is specified
to-rear- brake pressure-
pressure charigeover
with a propor-pres-
50%
is is onzero.
nearly the rear.
EqualIf braking
we maketorquea panicis and more
greater thanat onthethefront because
rears. A brake the stlre-is valve
tioning reached. Therear
in the curve
brake of line
front-is
stop on a from
desired slick surface,
both front weightand transfer
rear vertical with
system forceequal
on brake
the front tiresand
pressure is to-rear-brake pressure
plotted in the graph, pagewith
54 . a propor-
is nearlyIfzero.
brakes. we areEqual braking
trying torque
to stop in isa greater than on the rears.
equal brake torque will lock the rear A brake tioning valve in the rear
The accompanying brake curves
pressure line is
desired from both front
hurry on ice, the condition of hard and rear system
wheels with
before equal
the brake
fronts.pressure
This is andnot plotted
do not in the graph,
have numbered pageaxes
54. because
brakes.
brak ing Ifwith we are lowtryingweightto stop in a
transfer equal brake
desirable fortorque
maximum will lock the rear
deceleration Thevary
they accompanying
with each car. pressure
Exactcurves
pres-
hurry on ice, exist.
might actually the condition of hard wheels beforeA the
or stability. car fronts. This is rear
with locked not do not have numbered
sures in a brake system vary axes because
with
braking
Now lewith t's trylowto weight
design atransfer
brake desirable for maximum
wheels and rolling front wheels willdeceleration they vary with each
hydraulic-cylinder car. Exact brake
dimensions, pres-
might
system actually
that exist. gives maximum or
spinstability.
easily. A car with locked rear sures
design,in CG a brake systemweight
location, vary withand
Now let's regardless
deceleration, try to design of thea coeffi-
brake wheels and rolling
The lower front the
curve shows wheels
ratio will
be- hydraulic-cylinder
wheelbase of the dimensions,
car. The curve brake
systemof friction
cient that between gives themaximum
tires and spin easily.
tween front-and rear- brake pressures design, has
always CGthelocation,
shapes shownweightin and the
deceleration,
the road. This regardless of the coeffi-
brake system would The lower curve
automatically changedshows to the ratio be-
account for wheelbase of the
two figures, but the numbers car. The curve vary
cient
have to adjust the ratio the
of friction between tires and
of pressures tween front-
weight andItrear-brake
transfer. shows thepressures
need to always
from carhas the shapes shown in the
to car.
the road.thThis
between e front brakeand system
rear brakeswouldto automatically
gradually reduce changedthe to account for
percentage of twoMost
figures, but the numbers
proportioning valves vary are
have to adjust
account for thethe ratio of in
difference pressures
weight weight transfer. It shows
brake pressure going to the the needrearto from car to car.
preset at the factory . They cannot be
between the
transfer. Thefront idealand brake
rear brakes
systemto gradually reduce increased.
brakes as traction the percentage This re- of Most orproportioning
adjusted serviced later. valves
Each valve are
account for the difference in weight brake pressure going to the rear preset at the factory. They cannot be
transfer. The ideal brake system brakes as traction increased. This re- adjusted or serviced later. Each valve

1100 5
AP Racing Adjustable
Proportioning Valve
CP 2611-3 Adjustable
AP Racing
900 ProportioningValve 4
CP 261 1-3
Nominal Performance
900 - Graph 4
Nominal Performance 3
700
.-
E- 700 -
C/J
3
2
::;
.-
-::;aIn
Q. 500 2
0
3 1
0 300

100
Tilton Engineering offers this AP Racing adjustable proportioning
valve. Lever has five positions, each with a different changeover
pressure.

less
Valve is ideal
Tilton Engineering
tires.
valve. Improved
pressure
pressure.
offersfor
Lever hasgrip
fiveand
should
Valve go to
is ideal
road
this APcar
weight each
positions,
forbrakes.
occasionally
Racing
transfer
withwith
Photo
road car
raced
adjustable on racing
proportioning
racing tires
a different
courtesy AP
occasionally
means
changeover
Racing.
raced on racing
1
100
1

100500
300
I
300700
Input (psi)
Graph shows AP RaCing adjustable
500
I nput
900
1
700
(psi) I
1100
proportioning-valve pressure
-
900

tires. Improved grip and weight transfer with racing tires means changes to rear brakes. With valve at setting 2, pressure rises as
less pressure should go to brakes. Photo courtesy AP Racing. if thereshows
Graph were no
APvalve, until
Racing 200-psi proportioning-valve
adjustable changeover point is pressure
reached.
Pressure tothen
changes rearrises at With
brakes. a lesser
valverate. This effectively
at setting 2, pressure reduces
rises as
pressure-rise
if there were norate to rear
valve, until brakes
200-psiand delays orpoint
changeover prevents rear-
is reached.
wheel lockup.
Pressure thenGraph
risescourtesy Tiltonrate.
at a lesser Engineering, Inc.
This effectively reduces
pressure-rise rate to rear brakes and delays or prevents rear-
wheel lockup. Graph courtesy Tilton Engineering, Inc.
55
is suitable for use only on the car for Inlet and Outlet
,-------- Ports are 7/16-
which it was adjusted. This is unfortu- 24 Thread for 3/16-
is suitable for you
use mayonly like
o n the car for Inlet and Outlet
nate because an adjust- or 1 /4-in.-OD
Ports are 7/16-Tubing
which it was adjusted.
able proportioning valve Thisas ais means
unfortu- of 24 Thread for 3/16-
nate because
balancing your youhigh-performance
may like an adjust- or or 1/4-in.-OD Tubing
able proportioning
race-car valve as a means
brakes. Fortunately, some of
balancing
proportioning yourvalves
high-performance
allow an external or
race-car brakes.
adjustment. Some Fortunately,
of these are shown some Q)

proportioning
in the accompanying valves photos.
allow an external :;
if>

adjustment. S o m e of these
Porsche, Chrysler, are shown
Chevrolet and
if>
Q)
~ ~ ~~~--~v--+--~~-+~~
in the accompanying photos.
Ford have adjustable proportioning
Q)

'"ro
Porsche,
valves Chrysler, Chevrolet
for high-performance and
use. The "?
Ford have
Porsche 914 adjustable
uses an adjustableproportioningval ve ~ 400 t--+-;H---~.rc---t---+
a:
valvescanForbehigh-performance
that changed by loosening use. T h ea Adjusting
Mounting
Porsche 914 uses an adjustable valve Holes
lock nut and turning a screw. Turning Knob

-
0.351 -0.342 dia.
that screw
the can beinward changed by loosening
on this valve putsa
800 1000 1200 2000

Front-Brake Pressure (psi)

lock
morenut and turning
pressure on the a screw.rear Turning
brakes 0.351 -0.342 dia. , BW ,DX) 1m lMO

the screw inward

during a hard stop. Adjusting o n this valve puts the Kelsey-Hayes adjustable proportioning valve is available from Kelsey
Front-Brake Products
Pressure (PSI) Division
more ispressure
valve o n the rear
a trial-and-error brakes
process, as and many U.S. automobile dealers through their high-performance catalogs. Valve functions
during a inhard
described Chapterstop.10.Adjusting the the same as APadjustable
Kelsey-Hayes RaCing valve except it'svalve
proportioning infinitely adjustable
is available from Kelsey100
between and 1000
Products psi.
Division
valve Adjustments are
and many U.S. made withdealers
automobile thumbscrew.
throughDrawing courtesy Kelsey-Hayes
their high-performance catalogs. Corp.
Valve functions
The isChevrolet
a trial-and-error
Corvetteprocess,adjustable as
the same as AP Racing valve except it's infinitely adjustable between 100 and 1000 psi.
described in Chapter
proportioning valve, 3878944, is 10. Adjustments are made with thumbscrew. Drawing courtesy Kelsey-Hayes Corp.
T h e Chevrolet
available both from Corvette adjustable
Chevrolet and
proportioning
from racing shops valve, specializing
3878944, in is
Ideal Front vs. Rear Fluid Pressure
available both fromChrysler's
brake components. Chevroletvalve, and Relationships For Different Weight Distributions
from
P4120999, racingis available
shops specializing
through their in 600 ldeal Front vs. Rear Fluid Pressure
brake components. Chrysler's
performance-parts division, Direct valve, Relationships For Different Weight Distributions
P4120999, is available
Connection. Ford's through proportioning their -600 Car weight, wheelbase, and CG height are Car A
performance-parts division, throughDirect .- the same for all three cars. Only Tail-Heavy Car
valve, M-2328-A is available (/J
Q. 500
Connection. Ford's dealers.proportioning front-to-rear
Car weight distribution
weight, wheelbase, varies.are
and CG height With
Car A40/60 Weight
Ford Motorsport These .-E DistributionCar
Tail-Heavy
valve, M-2328-A the same for all three cars. Only
valves work muchis available the samethrough as the -E -500
OJ
(j) front-to-rear weight distribution varies. With 40/60 Weight
Ford
PorscheMotorsport dealers. beginsThese
valves
valve. Proportioning
work much t h
between 100 and 1000 psi, depending
Porsche valve.
e
Proportioning
same as the
begins
->-
(fJ
a,
OJ
V)
.Y
Distribution
Car B
50/50 Weight
where adjustment is set.
between
Another 100 and
where adjustment
which operates like
Anothervalves,
1000 psi, depending
proportioning
is set.
the Porsche and
proportioning
val ve,
,X
Y

m
~
(J)
a,
~
?
OJ
0:
-400 Distribution
50/50
1.2g Weight
Distribution
I
Corvette is available valve, from ,
c -300
m CarC 1.2g
which
Alston Industries the
operates like of Porsche
Sacramento, and a,
u~:::J
Corvette valves,
California. This oneis was available
designed fromby (/J
Nose-Heavy
Alston Airheart
Industries Car With -.
to goof with Sacramento, (/J

Frank his high- ~ 60/40 Weight

Nose-Heavy
California.
performanceThis o n e was
dual, tandem designed
master by 0...
Distribution
Car With
Frank Airheart to go with his high-
cylinder. 60/40 Weight
performance
A proportioning dual,valve tandem master
is installed in 900 1000
Distribution
cylinder.
line between the master cylinder and
theA proportioning
rear brakes. It valve
willis installed
work with in
Pressure I n Front-Brake System (psi)
line between
either a singlet hore amaster cylindercylin-
dual master and
the inrear
der the brakes.
system, Itbecause will work with
all it does Pressure
Ideal front-to-rear brake-system In Front-Brake
pressures System
for three (psi) cars with different weight
different
either a single or a dual
is affect the maximum pressure at the master cylin- distributions: Nose-heavy car has less pressure to rear wheels; tail-heavy car has more.
der in
rear t h e system, because all it does
brakes. Ideal front-to-rear brake-system pressures for three different cars with different weight
is An
affect t h e maximum
adjustable pressure valve,
proportioning at the distributions: Nose-heavy car has less pressure to rear wheels; tail-heavy car has more.
changeover pressure is reached. For using street tires. If the car is set up
rear brakes.is sold by Tilton Engineer-
CP2611-3, position 5, pressure rises as if the pro- for racing, its total weight, weight
ingA n ofadjustable
Buellton, proportioning
California. valve, This changeover pressure
portioning valve is notis inreached.
the systemFor using street and
distribution tires.tire
If grip
the car
are islikely
set up
to
CP2611-3, is
device can be mounted sold by Tilton
in theEngineer-
cockpit position 5, pressure rises as if
until about 950 psi is reached. At thatthe pro- for racing, its total weight,
change from the average values the weight
inga race
of of car Buellton,
so the driCalifornia.
ver can adjust Thisit portioning
point, valve is not inpoppet
the spring-loaded the system
valve distribution
car and tire
was designed for. grip
Thus,arebrake
likelybal-
to
device can
during a race.be mounted
He can move in the acockpit
lever until about
inside 950 psi is reached.
the proportioning valve At that
opens, change
ance mayfrom the average
be incorrect valueseven
for racing, the
of a anyone
into race car so the driver
of five different canpositions
adjust it point, the spring-loaded poppet
and output-pressure increase is re- valve car was designed
though for. Thus, brake
it has a proportioning bal-
valve.
as brake or track conditions, aorlever
during
weight
as brake
during
a race.
into anydistribution
H e
o n e of five of
can move
different
the carpositions
o r track conditions, or the
a race.
changes
the inside with
duced the proportioning
Meanwhile,
duced
increasing input
and output-pressure
front-brake
with increasing
not affected.
Meanwhile,
It increasesinput
front-brake
valve
increase
opens,
pressure.
is re-
pressure
as it pressure.
is
did with-
ance may be incorrect
thoughtheit approximate
gives
Remember,
balance
gives
for
Remember, a proportioning valve
has a proportioning
over aa limited
racing, even
correct valve.
proportioning
the approximate correct brake
brake
range of valve
trac-
1
weight
Curves of inlet ofpressure
distribution the car changes
versus out a proportioning valve. pressure is tion conditions.
during a race.
outlet pressure for this valve are notMost
affected.
road Itcars
increases as it did with-
have proportioning balance
If you over
drivea a limited range
car on the of trac-
street and
Curves
shown on page of inlet
55. Note pressure versus
that pressure out a proportioning
valves valve.
that give approximate correct tion conditions.
race it on occasion, you may want to
outlet
rises in pressure
a one-to-one for this ratio valve are
until the Mostbalance
brake road cars withhave
an proportioning
average load useIf an
youadjustable
drive a car o n the streetvalve
proportioning and
shown o n page 55. Note that pressure valves that give approximate correct race it o n occasion, you may want to
rises in a one-to-one ratio until the
56 brake balance with an average load use a n adjustable proportioning valve
 to change brake balance. For street
driving, the car should be correct as
to For
is. changeracing,brakebrake balance.
balanceFor street
probably
driving,
will havethe to car should be tocorrect
be readjusted provide as
is. For racing, brake balance
more braking force on the front-less probably Proportioning-
will
on the haverear.to be readjusted
Racing to provide
tires have more = 1.2g
V",. S.II'09 2 ~_
more than
grip braking forcetires;
street on the front-less
thus, weight -
V)
Q
Proportioning-
on
grip
the rear.
transfer
than
Racing under
is greater
street
tires have
tires; thus,
maximum more
weight -
E
a,
1.29

--
braking . V)
/. 40/60 Weight Distribution
transfer
Let's sayis greater
you haveunder a sportsmaximum
car that $ Proportioning-
a, Valve Setting 1
braking.
you drive to work and slalom on the Y
1.0g 50/50 Weight
Let's say With you have a sports car that 2 Proportioning-
Distribution
weekends. the quick-adjustable CP Valve Setting 1
Tilton valve, you don't slalom
you drive to work and on the L
even have to m
weekends. With the quick-adjustable
get your hands dirty. In the example K
Tilton
given, youvalve, yourun
might don'tthe even
valve have
at posi-to -C Ideal-Pressure Relationship
a,
get
tion your
5 for hands
street dirty.
use and In drop
the example
to posi-
L
3
Actual-Pressure Relationship
given,
tion 4 you for might
racing run the valve
. Position at posi-
4 reduces
V)
V) Ideal-Pressure Relationship
tion 5 for street use and drop to posi- 2
rear-wheel braking, starting at a lower a
tion 4 forthan
pressure racing. Position
position 4 reduces
5. This com-
rear-wheel
pensates forbraking, the greaterstarting at a trans-
weight lower
pressure than position
fer when braking on racing com- 5. This tires. Pressure In Front-Brake System (psi)
pensates
More about for setting
the greater weightbalance
up brake trans-
fer when 10.
in Chapter braking on racing tires. Two ideal pressure curves Pressure In different
for cars of Front-Brake System
weight (psi)
distributions show how one propor-
More about
One disadvantage setting up of brake balance
proportioning tioning valve can be adjusted to work with either.
in Chapter 10. Two ideal pressure curves for cars of different weight distributions show how one propor-
valves is that they increase pedal tioning valve can be adjusted t o work with either.
One without
effort disadvantage reducing of proportioning
displacement not work. It only works where both valve can be seen by comparing the ac-
valves high-deceleration
during is that they increase stops. pedal rear brakes are fed by a single hydrau- companying graphs.
effort without reducing
If you wish to add a proportioning displacement notline.
lic work. I t only
I cover works
adding where both
a proportioning valve
Thecan be seen by between
relationship comparingpressure
the ac-
during
valve tohigh-deceleration
a car that doesn't stops.
have one, rear brakes are fed by a single hydrau-
valve to an existing car in Chapter 12. companying graphs.
in the front-brake system and rear-
makeIf you
surewishthe carto does
add anot proportioning
have a diag- lic line. I cover adding a proportioning The system
brake relationship between
is shown in thepressure
graph ,
valve to
onally a car
split brakethatsystem
doesn't have rear-
. Some one, valve to an existing car in Chapter
PRESSURE-LIMITING VALVES 12. in the Note
below. front-brake
how thesystem and rear-
pressure-limiting
make sure the car does
wheel-drive cars and most front- not have a diag- A pressure-limiting valve is used on brake system
valve differs isfrom
shown in the graph,
a proportioning
onally split brake
wheel-drive cars aresystem. Somesorear-
designed the PRESSURE-LIMITING
some cars with disc brakes VALVES on the below. Note how the pressure-limiting
valve . Remember, a proportioning
wheel-drive
left-front andcars and most
right-rear brakesfront-are A pressure-limiting valve
front and drums on the rear. is used on
It per- valve differs the
valve allows from a proportioning
pressure in the rear
wheel-drive
operated by the carssame
are designed so the
half of a tandem some
forms cars with function
a similar disc brakes on the
as a propor- valve.
system Remember,
to rise if thea driver
proportioning
pushes
left-front
master cylinder;and right-rear
right-front brakes
and left-are front
tioningandvalve.
drums Theon pressure-limiting
the rear. It per- valve
harderallows
on thethe pressure
pedal- but atina the rear
reduced
operated by the same half
rear brakes are operated by the other of a tandem forms a similar function
valve prevents the pressure as ata the
propor-
rear system to rise if the driver
rate. However, a pressure-limiting pushes
master
half of thecylinder;
masterright-front
cylinder. With and aleft-di- tioning valve. The pressure-limiting
brakes from exceeding a preset value. harder
valve on the pedal-but
limits pressure toat athe reduced
rear
rear brakes
agonally arebrake
split operated by the
system, other
a single valvedifference
The prevents the pressure
between at the rear
a proportion- rate. However, a pressure-limiting
brakes.
half of the master
adjustable cylinder. valve
proportioning With awill di- brakes from exceeding a preset
ing valve and a pressure-limiting value. valve
Whenlimits pressure
this preset valueto is the rear
reached,
agonally split brake system, a single The difference between a proportion- brakes.
adjustable proportioning valve will ing valve and a pressure-limiting When this preset value is reached,

~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Maximum
-.-
L g
Pressure
Maximum
m, Pressure
EC 2
-0
;$
V) a
In Y
2 Lm
a m

Pressure In Front-Brake System (psi)

Pressure In Front-Brake System (psi)

Relationship between front- and rear-brake system pressure of

t Honda Civic has diagonally split braking system with two propor-
pressure-limiting valve : Compare curve to that of ideal pressure
curve on pagebetween
Relationship 54. Withfront-
to rise in rear-brake
pressure-limiting
a proportioning
system
valve: beyond
Compare
valve, system
and rear-brake pressure
changeover
curve
continues
pressure
to that of pressure.
of
With
ideal pressure
tioning valves. Valves are shown at bottom. One adjustable pro- pressure-limiting
curve on page 54.valve,
With aonce changeover
proportioning pressure
valve, pressure is continues
reached,
portioning
Honda Civicvalve cannot besplit
has diagonally used with system
braking diagonally
withsplit braking
two propor- that's
to riseasinhigh as it gets.
rear-brake For a high-performance
system beyond changeover car,pressure.
use a propor-
With
tioning
system.valves. Valves are shown
Two proportioning valves at
willbottom. Oneadjustment
work, but adjustable must
pro- tioning valve, not avalve,
pressure-limiting pressure-limiting valve-unless
once changeover car is extreme-
pressure reached,
be synchronized.
Portioning valve cannot be used with diagonally split braking that's as high as i t gets. For a high-performance car, use a propor-
ly nose-heavy.
system. Two proportioning valves will work, but adjustment must tioning valve, not a pressure-limiting valve-unless car is extreme-
be synchronized. ly nose-heavy.
57
Both proportioning valves are adjusted by spring between rear axle and proportioning-valve lever. Valve adjustment changes with rear-
suspension travel from weight on rear wheels. Rear-axle movement moves lever and changes valve setting. As weight on rear wheels
increases,
Both so doesvalves
proportioning rear-wheel-brake
are adjusted bypressure. Cars that
spring between rearhave suchproportioning-valve
axle and large weight-distribution changes,
lever. Valve such changes
adjustment as this with
Plymouth
rear-
Voyager/Dodge
suspension Caravan
travel (left) or
from weight onPeugeot stationRear-axle
rear wheels. wagon (right), will benefit
movement moves from a height-sensing
lever proportioning
and changes valve setting. valve.
As weight on rear wheels
increases, so does rear-wheel-brake pressure. Cars that have such large weight-distribution changes, such as this Plymouth
Voyager/Dodge Caravan (left) or Peugeot station wagon (right), will benefit from a height-sensing proportioning valve.
pressure to the rear brakes cannot tains a conventional proportioning
increase, regardless of how hard the valve and a bypass. At low
pressure to the on
driver pushes rear the
brakes cannot
pedal. A tains a conventional
deceleration, brake fluid proportioning
passes the
increase, regardlessvalve
pressure-limiting of how hard well
works the valve
ball andand a bypass.
bypasses At low
the proportioning
driver
only on pushes on the
an extremely nose-hpedal. A
eavy car, deceleration,
valve, regardless brake fluid passes
of pressure. the
At a pre-
pressure-limiting valve workssedan.
such as a front-wheel-drive well ball and bypasses
determined the proportioning
transition deceleration-
only
Also,on an extremely nose-heavy
pressure-limiting car,
valves usually valve,
about regardless
0 .3 g-the of pressure.
ball rollsAtupa pre- the
such as a front-wheel-drive sedan.
are not useful for race cars because determined
ramp, closes the bypass,deceleration-
transition and propor-
Also, pressure-limiting
most are not nose heavy.valves usually about
tioning 0.3
starts.g-the ball rolls up the
are not useful for race cars because ramp,
This closes
valve the canbypass,
compensateand propor-
for a
most are not nose
ANTI-SKID heavy.
SYSTEM tioning starts.
changing CG location . As weight at
A nti-skid systems are designed to theThis
rear valve
of thecan compensate
vehicle increases,forthea
ANTI-SKID
prevent wheelSYSTEM lockup, no matter how changing C G location.
rear suspension compresses As weight
and the at
ATE skid-control front-wheel sensor,
Anti-skid
hard the brakessysrenls are designed to
are applied. the rear
ramp angleof the vehicle This
increases. increases, the
increases introduced on '85 Lincoln Mark VII, is il-
prevent
Many manufacturersno clmatter
wheel lockup, aim theirhow rear
the suspension
transition compresses
decelerationand and, the ATE skid-control
lustrated front-wheel
on display model sensor,
with sectioned
hard the brakes
systems have are applied. properties.
anti-skid ramp angle increases.
therefore, rear-brake pressure at This increases introduced '85 Lincoln
front-wheel onrotor/hub. As Mark VII,speed
wheel is il-
Manytheymanufacturers claim their the transition deceleration and,- lustratedrapidly
changes on display
whenmodel
brake with sectioned
lockup begins,
What real ly do is prevent one transition. Thus, the rear brakes share front-wheel rotor/hub.
brakes are rapidly cycled As wheel
on and speed
off to pre-
systems havefrom
pair of wheels anti-skid
locking properties.
before the atherefore,
larger portion rear-brake
of the braking.pressure at changes rapidly
vent lockup. when
Photo brake
by Tom lockup begins,
Monroe.
What they
other. In reallya good
a sense, do is propo
prevent one
rtioning transition.
A true Thus, the rear
anti-skid brakessenses
system share brakes are rapidly cycled on and off to pre-
pair ofiswheels
valve from locking
an anti-skid device;before the
it keeps awhen
largera wheel
portionstarts
of thetobraking.
lock . It closes a vent lockup.
so the Photo
wheel (s)by Tom Monroe.
never completely
other.
the rearIn awheels
sense, from
a goodlocking
proportioning
before A true
valve in theanti-skid
line to system
that wheel senses
to lock.
valve is an In
the fronts. anti-skid device; I itdiscuss
this section, keeps when a wheel
reduce starts to It
the pressure. lock. It closes
then sensesa
so theControllers
Note: wheel($ require
never an completely
external
the rear wheels from locking
systems other than.!7xedproportioning before valvewheel
the in the line toup that
speeding and wheel to
reapplies lock.
power source, which can be hydraulic,
thepressure-limiting
or fronts. In this section,
valves. I discuss reduce the pressure.
pressure. A typical system uses It then senses Note: Controllers
electric or vacuum. require an external
systems
Some other than.fixedproportioning
anti-skid devices amount to the wheel sensors
magnetic speeding to up sense
and reapplies
wheel power source, which
Skid-control systemscan behave
hydraulic,
been
or pressure-limiting
nothing valves. propor-
more than adjustable pressure. A typical system uses
speed. electric or vacuum.
used on large aircraft since the '50s.
tioning valves controlled byamount
Some anti-skid devices some ex- to magnetic
Wheel-speed sensors to are
signals sense
sent wheel
to an TheSkid-control systems have
first vacuum-powered been
road-car
nothingmeans.
ternal more The thanvalve
adjustable propor-
is adjusted by speed.
electronic module, or computer, used on developed
systems large aircraftby since the '50s.
Kelsey-Hayes
tioning valves controlled
rear-suspension movement by someor ex-by whichWheel-speed
computessignals wheelare sent to an
deceleration
The Delco
and first were
vacuum-powered
introduced in road-car
the late
ternal means. The valve is adjusted
sensing the actual decelera tion of the by electronic
and slip values module,
for eachor computer,
wheel. Decel- systems developed
'60s by Ford, GM and by Chrysler.
Kelsey-HayesThe
rear-suspension movement
car. The type that operates from rear- or by which computes wheel
eration and slip values for that wheel deceleration and Delco
Ford and GM were systems
introduced in the late
operated on
sensing the actual
suspension movement deceleration of the
compensates and slip
are values for
compared witheach wheel.for
values Decel-
the '60s rear
the by Ford,
wheelsG M andChrysler
only; Chrysler.hadThea
car. The
for bothtype that operates
deceleration andfrom rear-
vehicle erationwheels
other and slipandvalues for that
with fixed wheel
thresholds
Ford and Gsystem.
four-wheel M systems operated
Porsche on
experi-
suspension movement compensates
weight. This is particularly important are compared
(preset values) . with
Whenvaluesthresholdsfor are
the the rear wheels only; Chrysler
mented with mo re sophisticated sys-a had
fora both
in truck or deceleration
a station wagon,and vehicle
where other wheels and with
exceeded, the module sends a signalfixed thresholds four-wheel
tems system.
in the early '7 0s Porsche
on 911 and experi-
917
weight.
the CG This is particularly
can move a great important
deal with (preset
to values).
the proper When thresholds
controller. The valveare is mented
race cars.with more sophisticated sys-
in a truck
changes or a instation
in load wagon,
the cargo area. where exceeded,
closed and the module
pressure to sends a signal
that wheel is tems in the
Today, early
most '70s car
major on manufactur-
911 and 917
theThe anti-skid valve thatdeal
CG can move a great with
senses to the proper
reduced. When controller.
wheel The valve is
deceleration race
ers cars.
are developing four-wheel
changes in load in the cargo
deceleration uses the bal/-and-ramp area. closed
and slipand pressure
go below to thatlevels,
threshold wheeltheis Today, 1984
systems. most Porsche
major carand manufactur-
Mercedes
The anti-skid
prinCiple. The valve valve that senses
is positioned so reduced. When wheel
module signals the controller to in- deceleration ers are
models developing
use Bosch anti-skidfour-wheel
systems,
deceleration
that the rampuses anglestheup,ball-and-ramp
toward the and slippressure
crease go below . Allthreshold levels,hap-
this shuttling the systems.and
Honda 1984 Porsche and
Mitsubishi haveMercedes
systems
principle.
front of theThevehicle.
valve isThe positioned
valve con- so module
pens signals
rapidly duringthe hard
controller to in-
applications, models
in use Bosch
production, Fordanti-skid systems.
introduced a
that the ramp angles up, toward the crease pressure. All this shuttling hap- Honda and Mitsubishi have systems
front of the vehicle. The valve con- pens rapidly during hard applications, in production. Ford introduced a
58
Safety Braker is fancy cylinder mounted in Three different types of mechanical stoplight switches each have plunger to operate
brake line from nearest master cylinder. It electrical switch. Usually, switch is operated by movement of brake pedal. Drawing courte-
damps Braker
Safety pressure pulses
is fancy in brake
cylinder mounted fluid,
in sy Bendix
Three Corp. types of mechanical stoplight switches each have plunger to operate
different
giving more
brake line consistent
from brakingcylinder.
nearest master and less It electrical switch. Usually, switch is operated by movement of brake pedal. Drawing courte-
pedal pulsation.
damps pressureIt pulses
is slightly
in more difficult
brake fluid, sy Bendix Corp.
to lock more
giving one wheel with a braking
consistent Safety Braker
and less in
the
pedal system.
pulsation. Because device
It is slightly is an
more difficult
accumulator, it displaces
to lock one wheel with a Safetyfluid Braker
and in- in
creases
the pedal travel
system. slightly.
Because Safety isBrak-
device an
ers are no longer
accumulator, it being made. fluid and in-
displaces
creases pedal travel slightly. Safety Brak-
ers are no longer being made.

system developed by ATE for the

1985 Mark VII. GM released systems
system
developed developed
by Bosch by andATE ATE for thefor
1985 Mark VII. G M released
1986 models. These systems are systems
developed but
expensive, by they
Bosch and much
provide ATE im- for
1986 models.
proved directionalThese stability,systems are
steerabili-
expensive, but they provide
ty and deceleration in critical much im-
braking
proved directional stability,
maneuvers on all road surfaces. steerabili- Hydraulic stoplight switches screw into a fitting in hydraulic system. Fluid pressure oper-
ty Anti-skid
and decelerationsystems in critical braking
can provide ates switch. Although easier to install, mechanical switches are better for racing. HydrauliC
maneuvers
these same on all road surfaces.
advantages in racing, plus switch takes
Hydraulic a smallswitches
stoplight amount of fluid into
screw movement to in
a fitting operate it, and
hydraulic a mechanical
system. switch oper-
Fluid pressure does
Anti-skid systems not. Also,
ates hydraulic
switch. switches
Although easier can leak. Drawing
to install, mechanicalcourtesy Bendix
switches are Corp.
better for racing. Hydraulic
they can eliminate tire can provide
flat spotting. switch takes a small amount of fluid movement to operate it, and a mechanical switch does
these same advantages in
To date, an ti-skid systems have been racing, plus
not. Also, hydraulic switches can leak. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
they can eliminate tire flat
used little because of their weight and spotting. when the brake pedal has been moved indicates a problem with the brake
To date, anti-skid
questionable systems have
reliability. been
However, about 112 in. The hydraulic switch is system. The switch senses any
used little because of their
recent advancements in technology weight and when the tobrake
designed closepedal
with has beenpressure
a small moved indicates a problem
hydraulic-pressure with the
imbalance brake
between
questionable reliability.
should change that. Many high- However, about 112 in. The hydraulic
buildup in the system . The exact switch is system. The switch
the front and rear brake systems.senses any
recent
powered, advancements
exotic road-racing in technology
cars will designed to close with a small
point at which the switch closes is not pressure hydraulic-pressure
And, imbalance between
the light illuminates when a
should
probably change
be using that.
anti-skid Many deviceshigh-by buildupbecause
critical in the any system.
modestThe brake exact
ap- the
presetfront and-rear
pressure brake systems.
imbalance occurs.
powered,
1990. But exotic
for now, road-racing
a skilledcars will
racing- point
plicationat which
shouldtheclose
switchthe closes is not
electrical And, will
This thewarn
lighttheilluminates when a
driver of problems
probably feel
driver's be using anti-skid devices
is considered to be the by critical
contacts. because any modest brake ap- preset as
such pressure
fluid imbalance
leaks, occurs.
master-
1990. But for now, a
most effective anti-skid device. skilled racing- plication
If you should close the
are selecting electrical
a stop-light This will warn tlie
cylinder-fluid driver
bypass or ofairproblems
in the
driver's feel is considered to be the contacts.
swi tch for a race car, use a mechanical such
system. as fluid leaks, master-
most effective anti-skid
STOP-LIGHT SWITCHES device. If . you
type are selecting
Although more adifficult
stop-light
to cylinder-fluid
A typical bypass brake orwarning-light
air in the
Stop-light switches are either me- switch for a race car, use a
install, a mechanical switch will notmechanical system.
switch is shown on the following page.
STOP-LIGHT
chanical SWITCHES
or hydraulic. Both are con- type. the
affect Although
brake systemmoreif itdifficult to
fails. A hy- AtAthe typical
center of brake
the switch,warning-light
a piston is
Stop-light
nected to theswitches are either
electric circuit me-
and turn install, switch
draulic a mechanical switch will
is just another not
possible switch
located isbeshown
tween ontwothe following
spri page.
ngs. Pressure
chanical or hydraulic. Both
on the brakelights when activated. are con- affect the brake
leak. Also, system
slight it fails. A hy-
fluid ifmovement is At the center of the switch, a
from the front brakes is on one side of piston is
nected
The to the electric
hydraulic switch is circuit and turn
designed as a draulic
necessary for operation. Everypossible
switch is just another possi- located between two springs.
the piston and rear-brake pressure is Pressure
on the brakelights when
hydraulic fitting and is operated by activated. leak. Also, must
ble failure slightbefluid movement
eliminated from isa from
on thethe frontDifferences
other. brakes is oninone theside of
force
The hydraulic pressure.
brake-system switch is The designed as a
mechani- necessary
race car. for operation. Every possi- thethe
of piston and rear-brake
two springs compensa pressure
te for the is
hydraulic fitting and is operated
cal type is operated directly by brake- by ble failure must be eliminated from a on the other. pressure
designed-in Differences in the force
differential of
brake-system pressure.
pedal-linkage motion. Most newer The mechani- race
BRAKE car. WARNING-LIGHT of
thethefront
two springs
and rear compensate
systems. for Whenthe
cal type
cars is operated
use the mechanical directly
switch. by brake- SWITCHES severe pressure differential occ ursof,
designed-in pressure differential
pedal-linkage
With both switch motion.types,Most newer
the electri- BRAKE
Brake WARNING-LIGHT
warning-light switches have the front and
the piston rear toward
is moved systems.theWhen low-
cars use the mechanical switch.
cal circuit is open until the brakes are SWITCHES
been in use since tandem master cylin- severe
pressure side . This closes the occurs,
pressure differential switch
With both
applied. When switch types, the
the switch electri-
closes, the Brake
ders werewarning-light
introduced in switches
the '60s. have
This the turns
and pistononisthemoved
warningtoward
light.the low-
cal circuit
stop lightsis illuminate.
open until the brakes the
Usually, are been in use since tandem
pressure switch illuminates master cylin-
a warning pressure side. This closes
There are many variations the of switch
this
applied.
mechanical When theisswitch
switch designed closes, the
to close ders
light were
on theintroduced
instrument in the '60s.which
panel, This and turns
simple on the
switch warning
. Some light.
have centering
stop lights illuminate. Usually, the pressure switch illuminates a warning There are many variations of this
mechanical switch is designed to close light on the instrument panel, which simple switch. Some have centering
59
 Brake Warning-
Light Switch
Brake Warning-

Piston Off-Center

Stem

Three-function combination valve com-

bines metering valve, proportioning valve
houlder of Piston and brake warning-light
Three-function combination switch
valve into
com-a
Touching Terminal single metering
bines unit. Metering
valve, valve is at leftvalve
proportioning end
Brake warning-light switch is indicating hydraulic-system malfunction. Piston between two and proportioning valve is under
brake warning-light switchlarge
intonut
a
centering springs is pushed to left by higher pressure in right chamber. Piston contact with on bottom.
single unit.Drawing courtesy
Metering Bendix
valve is Corp.
at left end
Brake warning-light
electrical switch
terminal turns is indicating hydraulic-system
on instrument-panel warning light. malfunction. PistonBendix
Drawing courtesy between two
Corp. and proportioning valve is under large nut
centering springs is pushed t o left by higher pressure in right chamber. Piston contact with on bottom. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.
electrical terminal turns on instrument-panel warning light. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp.

springs; some even have two pistons. near the master cylinder so lines to
The switch type used varies with the the front and rear brakes can be easily
springs;
design ofsome even
car and have
brake two pistons.
system. near the master
connected cylinder so lines to
to the valve.
The switch type used varies with the the front and rear brakes can be easily
design of car and brake
COMBINATION system.
VALVE connected
FLUID-LEVELto the valve.
INDICATOR
In recent years, car manufacturers A fluid-level indicator consists of a
COMBINATION
have combined the VALVEfunction of the FLUID-LEVEL
device in the fluidINDICATOR
reservoir and a
In recentvalve,
metering years,proportioning
car manufacturers valve brake warning light. It consists
A fluid-level indicator switchesofona
havebrake
and combined the function
warning-light switch of intothea device in the fluid reservoir
when reservoir fluid drops below and aa
metering
single valve, proportioning
combination valve. Some manu- valve brake warning level.
predetermined It switches
light. This indicatingon
and brakecombine
facturers warning-light
the brake switch into a
warning- when reservoir
device consists of fluid drops
a float andbelow
a me-a
single combination
light switch valve. Some
with either manu-
the propor- predetermined
chanically level. This indicating
or magnetically actuated
facturers combine the brake
tioning valve or the metering valve. warning- device
switch. consists of a float and a me-
light switch
Some with either the
front-wheel-drive carspropor-
with chanically
Like or magnetically
the brake actuated
warning-light
tioning valve orsystems
diagonally-split the metering
combine valve.
two switch.
switch, low fluid-level indicator warns Although old, cracked brake hose stills
holds pressure; it should be replaced. Con-
Some front-wheel-drive
proportioning valves with cars with
the brake theLike
driverthe brakeleakswarning-light
of fluid or master- dition of outSide rubber is the only
switch, low fluid-level indicator Although old, cracked brake hoseway to
stills
diagonally-split systems
warning-light switch. combine
Because two
external cylinder bypass. It can also warns
signal judge condition of
holds pressure; a brake
it should behose. It's better
replaced. Con-
proportioning valves with
appearances of these valves are the brake the
worndriver of fluid
disc-brake leaksbutornot
linings, master-
air in to replace
dition a cracked
of outs~de rubberhose than
is the onlyto way
risk toa
warning-light
similar, be switch.
careful Because
when external
moving cylinder
the system. bypass. It can
Usually, twoalsoare signal
used suddencondition
judge brake failure.
of a brake hose. It's better
appearances
brake-system componentsvalves
of these from one are worn
with disc-brake
tandem master linings,cylinders.
but not airBe- in to replace a cracked hose than to risk a
similar, be careful when moving the system. Usually, two are used sudden brake failure.
car to another. Check part numbers cause fluid-level indicators perform motion . To contrast this, the modern
brake-system
and components
car shop manuals from one
to be sure. with
many tandem master
of the same cylinders.
functions Be-
as brake brake hose is simple and reliable.
carCombination
to another. valves
Check are partfound
numbers
only cause fluid-level
warning-light indicators
switches, they areperform
rarely motion. To contrast
Brake hoses are madethis,from
the multiple
modern
and car shop manuals to
in brake systems using a tandem be sure. many of the same functions as brake
used together. brake hose is simple and
layers of fabric impregnated with reliable.
Combination
master cylinder.valves are found
Usually, they onlyare warning-light switches, they are rarely Brake hoses
synthetic rubber.areThey
made are from multiple
tough and
in brake
found systems
on cars with frontusingdisca andtandem
rear used
HOSEStogether. layers
last many of years,
fabricbutimpregnated
are still the weak-with
master brakes.
drum cylinder. MostUsually, they are
combination Hydraulic fluid is carried to the cali- synthetic
est link inrubber. They are
the hydraulic tough Itand
system. is
found on cars with front
valves cannot be disassembled disc and rearfor HOSES
pers or wheel cylinders by flexible last many years, but
easy to damage a hose throughare still thecontact
weak-
drum brakes. Most combination
service or adjustment. If defective, a Hydraulic
hoses. Thesefluid is carried
hoses to the cali-
allow suspension est
withlinka in wheel,
the hydraulic
tire , system.
suspensionIt is
valves cannot
valve must be disassembled for
be replaced. perssteering
and or wheel cylinders by flexible
motion. easy
member,to damage
exhausta hose through
or road contact
debris. Or
service or adjustment.
Combination valves work If defective,
similar toa hoses.
In theThese
early hoses
days ofallow suspension
the automobile, with a wheel,
an overzealous tire, can
mechanic suspension
damage
valve must be replaced.
the individual valves they replace. By and steering motion.
high-pressure flexible hoses did not amember,
brake hose exhaust or road
during debris. Or
installation. A
Combination
combining in avalves
common work similar
housing, to In the
exist. early days ofitthe
Consequently, wasautomobile,
difficult to anbrake hose can fail if twisted damage
overzealous mechanic can or im-
the individual
fewer valves
fittings are used.they replace. By
Consequently, high-pressure
get hydraulic flexible
fluid to hoses
brakesdidat not
the aproperly
brake installed
hose during
. installation. A
combining
the valve isinsimpler,
a common costs housing,
less and exist.
wheels.Consequently,
It was amazing it was difficult
that early to brake
Brake hoses expand twisted
hose can fail if slightly or im-
under
fewer fittings are used.
leak possibilities are reduced. Consequently, get hydraulic fluid to brakes
hydraulic-brake systems worked at at the properly installed.
high internal pressure. This swelling
thePictured
valve isis simpler,
a typical costs less and
three-function wheels.
all. Fluid Itwaswas amazing
routed through that
axleearly
and Brake additional
requires hoses expand fluid slightly
movement underto
leak possibilities
combination are reduced.
valve. The metering hydraulic-brake
suspension links systems workedThis
to the brakes. at high internalfor
compensate pressure. This swelling
the increased hose
Pictured
valve is a the
operates typicalfrontthree-function
system and all. Fluid
was was routed
particularly through
difficult on theaxlefront
and requires The
volume. additional
driver fluid
senses movement
hose swell- to
combination
the proportioning valve themetering
valve. The rear. A suspension
wheels. links seals
Sliding to thewerebrakes.
usedThisto compensate for the increased
ing or expansion as a soft or spongy hose
valve operates
combination the must
valve front be system
mounted and was
allow particularly
steering difficult
and on the front
suspension volume.
brake pedal.The driver sensesand
Racing hose swell-
high-
the proportioning valve the rear. A wheels. Sliding seals were used to ing or expansion as a soft or spongy
combination
60
valve must be mounted allow steering and suspension brake pedal. Racing and high-
 Imperial tube bender is available from good
tool stores. Neats bends can be made with-
out risk of
Imperial crimping
tube bendertube. Beforefrom
is available youI good
bend
brake
tool lines, Neats
stores. invest bends
in a good
cantube bender.
be made with-
out risk of crimping tube. Before you bend
brake lines, invest in a good tube bendler.
"Ultimate" brake hoses are steel-braided Don't use high-pressure plastic tubing for
teflon. Because exterior is braided stain- a brake hose! After repeated flexing,
less steel, hoses
"Ultimate" brake are more
hoses resistant
are to me-
steel-braided tubing cracks
Don't use at fittings. I've
high-pressure seentubing
plastic this fail-
for
chanicalBecause
teflon. damage than is
exterior ordinary
braided rubber
stain- urebrake
a on several
hose!race cars.repeated
After Plastic tubing is
flexing,
hoses.
less Steel-braided
steel, hoses are more hoses areto me-
resistant also also easily
tubing cracksdamaged by heat
at fittings. I've or mechanical
seen this fail-
stiffer, giving
chanical a firmer
damage pedal.
than ordinary rubber contact.
ure Although
on several raceplastic tubingtubing
cars. Plastic can be is
hoses. Steel-braided hoses are also usedeasily
also if rigidly mounted
damaged to frame,
by heat weight
or mechanical
stiffer, giving a firmer pedal. saved isn't
contact. worth risking
Although brake
plastic failure.
tubing can be
used if rigidly mounted to frame, weight
saved isn't worth risking brake failure.
performance brake systems require hoses. Failure of the plastic hose will
that rubber brake hoses be replaced occur without warning and cause
performance
with somethingbrake better.systems require hoses. Failure
sudden brakingof the plastic hose will
loss.
that rubber brake hoses be replaced
High-pressure stainless-steel- braid- occur without warning and cause
with something
ed brake hoses, better.
developed for aircraft sudden braking loss.
HYDRAULIC TUBING
andHigh-pressure
military use,stainless-steel-braid-
are available from Most cars use tubing manufactured
ed brake hoses,. Suppliers
specialty shops developedare forlisted
aircraftat HYDRAULIC
from steel for the TUBING
brake system. Com-
and military use, are available
the back of the book. Steel-braided from Most cars
monly called brakeuse tubing manufactured
lubing, it is availa-
specialty
hoses areshops. Suppliers
available in customare listed
lengths at from steel for the
ble in diameters from 1/8 brake system. Com-
in . through
the
with back of the
adapter book.to Steel-braided
fittings suit special monly
3/8 in.called
Mostbrake is availa-
today ' sit cars
of tubing, use Automotive brake-tubing flares : Double-
hoses are available
applications. These inhosescustom are lengths
Teflon ble in diameters
3/16-in. tubing ;from 118 in,
1I4-in. through
tubing is flare used on most American cars is at left;
with
lined and externally reinforcedspecial
adapter fittings to suit with 318 in.onMost
found most ofolder today's
cars. cars Smalleruse Automotive brake-tubing
at right is iso-flare flares:
used on some Double-
foreign
applications. These
stainless-steel braid. hoses
They are are almost
Teflon 3116-in. tubing;and114-in.
tubing is stiffer lighter and tubing easieris flare
cars. used on must
Flares most American cars is
match fittings toat left;
which
lined and externally reinforced with found they
at attach,
right otherwise
is iso-flare a leak
used or failure
on some will
foreign
"bulletproof' and resist expansion to bend.onLarger
most tubing older has cars.less Smaller
resis- cars.
result.Flares must match fittings t o which
stainless-steel
under pressure. braid. They are almost tubing
tance tois fluid
stiffermovement
and lighterand and iseasier
less they attach, otherwise a leak or failure will
"bulletproof' and resistTeflon-lined
Aeroquip 6600-series expansion to
prone to damage during less
bend. Larger tubing has resis-.
handling result.
under pressure.
hose with Super Gem fittings is a type tance3/16-in
The to fluid movement
.-diameter tubeand is aiscom-
less
Aeroquipused
commonly 6600-series Teflon-lined
on race cars. I highly prone
promiseto arrived
damage atduring after handling.
years of
hose with Super G e m
recommend this flexible brake fittings is a hose
type The 3116-in.-diameter
experience. I recommend tube is a using com-
commonly used on race cars.
to make the brake pedal firmer, and I highly promise arrived at after
3/16-in . hydraulic tubing for all brake years of
recommend this flexible
for overall safety. brake hose
Remember, use experience.
systems. I recommend using
to make hose
flexible the brake
only pedal
wherefirmer,
thereand is 3116-in.
Copperhydraulic
tubing ortubing for all brake
any tubing of an
for overall
motion safety.components
between Remember,being use systems.
unknown material should never be
flexible hoseEven
connected. onlythewhere best there
flexible is Copper
used tubingtubing
for brake or any tubing isofsoft
. Copper an
motion
hose expandsbetween more components
under pressure being unknown material should
and prone to cracking. Ordinary steel never be
connected. Even the
than steel hydraulic tubing.best flexible used formay
tubing brake be tubing. Copper isbut
strong enough, soft
it
hose
Some race cars use plastic pressure
expands more under hose for and pronemeet
doesn't to cracking.
the rigidOrdinary quality steel and
than
both steel hydraulic
the brake tubingtubing.
and the flexible tubing may
design be strong
standards of enough,
brake tubing. but it
Somehoses.
brake race cars
Thisuse plastic
tubing mayhose workfor doesn't meet the rigid
Tubing manufactured for brake sys- quality and
bothsome
for the brake tubing andapplications,
low-pressure the flexible designby standards
tems Bendix is made of brake tubing.
of soft-steel
brakeit ishoses.
but This tubing
dangerous to use as mayflexible
work Tubingsheathed
strips manufactured for brakeThese
with copper. sys-
for some low-pressure
brake hose. Plastic tends to crack applications, tems by Bendix is made
strips are then rolled into a double- of soft-steel
but it isthe
where dangerous
tube entersto usethe as flexible
fitting. stripstube
wall sheathed
and bonded with at copper.
high tempera- These
brake repeated
After hose. Plastic
flexing,tends
even to thecrack
spe- strips in
tures area then
furnace rolled
. Theinto tu bea double-
is then
where
cial the developed
fittings tube enters for the
this fitting.
tubing wall tube and
tin-coated forbonded
corrosionat highresistance.
tempera-
Afternotrepeated
will preventflexing,
failure. even
If youthe havespe-a tures in a furnace. The
Ordinary steel tube is only single tube is then
wall Making double flare: Flaring tool comes
cial fittings with dies needed to do both forming
race car withdeveloped
plastic brakefor this tubing
hoses, re- tin-coated
and for corrosion
not copper- or tin-plated. resistance.
It could Making double
operations. Tool flare: Flaring
and tubing aretool
set comes
up to
will not
place themprevent
with failure. If you Teflon
steel-braided have a Ordinary
rust steela few
out after tubeyearsis onlyandsingle
suddenlywall with
do dies forming
second neededoperation.
to do both forming
race car with plastic brake hoses, re- and not copper- or tin-plated. It could operations. Tool and tubing are set up to
place them with steel-braided Teflon rust out after a few years and suddenly do second forming operation.
61
Flaring tool folds tube end back on itself to
finish double-flaring operation. Drawing
courtesy Chrysler
Flaring tool Corporation.
folds tube end back on itself to Fittings used with steel-braided hose are different than standard automotive brake fittings.
High-pressure steel-braided-hose fittings meet aircraft standards, not automotive
finish double-flaring operation. Drawing
standards. Special
Fittings used adapter fittings
with steel-braided hose attach aircraft-type
are different fittings
than standard to automotive
automotive brakes.
brake fittings.
courtesy Chrysler Corporation.
Photo courtesy C
High-pressure & D Engineering Supply
steel-braided-hose Ltd. meet aircraft standards, not automotive
fittings
standards. Special adapter fittings attach aircraft-type fittings to automotive brakes.
threads.
Photo Accompanying
courtesy C & D ~ n ~ i nphotos
eerin g show
supply Ltd. seat for the flare they mate to.
some of these differences. Otherwise, they will leak. Many fit-
threads.
DoubleAccompanying
flares are important photosforshow the seat for look
tings that the OK flare
willthey mateprop-
not mate to.
some
strengthof these differences.
and safety of a brake system. Otherwise,
erly with the theytubing.
will leak.Never Manyuse fit-
ta-
Doublewith
Anyone flares are important
a cheap flaring tool for can
the tings
pered that
pipelook OK will
threads in a not mate
brake prop-
system.
strength and safety of a
make single flares. NEVER single- brake system. erly with
They will the
leak tubing.
under Never use ta-
high pressure,
Anyone
flare brakewith a cheap
lines. If youflaring
don't tool
wantcanto pered pipe
particularly threads in
if installeda brake system.
without
make
invest insingle
a special NEVER single-
flares.double-flaring tool, They willThey
sealant. leak will
underalso highsplit
pressure,
when
flare
buy brake
preflaredlines.brake
If you tudon't
bes want
or pay to particularly if installed without
overtorqued.
invest in a special double-flaring
someone to custom-make double tool, sealant. They will switches
Some stop-light also split have whenta-
buy preflared
flares. Single flaresbrake are tubesweak,or will
pay overtorqued.
pered pipe threads. They will seal if
someone
eventually to custom-make
fatigue, crack and cause doublea Some tape
Teflon stop-light
is used switches
. However, have you ta-
flares. Single
leak in the flaressystem.
hydraulic are weak, will pered
must be pipe
very threads.
careful They
not towillallowsealanyif
Race cars often require fittings not normal- eventually
Armor-Brake tubing is and
fatigue, crack cause toa
exposed Teflon tape
Teflon tape to is extend
used. However,
past the firstyou
ly found in auto-parts stores. Bulkhead fit- leak in the hydraulic system.
harsh conditions under a car. It gets must be very careful not to
thread. A shred of Teflon tape floating allow any
ting
Race is
cars handy
often for mounting
require fittings brake lines
not normal- Armor-Brake tubing is isexposed to Teflon tape to extend past the first
where
ly foundthey pass through
in auto-parts a panel
stores. such fit-
Bulkhead as blasted by dirt and debris, immersed around in the brake fluid can plug a
this fire wall. Two
harsh
in water conditions
and salt, but under a car.continue
should It gets A shred
thread. port
critical in theofsystem.
Teflon tapeThe floating
best so-
ting is handy for jam nuts support
mounting brake fitting
lines
at hole they
where in panel.
pass through a panel such as blasted
to by dirt
function forand debris,
years is immersed
without failure. around
lution is avoiding the use can
in the brake fluid plug a
of tapered
this fire wall. Two jam nuts support fitting in
Anytime you are under your continue
water and salt, but should car, look critical port in the system. The
pipe threads. Take a tip from the air- best so-
at hole in panel. to function
for brake-linefor years
damage without
. A failure.
rusty, lutionindustry:
craft is avoiding Leave theTeflon-tape
use of tapered sea-
Anytime you are
kinked, nicked or under
leakingyourline car,
must look
be pipe threads.
lant to plumbersTakeand a tippipefromfitters.
the air-It
burst. Always use proper-quality for brake-line damage.
replaced. If you want extra protection A rusty, craft industry: Leave Teflon-tape
can cause many problems in a brake sea-
brake-tubing material, available from kinked,
with newnicked
brakeortubing
leaking, itline must be
is available lant to plumbers and pipe fitters. It
system.
burst. Always
auto-parts stores. use proper-quality replaced. with
wrapped If you want
a coil extra This
spring. protection
armor canOncause
race many
cars, problems
steel-braided in a brake
hoses
brake-tubing
Double Flare-Brake material,tubing
available from
is availa- with new the
protects brake tubetubing,
fromit damage
is availableby system.
are used to improve reliability and
auto-parts stores.
ble in several standard lengths with wrapped with asharp
rocks o r other coil spring.
objects.This armor
Armored On race
provide cars,brakes.
firmer steel-braided
Fittings hoses
used
Doublefittings
male Flare-Brake
at each tubing is availa-
end. Common protects
brake lines the cantubebe fromfounddamagein major by are used to improve reliability
with steel-braided hoses are different and
ble in several
lengths standard
are 8, 12, 20, 30lengths
, 40, 50 with
and rocks
au or other
to- parts sharp objects. Armored
stores. provide
than those firmerusedbrakes.
with Fittings
conventionalused
male
60 in . fittings
Commonly at each end. diameters
available Common brake lines can be found in major with
hoses.steel-braided
They have hoses entirelyare different
different
lengths
are 3/16are or 8,11412,
in. 20,
for 30, 40, 50 cars
American and auto-parts
FITTINGSstores. than those used with conventional
specifications for threads, flares and
60 in. Commonly available
and 3/16 in. or 4.762mm for imported diameters Brake lines are connected with steel hoses. dimensions.
other They have entirely Adapter different
fittings
are 3/16
cars. Eachorend 114 isin.doubleIlared-tube
for American cars FITTINGS
or brass fittings of various types, such specifications
must be used for whenthreads, flaressteel-
installing and
and 3/16 in. or 4.762mm
is doubled over on itself-in for imported
a convex as Brake
tees, lines are connected
junction blocks andwith steel
unions. other dimensions.
braided hoses on vehicles withAdapter fittings
cars. Each end is double7/lared-tube
or concave shape. American and im- or brass fittings of various types,
Be careful when selecting brake-line such must be used when
automotive-type brakeinstalling
fittings. steel-
is doubled
ported carsoveruseondifferent
itself-in flares
a convex
and as tees, They
fittings. junction
must blocks
have and
the unions.
correct braided
Adapter fittings are vehicles
hoses on available from with
or concave shape. American and im- Be careful when selecting brake-line automotive-type brake fittings.
ported
62 cars use different flares and fittings. They must have the correct Adapter fittings are available from
 Of c

*F 'C
600 300

Selected High Boiling-

'E 500 300
250
Point Glycol Brake
~ Fluids
elected High Boiling-
oint Glycol Brake 20e
250
'0
al 300 20c

150
2o0o!----'---!;2-~3-~--!--....::::6100

Weight % Water I00

1 2 3 4 5 6

Graph shows how Weight % Water

boiling point of glycol-
based brake fluid drops with exposure to
Brake tube in fitting fractured during a Brake fluid is lifeblood of any brake moisture. Notice
Graph shows howhow brakepoint
boiling fluid with high-
of glycol-
race, causing complete brake failure. system. For race cars, you must keep fresh est boiling
based brakepoint when with
fluid drops new exposure
is affected
to
Driver most by Notice
moisture. water how
content.
brakeGraph courtesy
fluid with high-
Brake was tube without
in fittingbrakes, but luckily
fractured during ita new
Brakefluid in brake
fluid system atof
is lifeblood all times. Fluid
any brake
happened where complete
he could recover Yankee
est Silicones,
boiling point Inc.
when new is affected
race, causing brake without
failure. with highest
system. possible
For race boiling
cars, you must point is a
keep fresh
crashing.
Driver was Failure occurred
without brakes,because fitting-
but luckily it must for raCing.
new fluid in brake system at all times. Fluid most by water content. Graph courtesy
mounting
happened boltwherewashenot
couldinstalled.
recoverVibrating
without with highest possible boiling point is a Yankee Silicones, Inc.
fitting
crashing.andFailure
hose occurred
was supported
because byfitting-
tube, must for racing.
which eventually
mounting bolt wasfailed
not from fatigue.
installed. Brake
Vibrating
tubes and
fitting andfittings
hose wasmust supported
be securelybymount-
tube,
ed
whichto prevent suchfailed
eventually failure.
from fatigue. Brake
tubes and fittings must be securely mount-
ed
theto sources
prevent such
thatfailure.
supply the hoses, function. Hydraulic fluid for an au- Must not freeze or thicken in cold
such as e & D Engineering Supply tomotive brake system is simply temperatures.
the
Ltd., sources
or WREP that supply the hoses,
Industries. Some function.
called brake Hydraulic
fluid. Thisfluid for an au-
distinguishes it Must not
Must not compress.
freeze or thicken in cold
such asoffer
shops C &brake-hose
D Engineering kits thatSupplyin- tomotive
from fluidsbrake
used for system other ishydraulic
simply temperatures.
Must flow through system passages
Ltd., or
clude WREP
ada pter Industries.
fittings and correct-Some called brakefluid.
applications This distinguishes
and systems. Automotive it Must
with not compress.
minimal no res istance.
shops
length offer
hoses.brake-hose
Don't mixkits that in-
automotive from fluids used for other
brake fluid is designed to work the hydraulic Must flow
Must not through
corrode systemor reactpassages
with
cludeaircraft
and adapter fittings
fittings. This and correct-
will result in applications
brake systemand of asystems.
car. Other Automotive
hydraulic with minimal no
brake-system resistance.
materials.
length hoses.
damaged Don'tleaks
threads, mix automotive
or cracked brake have
fluids fluid totally
is designed to work
diffe rent the
chemical Must not corrode
Must lubricate internal or sliding
react parts
with
and aircraft
fittings. If fittings.
you can't Thisrecognize
will resultthe in brakephysical
and systemproperties.
of a car. Other Always hydraulic
use au- brake-system
of brake system. materials.
damaged threads, leaks
difference, ask the adv ice of a shop or cracked fluids
tomotive have totally
brake fluiddifferent
in a car.chemical
Aircraft Must lubricate
Must not alter internal sliding parts
its properties after
fittings.
that suppliesIf youthesecan't recognize the
fittings. and physical properties.
brake fluid is totally different Alwaysand use au-
will of brake
being system.for extended periods.
in system
difference, ask the
Adapter-fitting advice
usage will ofbea mini-
shop tomotive
not work in brake
a car.fluid in a car. Aircraft Must
Must not be alter its properties
compatible after
with other
that supplies these fittings.
mized if a race car is constructed using brake
Brakefluid is totally
fluid differentmixture,
is a chemical and will being in system for
glycol-based brake fluids .extended periods.
all Adapter-fitting
aircraft fittings in usage will besystem.
the brake mini- not work in a car.
which varies with manufacturer. Each Must not
Must be decompose,
compatible orwith form other
gum
mizedcan
This if aberace
done carbyis getting
constructed using
the proper Brake fluid has
manufacturer is aa chemical
secret formula mixture,
de- glycol-based
or sludge at any brake fluids.
temperature.
all aircraft fittings in the
fittings from an aircraft hardware brake system. which varies
signed with manufacturer.
to perform a "better job ."Each All Must Boiling-The
Fluid not decompose,most or formcritical
gum
This can be
supplier. You donemaybystill
getting
havethe toproper
adapt manufacturer has
manufacturers a secret
must formulatheir
formulate de- or sludge at any temperature.
property of brake fluid is its resistance
fittings
the brake fromlineCs)
an aircraft
to yourhardwaremaster signed to perform
brake fluid so it m ee a "better
ts rigid job."
SAE, All in- Fluid
to boilingBoiling-The
at high temperature.most critical
When
supplier. You
cylinder(s) andmay still using
brakes have automo-
to adapt manufacturers must
dustry and government standards. formulate their
In property of brake fluid
brake fluid boils , small bubblesis its resistance
form.
the brake line(s)
tive flares or fittings. to your master brake
the fluid
U.S. , thesoDepartment
it meets rigid SAE, in-
ofTranspor- to boiling
These at high
bubbles temperature.
collect When
and are trapped
cylinder(s1 and brakes using
Aircraft flar es are not the same as automo- dustry and government
tation (DOT) standards. In
sets the standards. brake
in the fluid boils,Because
system. small bubbles form.
gas bubbles
tive flares or fittings.
automotive flares. They use theHydraulic
U.S., the brake
Department
fluid used of Transpor-
in racing These bubbles collect and
are compressible, this results in a are trapped
Aircraft flares are notthe
ferrules-sleeves-over the tubes
same as to tation (DOT) sets the standards.
and road cars is mostly a Polyalkylene in the brake
spongy system. Because gas bubbles
pedal.
automotive
reinforce them. flares. Aircraft hosesThey and use fit- Hydraulic
Glycol Etherbrakemixture-commonly
fluid used in racing areBoiling
compressible,
generally is this results
caused in a
by water
ferrules-sleeves-over
tings are identifiedthe as tubes AN to and road cars is mostly
called glycol. This type of a Polyalkylene
fluid can be spongy brake pedal.
vapor being absorbed by the brake
reinforce
(Army-Navy) them. Aircraft
or MShoses(Mi and fit-
litary Glycol Ether mixture-commonly
found in any auto-parts store and is Boiling
fluid . Thegenerally
mo re water is caused by water
brake fluid
tings
Standards). are AN identified
and MSas specI- AN called glycol.with
compatible Thisthetype
fluidoforiginally
fluid can in- be vapor being absorbed by
contains, the lower its boiling point. the brake
(Army-Navy)
fications, writtenor M
by S the(Military
U.S. found in
stalled in any
yourauto-parts
car. A newer store type
and of is fluid.
New,The more water high-quality
uncontaminated, brake fluid
Standards).
govern ment , are ANstandards
and MS speci-
recognized compatible
brake fluid with has thea si fluid originally
licone base . in-
Its contains,
brake fluidthe lower
boils its boiling
at 550F (288e)point.
~ pure
fications,
throughout writtenthe world. by Automotive
the U.S. stalled in
properti es your
differcar.from A newer type of
glycol-based New, uncontaminated,
water boils at 212F (lOOe). A mixturehigh-quality
government,
specifications are are standards
written byrecognized
the Socie- brake
fluids . Silicone-based brake fluid Its
fluid has a silicone base. is brake
of fluidfluid
brake at 550F
boilsand water(288C); pure
boils some-
throughout
ty of Automotive the world.Engineers Automotive
(SAE) . propertieslater
discussed differ
in thisfrom glycol-based
chapter. water
where boils at 212Fthese
between (100C). A mixture
temperatures.
specifications
SAE standards arealso
written haveby the
the Socie-
same fluids. Silicone-based
Glycol-based brak e fluidbrakemust fluid
have is of brake
Two fluidpoints
boiling and water boils some-
are referred to in
ty of Automotive
worldwide recognition Engineers
. (SAE). discussed later in this chapter.
the following properties to work cor- where between these temperatures.
brake-fluid specifications: dry boiling
SAE standards also have the same Glycol-based
rectly brake fluid must have
in an automobile: Two boiling
poil1l and points paint.
wet bailing are referred
Withouttoget- in
worldwideFLUID
BRAKE recognition. the following
Must not boilproperties
at tempera to work
tures cor-
en- brake-fluid
ting into detailsspecifications: dry boiling
of the specifications,
Once a brake system is installed, it rectly in an automobile:
countered during severe braking point and wet should
the meaning boilingpoint. Without
be clear. get-
Dry boil-
BRAKE
must be FLUID
filled with fluid so it can Must not
conditions . boil at temperatures en- ting into details of the specifications,
ing point refers to fresh fluid out of a
Once a brake system is installed, it countered during severe braking the meaning should be clear. Dry boil-
must be filled with fluid so it can conditions. ing point refers to fresh fluid out of63a
 sealed can ; wet boiling point refers to
,B RAKE-FLUID SPECIFICATIONS fluid that has been exposed to mois-
sealed
ture undercan; wet boiling
specific point refers
conditions . Both to
8RAKE-FLUID
The SPECIFICATIONS
print on brake-fluid cans is standard 116. Under this standard
fluid that has been exposed to mois-
confusing. Even worse, specifica- , are three Department of Transporta- boiling points should be of concern to
The
tions print
change on constantly,
brake-fluidsocans
an oldis standard
tion (DOT)116. Under thisfor
specifications standard
brake- ture, under
you but thespecific conditions.
most important oneBoth will
confusing.
can of fluid Even worse,
may say specif ica-
something dif- are
fluidthree Department
performance : DOTof Transporta-
3, DOT 4 boiling points should
de pend on how you use your car. be of concern Lo
tions
ferent change
than a newconstantly,
can . Theso an old
following tion
and DOT(DOT) 5. specifications
All brake fluidsforarebrake-
suita- you, but the most important
Dry boiling point is important for one will
can
is of an fluid may say something
explanation ' of current dif- fluid
ble forperformance:
use in either DOT drum3, or
DOT 4
disc depend
racing . on It ishow you usethat
assumed youracar. properly
ferent than a new can. The following
specifications. and DOTBoiling
brakes. 5. All brake
pointfluids are suita-
for the three Dry boiling
m aintained racepoint
car willi s important
always have for
is Allan
brakeexplanation of current
fluids must meet federal ble
types forof use
flu,i dsinare
either drum or disc
as follows: racing. I t is assumed that a properly
fresh brake fluid, For best per-
specifications. brakes. Boiling point for the three maintained race car must
will always have
All brake fluids must meet federal types of fluids are as follows: form ance, the fluid be changed
fresh
many timesbrakeduring fluid.a racing
For best seasonper- to
DOT3 DOT 4 DOTS
formance,
avoid a lower the boiling
fluid must point.beCh changed
anging
Dry Boiling Point Degrees F 401 446 500 many timesis during a racing season
, Degrees C
DOT 3
205
DOT 4
230
DOT 5
260
the fluid an inexpensive way to to
avoid a lower boiling
ensure the brakes work bes t at tem- point. Changing
Dry Boiling Point Degrees F 40 1 446 500
Wet Boiling Point Degrees F 284 311 356 the fluid encountered
peratures is an inexpensive in racingway . to
Degrees C 205 230 260
180
Degrees C 140 155 ensure the brakes
Wet boiling pointwork is most best at tem-
important
Wet Boiling Point Degrees F 284 31 1 356 peratures
Degrees C 140 155 180 for street encountered
use , Brake ifluid n racing.in street-
Wet boiling point
driven cars is not changed important
is most often-if
it. for
ever.street
If youuse. couldBrake bleed fluidyouri n street-
brakes

I
~ 700
driven weekcars isornot so ,changed often-if
~ every the brake fluid

I e a
ap:! :- ~,
'we
~ 600
ever. I fhave
would
every week
race car's.
you could
But,or who
bleedsimilar
properties
so, can thetake
your brakes
brake
to a
the fluid
time

[ s~
!j'"9 m -
u
500
would
to bleed have their properties brakes similar weekly?to a
race car's. But, the who canmusttake function
the time
RACinG '"
o
5~
y 503-
400 Typical Glyco l-Based
Normally,
to bleed their
brakes
with moisture in the brake fluid brakes weekly?over
550 ,~ {Brake Fluid Normally, the brakes
long periods of driving during all must function
Racing Typical Glycol-Based with
types moisture
of weathe irnconditions.
the brake fluid over
~
5 5PlUld
BtaWl 0 ::l
g
300
long
Brake periods
fluids with o f driving
a high wet during boiling all

us"k
I"IGt contents 1 hre
Brake
338 us II", id
""""""""~,
Iqtl81101
rkatr*nlmlm
U Sr " e-':I l
1" 5 200
200 L----'-----'1'-2---':18---'---'

I
Months in Service ,
I I I
types
estBrake
apoint
o f weather
fluids with
dry boiling
do not necessarily
glycol-based
conditions.
point do not necessarily ha ve the high-
point.a high
brake fluid
Mostwet
have
racers
with
boiling
the ahigh-
use
dry
1 1 H U S Ilrv Curve shows 6
what 'I2happens18 to boiling
24 est dry boiling
bo iling point point.of 550F Most(288C)racers use for
1 , 18
~ t t , ~
, . I .. typical
Months inbrake
point of glycol-based
road-car
Service fluid in
use. , toWeather
a glycol-based
racing. A common brakehigh-performance
fluid with a dry
Curve shows what happens boiling boiling point usedo fin 550F (288C)is AP for

UC-,~
changes
point of curve'-boiling
glycol-based point brakegradually
fluid in brake fluid road racing
drops in extremely
typical road-cardamp, climates.
use. Sili,-
Weather racing.
Racing 550 A common. This fluid high-performance
exceeds DOT 4
cone brake
changes fluid is not point
curve-boiling susceptible
gradually to brake fluid used
specifications fori ndryroadboiling
racing point,is AP
moisture
drops as it damp
in extremely doesn't pick Sili-
climates. up 550.
and meets DOT 3 specifications for4
Racing This fluid exceeds DOT
AP 550 Racing Brake Fluid is used ~. in moisture.
cone brake fluidConsequently, silicone
is not susceptible to
,most-severe racing applications. Its specifications
wet boiling point. for dry boiling point,
To maintain your
Ibrake-fluid
moisture as ~ boiling
it' point remains
doesn't pick highup
dry 550
AP boiling pointBrake
Racing of 550F
Fluid(288C)
is used is
h ' moisture.
after long Consequently,
use. Graphcoi!rtesy silicone and meets Dsystem
racing-brake O T 3 specifications
properly, it isfora
highest for a glycol-based
most-severe fluid, Photo
racing applications. Its brake-fhid boilingInc.
Yankee Silicones, point remains high wet boiling
good choice . point. To maintain your
courtesy APpoint
Racing.
of 550F (288C) is after long use. Graph courtesy
dry boiling racing-brake
For street system use, you shouldi t iuse
properly, s a
highest for a glycol-based
Old brake fluid meetsfluid.
DOTPhoto
2 or Yankee
of Silicones,
a fluid is by lnc.its DOT number. A good choice.
courtesy AP Racing. brake fluid that meets DOT 4 specifi-
, SAE J1703 or 70R3 specifications. glycol-based brake fluid with , a For street
Old brake
These obsoletefluidrequirements
meets DOT refer 2 or of a fluid is bydry
500F(260C) its boiling
DOT number.
point isA cations for wetuse, you point.
boiling shouldIf use the
brake meets
fluid fluid that DOT meets DOT 4 specifi-
4 specifications, it
SAE
to 31 703
, fluid withora 70R3 specifications.
dry boiling paint of glycol-based
tested to DOT 3brakeor DOT fluid
4, not with
DOT 5.a
These obsolete requirements cations
also meets for all wetpartsboiling
of DOT point. I f the
4, includ-
374F (190C). If you have any ofrefer th is 500F (260C) dry
Sometimes boilingpoint
boiling point is
to
old fluid
fluid,with a dryit. boiling
discard Don't use point of
any- tested
referred to to
DOT 3 o r DOTon
asERBP 4, not
the Dbrake-
OT5 fluid
ing wet meets
boiling T 4 specifications,
D Opoint. Your choice of ita
374F (190C).
thing less than If you
DOT have3 any
fluidof inthisa Sometimes
fluid can. This boiling point
means' equilibrium is also meets all
brake-fluid partsshould
brand o f DOT be 4,based
includ- on
old
brake fluid, discard
system it. Don't
. Prior to theuse DOTany- 2 referred
reflux boilingto aspoint,
ERBPwhich on the brake-
isanoth- ing
the wet boiling
following point. Your choice of a
requirements:
thing less thanthere
specifications, DOT was 3 fluid in a
a 70Rl- fluid
er way can. This means
of saying equilibrium
wet boiling point. brake-fluid
Use a fluid brand thatshould
your be carbasedm anu- on
brake system.brake
specification Prior fluid
to themeant DOTfor 2 reflux boiling
ERBP refers topoint,
a method whichin is anoth-
the spe- the following requirements:
specifications, there was thisa 70R1- er way offor saying wet is boiling point. facturer recommends.
drum brakes only. Throw away cification how fluid exposed to
specification Use
Don ' a t mix fluid that of
brands your
fluids.car manu-
too if you find brake
any. Itfluid
has ameant for
dry boil- ERBP
moisture refers
and to a method
tested . in. the spe- facturer recommends.
drum
ing paint brakes only.
of only 302F Throw
(150C).this away cification
Note that forfluid
howboiling
fluid isp~oint
exposeddropsto ' Violate either of these rules, and
Don't mix brands o f fluids.
tooSpecified
if you find boiling
any. It has a dry boil-
points are moisture
after it isand tested.to water. Glycol-
exposed long-term harm may occur to your
ing point of only
minimums. Many 302F
brake(150C).
fluids have Notebrake
based that fluid
fluidsboiling
absorb point drops
moisture. Violate
brake system.either For of these rules,some
instance, and
Specified
higher boiling boiling
points, as points
indicatedare after resulting
The it is exposed mixture to water.
of brake Glycol-
fluid long-term
brake fluidsharm maymay reactoccurwith torubber your
minimums.
on Many brake
their containers. fluids
As for have
what to based
and brake
water fluids in
results absorb moisture.
a boiling~point brake insystem.
seals a brake For system. instance,
Over asome long
highera dry
use, boiling points,
bailing pointasoverindicated
500F The
drop.resulting
Fluids mixture of brakewater
that absorb fluid brake fluids may react
period of time , this may cause swelling with rubber
on
(260C)theiris containers.
best for hardAs for what to
driving. and water
easily areresults
called in' a hydrostopic.
boiling-point ' sealsleakage.
i n a brake
use, a 3dryand boiling or Thissystem.
occurs Over commonly a long
DOT DOT point over 500F
4 specifications drop. Fluids
Water that absorb
in brake-fluid water
also causes period o f.S.-manufactured
time, this may cause swelling
(260C) is best for hard driving. easily
corrosionare and called
impurities hydroscopic.
to accumu-
when U brake fluid
are for glycol-based brake fluid and or leakage.
DOTDOT and
5 is3 for DOT 4You
silicone. specifications
can tell im- Water
late in thein hydraulic
brake-fluid also causes
system. is used in anThis olderoccursforeigncommonly
car with
are for glycol-based brakechemistry
fluid and corrosion and impurities to accumu- when U.S.-manufactured
natural-rubber seals . The brake seals swell fluid
mediately what the basic
DOT 5 is for silicone. You can tell im- late in the hydraulic system. and have to be replaced eventuwith
is used i n an older foreign car ally.
mediately what the basic chemistry natural-rubber seals. The seals swell
and have to be replaced eventually.
64
 A good application for silicone
brake fluid is in antique and collector
good in
A Brakes
cars. application
these typesforof cars silicone
are
brake fluid
never is in to
subjected antique and collector
high temperatures
cars. Brakes in
encountered in these types oftempera-
racing-high cars are
never subjected to high temperatures
tures that can cause si licone fl uid to
encountered
compress' Andin protection
racing-highof the tempera-
inter-
tures
nal partsthat canfromcause silicone isfluid
corrosion mostto
compress! And protection
important. Silicone brake nuid serves of the inter-
nal parts from
this purpose corrosion
beautifully, is most
because the
important.ofSilicone
absence moisture brake
in fluid serves
the system
this purposeeliminates
practically beautifully, thebecause
chance the of
absence of moisture in
dreaded internal corrosion. However, the system
practically
for racing, eliminates
use only atheglycol-based
chance of
dreaded
racing brake internal
fluid. corrosion. However,
forSilicone
racing, fluid
use only has abeen glycol-based
tried in
racing brake fluid.
raci ng, bu tit has a tendency to gi ve a
Silicone fluid Howe master cylinder has rubber dia-
spongy pedal afterhasexposure
been tried to high in
phragm built into lid. This keeps air from
racing, but it has
temperatures. Thisa istendency
due to the to give
slighta contacting and cylinder
contaminating brake fluid.
Howe master has rubber dia-
You wouldn't dare do this with ordinary spongy pedal after
compressibility exposure
of silicone brake high
to fluid Unfortunately,
phragm caplid.must
built into This be removed
keeps air fromto
glycol-based brake fluid; it would remove temperatures. This is d
at high temperature. For ordinary u e to t h e slight check fluid level,
contacting partially defeating
and contaminating advan-
brake fluid.
the
You paint. There's
wouldn't darenododanger to paint
this with with
ordinary compressibility of silicone brake butfluida tage of rubber diaphragm.
unfortunately, cap must b e removed to
silicone fluid. Silicone
glycol-based fluiditiswould
brake fluid; ideal for cars
remove street driving, this is not critical,
at high temperature, For ordinary
racer needs all the brake-system stiff-
check fluid level, partially defeating advan-
that have There's
the paint. problems with brake-system
no danger to paint with tage Of rubber diaphragm.
contamination and corrosion.
silicone fluid. Silicone fluid isPhoto courte-
ideal for cars streethedriving,
ness can get.this is not critical, but a
sy Yankee
that have Silicones,
problemsInc.with brake-system Switching toallSilicone-If
racer needs the brake-systemyou changestiff- If you have a choice, always use a
contamination and corrosion. Photo courte- ness h e can brake
get. fluid, you must first
sy Yankee Silicones, Inc.
to silicone master cylinder with a rubber dia-
Consult the factory shop manual or Switching
clean all ofto the
Silicone-If
old fluidyou fromchange
the If you inhave
phragm the acap
choice, always
to seal the use
fluid.a
your dealer for brake-fluid recom- to silicone brake fluid,
brake system to get the maximum you must first master
This keepscylinder
the fluidwithfroma rubber
exposuredia- to
Consult
mendations.t h e factory shop manual or clean
benefitall of of thethe oldsilicone
fluid from the
fluid's phragm
air. Mostin moisture
the cap to in seal
brakethefluid
fluid.is
your
Brake-fluid for
dealer brake-fluid
brands contain recom-
blends brake system
properties. The to bestgetwaythe maximum
to accomplish This
picked keeps the fluid
up from air on from
damp exposure
days. All to
mendations.
of chemicals, so their properties benefit
this is duringof brake-system
the siliconeoverhaul. fluid's air.
masterMost moisture
cylinders andinreservoirs
brake fluid must is
Brake-fluid
change when brands mixed. contain
If you blends
must properties. T h e best way
Totally drain and clean out the old to accomplish picked up from air o n damp
be vented to atmosphere, so don't days. All
of chemicals, s o
change brands, flush out the their properties
brake this isIfduring
fluid. brake-system
you merely bleed out overhaul.
and in- master
plug vent cylinders
holes. and reservoirs must
change and
system when mixed.
replace If you
all brake fluid.must
See Totally
stall newdrain
fluid, and
you willcleanhaveouta mixture
the old be Invented
addition to toatmosphere,
moisture, brake so don't
fluid
change brands,
Chapter 11 for tips flush out the brake
on changing brake fluid.
of the Iftwo
you merely
fluids. Thisbleed out and
will work, butin-it plug
can ventbe holes.
contaminated by other
system
fluid. and replace a l l brake fluid. See stall new fluid, you will
won't be as good as it could be. have a mixture In addition
materials. Dirtto can
moisture,
enter thebrake fluid
system
If you 11
Chapter want for the
tips highest
on changing brake
wet boiling of the two
Keep Outfluids. This will work, but
Contaminants-If youit can be contaminated
when nuid is added to the reservoir. Itby other
fluid.
point and a different combination of won't
don't be useas good as it could
silicone brake be. fluid, do materials.
is critical Dirt can enter
to keep dirt thefromsystem
the
If you want
properties, youthe highest
might wet chang-
consider boili~~g Keep O u t possible
everything Contaminants-If
to keep water you out when fluid
system, so isuse
added to the reservoir.
extreme care when It
point and a different combination
ing to silicone-based brake fluid. Sili- of don't use silicone
of the brake fluid. Although brake fluid,
it's moredo is critical to keep dirt
working on your brakes. Usual con- from the
properties, you might consider
cone fluid is required to meet DOT 5 chang- everything possible to keep
expensive, always buy brake fluid in water out system,
tamination s o isuse
by extreme
petroleumcare when
products
ing to silicone-based
specifications. This brake
fluid fluid.
does Sili-
not of t h e brake
small cans. fluid.
KeepAlthough
the cansit'sclosed
more working o n your brakes. Usual
such as oil, grease or solvents. Petro- con-
cone fluid
absorb is required
moisture like toa meet DOT 5
glycol-based. expensive,
before using. alwaysOncebuy opened,
brake fluid in
don't tamination
leum solventsis bymixpetroleum
with brake products
fluid
specifications.
fluid. Therefore, Thisits fluid does not
wet boiling is small cans. Keep t h e cans
keep an old can of brake fluid around closed such can
and as oil, gre'aserubber
damage or solvents.
seals in Petro-
the
absorb moisture like a glycol-based
much higher. Also, silicone fluid will before
long. Use using. Once opened,
it immediately or throwdon'tit leum solvents mix with
system. Never clean brake-system brake fluid
fluid. Therefore,
not damage the paint its wet boiling
on your car is
if keep an
away. old can of bleed
Periodically brake somefluid around
of the and can damage
components rubber Use
with solvent. sealsalcohol,
in the
much higher.
spilled. Also, silicone
But glycol-based fluidfluid
brake will long.fluid.
old Use This
i t immediately or throw it
removes contaminated system.
brake fluidNever cleat7 brake-systet77
or brake-system cleaners.
not
makes damage
good tpaint
h e paint o n your
remover car if
on some away. Periodically bleed
fluid from the system. Never s o m e ofreuse
the cot7~ponenfs
Solvents are with difficult Use
too solvenf. alcohol,
to wash off,
spilled.
finishes. But glycol-based brake fluid old fluid. This
dra ined/hi id. removes contaminated brake fluid or brake-system
and will contaminate brake fluid. cleaners.
makes good paint remover on s o m e fluid from the system. Never reiise Solvents are too difficult to wash off,
finishes. hained,fluid. and will contaminate brake fluid.

65
Brake Pedals & Linkages &
Brake Pedals 8 Linkages everyone who has driven a motor
vehicle. Take a good look at the pedal
everyone
in a car. who It has has important
driven a design motor
vehicle. Take a good
features . Good brake pedals have look at the pedal
the
in a car. It has
following characteristics: important design
features.
Must not Goodbreak brake or pedals have the
permanently
following
bend under characteristics:
the greatest load a driver
canMust
apply.not break or permanently
bend
Must under the greatest
be stiff and notload flexa during
driver
can apply.
hard braking.
Must
Must be befree stiffofand not flex
excessive frictionduring
.
hard braking.
Must provide proper leverage at
Mustcylinder.
master be free of excessive friction.
Must
Must matchprovide proper leverage
requirements of driver at
master
and mastercylinder.cylinder, linkage and
Must match requirements of driver
system.
andA brake
masterpedal cylinder,
consistslinkage
of the arm, and
system.
pad and pivot attachments. The pedal
is A brake pedal
connected consists This
to a linkage. of the arm,
linkage
pad and pivot attachments.
transmits force and movement to the The pedal
is connected
master cylinder. to aThelinkage.
linkageThiscan linkage
be as
transmits
simple as a straight pushrod, ortomore
force and movement the
master
complex. cylinder. The linkage can be as
simple as a straight
The pedal pushrod, to
arm is subjected or bend-
more
Bird's-eye view of foot-box area of formula car shows pedals, linkages and brake and complex.
clutch master cylinders. Dual brake master cylinders with remotely adjustable balance bar ing loads from the driver 's foot. It is
is used. Note bumper protecting master cylinders
The pedal
usually arm is subjected
constructed of steel plate. to bend-The
Bird's-eye view of foot-box area of formula carfrom head-on
shows impact.
pedals, linkages and brake and
clutch master cylinders. Dual brake master cylinders with remotely adjustable balance bar ing loads
arm may from havethe driver's
holes in itfoot. for Ittheis
is used. Note bumper protecting master cylinders from head-on impact. usually constructed of steel
pivots. Often pivot bushings are con- plate. The
arm
tainedmay in have steel it for the
holes intubes-pivot
pivots. Often pivot
housings-that bushings
are inserted in are
the con-
arm
tained
and welded in in placesteel . A tubes-pivot
good pedal
housings-that
design will not are have inserted in the arm
welds completely
and
across the arm, particularly atpedal
welded in place. A good the
The brake pedal and linkage trans- design
pivots. will A not have iswelds
weld a completely
source of
mil force and movement from the across the arm, riser-at
weakness-stress particularlya criticalat the
The brake
driver's footpedal to andthe linkage
mastertrans-cy- pivots. A
area of the arm. weld is a source of
mit force and movement
linder(s). Design and construction from the of weakness-stress riser-at
A pedal arm is usually straight a critical
driver's
these partsfoot greatlyto affect
the howmaster cy-
a brake area
whenofviewed
the arm. from- the driver's seat. If
l i n d e r ( ~operates
system ) Design
. and how
and construction
it feels ofto it A
has pedal
bends arm or curvesis usually
in it , the straight
arm
these parts greatly affect
the driver. The brake pedal must how a brakebe when viewed from
tends to twist when the pedal the driver's seat. If
is
system
the most operates
reliable andpart
howofit afeels
braketo it has bends
pushed . Twisting or curves
in the in it, arm
pedal the armcan
the driver.
system The brake
because failurepedal
can must
mean bea tends movement
create to twist when at thethepadpedal , giving is
the most loss
complete reliable part .ofThe
of braking a result
brake pushed.
the driver Twisting
feel ofin sponginess.
the pedal armAlso, can
system because
can be catastrophic. failure can mean a create movement
stresses in a pedal at willthebe pad,
higher giving
due
complete loss of braking.
When building a car, you may want The result to twisting forces. To overcome Also,
the driver feel of sponginess. these
can be catastrophic.
to design and fabricate the brake pedal stresses
problems, in pedals
a pedalwith will be higher
bends, due
offsets
When
and linkage. building
These a car,
partsyou
aremay
somewantof to twisting
or curves must forces. be To overcome
fabricated these
of heav-
to design and fabricate the
the components that can be fabricated brake pedal problems,
ier material.pedals with bends, offsets
and
by the linkage.
home Thesecraftsman.parts This
are some
chapterof or Acurves
good must pedalbearm fabricated
should ofbeheav- de-
the components
describes how pedals that can
and be fabricated
linkages are ier material.
signed to take side loads and forward
by the home
designed and craftsman.
fabricated This chapter
for safe and A good
loads. Side pedalloads arm on a should
pedal arm be de-
are
describes how pedals and
reliable brake operation. The pedal linkages are signed to take side loads
most likely to cause failure , because and forward
designed and fabricated
and linkage are normally designed as a for safe and loads.arms
most Side are loads on alaterally.
weaker pedal arm are
Pedals
reliable
part of a brake
comp lete operation. The pedal
brake system. This most likely to cause failure,
shou ld be installed so they won't be because
Most road-car pedals are hanging-pivots and linkage are
is discussed in Chapter 9.normally designed as a most
loadedarms fromarethe weaker
side. laterally.
A brake Pedals pedal
are above pedal pad-and pedal bracket part of a complete brake system. This should be
doubles as a pedals
Most road-car steering-column bracket.
are hanging-pivots should be in line with thethey
installed so won'tleg.be
driver's
Device nearpedal
are above top of brake pedal
pad-and pedalisbracket
a me-
is discussed
BRAKE in Chapter 9.
PEDAL loaded
Pedalsfrom in most the side.
road A carsbrake
are made pedal
chanical
doubles brakelight switch.
as a steering-column bracket. A brake pedal is familiar to should be in line with the
of steel. This gives a pedal the highestdriver's leg.
Device near top of brake pedal is a me- BRAKE PEDAL Pedals in most road cars are made
chanical brakelight switch.
66
A brake pedal is familiar to of steel. This gives a pedal the highest
 Pedal Bracket

Pedal Bracket

Pivot Housing

Master-Cylinder
Pushrod
Master-Cylinder
Pushrod
Pad

Hanging pecial has pivot housing at top of arm. On many pedals, pivot housing is a steel tube Room and weight are not a problem in this
welded into a hole in pedal arm. Pivot bushing is inside pivot housing. For rear-mounted racing stock car, allowing big and sturdy
master
Hangingcylinder, master-cylinder-pushrod
pecial has pivotOn
pivot housing at top of arm. installs
manyabove pivot,
pedals, pivotpage 70. is a steel tube
housing pedal
Room pads. Such pedals
and weight are not would not fit
a problem in a
in this
welded into a hole in pedal arm. Pivot bushing is inside pivot housing. For rear-mounted cramped Grand
racing stock Prix-car
car, cockpit.
allowing big and sturdy
master cylinder, master-cylinder-pushrod pivot installs above pivot, page 70. pedal pads. Such pedals would not fit in a
stiffness and strength of any low-cost cramped Grand ~ r i x - c acockpit.
r
material. Older cars often used steel
stiffness
forgings and strengthbut
for pedals, of modern
any low-costcars
material. Older cars
use parts cut or stamped from often used steel
steel
forgings
plate. Race for cars
pedals, but modern
sometimes cars
use light-
use parts cut or stamped
weight materials such as aluminum or from steel
plate. Race cars
titanium. sometimes use
Consequently, light-
race-car
weight materials such as
pedals are expensive when compared aluminum or
titanium. Consequently,
to those for road cars. However, steel race-car
pedals arethe
will offer expensive whenItscompared
best results. stiffness
to
for those
a givenfor road
weight cars.
is asHowever,
high assteelany
will
otheroffer the bestand
material, results.
it isItseasier
stiffnessto
for a givenDesigning
fabricate. weight is as an high as any
aluminum
other
pedal canmaterial, and itbecause
be difficult is easier to
of its
fabricate.
low stiffness.Designing an aluminum Small pedal pads are in a Formula Ford
pedal road-racing car. These little single-seat
A canpedalbe arm difficultmust becausebe of its
rigid. racers have pads
Small pedal barelyare
enough room for Ford
in a Formula the
low stiffness.
Therefore, it usually has a deep cross driver's feet,car.
making small pedal pads a
road-racing These little single-seat
A pedal
section. A roadarm must has
car usually be arigid.
flat- must.
racersNonskid surfaces
have barely are made
enough roomfrom
for ex-
the Pedal pad is adjusted by releasing jam nut
Therefore,
plate or itanusually has a deep cross
open-channel cross panded
driver's metal
feet, welded
makingtosmall
pads.pedal pads a and screwing pad in and out. Pad is welded
section. Abutroad car usually has auseflat-a must. Nonskid surfaces are made from ex- to a bolt,
Pedal padwhich threads
is adjusted byinto a tapped
releasing jamtube
nut
section, a race cars often at top
and of pedalpad
screwing arm. Moreout.
in and than
Padl-in. of ad-
is welded
plate or an open-channel cross panded metal welded t o pads.
tube. Tubular pedals are lighter for a justment
to a bolt, requires movinginto
which threads driver's seat. tube
a tapped
section, but a race
given stiffness. cars often
However, they areuseex-a at top of pedal arm. More than 1 -in. of ad-
tube.
pensive Tubular pedals toaremass
and difficult lighter for a
produce. open race cars that run in the rain. justment requires moving
If heel-and-roe driver's
brake- andseat.
accel-
given stiffness. However,
With a tubular pedal, a thin-wall tubethey are ex- Some race-car pedals have an ad- erator-pedal operation is desired, the
pensive and difficult to
can be used and still have enough mass produce. open racepad,
justable cars that run in the
adjustable to rain.
suit the twoIf pedals should brake-
heel-and-toe and accel-
be positioned no
With a tubular pedal, a thin-wall tube
stiffness. Some race-car pedals
driver. Seats in many race carshave an ad-
are erator-pedal
more than operation
I-I/2-in. apa is desired, the
rt laterally.
canA be
pedalused
pad andshouldstillbehave
shaped enough
to fit justable
fixed, so pad, adjustable
adjustable pedal
to suit pads
the two pedals
Also, should
the pedals be positioned
should be adjus ted no
so
stiffness.
the foot. A tiny pad is hard to push driver.
com Seats
pensa teo in many race cars are more than 1-112-in.
that during hard braking , theapart laterally.
brake
A pedal
with comfort padand should
your befootshaped
can slipto off
fit fixed, so adjustable
With adjustable pedal
pads, you can pads
vary Also,
pedal the pedals
travels to should
about be adjusted
1/4-in. so
above
the foot.
easily. A tiny
A good pedalpadpadis hard
is aboutto push
shoe compensate.
the distance between the steering that during hard
the accelerator braking, the brake
pedal.
with comfort
width; wider if and yourallows.
space foot can A slip
rubberoff Withand
wheel adjustable pads,This
brake pedal. youwill
canaffect
vary pedal travels to about 1/4-in. above
easily. A good pedal pad is
pad is used on road cars for aesthetics,about shoe the distance between the steering
arm position when the driver is seated the
PEDALaccelerator
FORCES pedal.
width; wider
comfort if space
and grip. Forallows.
race cars, A rubber
a tex- wheel
in the and
car. brake
A racepedal. This adjustable
car with will affect The two forces a pedal designer
pad
turedis metal
used on padroad cars for
is used for aesthetics,
maximum arm position when the driver
pedal pads and seat can be made is seated
to PEDAL
must FORCES
consider are:
comfort
grip. Thisandisgrip. For race
especially cars, a tex-
important in in the
sui t thecar. A race
driver carperfectly.
nearly with adjustable The
Highest twoforce
forces
thata capedal
n everdesigner
be ap-
tured metal pad is used for maximum pedal pads and seat can be made to must consider are:
grip. This is especially important in suit the driver nearly perfectly. Highest force that can ever be ap- 67
 ti-*hh,
b* 4

Once wheels are locked, driver's strength is the only thing limiting brake-pedal force. As
fear increases, the harder he pushes. This condition represents the maximum force that
. Once
can bewheels
appliedare
to a brake driver's
locked, system. strength
Brake-pedal force
is the onlyduring
thing alimiting
maximum-deceleration, con-
brake-pedal force. As
trolled
fear stop is much
increases, the lower.
harder he pushes. This condition represents the maximum force that
can be applied to a brake system. Brake-pedal force during a maximum-deceleration, con- Bird's-eye view of formula-car pedal box:
trolled stop is much lower. Note that pedal pad is not centered on
plied to a pedal. force left for brake fade or other pedal arm. view
Bird's-eye This oftwists pedal pedal
formula-car arm when
box:
Force normally applied in a hard system failures . driver pushes
Note that on pad.
pedal pad Although tubular arm
is not centered on
pliedattomaximum
stop a pedal. deceleration. force
Mostleftpassenger
for brake carsfade
haveor power- other can withstand
pedal arm. Thisthistwists
twisting load,arm
pedal pedal as-
when
These normally
Force two forcesapplied are not inthea same.
hard system failures.
assisted brakes. With power assist,
semblypushes
driver
arm were
would on
be pad.
centered.
stronger if padtubular
Although and pedal
arm
stop at maximum can withstand this twisting load, pedal as-
Maximum forcedeceleration.
is considerably Most
pedal effortpassenger
is usuallycars less have
than 50 power-
lb. sembly would be stronger if pad and pedal
Thesethan
higher twothe forces
force are not theapplied
normally same. assisted
Maximum Pedal Force-A assist,
brakes. With power heavy times
arm were pedal ratio. Pedal ratio can be
thecentered.
Maximum force is
during a hard stop. To keep the terms considerably pedal
personeffortcan iseasily
usuallypushless with
than 50 Ib.
a force obtained by dividing pedal travel at
higher thanthetheforce
separate, forcenormally
normally applied
applied Maximum Pedal Force-A
greater than his weight-about 300 Ib heavy times
the the pad
foot pedalbyratio. Pedaltravel.
pushrod ratio can be
Pedal
during aahard
during hardstop.stop To iskeep the terms
called pedal person
for a largecanman. easilyIf push with aquickly
he stomps force obtained by dividing pedal
ratio is discussed in more detail on the travel at
separate,
effort. Thistheis force the forcenormally
applied applied
to a greater than his weight-about
on the pedal, the effect of the sudden 300 Ib the foot padpage
following by .pushrod
Also, travel.
a push Pedal
rod
during
pedal bya the hard stopwhen
driver is called pedal
he tries to for
forcea large
further man. If he stomps
increases stress quickly
on the ratio is discussed
should always be in more detail
straight. One on thatthe
is
efforl. atThis
stop maximumis the force applied In
deceleration. to aa on the Engineers
pedal. pedal, the know effectthat
of the if asudden
load is following page. Also,
straight is many times stronger than a a pushrod
pedal
race car, by pedal
the driver
effort when he tries
is applied by theto applied quickly, stress on a on
force further increases stress partthe is should
bent or always
offset rod.be straight. One that is
stop at almost
driver maximum everydeceleration.
time he brakes In a pedal. Engineers
doubled. Most brake know pedals
that if aare loadde- is straight is many totimes
In addition normalstronger load,thanthea
race car,This
the car. pedalis effort
rarelyisthe applied by thea
case with applied toquickly,
signed take twicestressthe on maximum
a part is bent
pedalormustoffset berod.
able to resist some side
driver
road car. almost every time he brakes doubled.
force that Mosta strong brake pedals
leg can apply. areI use
de; In addition
load. A driver'sto foot normal is not load, the
always
theDuring
car. This an isemergency,
rarely the case the with
drivera signed to take twice
600 Ib for designing pedals. the maximum pedal must be able to resist
aligned with the pedal pad. The worst some side
road car.stop the car at maximum decel-
should force
Safetythat a strong legpedal
Factor-The can apply.should I use
be load. occurs
case A driver's wherefoot the isdriver's
not alwaysfoot
During
eration with an theemergency,
tires on the theverge
driverof 600 Ib for designing
designed to withstand pedals.
a force much aligned with the
hangs halfway offpedal pad.This
the pad. The puts
worsta
should stop the car at
lockup. Often, though, a driver maximum decel-in Safety thanFactor-The pedal forceshould be case force
side occurs intowhere the arm.
the pedal driver's foot
I recom-
higher the maximum . The
eration
trouble with forgets theabout
tires on the vergethe
controlling of designed to withstand a
ratio of the force required to break a force much hangs
mend using a side load of 200 lb ona
halfway off the pad. This puts
lockup.
car. Often,he though,
Instead, panics and a driver
jams on in higher
part to than the maximum
the maximum applied force.load The is side force pad
the pedal intointhe pedal arm.
addition to the I recom-
600-lb
trouble forgets about controlling
the brakes as hard as he can and locks the ratio ofthe
called thesafety
forcefactor.
requiredI use to abreak
safetya mend using
forward load.a Ifside
youload applyof 200 Ib on
the safety
car. Instead,Often
the wheels. he panics
he loses and jams and
control on part toofthe
factor 3 on maximum applied
critical parts suchload as isa the pedal pad in addition
factor of of 3, the pedal should not to the 600-lb
the brakes
skids. This as typehard as heiscan
of stop whereand maxi-
locks called the safe@ factor. I
brake pedal. This means the part is de- use a safety forward load. Ifwith
break if tested youa apply
600-lbthe sidesafety
load
the
mumwheels.
force Oftenon a he losesoccurs.
pedal control Theand factor of
signed to 3break
on critical
at a load parts suchthree
at least as a factortheof pad.
on of 3, Note:
the pedal The should
side loadnot
skids. This type of stop
pedal and linkage must be designed is where maxi- brake pedal. This means the applied
part is de- break ifbetested
should appliedwithat athe
600-lb
sameside timeload
as
times the maximum force to
mum
not toforce break on ora pedal occurs. bend
permanently The signed
the part. to break at a loadthe
Therefore, at least three
breaking othe
n forward
the pad. load.Note: The side load
pedal
under thisand condition.
linkage must be designed times theformaximum
strength a brake pedal forceshouldapplied be to
at should
All thisbe applied
suggestsat that
the sameperhaps timeyouas
not
Pedalto Effort-A
break or permanently
high-performance bend the part. Therefore,
least 1800 lb, or 3 X 600 lb . the breaking the forward
should leaveload.
brake-pedal design to an
under this condition.
brake system usually is designed for strength
If you for a braketo pedal
wanted test should
your brake- be at All this Ifsuggests
engineer. you arethat notperhaps
trainedyou in
Pedal 75-lb
about -A effort
Effortpedal high-performance
at maximum least 1800 Ib, or 3 X 600
pedal design, apply an 1800-lb force Ib. should leave brake-pedal
stress analysis, a mistake here could design to an
brake system This
deceleration. usually feelsis designed
OK to most for onIfthe
youpadwanted to test your
in a direction in linebrake- with engineer.
be fatal. An If option
you areis not to use trained
a pedalin
about
people.75-lb Anyone pedal effort
personat can maximum
easily pedalforce
the design,that apply
wouldanbe 1800-lb
applied force by a stress
that fitsanalysis, a mistake
from another car. here could
All pedals
deceleration.
apply 75 lb with This his feelsleg.OK If to
youmostare on the padfoot.
person's in a Ifdirection
the pedal in line with
doesn't be fatal.
are designed An using
optionsimilar
is to use a pedal
techniques.
designing a truck or race car, youeasily
people. Any one person can may the force
break, thethat would
safety factorbe applied
is adequate. by a Safety factors may vary, but the pedals
that fits from another car. All maxi-
wish to75use
apply Ib with
a higherhis leg.
pedalIf effort.
you are A person's foot. If the
You may bend the pedal doing such a pedal doesn't are
mum designed
force ausing pedalsimilar techniques.
can withstand is
designing
100-lb pedal a truck
effortoris race
still car, you may
manageable, break,never
test- the safety factor inis aadequate.
use a pedal car after Safety the
about factorssame mayforvary, but the
all cars. maxi-
Be aware
wish
but it tofeelsuse like
a higher
a hardpedal push.effort.
I don'tA You may
testing its bend
breaking the strength
pedal doing . such a mum force from
that a pedal a pedal
a road cancarwithstand
will proba- is
100-lb pedal effort is still
recommend usin!1 more than 100 lb. manageable, test-never use a pedal
The master-cylinder pushrod must in a car after about the same for all cars.
bly be stronger than a race-car pedal. Be aware
but it there
Then feels would
like a hard
not bepush. I don't
any reserve testing its breaking strength.
withstand the maximum pedal force that a pedal
Many race-carfromdesigners
a road cartry willtoproba-
save
recommend using more than 100 lb. The master-cylinder pushrod must bly be stronger than a race-car pedal.
Then there would not be any reserve withstand the maximum pedal force Many race-car designers try to save
68
Bad pedal design on homemade race car
has pedal arm off-center to pad and pivot
housing.
Bad pedalWhen
design pushed on, twistrace
on homemade of arm
car
causes
has pedalexcessive flexibility
arm off-center to pad and
andhigher
pivot Spherical bearings on master-cylinder pushrods minimize friction and wear. Neal Products
stresses. If arm were
housing. When moved
pushed on, to right,ofpedal
twist arm pedal uses a balance bar with special spherical bearing at each end. Balls in spherical bear-
would beexcessive
causes stiffer and stronger.
flexibility and higher ings are pinned
Spherical to on
bearings allow motion in onlypushrods
master-cylinder one direction. Ordinary
minimize frictionspherical
and wear.bearings would
Neal Products
stresses. If arm were moved to right, pedal allow
pedal rod
usesends to cock,
a balance with
bar potentially
with disastrous
special spherical results.
bearing at each end. Balls in spherical bear-
would be stiffer and stronger. ings are pinned to allow motion in only one direction. Ordinary spherical bearings would
allow rod ends to cock, with potentially disastrous results.
weight at the expense of strength. If you have a car with sloppy or un-
If you insist on designing your own bushed pedal pivots, consider modify-
weight at the follow
brake pedal, expense of strength.
these rules: ingIf them.
you have a car have
If you with sloppy or un-a
to enlarge
If
Doyou
not insist on designing
weld across a pedal your
arm. own bushed pedal pivots, consider
hole to install a bushing, make sure modify-
brake
Make pedal,
the follow
pedal these rules: when
arm straight ing them.
you don't If you have
weaken to enlarge
a critical a
area. If
D o not
viewed fromweldtheacross a pedal
driver's seat.arm. hole are
you to install a bushing,
uncertain, leave it make
alone.sure
Or,
Make the pedal arm straight
Use steel, not aluminum or other when you
have don't weakendoa acritical
an engineer area. If
stress analysis
viewedalloys.
light from the driver's
Steel givesseat.
maximum you are uncertain, leave it alone.
of the modification. If you don't bush Or,
Use steel,
stiffness not of
and ease aluminum
fabrication.or Weld-
other havepivots,
the an engineer
at leastdolubricate
a stress them
analysis
at
light alloys. Steel gives
ing drastically weakens aluminum. maximum of the modification.
regular If youwear.
intervals to reduce don't bush
stiffness
Position andtheease of fabrication.
pedal Weld-
arm in the center the pivots, at least lubricate them at
ingthe
of drastically
pad - notweakens
off to onealuminum.
side. regular
PEDALintervals
RATIO to reduce wear.
Position the pedal arm in the center The force required on the master-
of the pad-not
PEDAL PIVOTS off to one side. PEDAL piston
cylinder RATIOis usually much higher
Pivots in brake pedals should have T h e force
than the pedal required o n the master-
effort supplied by the Typical road-car pedal design; pivot bolt
PEDAL
plastic orPIVOTS
bronze bushings to reduce cylinder piston is usually
driver. Thus, the pedal must muchact higher
as a and bushing are removed. Plastic bushings
than last longer if greased occasionally.
Pivots in
friction. brake bushings
Plastic pedals should have
are often lever the pedal effort
to increase supplied
the force by the
supplied by Typical road-car pedal design; pivot bolt
and bushing are removed. Plastic bushings
plastic
used on or road
bronzecars bushings
to reduceto reduce
cost; driver. Thus, The
the driver. the pedal must act
leverage of asthea last longer if greased occasionally.
friction. Plastic bushings
bronze bushings are found are often
on some lever to increase
pedal-pedal the force
rario-is alsosupplied
known by as
used
race cars. The best pedal pivots cost;
on road cars to reduce have the driver. T h e leverage
mechanical advantage. Pedal ratio of the
for calculated from this simple formula:
bronze
provision bushings are found
for lubrication. Most o n plastic
some pedal-pedal
manual brakesratio-is
is aboutalso 5 toknown
1; poweras
race cars.are
bushings T hdesigned
e best pedal pivots with-
to operate have mechanical
pedal ratios areadvantage.
about 3 to Pedal
1. ratio for calculated from
F this simple formula:
Pedal ratio ~
=
provision for lubrication.
out lubrication, but this does not Most plastic manual
If youbrakes
plan to design 5 orto modify
is about 1; powera Fpp
bushings
always aremaximum
give designed durability.
to operate with- pedal ratios are about 3
brake system, you need to determineto 1. FMC Force
Pedal=ratio =-
F M
on~ master cylinder in
outAvoid
lubrication.
pedal pivotsbut that
this use
doesunlu-not theIf pedal
you planratio.toTheredesignareorthree
modify
waysa pounds FPP
always
bricatedgive maximum durability. brake FMc= =Force
Fpp Force on master
on pedal pad in cylinder
pounds in
clevis pins or bolts. Some to do system,
this. Choose you need the to determine
method that pounds
Avoid
brake pedalhave
pedals pivots
beenthatso use unlu-
designed. the pedal
works best ratio.
for you. There
Theyare are:three ways Forces are measured in inpounds;
bricated clevis pins or bolts. S o mofe to do this. forces.
Choose the method that Fpp= Force on pedal pad pounds the
They work for a while, but the lack Measure pedal ratio is just a number. If you
brake pedals
adequate havearea
bearing been andsolubrication
designed. works best for
Measure movements. you. They are: Forcespush
could are on
measured
the pedalinwith
pounds;
a scalethe
or
They
usuallywork for athe
causes while,
pivot buttothe
wearlackout
of Measure forces.
Measure brake pedal and linkage pedal ratio isto just
instrument a number.
measure force,If you
you
adequate bearing area and lubrication
rapidly. Then the pedal gets loose and Measure movements.
geometry. could pushsimultaneously
could o n the pedal with ameasure
scale or
usually causes
sloppy, requiring theextra
pivot pedal
to wear out
move- MeasureForces-If
Measure brake pedal you can and measure
linkage instrument to measure force,
hydraulic-system pressure. If you you
rapidly.
ment to Ttake
h e n up
thethe
pedal
slop.gets
Pedalloose and
move- geometry.
the force on the pedal pad and the could
know the simultaneously
master-cylinder-piston measure
area,
sloppy,
ment is requiring
a valuable extra
item. pedal
Don't move-waste M e a s u r e Forces-If
simultaneous force you on canthe measure
master- hydraulic-system
pressure pressure.into
can be converted If force
you
ment to take up the slop.
it with potentially sloppy pivots.Pedal move- cylinder piston, the pedal ratioand
the force o n the pedal pad can the
be know the master-cylinder-piston
on the piston. area,
ment is a valuable item. Don't waste simultaneous force o n the master- pressure can be converted into force
it with potentially sloppy pivots. cylinder piston, the pedal ratio can be o n the piston. 69
 FMc*q
~ ~ ~~ Master-Cylinder
i ~ Position
- ..;---'
<+-:/,
-"1- ____ .1
I
I Master-Cy linder
Position

Pedal Bracket
FMC = Force on Master Cylinder
F pp = Force on Peda I Pad
FMc = Force on Master Cylinder
FMC
Fpp =Ratio
Pedal Force=on-Pedal
- Pad
Fpp
F~~
Pedal Ratio =-
Fpp FPP Steel tape is used to measure pedal-pad
I V
movement. Measure movement of master-
cylinder piston
Steel tape at same
is used time. Pedal
to measure travel
pedal-pad
divided by pushrod
movement. Measuretravel is pedalofratio.
movement master-
Pedal ratio can be found by simultaneously measuring forces at pedal pad and master cylinder piston at same time. Pedal travel
cylinder. Small spring scales may be used for this. Disconnect master-cylinder pushrod so divided by pushrod travel is pedal ratio.
it doesn't
Pedal ratioaffect readings.
can be found Make sure one scale
by simultaneously lines up with
measuring pushrod
forces and other
at pedal scale
pad and with
master
line-of-action
-cylinder. Smallofspring
driver's leg. may
scales See be
drawing at right.
used for Pushrod force
this. Disconnect divided by pedal
master-cylinder force so
pushrod is
pedal ratio.affect readings. Make sure one scale lines up with pushrod and other scale with
i t doesn't
line-of-action of driver's leg. See drawing at right. Pushrod force divided by pedal force is
pedal ratio.

)~- - ---J
L Master-
Cylinder
Position

' M
Pedal Ratio =--EE..
MMC
Pedal ratio is equal to AlB. Pedal pivot is at point P. Force F, applied by driver, is multiplied
by pedal ratio to produce a larger force at master cylinder. If driver applies 50 Ib and pedal
Pedalis
ratio ratio is equal
4, force at to A/B. Pedal
master pivot
cylinder is is200
at point P. Force
lb. Trick F, applieddistances
in measuring by driver, is
A multiplied
and B is Mpp = Pedal-Pad Movement
by pedal ratio
measuring them t operpendicular
produce a larger force at master
to line-of-action cylinder.
of forces . If driver applies 50 Ib and pedal MMC = Master-Cylinder-
ratio is 4, force at master cylinder is 200 Ib. Trick in measuring distances A and B is Piston Movement
Mpp = Pedal-Pad Movement
measuring them perpendicular to line-of-action of forces. MMC= Master-C.ylinder-
The force method requires special To use this formula , you must be Piston
Pedal ratio can Movement
be determined from simul-
measuring equipment. So skip this careful to get the direction of move- taneous pedal-pad and master-
The force
method, method
unless requires
you have the special
equip- To use
ment this formula,
right. Pedal-pad you must be
movement cylinder-piston
Pedal ratio can bemovements: Measure
determined from simul-
measuring equipment.
ment that will measure force So skip and
this careful to get the direction
should be measured through the of move-
full large movements
taneous to keep measuring
pedal-pad and errors
master-
method, unless you have the equip-
pressure. ment right. Pedal-pad
stroke of the pedal. You will have to movement small. Measure movements
cylinder-piston as shown.
movements: Measure
ment that Movements-Pedal
will measure force ratioand should be measured through thefrom
full large movements t o keep measuring errors
Measure open a bleeder or drain the fluid small. Measure movements as shown.
pressure.
can be found by measuring movement stroke of the system
the hydraulic pedal. You to dowill have
this to
. Start marks on it. Total movement of the
Measure
at the pedalMovements- Pedal ratio
pad and master-cylinder open a bleeder or drain
the measurement from the point the fluid from pedal pad between the starting and
can be found
piston. Don'tby measuring
include movement
movement the hydraulic
where system are
all clearances to do this.out
taken Start
of marks onpoints
stopping it. Total
is Mmovement of the
pp , or the number
at the pedal
needed pad up
to take andclearance
master-cylinder
or free the linkage
the measurement from the
and the pushrod just point
starts pedal
to usepad inbetween the starting
the formula. and
Master-
piston.
play. The Don't
formula include
for pedal movement
ratio using where
to move all the
clearances are taken piston
master-cylinder out of. stopping points is
cylinder-piston M,,,or the
movement is number
how far
needed to take
movements is: up clearance or free To hold the pedal in this position,starts
the linkage and the pushrod just put to
the use
pistonin moved
the formula.
down theMaster- bore.
play. The formula for pedal ratio using ato spacer
move between
the master-cylinder
the pedal stop piston.
and cylinder-piston movement
How to measure this movement is howis far
il-
movements ~pp
Pedal ratio = is: To hold the pedal in this position, put
pedal. the piston moved down the bore.
MC lustrated above.
Pedal M
ratio = 2 a spacer
Startingbetween
from this thepoint,
pedal move
stop and
the How to measure
Finding the pedal this ratio
movement is il-
by measur-
Mpp = Movement
MMC of pedal pad in pedal.
pedal all the way to the floor. Measure lustrated above.
ing movements gives an average pedal
inches Starting from this point, full
move the Finding
Mpp == Movement pad ofin piston movement through travel ratio for thethefullpedal ratio
stroke. It isbynot
measur-
a very
MMC MovementOf in inches pedal ing movements givesThe
an average pedal
inches
master-cylinder piston for a single or a of the all the way
pedal. to thethe
Indicate floor. Measure
starting and accurate number. problem is
Movement piston
stopping movement
points ofthrough
the pedal fullpad
travel
by ratio for the full stroke.
pedal ratio changes as the pedalIt is not a very
MMc =
tandem master cylinder, inor inches
movement of
master-cvlinder
of center pivot ofist
the for a sinale
tonbalance or aa
bar for
of the pedal. Indicate the
placing a piece of plywood or card- starting and accurate
moves. Tonumber.
get a more Theaccurate
problem pedalis
tandem
car master
with dual cylinder,
master or mo;ement
cylinders. stopping points of
board alongside thethepadpedal pad by
and making pedal ratio changes
ratio, use the method described as the pedal
of center pivot of the balance bar for a placing a piece of plywood or card- moves. To get a more accurate pedal
car with dual master cylinders.
70
board alongside the pad and making ratio, use the method described
below. This uses the geometry of the
pedal and linkage. It can give instanta-
below. pedal
neous This uses ratio theat geometry
any point of the
along
PUSHROD LlNE-OF -ACTION
pedal and
the pedal movement. linkage. It can give instanta-
PUSHROD LINE-0F.ACTION
neous pedal
Pedal ratio at any point along
Geometry-Dimensions of a
the pedal
pedal movement.
determine its ratio. Formulas to
Pedal
use for Geometry-Dimensions
various pedal mountingsofarea
pedal determine
given in the drawing its ratio. Formulas
at left. Use the to
use for various
formula that matches your pedalpedal mountings are
given. in
setup In theeachdrawing
formulaatis left. Use the
a distance A PUSHROD
formula that matches
and B. Measuring these distances your pedal
ac- LEG LlNE-OF-ACTION
setup. Iniseach
curately the formula
only problem. is a distance
To do A it FOOT -TO-PEDAL

right,B. you
and Measuring need to these know distances
the line- ac- CONTACT POINT
FOOT.TO-PEDAL
E G LINE-OF-ACTIO
curately
of-action is of the only problem.
the forces on the pedal. To do it
right, you need to know the line- CONTACT P O I N T
The line-of-action is drawn from Line-ot-action ot leg is between pedal pad and driver's hip. Measure distance A perpen-
of-action of the forces on
the driver's hip to the ball of his foot. the pedal. dicular to this line. Distance B is measured perpendicular to line-ot-action of master-
This The line line-of-action
changes, is drawn from
depending on cylinder pushrod,
Line-of-action Pushrods
of leg shouldpedal
is between not be
padbent
and as shown,
driver's but
hip. if one is,
Measure its line-of-action
distance A perpen-
the driver's hip to would
dicularbetothrough pushrod
this line. ends.BDrawing
Distance by Tomperpendicular
is measured Monroe. t o line-of-action of master-
where the pedal padthe is ball
in itsoftravel.
his foot.To cylinder pushrod. Pushrods should not be bent as shown, but if one is, its line-of-action
This
simplify linematters, changes, pick depending
a spot in the on would be through pushrod ends. Drawing by Tom Monroe.
where the pedal pad
movement of the brake pedal to mea- is in its travel. To
simplify matters, pick a stick spot toinit.the 8 Q
sure lines-of-action-and Master Cylinder C;
movement of the brake
The line-of-action for pedal to mea-
a pushrod is a:
sure lines-of-action-and stick to it. 8
7 -g
<ii poor-",,/
always a straight line joining the ends um
nrOJ
of Thethe line-of-action
pushrod. Bra ke for pushrods
a pushrodare is 67 -0..3
always a straight line
usually straight, so it is easy to
of the pushrod. If yourBrake
joining
pushrods
the ends
makes are --
u

---
a, ./
/

-----
determine. pushrod an 6-a
5r- -- -- --;r--
/
angle with the pedal arm, be easy
usually straight, so it is sure to to Good ---""
A
determine.
measure distance If yourBpushrod at a 90makes angle an to
5
4 -
angle with the pedal arm, be nearby. sure to - Good

J
the pushrod. This is illustrated 4
3
measure distance B at a 90" angle to
If the brake-pedal linkage has an in-
the pushrod. This is illustrated nearby.
termediate mechanism, such as a 2 -
3
If the brake-pedal
bellcrank, determining linkagepedalhas an be-
ratio in-
-
comes more complicated. The pedala
termediate mechanism, such as Force From 2
bellcrank,
ratio for the determining
pedal itselfpedal can be ratio
meas-be- Pedal Ratio
Linkage Ratio =
= ~L Driver's Leg
-
L 1
comes
ured using more complicated.
the methodsThealready pedal Retracted On Floor
ratio for the
discussed . Then pedalyou itselfmust can be findmeas-the
Overall Ratio = ~ X ~~ o 1I 2I 3I 4I 5I
Pedal-Pad Movement (in.)On Floor
Retracted
ured
discussed.
using the
leverage of the rest of the linkage.
Then youthemust
methods already Overall Ratio = - X
If pedal operates
A AL
B through
- a bellcrank, Graph 0 shows1 two2 curves
3 of 4 pedal-pad5
Call that leverage ratiofind of thethe BL
rocker or other linkage, pedal ratio alone is
Pedal-Pad Movement (in.)
movement versus pedal ratio. Solid line is
leverage Pretend
linkage. of the rest the of forcethe into
linkage.the for a good
not the final
If pedal answer. through
operates Overall ratio between
a bellcrank, Graph showsdesign-pedal
two curves ratio changes
of pedal-pad
Call
linkage thatis leverage
the force the from ratio of the
a driver's driver's
rocker orfoot andlinkage,
other master cylinder
pedal ratio is required
alone is little with pedal
movement versusmovement; dotted
pedal ratio. Solidcurve
line is
is
linkage.
leg , and treatPretend the force
the linkage the into
samethe as for
not brake-system
the final answer. calculations.
Overall ratio Once pedal
between poor-pedal ratio - changes ratio
for a good design-pedal considerably,
changes
linkage is the force
you would a pedal. When you find from a driver's
the ratio is foot
driver's determined,
and master ratio of intermediate
cylinder is required Angle changes
little with pedalwith pedal ordotted
movement; linkagecurve
move- is
leg, and" treat linkage
for is determined,
brake-system When determining
calculations. Once pedal ment determines
poor-pedal curve
ratio. shape. considerably.
changes
"pedal ratio the of the linkage
linkage the, multiply
same as
linkage
ratio is ratio, force from
determined, ratiopedal is the same
of intermediate Angle changes with pedal or linkage move-
you
it bywould
the ratio a pedal.
for the When pedal youto find
get the
the as force isfrom
linkage driver's foot.
determined. When Note that link-
determining ment determines curve shape.
"pedal" ratio of the
total brake-pedal ratio. The accom- linkage, multiply age pictured
linkage has afrom
ratio, force ratio
pedallessis than 1.0.
the same Pedal Movement-Another consider-
t by thedrawing
ipanying ratio forshows the pedal how atocomplex
get the Force
as from
force pedal
from is reduced
driver's by linkage
foot. Note be-
that link- ation is how far the brake pedal moves
total brake-pedal
system is analyzedratio. The accom-
for overall pedal causepictured
age AL is smaller
has than B L , less than 1.0.
a ratio Pedal Movement-Another
during brake application. Most consider-
brake
panying drawing shows how a complex Force from pedal is reduced by linkage be- ation
ratio. cause A, is smaller than B,. pedalsjs move
how far the the
from brake pedal moves
retracted posi-
system
Using ispedal analyzed for overall
and linkage geomet pedalry, of conflicts between high and low during
tion to brake application.
the floor in less Most
than brake
6 in.
ratio.
pedal ratio can be found for a particu- pedal ratios. A low pedal ratio in- pedals
measured move from
at the pad.the retracted
Pedal posi-
movement
larUsing
position pedal of and linkageYou
the pedal. geometry,
should of conflicts
creases between high
pedal-linkage and and
stiffness low tion to the floor in less than
must be less than this for safety and 6 in.
pedal ratiopedal
measure can be found
ratio for a particu-
at several posi- pedal
reducesratios.
forcesAonlow the pedal
pivots.ratio
A highin- measured When
comfort. at the pad. Pedal movement
designing a special
lar
tionsposition
of theof pedal the pedal. to see You how should it creases
pedal ratio pedal-linkage
reduces pedal stiffness
effort and
and must
brake be less than
system, keepthis for movement
pedal safety and
measure Itpedal
changes. is usefulratiotoatdraw several
a graph posi-of reducesa forces
allows on the pivots.
large-diameter high
masterAcylin- comfort.
during normal braking as ashort
When designing special
as
tions of the
pedal ratio versus pedal to see pos
pedal-pad how
ition.it pedal ratio reduces pedal effort
der to be used . I detail these trade-offs and brake system,
possible. keep pedal movement
changes.
This givesIt you is useful to draw
a picture of ahow graphyour of allows a large-diameter
in Chapter 9. Total travelmaster
at the cylin-
pedal during
Let's normal
review braking as shortThe
some basics: as
pedal ratio versus pedal-pad
brake system works. You want a pedal position. der
pad to
is be I detail
used. by
limited these 'strade-offs
the driver leg. His possible.
brake pedal must supply movement
This
that gives
avoids you aa picture
radical ofpedal-ratio
how your in Chapter 9.
anatomy determines the at
Total travel the pedal
distance he as Let's
well asreview some movement
force. Pedal basics: The in-
brake system
change , particularlyworks. as Youthewant pedala pedal
gets pad move
can is limited by the
his foot backdriver's
from the leg.floor
His cludes all slop and clearancemovement
brake pedal must supply takeup in
that toavoids
close the floor. a radical pedal-ratio anatomy determines
or accelerator pedal the to distance
the brake he as
thewell as system
brake force. Pedal movement
, movement in-
of fric-
change,
Choosing particularly
the correct as the pedal pedal
ratiogetson can move his foot back from
pedal. If he has to stop quickly, he the floor cludes all slop and
tion material, and clearance
combinedtakeup in
deflec-
close to the floor.
a special car is a compromise because or accelerator
doesn't pedal histofoot
want to move theverybrake
far. the brake system, movement
tion of all parts in the system . In of fric-
Choosing the correct pedal ratio on pedal. If he has to stop quickly, he tion material, and combined deflec-
a special car is a compromise because doesn't want to move his foot very far. tion of all parts in the system. In
71
Tilton Engineering pedal-and-bracket as-
sembly mounts dual master cylinders to
rear. Assembly
Tilton is used
Engineering with hanging-pedal
pedal-and-bracket as-
mount. Stock
sembly cars
mounts withmaster
dual clearance problems
cylinders to
in engine
rear. compartment
Assembly benefit
is used with from this
hanging-pedal
setup. Stock
mount. Mastercars
cylinders install inproblems
with clearance driver's
Neal Products offers a complete line of pedals, brackets and other brake-system hardware
compartment,
in away from benefit
engine compartment engine heat.
from this for special cars. Neal pedals and brackets accept various master cylinders. Dual units
setup. Master cylinders install in driver's shown include offers
balance bar and are
Neal Products a complete line set up for brackets
of pedals, floor mounting . Pedal
and other and cylinders
brake-system can be
hardware
compartment, away from engine heat. changed for cars.
hanging-pedal installation.
for special Neal pedals and brackets accept various master cylinders. Dual units
shown include balance bar and are set up for floor mounting. Pedal and cylinders can be
changed for hanging-pedal
SPECIAL PEDALS installation. PEDAL BRACKETS
If you'd rather not design the brake The strength of a brake-pedal brack-
addition, extra movement must be SPECIAL PEDALS
pedal, excellent aftermarket pedal as- PEDAL
et shouldBRACKETS
match that of a properly de-
available at the pedal pad in case there If you'd are
semblies rather not design
available fromtheseveral
brake The strength
signed brake pedal. of a brake-pedal
It is essential brack-to
addition, extra lining
is fade , non-flat movement must be
wear, hot-lining pedal, excellent aftermarket
sources. Neal Products of San Diego, pedal as- et should match that
mount a brake pedal on a strong andof a properly de-
available at the pedal pad in
compression, or air in the brake fluid. case there semblies are available from
California offers a complete line of several signed brake pedal.
rigid bracket. It is essential
In addition, the master to
is fade, non-flat lining
Normal brake-pedal movement must wear, hot-lining sources.
pedals, NeallinkagesProducts
and of San Diego,
other brake- mount a brake pedal on
cylinder should be part of the brake- a strong and
compression,
be as short asorpossible air in theto brake
allow fluid.
extra California offers A
system hardware. a Neal
complete
ped al line
assem-of rigid
pedal bracket.
mount toInreduce addition, the master
the relative de-
Normal brake-pedal
movement for these emergencies movement mustor pedals, linkages and other
bly can be purch ased with its own inte- brake- cylinder should be
flection of the two assemblies part of the. Forces
brake-
be as short as possible to
failures in a brake system . There 's allow extra system
gral hardware.
bracket Neal pedal assem-
, Aincluding master pedal
on themount to reduce
brake-pedal the relative
bracket can ex ceedde-
movement
more if youfor ' re these
working emergencies
with a dual- or bly can be. purchased
cylinders This assemblywith its own inte- .
is easily flection of the two
2000 lb, so it must be rigid . assemblies. Forces
failures
brake systemin a orbraked rum system.
brakes. There's gral
mounted bracket,
on a special including
car. Neal master
pedals on the brake-pedal
Otherwise , the bracket bracket
may can exceed
be danger-
more
In a iftandem
you're orworking with a dual-
dual master-cylinder cylinders.
come in various This sizes
assembly is easily
and mounting 2000 Ib, so it
ous and can cause a spongy feel tomust be rigid.
the
brake system or drum brakes.
system , extra pedal movement must configurations to suit most pedals
mounted on a special car. Neal appli- Otherwise,
brake pedal. the bracket may be danger-
be Inprovided
a tandem in or
casedual master-cylinder
one brake system come
cations.in Winters
various sizes and mounting
Performance Prod- ous and can
Neal, causeand
Tilton a spongy
Winters feel to the
brake
system, extrahave
fails. It must pedal movement
enough must
pedal travel configurations to suit most
ucts of York, Pennsylvania appli-
also offers brake
pedals pedal.
come witb their own bracket,
be provided
available in case
to lock up one
two brake
wheelssystem
when cations. Winters Performance Prod-
similar pedal-and-master-cylinder as- Neal,links
which Tilton and Winters
the pedal directly tobrake the
fails. It must
the brakes arehave
hot enough
and one pedal
systemtravel
has semblies with Pennsylvania
ucts of York, integral brackets.also offers pedals come with
master cylinder. This isown their bracket,
important.
available
failed . to lock up two wheels when similar pedal-and-master-cylinder
A special brake-pedal assembly as- is whichbracket
The links isthemounted
pedal directly
to the car, to but
the
theInbrakes are hot overheating
addition, and one system drumhas semblies
offered by with integral
Tilton brackets. They
Engineering. master oncylinder.
forces the bracket This mounting
is important. are
failed.
brakes can cause extra pedal A special
offer a racing brake-pedal
brake-pedal-assembly
and- bracket is The
lowerbracket is mounted
than forces on theto brake-peda
the car, butl
In addition,
movement. When overheating
the drums getdrum hot, offered by Tilton Engineering.
assembly that positions the master They forces
pivot and on the bracket
master mounting
cylinder or the are
they expand away fromextra
brakes can cause pedal
the shoes. offer a racing
cylinders brake-pedal-and-bracket
toward the rear of the car lower than forces on the
pushrod . Still , the mounting of the brake-pedal
movement. When
Consequently, the the drums
brake shoesgetmust
hot, assembly
rather thanthat positions
the front. This the master
installation pivot and master
pedal bracket to the car cylinder or This
is cri tical. the
they expand away from
move farther. If the pedal hits the the shoes. cylinders toward the rear
is designed for stock-car and GT of the car pushrod.
mounting should also be rigid sothe
Still, the mounting of it
Consequently,
floor, you may not the be brake
able shoes
to stopmust
the rather than the front. This installation
racing, where having the master cylin- pedal bracket the
will support to theforcecar of
is critical.
the driver This 's
move farther. If the
car. This is not a problem with pedal hits disc
the is designed
ders for stock-car
in the engine compartment and canGT mounting
foot. shoulddon't
Therefore, also mount
be rigid so it
a brake
floor,
brakes.you may not be able to stop the racing, where
cause problems. havingWith
the master cylin-
rear-facing will
pedalsupport
on a flatthe force of the
sheet-metal firedriver's
wall or
car.If you
Thiscannot
is not achieve
a problem withtravel
a pedal disc ders in cylinders,
master the enginethecompartment
master cylinders can foot. Therefore,
unreinforced don't mount
floorboard . Mount a brake
the
brakes.
less than the 6-in. maximum , possible cause problems. With
are not subject to heat from the rear-facing pedal in a corner or on a boxedwall
pedal on a flat sheet-metal fire beam or
If you
cures are cannot
bigger achieve
brakes, apower
pedal assists
travel master cylinders,
engine, and they do thenot
master cylinders
interfere with unreinforced floorboard.
so there won't be excessive deflection . Mount the
lessother
or than the
design6-in.changes.
maximum, possible9
Chapter are
parts notsuch subject to heat fromvalve
as carburetors, the pedal
Many in aroadcorner carsor have
on a boxed beam
brake-pedal
cures are bigger
discusses brakes, . power
this problem Beforeassists
you engine, and they do not interfere
covers or headers, or with sparkplug with so there won't be excessive
brackets that can be adapted to other deflection.
or other design changes.
panic , though , minimize each contri-9
Chapter parts such
removal. Insteadas , the
carburetors, valve
master cylinders Many
cars. Some road
havecars small have brake-pedal
compact brack-
discusses
bution to total this pedal
problem. Before Start
movement. you covers
end up or
underheaders, or with sparkplug
the instrument panel or brackets that can
ets that can be purchased withbe adapted to other
the
panic,some
with though,
careful minimize
measuring eachandcontri-
test- removal.
front cowl.Instead,
The one thedisadvantage
master cylinderswith cars.alsSome
ped for have small compact
a reasonable price. brack-
It is
bution
ing to total
to find whatpedal movement.
is causing most ofStart
the this setup may be servicing thepanel
end up under the instrument or
master ets
much thatbetter
can beto purchased
adapt an with the
existing
with some
pedal movement. careful measuring and test- front cowl.
cylinders. The one disadvantage with pedals for a reasonable
bracket-and- pedal assem bly to a car price. It is
ing to find what is causing most of the this setup may be servicing the master much better to adapt an existing
pedal movement.
72 cylinders. bracket-and-pedal assembly to a car
Pedal bracket on homemade sports car is
built into frame structure. It pays to work in
pedal-bracket
Pedal bracket on design with frame
homemade sportsorcar
ro"-
is
cage design.
built into Save
frame time, weight
structure. and
I t pays t o cost
workby
in
planning ahead. design with frame or roll-
pedal-bracket Eagle Indy Car has large hole in pedal box for easy pedal access. Balance bar has remote
cage design. Save time, weight and cost by brake-balance adjuster, so frequent access to the brake pedal is not required. Cable
planning ahead. balance-bar adjuster
Eagle lndy Car (arrow)
has large holegoes to knob
in pedal boxon
forinstrument panel.
easy pedal access. Balance bar has remote
brake-balance adjuster, so frequent access t o the brake pedal is not required. Cable
than to design and build one yourself. balance-bar adjuster (arrow) goes to knob on instrument panel.
It's a lot less expensive , too , to buy an
than to design
existing unit. and build one yourself.
It'sMany
a lot less expensive,
race-car brake-pedaltoo, tobrackets
buy an
existing unit.
are integrated into the frame
Many race-car
structure. brake-pedal
This approach brackets
is excellent if
are
you are integrated
designing the intoentire thecar. frame
Most
structure.
race-car framesThis approach
have tubes is excellent
or rigid if
you are designing the entire
bulkheads that make excellent struc- car. Most
race-car
tures forframes mounting have pedals.
tubes or With rigida
bulkheads
large that makestructure
sheet-metal excellent like struc-a
tures for mounting
passenger-car fire wall,pedals. With a
the mounting
large
requires sheet-metal
a special structure
bracket for likethea
passenger-car fire wall, the mounting
pedals.
requires a special bracket fortypesthe Sturdy universal bracket mounts dual
Pedal Location - There are two master-cylinder-and-bracket assembly to
pedals.
of brake-pedal mounts: floor-mounted frame
Sturdy oruniversal
roll cage. bracket
Photo courtesy
mounts Tilton
dual
Pedalhanging.
and Location-There
Both are used are twoand types
both Engineering.
master-cylinder-and-bracket assembly t o
of
havebrake-pedal
advantages. mounts:
Most floor-mounted
modern road frame or roll cage. Photo courtesy Tilton
and use
cars hanging.
hanging Bothpedals.
are used There andis both
a lot Hanging pedal-and-bracket assembly is
Engineering.
have advantages. Most
of room under the dash for brackets, modern road ready to mount in car. Unit includes pivot
cars often
and use hanging pedals.column
the steering There is is asup-
lot bushings, return spring and assembly
Hanging pedal-and-bracket pedal stopis
of roombyunder
ported the same the structure.
dash for brackets, (arrow)t o
ready . . Such
mountbracket-and-pedal assem-
in car. Unit includes pivot
andHanging
often the steering blies can return
bushings, be found in junkyards
spring and pedal for
stopa
pedals alsocolumn
can beislong, sup-
modest
(arrow). price.
.Such bracket-and-pedal assem-
ported
are ou tby ofthe
sightsameandstructure.
the pivots are less blies can be found in junkyards for a
Hanging pedals
susceptible also can
to corrosion be floor-
than long, modest price.
are
mounted pedals. Additionally, less
out of sight and the pivots are the mined by the height of the driver's
susceptible
master to corrosion
cylinder ends up high than infloor-
the feet inside the cockpit. If hanging
mounted
engine pedals. Additionally,
compartment, where it is easy the mined by used,
pedals are the height of theheight
the added driver's
re-
master
to service. cylinder
Another endsadvantage
up high of in this
the feet inside the cockpit.
quired above the driver's feet raisesIf hanging
engine compartment,
is air bubbles rise to the master where it is easy pedals are used,
the height of thethe added
nose. height re-a
Therefore,
to service.then
cylinder, Another
into the advantage of this
fluid reservoir. quired abovecar
racing sports theor driver's
formula carfeetusually
raises
is air the
Thus, bubblessystem rise istoself-bleeding,
the master the floor-mounted
has height of the nose. pedals.Therefore, a
cylinder,
except forthen
a fewintospotstheat fluid reservoir.
the wheels. racing sportscylinders
Master car or formula withcar usually
floor-
Thus, the system is
On low-profile race cars, floor- self-bleeding, has floor-mounted pedals.
mounted pedals are difficult to
except
mounted for apedals
few spots areat more
the wheels.
popular. Masterunless
service, cylinders
they are inwith floor-
front of the
Race-car design demandscars,
On low-profile race a lowfloor-
CG, front suspension. The balance bar to
mounted pedals are difficult is
mounted pedals Hanging pedals are neat and package we"
so it's best to arekeepmore popular.
components service.
also unless
difficult to they
adjust.areWorst
in front of , the
of all air in most large cars. Such a setup with dual
Race-car as
mounted design
low as demands
possible.a Also,
low CG, the in the ssystem
L s ~ e n stends
i o n to end up at bartheis Inangins pedals are
master cylinders canneat and package
be difficult wel:
to adjust,
so
heightit's ofbest
the bodyto keepnose of components
a rear- or also
wheelsdifficult to adjust.
rather than Worst
the of master
all, air particularly
inmost large cars. you're
when such ainsetup
a hurry-just
with dual
mounted as low as
midship-engine carpossible.
is often Also, the
deter- in the systemandtends
cylinder(s) to end (s).
reservoirs up atCon-
the the place
master for a remote
cylinders adjuster.
can be difficult to adjust,
height of the body nose of a rear- or wheels rather than the master particularly when you're in a hurry-just
midship-engine car is often deter- cylinder(s) and reservoirs(s) . Con- the place a adjuster.
73
 BALANCE BARS VS. An adjustable proportioning valve
ADJUSTABLE varies the ratio of front-to-rear
BALANCE BARS VS.
PROPORTIONING VALVES An adjustable
brake pressure proportioning
in the direction v.qlve
of
ADJUSTABLE
Both a balance bar and an adjust- varies
the front thebrakes of front-lo-liar'
ratio above a preset
able proportioning VALVES
PROPORTIONING valve can be brake pressure
changeover in the The
pressure. direction
valve of
is
Bath
used ato balance
change the bar relationship
and an adjust- be- the frontplaced
usually brakesin above
the rear a preset
brake
able
tween proportioning
front- and rear-brakevalve can;;l$F
hydrau- - mangeover pressu:t?~~~Tfi~~FBlve
system to compensate for weight @'i
used to change and,
lic pressure the.rqlatians.hip.boL'
consequently, transfer placed
udually to prevent.Ni
.in ' rear-wheel
w r brafit
tween
brake fronf-
balance.andHowever,
tBar-brake hydrau-
they work sysfehn
lockup undert~ mrnperigete
hard braking. tor weight
lic pressure
in different ways. and, consequenlly, transfer to prevent
A proportioning valveroar-wheel
gives a
brake balance.
A balance bar divides they
However, work
the pedal lockup under hard
front-to-rear braking.hydraulic-
brake
In dllferenl
force ways.
between two separate master A propbrtloning
pressure relationship valve
that gives
approxi- a
A balance
cylinders in bar
a preset the pedal
divides ratio. This front-to-rear brake
mates the ideal relationship hydraulic-
for vari-
force between
ratio can two beaparate master
adjusted by pressure
ous valuesrelationship
of tire grip. A thet approxl-
balance bar
Stock car uses tandem master cylinder
and adjustable proportioning valve mount-
cylinders
moving theIncentera p rpivot
e e f .ratio.
of the This
bal- mates
does not Ideal relationship
theautomatically br varl-
compensate
ed in cockpit.
Stock car usesThe drivermaster
tandem simplycylinder
moves force
ance bar can ha
tatio closer to oneadjusted by
master- ous values ofintire
for variation tiregrip.
grip.A balance bar
leveradjustable
and on valve to adjust brake
proportioning balance.
valve It
mount- cylinderthe
moving centerorpivot
pushrod bal-
of thethus,
the other, dm6 not aaubrnatlcallyproportioning
Nonadjustable -comprnsate
would've
ed been difficult
in cockpit. to use
The driver dual master
simply moves ance
increasing pressureto inone
bar closer one rnaster-
system tr3r variation
valves are in tire grip.
used on most modern
cylinders
lever with to
on valve a balance bar because
adjust brake balance. of
It cylinder
ano reducing it in w
pushrod another. On thus,
the other, most Wonad]ustabie
road cars . An adjustable praportionlng
proportion-
frame-tube
would've interference.
been difficult to use dual master road cars, aprMaure
jncreaslng tandem master $yslem
in mecylinder valves
ing valve canused
are on most
be easily addedmodwnto any
cylinders with a balance bar because of and reducilig
is used, whichit in another.
cannot be On most
changed brakecars.
road systemAn adjustable
to make the proportion-
balance
frame-tube
sequently, interference.
floor-mounted pedals usu- road cars,brake
to adjust a tandem
balance.master cylirlder Ing valve can
adjustable be easily
within added
a limited to any
range.
ally are more sensitive to air buildup is used, which cannot be changed brdce system to maka t k belance
sequently,
in the system. floor-mounted
As a result theypedals usu-
require to adjust brake balance. adjustable within a llmited range.
ally are more sensitive
more frequent bleeding. to air buildup
in Brake-fluid
the system. As a result they
reservoirs for arequire
floor-
more
mountedfrequent
pedalbleeding.
often must be remote
Brake-fluid
from the master reservoirs
cylinders.forThisa floor-
adds
mounted pedal often must be remote Rear-Brake Master Cylinder
complexity to the brake system . In
from the dirt
addition, master
fromcylinders. Thisshoes
the driver's adds
complexity
can get intoto the the pedal
brake linkage
system.and In
addition, dirt from the driver's
cause problems; hanging pedal lin- shoes
can
kagesgetstayinto the pedal
relatively clean. linkage and
cause problems; use
To summarize, hanging pedalpedal
a hanging lin-
kages
mountstay if relatively
possible. clean.
If not, a floor-
To summarize,
mounted setup wi lluse
worka hanging pedal
even though
mount if possible.
it has disadvantages. If not, a floor-
mounted setup will work even though
BALANCE BARS
it has disadvantages.
A balance bar is used to adjust the
BALANCE
brake balance BARSfor only one value of
A balance bar isnot
tire grip. It does used to adjust the
compensate for
brake balance for only one value Pedal Pushrod
changing traction conditions the wayofa
tire grip. It does
proportioning not compensate
valve does. For this for
Pedal
Force From Pushrod
Pedal
changing traction bars
reason , balance conditions
usuallythe arewaynota
proportioning
used on a road car. valve does. For this Simplest balance bar is a link with three holes. Ratio between front and rear brake pressure
reason, balance
Balance bars are bars usually
used on most are race
not is determined by proximity of center hole to outer holes. To adjust this type of balance bar,
used with
on a road it must bebalance
Simplest replacedbar
with
is aa link
newwith
bar with
threecenter
holes.hole in between
Ratio a different place.
front and rear brake pressure
cars dual car.
master cylinders. The is determined by proximity of center hole to outer holes. To adjust this type of balance bar,
Balancebar
balance barsproportions
are used on the mostforcerace
it must be replaced with a new bar with center hole in a different place.
cars
from the brake pedal to the The
with dual master cylinders. two rods determines front-to-rear brake brakes . Less forward weight transfer
balance bar proportions
master cylinders. Most balancethe forcebars balance. Some balance bars can be with a slick track means the front
fromadjustable
are the braketo pedal vary to the the two
braking rods determines
adjusted; front-to-rear
some cannot. A simplebrakebal- brakes. must
wheels Less forward
do less weight
braking.transfer
If the
mastergoing
force cylinders.
to the Most balance
front and barsrear balance.
ance Some
bar is shown balance
above .bars
This can
type beis with
track ahasslickgood
tracktraction,
means the the front
front
are adjustable
cylinders, thus tothevaryfronttheand braking
rear adjusted; someascannot.
not adjustable is. A simple bal- wheels
brakes mustshoulddo doless more
braking.braking.
If the
force going to the front
brakes. The most-exotic balance bars and rear ance bar are
There is shown above. balance
other simple This type barsis track has good
Balance-bar traction,would
adjustment the front
then
cylinders,
can thus bythe
be adjusted the front
driver and from rear
the not adjustable as is.
that are adjustable, but not easily. brakes should do more
be made to give more front-braking braking.
brakes. The most-exotic balance bars
cockpit. Thereorare
Shims other simple
washers must be balance
movedbars to Balance-bar
force. adjustment
Normally, would then
the balance bar
canThe
be adjusted
simplest by the driver
balance bar isfrom the
a cross that arebrake
change adjustable,
balance. but not can
Balance easily.
be be made
would be toadjusted
give more front-braking
during a prerace
cockpit.
link, or beam. The brake pedal pushes Shims or washers
determined throughmust be , moved
testing and once to force. Normally,
practice session. Once thethebalance bar
race starts,
onThe simplest
a pivot balance
near the centerbarof isthea cross
cross change brake balance. Balance
set, it never gets changed again. can be would be adjusted
the bar is left alone . during a prerace
link, or
link, beam.then
which The pushes
brake pedal
on the pushes
two determined
For racing,through testing,
a balance bar and
mustonce
be practice session.inOnce
The ultimate the race equip-
sophisticated starts,
on a pivot near the
master-cylinder center of that
pushrods the crossare set, it neveraccording
adjusted gets changed to again.
track con- the bar is left alone.
ment is a balance bar that can be ad-
link, which
mounted to then pushes
the ends of onthethe two.
beam For racing,
ditions. a balanceif bar
For instance, the must
track be is The ultimate
justed in sophisticated
by the driver during a race equip-
. If
master-cylinder
Where pushrods
the brake-pedal pivot is that are
in rela- adjusted the
slippery, according
balance bar to should
track becon-
ad- ment is a balance
the driver desires bar
more thator can
lessbefront
ad-
mounted
tion to thetotwothemaster-cylinder
ends of the beam. push- ditions.toFor
justed giveinstance,
less forceif onthethe
track
frontis justed
brakes by the driver
as track conditions If
a race. he
duringchange,
Where the brake-pedal pivot is in rela- slippery, the balance bar should be ad- the driver desires more or less front
tion to the two master-cylinder push- justed to give less force on the front brakes as track conditions change, he
74
 eR
FL Simple Link

Simple Link

Homemade balance bar is not good be-

cause it is weak and hard to adjust. Thread-
ed rods are not
Homemade strongbar
balance in bending-a
is not good failure
be-
Neal Products' adjustable balance bar :
Center ball slides in tubular housing
welded
bar
into pedal
Neal Products'
moves
Center ball center
arm. Turning
adjustable
slides bearing
threaded
balance bar:
right housing
in tubular or left
could
cause be
it isdisastrous.
weak and hardCorrectly engineered
t o adjust. Thread- inside pedal
welded housing.
into pedal arm. Special
Turning spherical
threaded
Pedal Arm Master- balance
ed barsnot
rods are are large in
strong atbending-a
the center failure
where bearings
bar moveshave threads
center inside bore
bearing right and
or pins
left
stresses
could are highest.Correctly
be disastrous. Also, balance bar
engineered (arrows)pedal
inside to restrict ball Special
housing. movement to only
spherical
Cylinder
probably would
balance bars arebind if one
large master-cylinder
at the center where pivoting
bearingsinhave
one threads
direction.
inside bore and pins
Pushrod
pushrod moved
stresses much Also,
are highest. more balance
than other
bar (arrows) to restrict ball movement to only
pushrod. would bind if one master-cylinder
probably pivoting in one direction.
pushrod moved much more than other
pushrod.

Fs
Adjustable Balance Bars
FBBalance-Bar Center Pivot
Fs = Force on
Adjustable Balance Bars
FL = Force on Left Master
Force on (Ib)
FB = Cylinder Balance-Bar Center Pivot
FR = Force
FL = Force on
on Left
RightMaster
Master
Cylinder
Cylinder (Ib)
(lb)
d Force on From
FR== Distance Right Center
Master Pivot to
l
Cylinder
Left (Ib) (in.)
Pushrod
dL =
d Distance
Distance From
From Center
Center Pivot
Pivot to
R = Left to
RightPushrod
Pushrod(in.)
(in.)
dR = Distance From Center Pivot to
Right Pushrod (in.)

FL = qdSR) Neal pedal assembly is fitted with remote adjuster that can be operated by driver. Handle is
mounted so adjustments can be made while racing. Driver must be able to sense need for
brake-balance changes
Neal pedal assembly beforewith
is fitted he can use adjuster that
remote effectively.
can be operated by driver. Handle is
+
FB = FL FR
Compute forces on master cylinders with
mounted so adjustments can be made while racing. Driver must be able t o sense need for
brake-balance
design is one changes
where the before
barheis can use adjusterSetting
mount- effectively.
up a balance bar can be
formulas given above. If center bearing -I
Compute forces
(F L) is moved on master
toward cylinders
front-brake with
pushrod, ed in the pedal arm . A spherical bear- difficult. First , choose master-cylinder
front brakes
formulas getabove.
given more hydraulic
If centerpressure
bearing design is one where the bar
ing rides inside a tube welded into a is mount- Setting up a
size(s) so the balance balance bar becan
bar can set be
in
and
(F,) vice versa.toward
is moved Note that sphericalpushrod,
front-brake bearing ed
holein inthethepedal arm. A spherical
brake-pedal arm . Thebear-bal- difficult.
the First, choose
center for master-cylinder
average track
in bottom
front drawing
brakes get moreis off-center
hydraulic in pedal-
pressure ing rides
ance bar isinside a tube welded
a high-strength into a
rod mount- size(s) so the
conditions. A balance
balance bar barcan be setnot
should in
arm vice
and housing. It Note
versa. slidesthat
sideways when
spherical ad-
bearing hole in the brake-pedal arm. The bal- the center for average track
justing
in bottom screw is turned.
drawing Distances
is off-center from
in pedal- ed firmly inside the bore of the spheri- be used to compensate for the wrong
spherical-bearing center to pushrod
ance bar is a high-strength
cal bearing. A clevis to rod eachmount-
brake conditions.
master-cylinderA balance bar (s).
diameter should not
If you
arm housing. It slides sideways whenbear-
ad-
justing screw is turned.
ings determines Distances
balance-not from
distances ed firmlyisinside
pushrod the bore
mounted of the
at each endspheri-
of the be
needused
to to compensate
vary the balance forbar
the awrong
great
from center of pedal
spherical-bearing arm. to pushrod bear-
center cal Each endA fitting
rod. bearing. clevisistothreaded
each brakeso a master-cylinder
deal from the diameter center (s) . If youto
position
ings determines balance-not distances pushrod is mounted at each
turn of the rod will move the sphericalend of the need to vary the balance
obtain proper brake balance, a changebar a great
from center of pedal arm. rod. Each endorfitting is threaded so a deal from the center position to
can make the change. For example, if bearing right left inside the pedal in a master-cylinder diameter would
it rains, and traction suddenly drops, a turn of
arm. The theforce
rod will move
on the the spherical
bearing is then obtain proper
be better. The brake balance,
balance-bar a change
adjustment
can make brake-balance
rearward the change. For example, isif
adjustment bearingtoright
closer or left
one end of inside
the rod,themaking
pedal in a master-cylinder
range should be sufficient diameter would
to compen-
it rains, and
required. It traction
takes asuddenly
skilled drops,
race-cara arm. The force on the bearing
that master cylinder share more of the is then be
satebetter.
for T h e balance-bar
conditions adjustment
encountered at the
rearward
driver to brake-balance adjustment is
know when a brake-balance closer
brakingtoforce one and
endtheof other
the rod,less.making range
track. should be sufficient to compen-
required.
change It takes a skilled race-car
is needed. that master
Most cylindercars
road-racing shareusemore of the
adjustable sate
Theformotion
conditionsof aencountered
balance bar atmust the
driver to know when a brake-balance
In-cockpit adjustable balance bars braking force and the other
balance bars. You can adapt one of less. track.
allow one master cylinder to operate
change
are usedisinneeded.
Grand Prix cars and similar Mostto road-racing
these your car. You carscan
usepurchase
adjustablea The the
when motion
other of aonebalance bar must
bottoms. The
In-cockpitmachines,
high-priced adjustablewhere
balance bars
the driv- balance
balance bars. bar You
from can adapt
Neal one of
Products, allow one
system masterbecylinder
should designed to operate
so the
are used in Grand Prix cars and similar
ers are sufficiently skilled to make use these toEngineering,
Tilton your car. You can purchase
Winters Perform-a when the not
pedal does otherrun oneau t ofbottoms. The
travel before
high-priced
of the featuremachines,
. where the driv- balance bar from
ance Products or other racing- Neal Products, system should be designed
both master cylinders bottom. Some- so the
ersThe
are sufficiently
most popular skilled to make use
balance-bar Tilton
component Engineering,
outlets. Winters Perform- pedal
times does
peoplenotoverlook
run out thisof travel before
, so difficul-
of the feature. ance Products or other racing- both master cylinders bottom. Some-
The most .popular balance-bar component outlets. times people overlook this, so difficul-
75
Handle in upper left corner of Indy Car instrument panel adjusts Hanging pedals operate reverse-mounted master cylinders in-
balance bar. Slots in handle mount provide positive setting and stalled above pedal box. Setup gets master cylinders out of
lock handle
Handle in position.
in upper left corner of lndy Car instrument panel adjusts engine
Hangingcompartment. As shown,
pedals operate balance bar must
reverse-mounted master be cylinders
able to oper-
in-
balance bar. Slots in handle mount provide positive setting and ate at extreme
stalled above angles
pedal if one Setup
box. hydraulic system
gets fails.cylinders out of
master
lock handle in position. engine compartment. As shown, balance bar must be able to oper-
stroke a great deal.ateThis
at extreme angles if positive-return
potential one hydraulic system fails.built into the
stops
movement should be checked using master cylinder or brake booster. If
stroke a great
accurate drawingsdeal. during
This potential
design. positive-return
your stops built
car has an external stop,into the
see the
movement should be
Actual balance-bar checked
action using
should be master cylinder
shop manual or for brake adjustment
booster. If
accurate ondrawings
checked during adesign.
the car by opening bleed- your car has an external stop, see the
instructions.
Actual
er balance-bar
on one actionandshould
brake system be
stroking shop
If youmanual are designingfor adjustment
your own
checked on the car by opening a bleed-
the pedal. This forces the balance bar instructions.
system, be careful not to use a sepa-
er on one
to move brake
into system
extreme and stroking
angles. If return
rate you are springdesigning
on the pedal your ifown the
the pedal. This forces the balance bar system,
pushrod be cancareful
be pullednot from
to useits asocket
sepa-
Upper end of production road-car hanging to move into
RETURN extreme angles.
SPRINGS & rate
in the return spring on thepiston.
master-cylinder pedal ifMostthe
pedal is equipped with return spring, pedal PEDAL STOPS pushrod can be pulled from
pushrods are retained in the piston, its socket
stop
Upperandendpushrod. Pedal stop
of production is rubber
road-car pad
hanging RETURN
There must SPRINGS &
be a return spring to in the
but some master-cylinder
are loose. If a piston. Most
return spring
at endisofequipped
pedal arm to right-it's not
with return adjustable.
spring, pedal PEDAL STOPS pushrods
Hairpin-type
stop return
and pushrod. spring
Pedal stopwraps around
is rubber pad push a brake pedal back to its retracted forces the arepedalretained
back fasterin thethan piston,
the
pivot
at endhousing.
of arm to right-it's not adjustable.
There when
position must thebe brakes
a return are spring
released. to but some are loose.
master-cylinder If a return
piston, spring
the pushrod
Hairpin-type return spring wraps around push areturn
The brake pedal
springback thatto its retracted
pushes the forces
can fall the
out pedal
unlessbackit is faster
retained than
in the
the
pivot housing. position when thepiston
master-cylinder brakesbackare released.
can also master-cylinder
piston. Therefore,piston, use onlythe the pushrod
master-
The
returnreturn spring
the pedal, thatpedal
if the pushes the
is light, can fall out unless
cylinder-piston it isspring
return retained in the
to retract
master-cylinder piston back
the pedal is mounted vertically, and can also piston. Therefore, use only
the pedal if the master-cylinder push- the master-
return
the pivotsthe have
pedal,lowif friction.
the pedalOn is some
light, cylinder-piston
rod is not retained return
to thespring
piston.to retract
the pedal
road cars, is mountedreturn
a separate vertically,
springand is theAllpedal
tandemif theandmaster-cylinder
most single master push-
the pivotson
mounted have
the low friction.
pedal to make Onsuresome it rod is not retained
cylinders are strong to the piston.so that
enough
road
returns.cars,Ona separate
race cars, return
the spring
master- is theAll tandem
closed endand mostmaster-cylinder
of the single master
mountedreturn
cylinder on thespring
pedal (s)
to make
usuallysure doesit cylinders
bore can be used as the forwardsopedal
are strong enough that
returns.
thejob. On race cars, the master- the closed
stop. If youend are of
notthesuremaster-cylinder
about this or
Stop for Piston
cylinder
A brake return
pedalspring(s)
must have usually does
a positive bore can
don't wantbe used as the forward
to bottom pedal
the master-
Adjustable Pushrod the job. stop. If you are not sure about this or
(Too Long)
stop in the retracted position. This po- cylinder piston for fear of damage, in-
A brake
sition must pedal
alwaysmust have
be the a positive
same so the don't want to bottom
stall a forward pedal stop. Many cars the master-
Adjustable Pushrod
stop incan
driver the find
retracted position.
the pedal This po-
immediately. cylinder piston for fear
use the floorboard as theof damage,
stop. If you in-
sitionpositive
The must always
stop orbethe thepushrod
same sousu- the stall
use aa stop,
forward pedal
allow some stop. Manyin cars
stroke the
driver can find the pedal immediately.
ally is adjustable to make sure the use the cylinder
master floorboard withas the
the stop.
pedalIf hard
you
If piston can't return to its retracted The positive stoppiston
or the returns
pushrod fully.usu- use a stop, allow some stroke in the
position, seal covers compensating port master-cylinder against the floorboard.
and brakescan't
If piston won't fully torelease.
return Adjust
its retracted
allytheispiston
If adjustable to make
is prevented fromsure the
reach- master
Test the cylinder
forwardwithpedalthe pedal
stop whenhard
pedal stopseal
position, or pushrod
covers tocompensating
move piston backport master-cylinder piston returns
ing its retracted position, the ports in fully. against
you bleedthethefloorboard.
brakes. With the bleeder
bore. If pedal
in its brakes
and won'tstop or pushrod
fully release. can't be
Adjust If
thethe pistoncylinder
master is prevented
may not fromopen reach-
as screws open,forward
Test the push the pedal
pedalstop when
gently all
adjusted,
pedal stopshim master cylinder
or pushrod to moveforward.
piston back ing itsshould
they retractedandposition,
hydraulic the pressure
ports in you bleed the brakes. With
the way down. Make sure it is hard the bleeder
in its bore. If pedal stop or pushrod can't be the build,
mastercausing
cylinder may brake
not open
ties ariseshim
adjusted, in emergency situations.
master cylinder forward. will severe drag. as screws
against open,
the stop push the floor
or the pedalbefore
gently theall
A balance bar must not bind when they should and hydraulic
With the pedal in the retracted posi- pressure the way down. Make
master-cylinder piston sure it is hard
bottoms. The
ties arise inatemergency
operating situations.
extreme angles possible will
tion build,
againstcausing severe
its stop, therebrake
shoulddrag.be a against the stophave
piston should or the floor1/16
about before in. the
of
A balance bar must
when one master cylinder not bindstrokes
when Withamount
small the pedalofin the
free retracted
play in posi- the master-cylinder
travel left before it bottoms. If The
piston bottoms. the
operating
much moreat extreme
than the angles possible
other. For tion against its stop,
master-cylinder thereThis
pushrod. should be a
ensures piston hits
pedal should thehavefloor,aboutmake 1/16surein. of it
when
example, oneboiling
master
fluidcylinder strokes
or a slow leak small
that theamount of free piston
master-cylinder play in the
is fully travel left
cannot get before
jammedit inbottoms.the carpet If the or
muchrequire
may more one thanmaster
the cylinder
other. Forto master-cylinder pushrod.
retracted. Most road cars have This ensures pedalother
any hitsobject.
the floor, make sure i t
example, boiling fluid or a slow leak that the master-cylinder piston is fully cannot get jammed in the carpet or
may require one master cylinder to retracted. Most road cars have any other object.
76
Power Assist 7

Girlock LSC 50 vacuum booster and tandem master cylinder has threaded rods passing through booster from master-cylinder mounting
flange. Rods transmit forces on master-cylinder mounting flange directly to booster mounting bracket . Because booster chamber is not
loaded
Girlockby forces
LSC from master
50 vacuum cylinder,
booster booster master
and tandem is lightercylinder
than it would otherwise
has threaded be.passing
rods Boosterthrough
weighs only 4 lb.from
booster Photo courtesy Girlock
master-cylinder Ltd.
mounting
flange. Rods transmit forces on master-cylinder mounting flange directly to booster mounting bracket. Because booster chamber is not
loaded
Mostby road
forcescars
fromand
master cylinder,
a few large booster
race ismounted
lighter than it wouldthe
behind otherwise
master be. canonlybe4 Ib.designed
Booster weighs
cylinder. Photo courtesy
withGirlock
less Ltd.
servo
cars use power assist-boosters-to Whatever the design of the booster, action. That makes them less affected
Most braking
reduce road carseffort.
and a A fewcarlarge racea
with mounted
they all dobehind
the samethe master cylinder.
thing-add extra can be designed
by changes in friction with less shoes
between servo
cars use power assist-boosters-to
power assist is said to have power Whatever the design of
force to the master cylinder when the booster,
the action. That makes them less
and drum. Thus, a car can have drum affected
reduce
brakes. Tobraking effort. the
the driver, car with
A brakes feela they allpushes
driver do theon same
the thing-add
brake pedal.extraThe by changes
brakes in friction
that are more fade between shoes
resistant by
power
like theyassist
haveismore said stopping
to have power;power force
harderto the
the driver
master pushes,
cylinder the
whenmore the and
usingdrum.
powerThus,
assist.a car can have drum
brakes. Toit's
however, thejust
driver,
lowerthepedal
brakes feel
effort. driver the
force pushes on the
booster brake
adds. Thepedal.
effectTheto brakes
Manythat are more
early fade resistant
power-brake systems by
like they have more stopping
Most power-brake systems are de- power; harder
the drivertheis driver
reducedpushes, the more
pedal effort. using too
were power assist. The power assist
sensitive.
however,
signed withit'sa just
lowerlower
pedal pedal effort.
ratio so the force
Power the brakes
booster are adds. Theoneffect
used heavyto wasMany early
so great thatpower-brake
the slightest pushsystemson
Most power-brake systems
driver also senses less pedal travel. are de- the driver
cars and isonreduced
cars withpedaldisc
effort.brakes. were too sensitive. The power
the brake pedal locked the wheels. assist
Power brakes can fade the same the
signed with a lower pedal ratio so as Powerassist
Power brakeswasareused used before
on heavy the was so great
Nothing was that the from
gained slightest
this push
designon,
driver also brakes.
standard senses less pedal travel.
Luckily, power switch was made from drums tobrakes.
cars and on cars with disc discs. the the
and brakebrakes
pedalwere locked the wheels.
dangerous . In a
Power
brakes brakes can fade
are reliable and the sameper-
usually as Power most
Now, assist large
was usedcars usebeforepower the Nothing was gainedwith
panic situation from overassisted
this design,
standard
form well forbrakes.
the life ofLuckily,
the car. power switch
brakes. was madesmall
M any fromcars
drums to discs.
using disc and the brakes were dangerous.
brakes, it is nearly impossible to avoid In a
brakes are reliable
The power in power andbrakes
usuallycomes
per- Now,
brakes most
also havelargepower
cars assist.
use Power
power panic situation with overassisted
locking the wheels and losing control.
form well for the life of the car.
from a uni t called a brake booster. It is brakes. Many small cars
assist makes the job of designing using disc brakes, it is nearly
Fortunately, mostimpossible
modern topower-avoid
The power
usually mounted in power
on thebrakes comes
fire wall be- brakes
brakes also have
easier. Forpower assist.thePower
example, disc locking the wheels
brake systems are and losing control.
designed to feel
from
tween the brake- pedal linkage and Itthe
a unit called a brake booster. is assist
brake'smakes
lack ofthe servojobaction
of designing
requires Fortunately,
more like an most modern system.
unboosted power-
usually mounted on the
master cylinder. The brake booster fire wall be- brakes
more easier. For example, theforce
master-cylinder-piston disc brake systems
Therefore, are designed
a driver should have to feel
few
tween like
looks the abrake-pedal
large tank, linkage andtype
if it is the the brake's lack of servo action
than a drum brake . If a drum brake is requires more
problems likewithan aunboosted system.
later power-brake
master
operatedcylinder.
by engine The vacuum.
brake booster
Some more master-cylinder-piston
designed with a large servo action, forceit Therefore,
system. Power a driver
assistshould
combinedhave with
few
looksuse
cars likea ahydraulic-powered
large tank, if it is the type
booster than a drum brake. If a drum
can stop a heavy car without power brake is problems with a later power-brake
the consistency of disc brakes gives
operated by engine vacuum.
that looks like a complex valve Some designed
assist. Withwith a large
power servo
assist, drumaction,
brakesit system.
the modern Power assist combined
car excellent brakes. with
cars use a hydraulic-powered booster can stop a heavy car without power the consistency of disc brakes gives
that looks like a complex valve assist. With power assist, drum brakes the modern car excellent brakes. 77
 1_--- Fire Wall SaO-psi Hydraulic Pressure

500-psi Hydraulic Pressure

Master Cylinder - - - _ ' l l

~SOO-Ib
Master Cylinder Force
b1 - 005 -&r > Force
Piston Area = 1 sq in .
Hydraulic-Cylinder Force & Pressure
Vacuum Hose Piston Area = 1 sq in.

JjjT
\:' 10-psi Vacuum
Hydraulic-Cylinder Force & Pressure
Intake Manifol -Brake Pedal Booster-
SaO-lb. \ Diaphragm
Force Area =
Booster-
Addedb.to
500-1 Diaphragm
50 sq in.
Valve Rod Master
Force I Area =
Cylinder
Added to ' I 50 sq in.
Master
_--__..... ~II
Typical vacuum-booster setup : Intake manifold supplies vacuum to booster. Brake pedal Cylinder I,ll
pushes directly on booster-valve rod, which controls force booster applies to master II
cylinder. If vacuum supply
Typical vacuum-booster dropsIntake
setup: to zero or booster
manifold fails,vacuum
supplies a mechanical linkage
to booster. operates
Brake pedal
master-cylinder
pushes directly piston by pushing harder
on booster-valve on pedal.
rod, which Effort
controls increases
force boostersignificantly
applies t o without
master II
boost. Drawing
cylinder. courtesy
If vacuum Bendix
supply Corporation.
drops to zero or booster fails, a mechanical linkage operates
master-cylinder piston by pushing harder on pedal. Effort increases significantly without
boost. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corporation.
---
Vacuum- Booster Force & Pressure

Vacuum-
Master cylinder Force & Pressure
Booster operates at about
1 OOO-psi maximum hydraulic pressure. Be-
Diaphragm cause
Booster Housing Master vacuum
cylinderdiaphragm
operates operates at
at about
about 10-psi
1000-psi maximum
maximum pressure,
hydraulic booster
pressure. Be-
~_ _ OpenTo diaphragm
cause is 5 to
vacuum 10 times operates
diaphragm diameter of
at
Vacuum Line Atmosphere master-cylinder piston pressure,
about 10-psi maximum to give required
booster
area.
diaphragm is 5 to 1 0 times diameter of
master-cylinder piston t o give required
diameter
area.
cylinder. Remember, total
force equals pressure multiplied by
diameter
the area ofcylinder.
the piston Remember,
- diaphragm total
in
1O-psi Vacuum force equals pressure
this case-whether multiplied
the pressure by
is hy-
the areaorof
draulic the piston-diaphragm
a vacuum . in
Zero-psi Atmospheric this case- whether the pressure
The pedal linkage is connected to a is hy-
Pressure draulic
mechanicalor a vacuum.
linkage that pushes on the
Zero-psi Atmospheric The pedal linkage
master cylinder. The isdriver
connected
can pushto a
mechanical-linkage
the master cylinder the same as inthea
that pushes on
Piston F = Force on Master Cylinder Piston
master
normal cylinder.
brake system. The driver can push
However, the
the
pedalmaster
effort cylinder
is high withoutthe same asfrom
assist in a
Pressure on diaphragm is difference between vacuum and atmospheric pressures. Because normal brakeThe system.
F = Force on Master Cylinder Piston
vacuum is below atmospheric pressure, it is given a minus value. In this example -10 psi is the booster. boosterHowever,
merely adds the
Pressure
in vacuumonside
diaphragm is difference
of chamber between vacuumpressure-is
and 0 pSi-atmospheric and atmospheric pressures.
in other Because
side. Vacuum of
pedal effort is high without
force to the master-cylinder pushrod assist from
vacuum
-10 psi is below
gives atmospheric
same force as 1pressure, i t is given
O-psi pressure a minus
above value. Inbut
atmospheric, thisresulting -10 psi
exampleforce is
is in the booster.
when the driver The pushes
boosteron merely adds
the pedal.
oPPosite
in vacuumdirection.
side of chamber and 0 psi-atmospheric pressure-is in other side. Vacuum of forcetotal
The to theforce master-cylinder
on the master-cylinder pushrod
-10 psi gives same force as 10-psi pressure above atmospheric, but resulting force is in when
piston the
is thedriver
forcepushes
from the on pedal
the pedal.
plus
opposite direction. The total force on the master-cylinder
VACUUM-BOOSTER TYPES at a vacuum booster. It's the large, the booster force.
Most power-brake systems use a round object that looks like a tank. piston
Let'sis take
the force fromlook
a closer the pedal
at how plusa
VACUUM-BOOSTER
booster operated by vacuum TYPES from the at Vacuum
a vacuumboosters
booster. haveIt's thea large,
large the booster
vacuum force.works . To restate, a
boost
Most power-brake systems
intake manifold of a naturally aspirat- use a round
diameterobject that looks
because like a tank.
vacuum exerts a Let's take
booster diaphragma closer look atforce
supplies how bya
booster operated by vacuum
ed engine. Because manifold vacuum from the Vacuum
very boosters have
low "pressure." a large
Actually, the vacuum
having a vacuum on one side of the di-a
boost works. To restate,
intake
is manifold of a naturally
highest-pressure aspirat-
is lowest-when outside air exerts pressure; vacuuma
diameter because vacuum exerts aphragm diaphragm
booster and atmospheric supplies force on
pressure by
ed
the engine. Because
driver lifts his footmanifold vacuum
off the throttle, very low it."pressure."
removes Ambient Actually,
air pressure the having
the other.a vacuum
A vacuum on one sidewhenever
exists of the di-
is highest- pressure is lowest-when
vacuum in the booster is maximum as outside air exerts pressure;
(14.7 psi) is one one side of the dia- vacuum aphragm
pressure and in atmospheric
a gas falls pressure below at- on
the driver
the brakesliftsare
his foot off theThis,
applied. throttle,
of removes
phragm and it. engine
Ambient air pressure
manifold vacuum the other. A vacuum
mospheric pressure. Most pressureexists whenever
vacuum isindifferent
course, the booster for ais supercharged
maximum as (14.7 psi) is one one side
the other. Air pressure is reduced of the dia-
on pressure
gages read inzero a ingasthefalls below , at-
atmosphere so
the brakes
engine, whereare applied.
manifold This,usu-
pressure of phragm
the vacuumand side
engine manifold
by engine vacuum
vacuum. A mospheric
special vacuum pressure.
gagesMost are pressure
used to
course, is different for a
ally is greater than ambient air supercharged the other.
perfect Air pressure
vacuum on one side is reduced on
of the di- gages
measure read zero in the atmosphere,
pressure below so
one
engine,
pressure.where manifold pressure usu- the vacuum
aphragm side abymaximum
allows engine vacuum.pressure A special
atmosphere. If most of the air to
vacuum gages are used is
ally
Theis extra
greater forcethan on ambient
the master- air perfect vacuum on one side
of only 14.7 psi. This is a pelfec! of the di- measure
pumped out pressureof a cylinder,below atmospheric one
pressure.
cylinder piston is provided by a large aphragm allows
vacuum. In real alife,
maximum
it is neverpressure
that atmosphere.
pressure triesIfto most
push of the on
inward air the
is
The inside
piston extra the force
power on booster.
the master-
In a of only 14.7 psi. This
high. Compared to about lOOO-psi is a pellfect pumped out of a cylinder,
outside of the cylinder. There is a atmospheric
cylinder piston isthis
vacuum booster, provided
piston by a largea
is called vacuum.
maximumInpressurereal life,
in ait brake
is never that
hydrau- pressure tries to push inward on the
lower pressure-vacuum-inside the
piston inside
diaphragm. You theseepower booster.ofInthea
the outside high. Compared
lic system, to about pressure
the vacuum-boost 1000-psi outside of
cylinder. The themaincylinder.
parts of There is a
a simple
vacuum booster, this
cylinder-chamber- when you piston is called
looka maximum
is about 10 pressure
psi. The in a brake
result is thehydrau-
large- lower
vacuumpressure-vacuum-inside
booster are the power chamber the
diaphragm. You see the outside of the lic system, the vacuum-boost pressure cylinder. The main parts of a simple
cylinder-chamber-
78 when you look is about 10 psi. The result is the large- vacuum booster are the power chamber
ber is the diaphragm and its housing.
They supply the force. The control
valve lets air or vacuum into the
power chamber.
and the control valve. The power cham- Vacuum In Front of Diaphragm
and -
Air to Rear
Air-Suspended
ber is the diaphragm Boosters itsAll early
housing.
boosters operated under no
They supply the force. The controlload with
air on lets
valve both air
sidesor ofvacuum
the diaphragm at
into the
one atmosphere
power chamber. pressure. When the
brakes were applied, a valve between
Air-Suspended Boosters - All early
the booster and intake manifold was Hydraulic
boosters operated under no load with
opened. Air was pumped from one
air on both sides of the diaphragm at
side of the diaphragm. This type of
one atmosphere pressure. When the
booster is called an air-suspended
brakes were applied, a valve between
booster. That means there is air on
the booster and intake manifold was
both sides of the diaphragm when it Hydraulic Pistons Move Forwar
opened . Air was pumped from one
has no force on it. I Pushrod I
side of the diaphragm . This type of Typical vacuum-suspended booster: Diaphragm acts like a piston. When brakes are
Vacuum-Suspended Booster-The r: ":; -:.1 Vacuum
booster is cailed an air-suspended applied, air is admitted t o chamber behind diaphragm, applying force to master-cylinder
more modern type of vacuum booster ".':'1 Air Corporation.
booster. That means there is air on pushrod. Drawing courtesy Bendix
is called vacuum suspended. It has a
both sides of the diaphragm when it I
vacuum on both sides of the dia-
has no force on it.
phragm when there is no force on it. Typical vacuum-suspended booster: Diaphragm acts like a piston. When brakes are
Vacuum-Suspended Booster-The
Atmospheric air is let into the power .agrns and
applied, air is admitted to chamber behind diaphragm, applying force to master-cylinder
more modern type of vacuum booster
chamber on one side of the diaphragm pushrod. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corporation. Move Forw
is called vacuum suspended. It has a
when the brakes are applied. It is
vacuum on both sides of the dia-
easier to let air into a vacuum than it
phragm when there is no force on it.
is to pump air out-particularly when
Atmospheric air is let into the power
it must be done quickly. Because Diaphragms and
chamber on one side of the diaphragm Plates Move Forward
vacuum is an absence of ail; air natural-
when the brakes are applied. It is
ly flows into the vacuum when the
easier to let air into a vacuum than it
valve is opened. Also, the vacuum- ~ l i Pistons
c Move Forward
is to pump air out-particularly when
suspended booster is more fail-safe
it must be done quickly. Because Vacuum
than an air-suspended booster. That's
vacuum is an absence of ail; air natural-
another reason it is popular today. Air
ly flows into the vacuum when the
Tandem Booster-Most vacuum
valve is opened. Also, the vacuum-
boosters have one diaphragm in the
suspended booster is more fail-safe
power chamber. If a large force is re-
than an air-suspended booster. That's
I Vacuum in Front of Each Diaphragm-Air to Rear of Each Diaphragm
1::::;...::1Vacuum
I
quired from the booster, cylinder
another reason it is popular today. Bendix tandem-diaphragm Master-Vac booster in applied position: Vacuum acts on each of
diameter must be large. To make a [':::-;:::-:1Airbooster force. Unit is used where high force is required and
t w o diaphragms, doubling
Tandem Booster-Most
more compact booster, some vacuum
use two space is limited. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corporation.
boosters have one diaphragm in the
diaphragms. This type of booster is Vacuum in Front of Each Diaphragm-Air to Rear of Each Diaphragm
power chamber. If a large force is re-
called a tandem booster: The dia-

-
quired from the booster, cylinder Bendix tandem-diaphragm Master-Vac booster
Front Shell 3vRear in applied position: Shell
Vacuum acts on each of
phragms are mounted in front of each
diameter must be large. To make a two diaphragms, doubling booster force. Unit is used where high force is required and
other in the power chamber, as are Vacuum
space is limited Check
. Drawing Valve Bendix Corporation.
courtesy
more compact booster, some use two
the pistons in a tandem master
diaphragms. This type of booster is
cylinder. They each provide part of Reaction Disc
called a tandem booster. The dia-
the booster force.
phragms are mounted in front of each
Brake-Booster Operation-There are
other in the power chamber, as are Vacuum Check Valve - - - 1
three basic vacuum-booster operating
the pistons in a tandem master
conditions:
cylinder. They each provide part of
Brakes released.
the booster force.
Brake being applied.
Brake- Booster Operation - There are
Brakes holding at constant force.

/
three basic vacuum-booster operating W V V
- \
Control Vallie
Val Rod
The control valve is operating dif-
conditions: Hydraulic Pushrod
Brakes for
ferently each of these conditions.
released.
.agm Return Spring
Control-valve operation is shown in
Brake being applied. Diaphr
the drawing,
Brakes pageat80.
holding constant force. Master Cylinder ~rJtJJ Plate
\
The power chamber of a vacuum-
The control valve is operating dif- Power Section Valve Rod
suspended booster is divided into a
ferently for each of these conditions.
front chamber and a rear chamber by
Control-valve operation is shown in I I
the diaphragm. There is always
the drawing, page 80. Cross-section of Master-Vac booster with working parts indicated. Control valve admits
vacuum applied to the front chamber. Diaphragm Plate
air into chamber behind diaphragm. Valve rod is moved when driver pushes on brake pedal.
The power chamber of a vacuum-
The vacuum line contains a check Drawing courtesy Bendix Corporation.
suspended booster is divided into a
front chamber and a rear chamber by
the diaphragm. There is always
Cross-section of Master- Vac booster with working parts indicated. Control valve admits
vacuum applied to the front chamber. air into chamber behind diaphragm. Valve rod is moved when driver pushes on brake pedal.
The vacuum line contains a check Drawing courtesy Bendix Corporation.

79
I 'i-
Atmospheric Port closed
I valve to prevent vacuum loss in boos-
ter when rnnti~folbklpress~rre rises above
boosler pressure-or manifold vacuum
booster presslrre-or
drops below booster vacuum. A check
valve opens to allow air to flow flow from
Atmospheric booster, but bu t closes when ai airr tries to
Air
flow into the booster.
booster,
With bbrakes r a k e s released, control
valve opens a vacuum port that con-
nects front and rear cham bel's. Pres-
chambers.
sure on o n both sides of the diaphragm is
Valve ized with the brakes released.
equalized
Rod Both chambers contain a vacuum as
(Retracted)
(Retracted) long as the engine is running. running.
With brakes applied, control valve
moves forward. This shuts the
Diaphragm 3 L ~ e aShell l vacuum port between front frolit and rear
(Retracted) Vacuum chambers and opens the atmospheric
Released Position port. Air flows into rear chamber
Atmospheric Port Open
through the t h e atmospheric port, raising
pressure against the diaphragm. T The
he
diaphragm is pushed forward by the
air pressure on o n its rear side. The T h e di-
aphragm then pushes on o n tthe
h e master-
Atomspheric cylinder pushrod and adds to the force
Air
being supplied by the t h e dri ver.
driver.
If the brake pedal is applied without
moving, forces forces on o n the control valve
shut both the atmospheric port and
vacuum port. This maintains a con-
Valve
Rod
Rod stant force on o n the master-cylinder
(Forward)
(Forward) pushrod. IIff tthe h e brake pedal is pushed
harder, atmospheric port is opened

-
again and additional force is applied
by the booster. Wirh With brakes /.elensed,
lI'lf-'fl,,'1l

Rear Shell vacuum port is opened: Booster force

~ Diaphragm--'
(Forward)
~.
\ -vacuum port closed disappear.
and assist disappear,
Atmospheric Air Booster Spring-Boosters
Spring-Boosters often are
Applied Position fitted with springs to give the driver
Atmospheric Port Closed t h e correct amount of feel.
the feel. It is impor-
tant that pedal effort not be too low. low.
This makes the brakes too sensitive_ sensitive.
For the correct amount of feel, pedal
effort should increase with pedal
Atmospheric travel. As the spring is compressed,
pedal effort increases.
HYDRAULIC B O O S T E R
S o m e brake boosters use hydraulics
Some
rather than vacuum. Fluid is pressur-
Valve ized by thet h e ppump
u m p that also supplies
Rod the power-steering system.
(Forward)
A hydraulic brake booster is used
o n cars that have a poor source of
on
vacuum from the t h e intake manifold.
manifold,
Diaphragm
(Forward)
(Forward)
\ 'vacuum Port Closed
Not only does a su
eliminate the
supercharged engine
t h e manifold as a source of
Atmospheric Air (Trapped)
vacuum, many newer cars are are
Holding Position equipped with emission controls and
Vacuum-booster control-valve operation shown in simplified form: Rear shellencloses rear
vacuum-operated accessories that
chamber of booster and mounts booster-and-master-cylinder assembly to fire wall.wall, Parts reduce manifold vacuum, vacuum. On such
rod moves when driver steps on pedal.
move relative to each other. Valve rod pedal. Diaphragm
Diaphragm moves
moves cars, hydraulic boosters are more
when acted on by atmospheric air pressure and vacuum. practical, particularly if the car is also

80
 (j)
- Accumulator Port
Pedal Rod

-
E- 1500
.-
~(I]
:::J
Pressure Port
Accumulator Port

_a
(j)
(j)
1500-
?
OJ With power Ass'lst
tl: 1000
V)
,g0F Booster-Runout
with power A s Point
s i s t
;
-
:::J
C1l 1000-
-0
.-
f32 500 Booster-Runout Point
u
2 500- /Output
Return Power Linkage Bracket
0~~--2~0--~~40~--~6~0----~8~0-----1~0~0----1~20 /Pushrod Port Section
Output Return Power
0 Pedal60
Effort (lb) Pushrod Port Section
20 40 80 100 120

Curves show effect of power assist Pedalon

Effort (Ib)effort. Runout pOint
pedal Bendix Hydro- Boost hydraulic brake booster mounts between
is where power booster supplies maximum possible force. If pedal master cylinder and brake pedal. High-pressure hydraulic fluid
effort isshow
Curves higher thanof50
effect Ib, brake-fluid
power pressure
assist on pedal effort.increases the
Runout point allows
Bendix unit to be much
Hydro-Boost smaller brake
hydraulic than vacuum
boosterbooster.
mounts Hydraulic
between
same as itpower
is where wouldbooster
withoutsupplies
power assist-curve
maximum possiblewith power
force.assist is
If pedal pressure is supplied
master cylinder and by power-steering
brake pump. Drawing
pedal. High-pressure courtesy
hydraulic fluid
parallel
effort istohigher
non-power-assist
than 50 Ib, curve past runout
brake-fluid point.increases
pressure Runout point
the Bendix unit
allows Corporation.
to be much smaller than vacuum booster. Hydraulic
variesas
same according to eachpower
it would without car. Boost force is with
assist-curve limited by available
power assist is pressure is supplied by power-steering pump. Drawing courtesy
vacuum tor
parallel power-steering-pump
o non-power-assist pressure.
curve past runout point. Runout point Bendix Corporation.
varies according t o each car. Boost force is limited by available
vacuum
equipped or power-steering-pump
with power steering. pressure.
And, Power-Steering Gear
there's the advantage of fitting the f Accumulator
,-----\ I
equipped hydraulic
smaller with powerbooster steering.into And,a Power-Steering Gear
there's the advantage of fitting the f Accumulator Spool Spool
crowded engine compartment.
smaller hydraulic booster
Like the vacuum booster, hydraulic
into a
crowded
booster isengine
located compartment.
between the brake-
Like linkage
pedal the vacuum and booster,
master hydraulic
cylinder.
booster is located between the brake- t
The boost piston has hydraulic pres- Master Hydro-Boost
pedal behind
sure linkageit and to add master
forcecylinder.
to the Cylinder
The boost pistonpushrod. has hydraulic pres- t
master-cylinder In the event Power-Steering D Return Lines
sure
of behind
booster it to the
failure, adddriver
forcecantopush the Pump C High-Pressure Lines
master-cylinder pushrod. In the event
on t he master-cylinder piston just like
aof booster
normal failure,
brake the driverHowever,
system. can push -
With Bendix Hydro-Boost power section in
Pump ~7 High-Pressure Lines
released position, most fluid from pump is.
Hydro- Boost in released position (above)
and applied position (below): With brake
on theeffort
pedal master-cylinder
is much higher pistonduejustto like
the routed through power
With Bendix Hydro-Boost section
powerto power-
section in pedal depressed,
Hydro-Boost input position
in released rod and (above)
piston
alownormal brake system. However, steering gear.
released Some
position, fluid
most returns
fluid from to pump
pump is. moveapplied
and forward slightly.
position LeverWith
(below): assembly
brake
pedal ratio. reservoir throughpower
routed through return section
port. Spring accu-
to power- moves sleeve forward,
pedal depressed, input clOSing
rod andoffpiston
four
pedal effort
Basic is much
hydraulic- higherparts
booster dueare:
to the mulator
steering stores sufficient
gear. Some fluid fluid under
returns pres-
to pump holes
move leading
forwardto open center
slightly. of spool.
Lever For-
assembly
low pedal ratio.
Boost piston. sure to through
reservoir provide return
two port.
or three
Springpower-
accu- ward
movesmovement of spool closing
sleeve forward, allows additional
off four
Basic hydraulic-booster
Sliding spool valve, which parts are:
regulates assisted stores
mulator brake sufficient
applicationsfluidinunder
case pres-
fluid hydraulic fluidt to
holes leading entercenter
o open cavity of
behind
spool.boos-
For-
Boost pressure.
braking piston. flow from
sure power-steering
t o provide two or pump three ceases.
power- ter piston
ward to pressurize
movement of spool area.
allows This moves
additional
Accumulator
assisted brake is applications
charged within fluidcase when
fluid piston
hydraulicand
fluidoutput
t o enterrod forward
cavity behindagainst
boos-
Sliding
Lever spoolsystem valve,to which
operate regulates
spool steering
flow fromwheel is turned or
power-steering pumpbrakes are
ceases. master-cylinder pistons area.
ter piston to pressurize to applyThis brakes.
moves
braking
valve. pressure. applied.
Accumulator Drawing
is charged courtesy
with fluidBendix
when Drawingand
piston courtesy
output Bendix
rod Corporation.
forward against
Lever system tosystem.
Reserve-pressure operate spool Corporation.
steering wheel is turned or brakes are master-cylinder pistons to apply brakes.
valve.
The boost piston operates much applied.
mulator Drawing
that appliescourtesy
a force Bendix
to a Drawing
Spool courtesy
Moved Bendix Corporation.
Reserve-pressure
like any hydraulic system. piston. Because Corporation.
piston. Hydraulic fluid contained be- Forward
The boost piston
power-steering hydraulic operates
pressuremuch is mulator
tween thethat applies
piston and thea force
end oftothea
Spool Moved
like any
much hydraulic
higher than piston. Because
the "pressure" piston. Hydraulic
cylinder fluid by
is pressurized contained
the spring.be-
power-steering
available hydraulicthe
from vacuum, pressure
piston is is tween
If the the pistonis and
engine shuttheoff,end of the
pressure
much higher than the
much smaller than a vacuum-booster "pressure" cylinder
from the is pressurized bypump
power-steering the ceases.
spring.
available from
diaphragm. The vacuum,
boost piston the ispiston
located is If the engine is shut off,
The pressurized fluid stored in the ac-pressure
much
between smaller
the rod than
from a vacuum-booster
the brake pedal from the power-steering
cumulator is enough to pump ceases.
apply the
diaphragm.
and The boost piston ispushrod.
the master-cylinder located The
brakespressurized fluid stored
several times with the in the ac-
engine
between
When the brakes are applied,pedal
the rod from the brake the cumulator is enough to apply
shut off. This safety feature allows the the Piston , Pushrod and End
and
lever onthethemaster-cylinder
input rod slides the pushrod.
valve brakes
car to beseveral
stopped times
if thewith
enginethe stalls
engineor Moved Forward
toWhen the brakes
a position that allows are high-pressure
applied, the shut
the caroff.
is This
rollingsafety
with feature allows
the engine off.the released. A
Piston, Pushrod and End
long rod will leave the
Moved Forward
hydraulic fluid to enter the the
lever on the input rod slides valve
chamber car to be stopped if the engine stalls or master-cylinder compensating port
to a position that allows high-pressure
behind the piston. This applies force the car is rolling with
ADJUSTABLE the engine off.
PUSHRODS released.and
covered long rod
A cause brakewill
drag.leave the
A short
hydraulic
to fluid to enter the chamber
the master-cylinderpushrod. Most boosters are designed with ad- master-cylinder compensating
rod will add slop or excess pedal travelport
behind
Reservethe pressure
piston. This is applies
stored force in a ADJUSTABLE
justable PUSHRODS
master-cylinder push rods. covered and cause
to the system. brake
See yourdrag. A short
car's shop
to the master-cylinder ,pushrod.
cylinder called an accumulator. There Most
This rodboosters are touch
should just designed
the with ad-
master- rod will add
manual for slop or excesson
instructions pedal travel
adjusting
is Reserve
a very heavy pressure
spring is stored
inside in a
the accu- justable master-cylinder pushrods.
cylinder piston with the brakes to
the the system. Seepushrod.
master-cylinder your car's shop
cylinder called an accurn~~lato~: There This rod should just touch the master- manual for instructions on adjusting
is a very heavy spring inside the accu- cylinder piston with the brakes the master-cylinder pushrod. 81
Other Types of Brakes 8

Outlawed by most racing organizations, movable air brakes, such as one at rear of this 1955 300SLR Mercedes, are extremely effective at
over 100 mph. Frontal area and drag coefficient are increased dramatically when air brake is activated. Photo courtesy Mercedes-Benz .
Outlawed by most racing organizations, movable air brakes, such as one at rear of this 1955 300SLR Mercedes, are extremely effective at
over 1 0 0 mph. Frontal area and drag coefficient are increased dramatically when air brake is activated. Photo courtesy Mercedes-Benz.
In this chapter, I briefly describe
FF = Force on Front Tires
brakes other than the traditional
In this
drum chapter,
or disc brakes.I briefly describe
Also, there are
FA = Force on Rear Tires brakes other than the
several differeht ways to operatetraditional
FF = Force on Front Tires
We = Car Weight drum
brakes.orAnd,
disc there
brakes.areAlso,
otherthere
waysare of
FR= Force on Rear Tires several
FD = Aerodynam ic Drag stopping different ways than
a vehicle other to operate
friction
Wc = Car Weight brakes.
at the And, thereAlthough
tires. are other ways of
briefly
RD = Rolling Drag
FD= Aerodynamic Drag stopping a vehicle other than
discussed, I don't go into details onfriction
FT = Forward Thrust at the
RD= Rolling Drag other braketires. Although
systems. The subjectbriefly
is
FA = Aerodynamic Downforce
FT = Forward Thrust
discussed, I don't go
too extensive for this book.into details on
other brake systems. The subject is
FA = Aerodynamic Downforce

&
FA too extensive for thisDRAG
AERODYNAMIC book.
Drag acts to slow a moving car.

v-
AERODYNAMIC DRAG
Drag forces act toward the rear of the
Drag
car when it is moving aforward
acts to slow moving car.
. Drag
Drag forces
consists act toward
of rolling theaerodynam-
drag and rear of the
car when
ic drag. it is moving
Rolling forward.
drag is caused Drag
by resis-
0 consists
ic drag.
the
tance
of
wheel
of the
rolling
Rolling
drag
bearings,
tires to
and
drag is caused
aerodynarn-
tance of the tires to rolling, friction in
and allby resis-
drive-train friction forces. friction in
rolling,
other
theRolling
wheel drag bearings, and allexists
or resistance, other
at
FR FT drive-train friction forces.
all speeds, but increases with speed.
YouRolling drag or resistance,
can experience rolling exists
drag byat
Forces on moving car: Vertical forces on the tires, FF and F R, are determined by car's all speeds, but onincreases
weight and aerodynamic forces. Aerodynamic-drag force, F o' acts on car near center of pushing a car a level with
road.speed.
You
Forces
body on moving
cross section,car: Vertical
viewed from forces on the
the front. tires, FFifand
Downforce, any,F
,, canare
actdetermined by body.
anywhere on car's
You
must can
keepexperience
pushing or rolling drag will
rolling drag by
With thisand
weight car,aerodynamic
downforce isforces.
mostly Aerodynamic-drag
on rear wing. force, F, acts on car near center of pushing a car on a level
stop the car. The force you use to road. You
body cross section, viewed from the front. Downforce, if any, can act anywhere on body, must pushing O r drag
With this car, downforce is mostly on rear wing. stop the car. The force you use to
82
maintain speed equals rolling drag.
Aerodynamic drag is caused by air
maintain around
flowing speed equals the car rolling drag.The
body.
Aerodynamic drag
force on the car is zero when air speed is caused by air
is zero. It increases with the squareThe
flowing around the car body. of
forceaironspeed.
the the carThis is zero meanswhenthat air speed
aero-
is zero. It increases
dynamic drag quadruples with the square if you of
the air speed. This means
double car speed. If a car has 100 lb of that aero-
dynamic drag
aerodynamic dragquadruples
at 30 mph ,if it you will
double
have 400 carlbspeed.
at 60 If a carIfhas
mph. speed100islbin- of
aerodynamic drag at
creased to 90 mph, aerodynamic drag 30 mph, it will
have
is 400 Ib atto 60900
increased mph. Ib-9 If speed
timesis thein-
creased to 90 mph,
aerodynamic drag aerodynamic
at 30 mph. drag At
is increased
racing speeds,toaerodynamic
900 lb-9 force times onthea
aerodynamic
car can approach dragtheatcar's 30 weight.
mph. On At
the very powerful land-speed-recorda
racing speeds, aerodynamic force on
car can
cars runapproach the car's weight.
at the Bonneville Salt Flats, On
the very powerful
aerodynamic drag gets so high the land-speed-record
cars run
tires can at spintheatBonneville
high speedSalt Flats,
trying to
aerodynamic
overcome it! drag gets so high the
tires can spin atdrag
Aerodynamic highisspeed trying by
determined to
overcome it!
maximum cross-section size and the
Aerodynamic
shape of the car. dragThe is determined
cross-section by Except for lights atop body, custom Camaro pace car has improved streamlining on an al-
maximum cross-section
size is called /rontal area. Frontal area size and the ready excellent body shape. Note smooth-flowing lines with a minimum of projections or
shape of the car, corners.
Except for lights atop body, Custom Camar0 pace car has improved streamlining on an al-
is approximately theThe heightcross-section
of the car ready excellent body shape. Note smooth-flowing lines with a minimum of projections or
size is called frontal
times its width . Frontal area area. Frontal area
is nearly corners.
is
the same for most road cars, as it is car
a ~ ~ r o x i m a t e l
the
v height of the for
most race cars in a given class. Shape
the same
var ies for most
a great dealroad from cars,one as itcar
is foi
to
most race cars in a
another. Reducing drag by improvinggiven class. Shape
varies
shape isa calledgreat streamlining.
deal from one car to
A stream-
another.
lined shape Reducing
has lowdrag by improving
aerodynamic drag
shape is called streamlining. A stream-
for its size.
lined
Theshapeshapehas of low
the car aerodynsmic
compared drag to a
for its size.
standard flat shape is described by a
The shape
number calledof the the dragcar compared
coefficient.to A a
standard
high dragflat shape is means
coefficient described by a
a high-
number
drag shape. calledA the lowdrag dragcoefficient.
coefficient A
high drag coefficient
means a streamlined shape. The worst means a high-
drag
car shapesshape.have A low a drag drag coefficient
coefficient of
means a streamlined
nearly 1.0. The most streamlined shape. The worst cars
car
haveshapes
a draghave a drag coefficient
coefficient of about 0.2. of
nearly 1 .O. The most
Aerodynamic drag on a car varies streamlined cars
have
directly a drag
with coefficient
its drag coefficient.of about 0.2. For
Aerodynamic drag
example, a car with a drag on a car varies
coefficient
directly
of 0.6 has with
twiceits thedragaerodynamic
coefficient. drag For Old sports cars are unstreamlined. Body shapes are rough, angular and have lots of parts
example,
at a givena speed car with as thea drag coefficient
same-size car sticking into airflow. Streamlining of cars refers to shape, not size of body. An unstream-
of 0.6a drag
with has twice the aerodynamic
coefficient of 0.3. drag linedsports
Old car has a higher
cars drag force on itBody
are unstreamlined. than shapes
a streamlined car ofangular
are rough, the same
andsize . lots of parts
have
at When
a giventhespeed sticking into airflow. Streamlining of cars refers to shape, not size of body. An unstream-
driveraslifts the his same-size
foot off car the speedcar drops.
lined Aerodynamic
has a higher drag force on drag
it than is W = Weight
a streamlined car of of
theobject in pounds
same size.
with a drag coefficient
throttle at high speed, drag on the carof 0.3.
When the driver very low at low speeds.
will rapidly slow lifts it. hisDeceleration
foot off the speed drops.is Aerodynamic
Following the formula fordrag is
the ac- W Remember that ifin the
= Weight of object unbalanced
pounds
throttle at high speed,
equals the total drag force divided drag on the car by very low at low speeds. force acts in a direction to slow the
will rapidly slow it. Deceleration celeration of an object in g's. Remem- Remember thathasif athe unbalanced
car weight. Above 60 mph, most drag Following
ber is the formulais fornegative
that deceleration the ac- object, that force negative value.
equals the total drag
is aerodynamic. force divided
If a 2000-lb car hasbya celeration of an object in g's. Remem- force acts inforce
A negative a direction
makes the to slow the
accelera-
car acceleration.
dragweight.
force of Above
500 lb60, itmph, will most drag
decelerate ber that deceleration is negative object, thatobject
tion of the force negative.
has a negative value.
is aerodynamic. If a
at 0.25 g when not under power. Be- 2000-lb car has a Acceleration = ~
acceleration. A If negative
an objectforce makes
happens to the
be a accelera-
speeding
drag force of 500 Ib, it will decelerate tion of the object negative.
cause aerodynamic drag drops as
at 0.25drops,
speed g when not under drops
deceleration power.asBe- car
F = Unbalanced
Acceleration
pounds
= w
F force on object in car and the driver lifts off the throttle,
theIf an object hamens
unbalanced forcetoisbedraga speedinn
force.
cause aerodynamic drag drops as F = Unbalanced force on object in car and t h k drive; lifts off the throttle,
speed drops, deceleration drops as car pounds the unbalanced force is drag force.
83
 wheel brakes can be applied along
HOW TO CALCULATE on the paper is scaled at 1 inch on a with aerodynamic braking for even
AERODYNAMIC-DRAG FORCE side,the frontal area will come out wheel
higher brakes can be applied
deceleration. along
Deceleration
HOWformula
The TO CALCULATE
for aerodynamic-drag on the paper
in square is scaled
inches. If youat 1divide
inch on a
the with
with bothaerodynamic
brake systems brakingoperating
for even is
AERODYNAMIC-DRAG
force is simple: FORCE side,
number theoffrontal
square area will come
inches out
by 144, higher than
greater deceleration.
either systemDeceleration
can achieve
The formula for aerodynamic-drag in square
you get squareinches.
feet.If you divide the with both brake systems operating is
Aerodynamic drag Singularly!
force is simple: Frontalofarea
number squarehas inches
nothingbyto144, do greater than either system can achieve
= 0.00256AFCoS2 in pounds If aerodynamic braking is so
Aerodynamic you get
with thesquare
shapefeet.
of the front ofa car. singularly!why is it used infrequently
AF = Frontal drag area of car in square Frontal area has cross-sectional
nothing to do efficient,
= 0.00256A,CDS2 in pounds Only the maximum
feet
with
size ofthethe car of
shape is the front of Shape
important. a car. or If
onlyaerodynamic
on a few specialized braking is so
race cars?
Frontal
CD == Drag area Of ofcar
coefficient in 'quare
body shape Only the efficient, why is it used infrequently
S == car speed in miles per hour
feet affects themaximum cross-sectional
drag coefficient, not the The braking force is useful only at
or only onspeeds-near
a few specialized 200 race
mph.cars?
D -
' TheDrag 'OeffiCient
frontal area is Of body
S = car speed in miles per hour
the shape
cross-
size of the
frontal
affects
cients for
area.carTypical
is important.
theproduction
drag coefficient,
cars vary
Shape
drag coeffi-
notfrom
the
very
The
high
braking force
Aerodynamic braking is useful
will notonlybring at
sectional area of a car as viewed frontal
a low of area.
0.30 toTypical
a high drag coeffi-
of 0.60. The ' very high speeds-near 200
a car to a dead stop. The braking force mph.
Thethefrontal
from front. area
If you isdrawthe a cross-
front- cientscoefficients
drag for production cars vary
for many carsfrom
are Aerodynamic
approaches zerobraking
as ca r willspeednot nears
bring
sectional
view outlinearea
of theof a carcaron as viewed
a sheet of a low in
given 0.30 to a articles
of magazine high of 0.60. The
and road a car. to a dead stop. The braking force
from the
graph front.
paper andIf count
You draw a front-
the squares
zero
drag
tests.coefficients
Find such an for article
many cars are
for your approaches zero brakes
as car add speedweight,
nears
view
insideoutline
outline,of that
the Carwill on a sheet of
approximate given in magazine Aerodynamic
car to determine its articles and road
drag coefficient. zero.
graph Raper
the car's andarea.
frontal COunt the squares
H each square tests. Find such an article for your complexity and cost.
inside outline, that will approximate Aerodynamic
Because brakesareaadd
car frontal weight,
should in-
car to determine its drag coefficient.
the car's frontal area. If each square complexity
crease and cost.
for aerodynamic braking to be
Because the
effective, car frontal
car willarea should
occupy morein-
1500 crease for aerodynamic
space on the road with the brakes braking to be
effective,This
applied. themay car mwilla ke occupy more
it difficult to
Cd = Drag Coefficient space nearon other
the road
1500
Frontal Area = 25.4 sq It drive cars. with the brakes
Cd = 0.6 applied.
In most Thisracing
may make classes,it difficult
movable to
Cd = Drag Coefficient
Frontal Area = 25.4 sq f t drive near other cars.
aerodynamic devices are illegal.
1000 In most racingbrakes
Aerodynamic classes,have movable
been
aerodynamic
tried in roaddevices racing,are illegal.
such as on the
Air 1000 - ,/
Aerodynamic
Mercedes sports carsbrakes of the havemid-been
' 50s
Drag tried in road racing, such as on the
(Ib)
Air
/' and early winged Can-Am Chaparral
/" Mercedes sports cars of the mid-'50s
racers.
Drag / - C d =0.3
(I b)
and early winged
Mercedes used aCan-Am
flap-mountedChaparral flat
500 ./ racers.
on the tail of their 300SLR. This fl ap
500 - / wasMercedes used a flap-mounted
raised hydraulically by operating flata
/ on the tail
control valveof their
in the 300SLR.
cockpitThis flap
, nearly

40 80 120
- --
oL---~~~~--+-----~------+-----~-----
160 200
/ was raisedthe
doubling
control
hydraulically
valve
the
frontal areabyofoperating
in
frontal
the cockpit,
also made the airflow more turbulent.
doubling area
The combination of the larger fron
also made the airflow more
of
the car. Ita
the
nearly
car.tal It
thanturbulent.
I I
0 Car SpeedI (mph) I and air turbulence more doubled
40 80 120 160 200 The combination
aerodynamic drag .of the larger
Because frontal
this car ex-
Graph shows how aerodynamic drag varies with car speed
Car Speed and drag coefficient. Solid line is
(rnph) and air turbulence
ceeded 180 mph on the 3-mile more than doubled
for unstreamlined car with a 0 .6 drag coefficient. Dotted curve is for streamlined car with aerodynamic drag.
straightaway Becauseand
at LeMans, this car
had ex- to
the
Graphsame frontal
shows howarea, but half the
aerodynamic drag,
drag or 0.3
varies withdrag coefficient.
car speed Drag
and drag figures areSolid
coefficient. typical is
linefor ceeded
a large
for sedan.
unstreamlined car with a 0.6 drag coefficient. Dotted curve is for streamlined car with
slow for 180 a 30-mph mph hairpin
on theturn, 3-milethe
the same frontal area, but half the drag, or 0.3 drag coefficient. Drag figures are typical for
straightaway
aerodynamic at LeMans,
brake took a and hadload
lot of to
a large sedan. slow for a 30-mph hairpin
off the wheel brakes. Competing driv- turn, the
aerodynamic
ers complained brake
abouttook a lot ofprob-
a visibility load
The formu la for dece leration can be increases its drag coefficient for brak- off
lemthe whenwheel thebrakes.
Mercedes Competing
aerodynamicdriv-
written another way: ing while at high speed, it can slow ers
brakecomplained
was raised. about
This, a visibility
however,prob- was
The formula for deceleration can be increases This
quicker. its dragis coefficient for brak-
how aerodynamic lem when the Mercedes
probably due to the superiority aerodynamic
of the
written .
another way: FD ing whileworks.
at high speed,
Deceleration of a car = W- braking Added dragit iscan slow
created brake was raised.
Mercedes rather This,than ahowever, was
"visibility"
quicker. This is how aerodynamic
by changing the shape or size of the probably
hazard. due to the superiority of the
FDc braking
Fa = Drag force
Deceleration of aoncarcar=in
-- pounds
W,LJpounds
car. Theworks. Added dragchange
drag-coefficient is created
has Mercedes
The Chaparral rather ran than a "visibility"
a large wing over
Wc = Weight of the car in by
to bechanging
large tothegetshape or size of
a significant the
effect hazard.
F, = Drag force on car in pounds the rear wheels, which could be
car.
fromThe drag-coefficient
aerodynamic braking.change
Also, hasthe The Chaparral
varied in its angleran of aattack.
large wing over
The wing
W, = Weight of the car in pounds to be mustlarge beto high.
get a Itsignificant
In this formul a, deceleration is In speed also helps effect
if the the rear wheels, which
ran at low angles when the car was could be
g's. If you know the drag forc e on a from aerodynamic braking.
car is light because deceleration Also, the varied in its angle of attack.
accelerating, to give some downforce The wing
car,Inyou
thiscan
formula,
calculate deceleration
its decelerationis In. speed
depends mustonbe weight.
high. It also helps aero-
Finally, if the ran at
and to low anglesdrag
minimize when the car
created by wasthe
g's. If you know
Approaching it anthe dragway,
o ther forceif on
youa car is light because
dynamic braking is worthwhile only deceleration accelerating,
wing. When braking, to give some downforce
the driver could
car, you can calculate its
could measure deceleration , you deceleration. depends
on a race on weight.
car that brakesFinally,
at very aero-
high and
tip theto minimize
wing to maximizedrag created by the
downforce
Approaching
could calculateitdrag
another
force .way,
This if you
is how dynamic
speed . braking is worthwhile only wing. When braking,
and drag . The downforce increase the driver couldon
could measure
vehicle drag can bedeceleration,
determined with- you onAerodynamic
a race car thatbraking
brakes atis very high
efficient tip
the the
rear wing to maximize
tires allowed downforce
more rear-wheel
could calculate drag
out using a wind tunnel. force. This is how speed.
because there is no heat to dissipate in and drag.Because
braking. The downforcethis car increase
was highly on
vehicle drag can be determined with- theAerodynamic
brake system. braking is efficient
Instead, aero- the rear tires allowed
successful, the racing rules were more rear-wheel
out using a wind tunnel.
AERODYNAMIC BRAKING because there
dynamic drag isheats
no heat
thetosurrounding
dissipate in braking. Because
changed, banningthismovable car was highly
aero-
If a car is streamlined and suddenly the asbrake
air the carsystem. Instead, it. aero-
passes through The successful,
dynamic devices. the racing rules were
AERODYNAMIC BRAKING dynamic drag heats the surrounding changed, banning movable aero-
If a car is streamlined and suddenly air as the car passes through it. The dynamic devices.
84
 High-Drag
Position
High-Drag
Position

Aerodynamic brake on the Chaparral Can-Am car was similar to Aerodynamic braking has been used for years in drag racing.
this. Wing in low-drag position supplied downforce to rear tires for Racing chutes stop funny cars much quicker than ordinary brakes.
improved high-speed
Aerodynamic brake on thecornering.
ChaparralWhen flipped
Can-Am to high-drag
car was similar to Aerodynamic braking
Cars are traveling near has
250 been
mph atused
finishfor years
line. After in drag
each run,racing.
para-
position,
this. Wingadded aerodynamic
in low-drag positiondrag increased
supplied deceleration
downforce . Mova-
to rear tires for chute ischutes
Racing repacked.
stopThis
funnywould
cars not
much work for cars
quicker thanwhere brakes
ordinary are
brakes.
ble wings are
improved illegal in road
high-speed racing today.
cornering. When flipped to high-drag applied
Cars aremore than once
traveling during
near 250 a race.
mph at finish line. After each run, para-
position, added aerodynamic drag increased deceleration. Mova- chute is repacked. This would not work for cars where brakes are
bleAerodynamic
wings are illegalbraking
in road racing
has today.
found a applied more than once during a race.
home in drag racing. All the really fast
Aerodynamic
drag cars, such as braking has found
top fuelers , funnya
homeand
cars in drag racing. All
pro stockers, usethe really fast
a parachu te
drag cars,
to assist such asBecause
stopping. top fuelers, funny
a parachute
cars
reliesandon pro stockers,
aerodynamic use a parachute
drag for
to assist stopping. Because
effectiveness, it is true aerodynamic a parachute
relies
braking. on aerodynamic
Obviously, a parachute dragwon't for
effectiveness,
work in road racing it is ortrue aerodynamic
on the street be-
braking.
cause Obviously,
it has a parachute
to be repacked afterwon't
each
work in road racing or on
application. In a drag race, this the streetis be-
no
cause
problem it has to be repacked
because the car makes after eachone
application.
stop per run.InThe a drag
chuterace, this is no
is repacked by
problem
the pit crew prior to the next run . one
because the car makes
stop per drag
Some run. Thecars chute
reach or is repacked
exceed 250 by
the pitand
crew Compressed air moves brake shoes by Pneumatic truck brakes are actuated by
mph areprior
veryto light.
the next run. , the
If large means of an actuating chamber mounted compressed air supplied by engine-driven
Someapplies
chute drag cars reachmore
much or exceed 250
stopping on axle housing.
Compressed airActuating chamber
moves brake rotates
shoes by Pneumatic
air truckAirbrakes
compressor. arehas
reservoir actuated
emergen-by
force than the wheel brakes, thusthe
mph and are very light. If large, is tube
means(arrow)
of an through
actuatingpushrod
chamberand mounted
lever to compressed air so
cy supply of air supplied
brakes by engine-driven
won't fail if com-
chute
extremelyapplies muchin more
effective reducing stopping
speed move
on brake
axle shoes
housing. against chamber
Actuating drum. Note lack
rotates pressor belts break.
air compressor. Air reservoir has emergen-
force than100themph wheel of backing
tube plate
(arrow) on these
through truck and
pushrod brakes.
lever to
to under in a brakes, thus is
short distance. cy supply of air so brakes won't fail if com-
extremely move brake shoes against drum. Note lack pressor belts break.
In fact, theeffective
only limitintoreducing
how fastspeed a car of backing plate on these truck brakes.
to under
could be 100
slowedmphwith in a ashort
chute distance.
is the PNEUMATIC BRAKES pushes harder on the brake pedal,
In fact,force
inertia the onlythat limit to how
the driver fastwith-
must a car Pneumatic brakes, commonly called more air pressure is applied to the
could when
stand be slowed
the chutewithopens.
a chute is the PNEUMATIC
air brakes, refer BRAKES to the actuating pushes
brakes. harder
The driveron the is notbrake pedal,
supplying
inertia force that
The critical partthe
of driver
settingmust
up a with-
drag- Pneumatic brakes,
system. Pneumatic brakes commonly use called
com- more
the force or air movement, so the
air pressure is applied to his
stand
racingwhenchutetheischutewhere opens.
and how the air brakes,
pressed air torefer
operateto the
the brakes
actuating
in- brakes. The
strength doesn'tdriver
matter. is not supplying
Themounts
chute critical part
to theof setting
frame. up a drag-
If mount- system.
stead Pneumatic This
of hydraulics. brakes
typeuse com-
of brake theBecause
force ortrucks
air movement,
are very so his
heavy
racing
ed chute is
off-center, whenwhere and the
opened howchutethe pressed isair
system to primarily
used operate the brakes
for large in-
com- strength doesn't matter.
under full load, power-assisted hy-
chute mounts to the frame.
will cause the car to swerve. Ideally, If mount- stead of hydraulics. This type
mercial vehicles. A truck usually uses of brake Because
draulic brakestrucks
wouldare very heavy
be necessary. A
ed
the off-center,
mount should when opened
be near the thechute
CG system is used
pneumatic primarily
brakes for large
because therecom-
are under full load, ofpower-assisted
major advantage pneumatic brakes hy-
will cause
height, andthe car to swerve.
centered. The maximum Ideally, mercial vehicles.
advantages over Aa truck usuallybrake
hydraulic uses draulic
is they brakes
have would
built-inbe powernecessary. A
assist.
the mount
force should bemount
on a parachute near is CG
themany pneumatic brakes because there are
system. major advantage of pneumatic
Another advantage is pneumatic brakes
height, and centered. The
tons, so mount strength is critical. maximum advantages
Pneumaticover brakes a hydraulic
are actuated brake
by is theyarehave
brakes built-in by
not affected power
smallassist.
leaks
force on a mounts
Parachute parachutehave mount is many
ripped off system.
compressed air supplied by an engine- Another
in the system.advantage
Air is suppliedis pneumatic
continu-
tons, leav
cars, so ingmount strength
the driver only isthecritical.
wheel Pneumatic
driven brakes areThe
air compressor. actuated
compres- by brakes by
ously arethe
not compressor,
affected by small leaks
so unless
Parachute
brakes to mounts
stop with. haveThe ripped mountoff compressed air supplied by an
sor supplies high-pressure air to a stor- engine- in the system. Air is supplied
there is a huge hole in the system, continu-
cars, leaving
should be strongthe driver
enoughonly theseveral
to lift wheel driven
age tankair compressor.
, which The compres-
is big enough to main- ously by
there the compressor,
is never a loss of so unless
pressure.
brakes
race cars tofrom stop with. who
it. Those Thesellmountdrag- sor supplies
tain pressure high-pressure
when the air to a stor-
brakes are there is athe
Instead, hugeairhole in the system,
compressor must
race parachutes, such as liftSimpson
should be strong enough to several age tank, which is big enough to main-
applied. there harder
work is never a loss ofpressure
to maintain pressure.in
race cars
Safety from it. Those
Equipment Co., can who sell drag-
provide in- tain pressure air
Compressed whenis fedtheto brakes are
the brake- Instead,
the storagethe
tank.air compressor must
race parachutes,
structions on mounting such and as setting
Simpson up applied. system by valves controlled
actuating work
The harder
pneumaticto maintain
system does pressure
not usein
Safety
the Equipment Co., can provide in-
system. by Compressed
the brake air is fedIfto the
pedal. the brake-
driver the storage tank.
hydraulic fluid, so it is not affected by
structions on mounting and setting up actuating system by valves controlled The pneumatic system does not use
the system. by the brake pedal. If the driver hydraulic fluid, so it is not affected by
85
Aircraft multi-disc brake: Brake, which is
buried in wheel, is good for one stop after
landing. Brake must
Aircraft multi-disc cool Brake,
brake: before which
another
is
landing in
buried can be made.
wheel, is good for one stop after
landing. Brake must cool before another
landing can be made.

HPBooks' very "slippery" Monza at Bonneville Salt Flats. To illustrate effect aerodynamic drag
the reduced boiling point of old, con- has on speed, Tom Monroe set C/Production record in car at 217.849 mph. Power was by
taminated fluid. Thus, the system can fuel-injected
HPBooks' very 370-cubic inch
"slippery" small-block
Monza Chevy. Salt
at Bonneville AlProduction record iseffect
Flats. To illustrate 219.334 mph, set in drag
aerodynamic a '67
the much
go reducedlonger boilingbetween
point of servicing.
old, con- Camaro powered
has on speed, Tomby Monroe
a 510-cubic inch big-block-Chevy-37%
set ClProduction record in car atmore displacement
217.849 mph. Power andwas
0.68%by
taminated
This fluid. Thus,
is important the system
on long-haul can
trucks. faster! This is
fuel-injected a good-news/bad-news
370-cubic inch small-block situation when it comes
Chevy. NProduction to is
record braking.
219.334 Ifmph,
two set
cars
in awith
'67
goThemuch longer between servicing. different drag coefficients
Camaro powered are traveling
by a 510-cubic at the same speed and more
inch big-block-Chevy-37% stop at the same deceleration
displacement and 0.68%
disadvantages of a pneumatic rate, carThis
faster! withisthe lower Cd will require the
a good-newslbad-news higherwhen
situation braking force. Photo
it comes by BillIf Fisher.
to braking. two cars with
This
brakeissystem
important are osize,
n long-haul
complexitytrucks.
and different drag coefficients are traveling at the same speed and stop at the same deceleration
T h eAlso,
cost. disadvantages
it takes engine of a pneumatic
power to rate, car with the lower C, will require the higher braking force. Photo by Bill Fisher.
brakethe
run system are size, complexity
air compressor. and
System pres- These liquids are removed to prevent tidisc clutch. There are a number of
cost. Also, it takes engine
sure is much lower than that of a hy- power to the pneumatic system from being driven and statianalY discs in a stack.
run the system.
draulic air compressor.
Thus, the System pres-
diameters These
damaged. liquids
Not areonly removed
can the toparts prevent
cor- tidisc clutch.
Friction materialThere are a number
is between the discs.of
sureallis much
of the lower than that of a and
cylinders-master hy- the
rode pneumatic
due to moisture, systembutfrom they being
could and stationary
drivendriven
The discs rotate discs inwith a stack.
the
draulic system. T h u s ,
wheel- are much larger. Trucks have the diameters damaged.
freeze andNot only brake
cause can the parts cor-
failure. The FrictionWhen
wheel. materialtheisbrakes
between arethe discs.
applied,
of
lots all the cylinders-master
of room, so there's no problem and rode d u e to moisture,
fluid-removal system but they could
is similar to T h e driven discs rotate
the stack is clamped together. The sta- with the
wheel-are
fitting large much larger.
cylinders. But Trucks havea
size has freezetraps
fluid and in cause brake
a shop failure. T h e
compressed-air wheel.
tionary Wdiscs,
h e n thebecause
brakes are theyapplied,
can't
lots of room,
definite so there's
disadvantage: no problem
It takes time to fluid-removal system is similar to
system. the stack
rota is clamped
te, slow together.discs
the rotating T h e sta-
by
fitting large cylinders.
build up pressure at the brakes. But size has a fluid traps in brakes
Pneumatic a shoparecompressed-air
actuated by a tionary
friction. discs, because they can't
definite
There disadvantage:
is a small delay It takes timethe
between to system.
diaphragm inside a housing, rather rotate,
Multidiscslowbrakes
the rotating
are small discsand lightby
build the
time up pressure
driver hits at the
thebrakes.
pedal and the Pneumatic
than a pistonbrakes in a are actuatedThese
cylinder. by a friction.
compared to other types of brakes
Thereactually
brakes is a small delayEngineers
apply. between canthe diaphragm inside a housing,
units are the brake chambers. You can rather Multidisc
that absorbbrakes the are samesmall and light
energy.
time the driver hits the
design a system to reduce, but not pedal and the thanthem
see a piston
mounted in aoncylinder.
the rearThese axles compared to other
However, because the rubbing sur-types of brakes
brakes actually
eliminate, this time lag.apply. Engineers can units
of are trucks
large the brake and chambers. You can
trailers. They are that are
faces absorb the same
all "buried" inside the energy.
unit,
design a system
Compressor costtomakes
reduce, but not
a pneumat- see
too them
big to mounted
fit insideo wheels,
n the rear so axles
they However,
multidisc brakesbecausecool theslowly.
rubbing Thus,sur-a
eliminate,
ic brake system this timemorelag.expensive than of large the
operate trucks
brakes andthrough
trailers.a They
shaft andare faces are all
multidisc "buried"
brake is good inside the unit,
for only one
Compressor
a hydraulic cost makes
system. However, a pneumat-
because too big to fit inside wheels,
mechanical linkage. A return spring so they multidisc
hard stop. brakes cool slowly.
Considerable cooling Thus,
timea
ic brakecommercial
many system morevehicles expensive than
require operatethe
inside t h e chamber
brakes through returns a shaft and
the dia- multidisc
is needed brake before is good
the nextfor onlystopone is
a hydraulic system.
compressed air to run However, because
other systems mechanical
phragm to itslinkage. retracted A position
return spring
when hard
made.stop. Considerable cooling time
many
on the commercial
vehicle, the cost vehicles of therequire
com- inside
the the are
brakes chamber
released. returns the dia- is The
needed before theof next
compactness stop is
a multidisc
compressed air to run
pressor is justified, considering other systems its phragm
On some to its retracted
large off-roadposition
commercialwhen made.
brake makes it desirable for aircraft
o n the vehicle,
double-duty the cost of the com-
function. the brakes
vehicles suchare asreleased.
earth movers, graders T h An
use. e compactness
airplane has small of a wheels
multidisc to
pressor
There isarejustified, consideringin itsa
other complexities and O n road
s o m e large
rollers,off-road commercial
a combination brakespace,
save makesmakingit desirable
a tight for aircraft
fit for any
double-duty function.
pneumatic brake system. The com- vehicles
hydraulic/pneumatic system isgraders
such as earth movers, used. use.
brake.A nA airplane
plane only hasstops
smallhardwheels
once asto
There must
pressor are otherhave complexities
a pressure-relief in a and
Referredroad to rollers, a combination
as an air-aver-hydraulic save space, making a tight
it lands, and has a great deal of cooling fit for any
pneumatic
valve to preventbrake oversystem. T h e com-
pressurizing the hydraulic/pneumatic
system, the brakes aresystem operated is used.
by a brake.before
time A plane only stops
another landinghardand once as
stop.
pressor must
system. Also, have there'sa pressure-relief
a pressure- Referred to as an air-over-hydraulic
hydraulic system, but the hydraulic it lands,
And, theand has a great
extremely highdeal of cooling
temperatures
valve to prevent
controlled unloaderoverpressurizing
that takes the the system, the
system brakes are
is applied by operated
a pneumatic by a time beforein another
generated landingdictate
aircraft brakes and stop.
the
system. Also, there's
load off the compressor once a pressure-
storage- hydraulicbetween
system system,thebutbrake the pedal
hydraulic
and And, the extremely high
use of sintered-metallic or graphite- temperatures
control led unloader
tank pressure reaches that abouttakes the
100 psi. system is applied
the hydraulic system.byThis a ispneumatic
a type of generated in
composite aircraft
friction brakes dictate the
materials.
load off the compressor
There are also one-way valves to once storage- system assist
power between thattheusesbrakeair pedal and
pressure useAircraft-type
of sintered-metallic multidisc or graphite-
brakes
tank pressure
maintain reaches pressure
storage-tank about 100if psi.
the the hydraulic
rather than vacuum. system. This is a type of composite friction materials.
might work well on dragsters or land-
There are
compressor fails. also one-way valves to power assist that uses air pressure Aircraft-typecars, multidisc
speed-record but to my knowl- brakes
maintain storage-tank introduce
Air compressors pressure ifboth the rather than vacuum.
MULTIDISC BRAKES mightthey
edge workhavewellyet o ntodragsters
be used or on land-
such
compressor fails.
water and oil into a brake system. A multi disc brake works like a mul- speed-record
vehicles. cars, but to my knowl-
Air compressors introduce both MULTIDISC BRAKES edge they have yet to be used o n such
water and oil into a brake system. A multidisc brake works like a mul- vehicles.
86
 Ja-Mar cutting-brake assembly is used on
sand buggies for steering control in soft
Ja-Mar
sand. Onecutting-brake
operates oneassembly
masteris used on
cylinder
when buggies
sand pulled; other lever operates
for steering controlopposite
in soft
Dragster brake is operated by hand lever. Note pushrod between lever and master cylinder
(arrow). Hand-lever movement can be more than a brake pedal, so higher pedal ratio is
sand. One
cylinder. operates
Each master one master
cylinder cylinder
is designed
to operate
when a single
pulled; other rear
leverbrake.
operates opposite
possible
Dragsterwith lever-operated
brake is operated bybrakes.
hand lever. Note pushrod between lever and master cylinder cylinder. Each master cylinder is designed
(arrow). Hand-lever movement can be more than a brake pedal, so higher pedal ratio is
t o operate a single rear brake.
possible with lever-operated brakes.
HAND-OPERATED BRAKES
Some specialized cars use a brake
HAND-OPERATED
system operated by BRAKES a hand lever
Somethan
rather specialized cars use
a brake pedal. a brake
A dragster
system
is one ofoperated
these. The by dragster
a hand hand- Lever
rather than a brake pedal.
lever brake operates identically to a A dragster
is one of these.
foot-pedal brake,Thebut dragster
with hand-two
lever brake operates identically to a
differences:
foot-pedal
Maximum brake, force with but awith two
person's
differences:
hand is less than can be applied with a
Maximum force with a person's
foot.
hand
Hand is -lever
less than can becan
stroke applied with a
be longer
foot.
than a foot pedal, allowing a higher
Hand-lever
ratio . stroke can be longer
than
Likea foot pedal, allowing
a foot-brake pedal, the a higher
hand
ratio. operates a master cylinder
lever
Like aa foot-brake
through pushrod . Becausepedal, the hand
dragsters
lever operates a master
have rear-wheel brakes only, a single cylinder
through a pushrod.
master cylinder Because
is used. Most dragsters
of the
have rear-wheel
stopping is donebrakes by the only, a single
parachute.
masterwheel
The cylinder is used.
brakes are usedMost atof lowthe
stopping is done by the
speeds, particularly for holding the parachute. Disc-brake caliper can be operated by either hydraulic pressure or separate mechanical
The
car onwheel brakesline.
the starting are used at low linkage. Used on competition rally cars at the rear wheels and operated by a mechanical
speeds,
Another type offorhand-operated
particularly holding the linkage by a caliper
Disc-brake parking-brake
can be lever, driver
operated bycan pull hydraulic
either lever to slide out rear
pressure or wheels
separate formechanical
entering a
car on the starting line. turn. This
linkage. allows
Used ultra-tight turns
on competition to beatnegotiated
rally cars quicklyand
the rear wheels in operated
dirt or onbyslick surfaces.
a mechanical
brake is found on dune buggies. Courtesy
linkage byAP Racing.
a parking-brake lever, driver can pull lever to slide out rear wheels for entering a
Another
Known as a type
CUllingofbrake hand-operated
or steering turn. This allows ultra-tight turns t o be negotiated quickly in dirt or on slick surfaces.
brake
brake, itis hasfoundone on or twoduneleversbuggies.
with conventional
Courtesy brake pedal is used for
AP Racing. wheel drive. It is handy for the driver
Known as a
two separate master cylinders tosteering
cutting brake or oper- braking the buggy during normal to brake only the rear wheels to throw
brake,
ate it hasorone
the right or two
left rear levers with
wheel. conventional
operation . brake pedal is used for wheel
the cardrive.
into Ita isdeliberate
handy for skid.
the driver
This
two separate master cylinders
Cutting brakes are used for steering to oper- braking the buggy
Hand-operated during normal
rear-wheel brakes to brake
helps to only the rear
negotiate wheels
tight to throw
slippery turns
ate
the the
buggyrightinorsoft
left sand
rear wheel.
or tight turns. operation.
also are found on competition rally the car steering
where into a deliberate
control skid.
might Thisbe
TheCutting brakes
front tires are do
often usednotfor
havesteering
suffi- Hand-operated
cars. rear-wheel
Unlike a cutting brake,brakes
rear- helps to negotiate tight slippery
marginal. Separate from the hydraulic turns
cient bite for steering control in turns.
the buggy in soft sand or tight these also are found on competition
wheel rally-car brakes are operated rally where steering
system, control might
special mechanical be
linkages
The front tires
situations. often do
Because not tires
rear have suffi-
have cars. Unlike a cutting
simultaneously with brake,
one rear-
hand marginal.
are often Separate
used forfrom the the
rearhydraulic
brakes.
cient
more bitebite,forthey
steering
can control
turn thein buggy
these wheel rally-car
lever/master brakesRally
cylinder. are operated
cars run system,is special
This similarmechanical linkages
to parking-brake
situations.
quickly when Because
one wheel rear is tires
braked. have
A simultaneously
on slick roads and often one
with hand
have front- are often used for the rear
linkage, but is designed for severe brakes.
use .
more bite, they can turn the buggy leverlmaster cylinder. Rally cars run This is similar to parking-brake
quickly when one wheel is braked. A on slick roads and often have front- linkage, but is designed for severe use.
87
High-Performance Brakes 9
High-Performance Brakes

Design of modern race-ear-brake system is not arrived at through magic. Instead, carefully planned steps are required. Success starts with
a written statement of what brake system must do. This is your design criteria. Don't lose sight of it when you're deep into the design.
Design of modern race-car-brake system is not arrived at through magic. Instead, carefully planned steps are required. Success starts with
a written statement of what brake system must do. This is your design criteria. Don't lose sight of it when you're deep into the design.
If you are designing a special car for There are fewer ways you can easily brake performance, don't use them.
either street or racing use, you'll also change an existing car. This is why the The brakes are too critical to compro-
If you
have are designing
to design the brake a special
system car for
. It's There
design are fewerbeways
should you canplanned
carefully easily brake performance,
mise because of a few don't use them.
extra dollars.
either
difficultstreet
to ortake racing use, you'llbrake
a complete also change an existing
before buying car. This
or building is why the
parts. The brakes are too critical to compro-
have to from
system designone thecarbrake
and system.
use it on It'sa design should be
Brake-system carefully
design requiresplanned
sever- mise because
DESIGN of a few extra dollars.
CRITERIA
difficult to take a
different one and have it work complete brake al steps. There are many parts.
before buying or building ways to ap- The first step in any design process
system
properly.from Carone car andconfiguration
weight, use it on a Brake-system
proach the design design requires
process, butsever-
here DESIGN
is listing CRITERIA
the reasons for the design
different
and one andall have
performance work
affeciit brake- al steps.
are There are many ways to ap-
my suggestions: andThe
thefirst step in any
objectives. Thisdesign
writtenprocess
docu-
properly.
system design . Car weight, configuration proach the design
List design criteria.process, but here is listing
ment the reasons
is your design for the design
criteria. For a
and performance design
By brake-system all affecr
I mean brake-
put- are my suggestions:
Calculate forces on tires. and
brakethe objectives.
system, Thissheets
several written of docu-
paper
system design.a group of components
ting together List design brake
Calculate criteria.torques at maxi- ment is your design criteria.
should be enough. You are writing For a
Bywork
that brake-system I'll notI attempt
properly. design mean put- to mumCalculate forces on tires.
deceleration. brake system,
the criteria several
so you can sheets
refer toofit paper
later.
ting together a group of
discuss how to design a brake rotor orcomponents Calculate
Choose brake braketype torques at maxi-
and mounting should
Keep your be enough. You are
design-criteria list writing
handy
that work properly.
proportioning valve.I'll Instead,
not attempt to
I will mum deceleration.
location . the criteria
and read itsooften
you can referthe
during t later.
to idesign
discusshow
show how to to design
make a the brakenecessary
rotor or Choose brake
Determine type and
hydraulic mounting
pressure re- Keep
process. Don't lose track of handy
your design-criteria list your
proportioning plan
calculations, valve.
the Instead, I will
entire system, location.
quired. and read it often during the design
objectives.
show how to make
and select the components to do thethe necessary Determine
Choose hydraulic pressure
pedal-and-linkage design.re- process. Don't lose criteria
A brake-design track ofshould your
calculations,
job . The correct plancomponents
the entire system,
already quired.
Calculate master-cylinder diameter objectives.
answer the following questions:
and select
exist, the components
regardless of the car. The to doprob-
the Choose pedal-and-linkage design.
required. AUnderbrake-design criteria will
what conditions should
the
job. The correct components
lem is selecting the right ones for your already Calculate
Design restmaster-cylinder
of brake system.diameter answer the following
brake system have to questions:
operate?
exist, regardless of the car. The prob-
car. required.
There may be some reason to rear- Underlong
How what conditions
do you expect thewill the
system
lemThisis selecting the right
chapter covers ones forbrake-
complete your Design
range reststeps.
these of brakeForsystem.
instance, you brake system
to last? have to operate?
car.
system design . If you have an existing mayThere mayhave
already be some reasonand
the pedals to rear-
wish How
Is car long
to bedo youfor
used expect thestreet
rac ing, system or
carThisandchapter covers to
are trying complete
improve brake-
the range these steps. For instance,
to retain them. That'll work fine you to last?
both?
system design. If you have
brakes, read Chapter 12. However, if an existing may already have the pedals
unless you have to compromise brake- and wish Is car toperformance
What be used for racing, street or
specifications
car and
you are tryingthetocarimprove
are designing the
rather than to retainperformance
system them. That'll to do work
it. But,fine
if both? the brakes meet?
should
brakes, read Chapter 12.
modifying it, you have more choices. However, if unless you
existing have to compromise
components won't givebrake-
good What
If you performance specifications
have to compromise on
you are designing the car rather than system performance to do it. But, if should the brakes meet?
modifying it, you have more choices. existing components won't give good If you have to compromise on
88
 Road cars must have
Road have brake
brake components
components that will
will withstand
withstand ex- Easiest
Easiest car to design
design is
is one with a special
special purpose-win
purpose-win sports-
treme cold.
cold. Corvette master cylinder
cylinder and
and booster
booster are being
being tested car races,
races, in
in this case. If car also
also had
had to transport wife and
and kids
kids to
at S8F
58F below
below zero (-SOC).
(-50C). Road-car brake
brake manufacturers
manufacturers must
must church
church on
on Sunday,
Sunday, and
and still
still win races,
races, race-car designer would
would
test components
components under extremely severe conditions.
conditions. If designing
designing really
really have a tough
tough job. BeBe realistic,
realistic, but limit
limit functions car must
must
special car, you can
a special can save money by limiting
limiting conditions
conditions car has
has to perform-design will be easier.
perform-design job will easier.
operate under.
under. Photo
Photo courtesy Girlock
Girlock Ltd.
Ltd.

specifications, what is most im-
portant? What is least important?
What are maximum loads imposed
system? What are normal operat-
on system?
loads?
ing loads?
Conditions-Think twice
Operating Conditions-Think
about this one: It is much harder to
design a brake system to perform
under every possible operating condi-
condi-
tion than it is to limit its use.
use. For
instance, do you want the brake
system to function in the rain? Will it
get used in sand dunes like an off-road
vehicle? Is it used strictly for drag
racing, where there's a long cool-down
racing,
period after each stop?
stop? Will the car be
used on icy,
icy, salted roads?
roads?
specific and practical about the
Be specific
conditions your vehicle will likely
encounter. The more operating condi-
encounter.
tions you can eliminate or minimize,
the easier and cheaper the job will be.
The most difficult job an engineer has
to do is design a car that will be driven
on the street, in races, off-road and in
weather conditions ranging from the
burning deserts to sub-zero cold. cold.
)
,
With luck, your special car will have
specialized operating conditions for
specialized
the brakes.
brakes. This will eliminate some
I) extremes.
Life-Every car component
Design Life-Every
or system has a certain life assumed
when the engineer designs it. it. Most
road-car parts are expected to last at
least 50,000 miles, but often last twice
that.
If every car were designed to last 40
years, the cars would be too expensive
and much heavier. If something is de-
signed for a long life,
life, it costs more.
more. So
restrict long-life items to those that
are safety-related.
safety-related. Because brakes are
safety-related, the structure of the
brake system should be extremely
durable. You choose the miles, time
or number or races. If you are using
passenger-car brake parts and will be Always consider the application:
application: If stock-
car designer failed to consider
consider that car
operating them at less than their origi- might
might compete
compete in in road
road races with rightright
nal design loads, you can expect them turns, driver would bebe in
in trouble. It is
is easier
to last a long time. design a car for left turns only.
to design only. Likewise,
Likewise,
Some brake-system parts wear out it's easier to design
design brakes
brakes for a short
quicker than the basic system. This in- track with high-banked
high-banked turns than
than one with
long straights and
long and flat turns.
cludes the linings, seals and,
sometimes, the drums and rotors. rotors.
Parts that wear should be designed to harder than the sedan that weighs the
do so in a safe manner-so
manner-so they don'tdon't same, don't expect the linings to last
cause a loss of braking. Conventional the same. More brake-lining area or a
brake systems are so designed. harder lining would be needed to
Therefore, if you use conventional compensate.
design practice, the brakes will be safe You cannot make an exact predic-
predic-
when parts wear out.
out. tion of brake life.
life. However, write
What life do you expect wear-prone down what you are expecting and
brake parts to have? If the linings you keep the desired life in mind while
are using last 10,000
10,000 miles on a system. You must
designing the brake system.
2500-lb sedan, you can expect them have a design goal.
goal.
1500-lb
to last at least that long on a 1500-lb Racing vs. Street Use- This decision
Use-This
sports car driven the same way. way. Use must be made early in the design
comparisons to predict useful life. life. process. Make usage part of your
However, if you drive your special car criteria. The brake system that works

89
Production-sedan designers have the most difficult design job. I wonder if the VW brake- Maximum loads on car may occur during an
design engineers visualized Rabbits racing at Riverside on a hot summer day? Brakes get a off-road excursion or some other emergen-
severe workout compared
Production-sedan to their
designers haveeveryday
the most highway
difficult service.
design job. I wonder if the VW brake- cy situation.
Maximum Normal
loads on caroperating
may occurloads don't
during an
design engineers visualized Rabbits racing at Riverside on a hot summer day? Brakes get a include unexpected
off-road excursion ortrips
somein other
the rough stuff,
emergen-
severe workout compared to their everyday highway service. but such conditions
cy situation. Normalmust be allowed
operating loads for
don'tin
a design,unexpected
include including driver
trips error.
in the rough stuff,
SAMPLE PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS but such conditions must be allowed for in
a design,
Includeincluding driverand
car weight error.
CO location
Car SPECIFICATIONS
SAMPLE PERFORMANCE A Car B
in the performance specifications.
Type of car Sports Car
Car A
Race car
Car B YouInclude
must car
know weight
theseand CG you
before location
can
Usage Street & slalom Road racing in the performance specifications.
design the brake system. When start-
Type of car
Percent racing use Sports Car
5% or less Race
100% car You
Usage Street ing amust know ,these
car design you before
may not youknow
can
Horsepower 200 8 slalom Road
150 racing design the weight
brake system. When start-
Percent
Car racing
weight use
Ob) -average racing 5% or less
2000 100%
1100
the exact or CO location. To
Horsepower 200 150 ing a the
start car design, you may
brake-system not , know
design esti-
Weight distribution (front/rear) 50/50 40/60
Car weightcar
Maximum (Ib)weight
-average
(Ib) racing 2000
2400 (street) 1100 (max fuel) the exact
mate weightand
the weight or CO
CG location
location.forToa
1150
Weight
Minimum distribution
car weight(fronthear)
(Ib) 50/50
2000 (racing) 40/60
1050 (min fuel)
start the brake-system design,
car such as yours. Then you can begin esti-
Maximum speed
Maximum car weight
(mph)(Ib) 2400
125 (street) 1 150 (max fuel)
150 mate brake-system
your the weight and C G location
design . for a
Minimumrace
Average car weight (Ib)
speed (mph) 2000 (racing)
60 1050 (min fuel)
100 carAfter
such as caryours.
and Then
brakeyou can begin
system are
Maximum race
Maximum speedduration
(mph) (minutes) 5125 150
60 your brake-system design.
designed, go back and do all the calcu-
Average race 0-60
Acceleration speedmph
(mph)(seconds) 860 6100 After again
lations car and brake
using the system
exact arecar
Maximum tire
Maximum racegrip-street
duration (minutes) 5
0.9 60 designed,
weight and go CO
back location
and do all . Ifthe calcu-
you es-
Acceleration
Maximum tire0-60 mph (seconds)
grip-racing 81.2 6
1.4 lations
timated again
correctlyusing
the thefirst exact car
time , few
Maximum tire
Maximum grip-street
deceleration-street (g's) 0.9
0.9 - weight and C Gchanges
location. should
If you es-
Maximum tire grip-racing 1.2 1.4 (with wings) brake-design be
Maximum deceleration-racing (g's) 1.2 2.0 timated .correctly theit first time,takes
few
Maximum deceleration-street (g's) - required However, usually
Downforce at top speed (Ib) o
0.9 500 brake-design
two or three rounds changes shouldeffort
of design be
Maximum deceleration-racing (g's) 1.2 2.0 (with wings)
Downforce at top speed (Ib) 0 500 required. However, it
before an entire car design is usually takes
Performance specifications for two imaginary cars: Car A is a sports car designed for both two or three
completed . rounds of design effort
street use and slaloms; car B is an all-out race car for a small formula-car class. Note how before an entire car design is
road-car's
Performance weight can vary. for
specifications Brake
twosystem must
imaginary be able
cars: to is
Car A accommodate all variations,
a sports car designed but
for both completed.
remain balanced.
street use and slaloms; car B is an all-out race car for a small formula-car class. Note how
BRAKE-SYSTEM LOADS
road-car's weight can vary. Brake system must be able to accommodate all variations, but As already discussed , the two loads
remain balanced. BRAKE-SYSTEM
to be concerned with LOADSare maximum
best for racing is not the best for the racing . If you attempt this, you must As and
loads already
normaldiscussed,
operatingthe two Maxi-
loads. loads
street and vice versa. Either system make design compromises that will to be concerned with
mum loads on most brake compo- are maximum
best
will for
workracing
OK isfornota the bestwhile
little for thein racing.theIf you
hurt car'sattempt this, you
performance in must
both loads and
nents normal
occur operating
during loads. Maxi-
an emergency. It
street and
either vice versa.
application, but Either
you willsystem
have make design
situations. compromises
Therefore, try to that
limit will
the mum loads
could on most
be a panic brake where
situation compo-a
will worksooner
problems OK for a little while in
or later. hurt' s operating
car the car's conditions,
performance for in both
highest nents occur
crash may be during
aboutan toemergency.
occur. The It
either application,
Remember that while but youracing,
will have
the situations.
performance Therefore,
and lowesttry to limit the
cost. could
driver panics and slams his foot on thea
be a panic situation where
problems sooner or later.
brakes are usually warmed up before a car's
Performance Specs - List for
operating conditions, highest
specifica- crash may as
brake pedal be hard
about to can,
as he occur. The
usually
Remember
hard stop; theythatare while
not onracing, the
the street. performance
tions you want andtolowest
meet. cost.
Because each driver panics
locking and slams
the wheels. Thishismayfootresult
on the
in
brakes are usually
Street-driving warmedrequire
conditions up beforepro-a Performance
type of vehicleSpecs -List specifica-
has different specs, I brakeofpedal
loss as hard
control or as he can,
worse . It usually
is the
hard
tectionstop;
fromthey
dirtare
andnot on the street.
corrosion; racing tions you want to
can't give you a list formeet. Because
your each
car. locking the wheels. This
maximum-loading may result
condition for thein
Street-driving conditions
conditions may not. Some require
formspro-of type of vehicle
However, has different
the above specs, aI
table gives loss of control or
brake pedal and linkage. worse. It is the
tection from
racing dirt and
are much corrosion;
worse than racing
street can't
samplegive youfora two
listing list types
for your car.
of cars. maximum-loading
There may be different condition for the
maximum-
conditions
driving for may
bothnot. Some formsand
contamination of However,
Note the weight
that car above and tablespeed
givesarea brake pedal and linkage.
load conditions for parts of the brake
racing are much
high temperatures. worse than street sample
included.listing for two ittypes
Obviously, takesof more
cars. There other
system may bethandifferent
the maximum-
pedal and
driving for both
The hardest contamination
thing to design is a and car Note
bra ke to stop a fast, heavy car thanare
that car weight and speed it linkage. A brake-reservoirofbracket
load conditions for parts the brake ex-
high istemperatures.
that used for both street driving and included.
does to stopObviously,
a light, slowitone.
takes more system
periencesother
maximumthan the load pedal
when and the
The hardest thing to design is a car brake to stop a fast, heavy car than it linkage. A brake-reservoir bracket ex-
that is used for both street driving and does to stop a light, slow one. periences maximum load when the
90
 MAXIMUM LOADING FOR BRAKE-SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Component Maximum-Load
MAXIMUM LOADING FOR Condition Maximum
BRAKE-SYSTEM Load on Component
COMPONENTS
Brake pedal & Panic stop-wheels locked 600 Ib forward 200 Ib side
Component
linkage
Maximum-Load Condition Maximum Load&on Component
load on pedal pad.
Brake pedal 8 Panic stop-wheels locked
Hydraulic system Panic stop-wheels locked 600 Ib forward & 200 Ib side
linkage Calculated
load on pedalhydraulic
pad. pressure
with 300 Ib on pedal.
Hydraulic system Panic stop-wheels locked Calculated hydraulic pressure
Brake caliper Panic stop-wheels locked Calculated hydraulic pressure
with 300 Ib on pedal.
with 300 Ib on pedal.
Brake caliper
Caliper bracket Panic stop-wheels
Maximum locked Maximum
deceleration Calculatedcalculated
hydraulic brake
pressure
with 300
torque . Ib on pedal.
Caliper bracket
Brake rotor
Maximum deceleration Maximum calculated brake
Maximum deceleration Maximum calculated brake
torque.
torque.
Brake rotor
Fluid-reservoir
Maximum deceleration Maximum calculated brake
Maximum bump & 5-g downward load & 2.5-g
bracket cornering
torque.
side load on reservoir.
Formula car ran head-on into barrier with
brakes locked. Forward-projecting master
Fluid-reservoir Maximum bump 8 5-g downward load & 2.5-9
cylinders
Formula car pushed bulkhead
ran head-on intorearward and
barrier with
bracket cornering side load on reservoir.
Exact values and loading conditions will vary from one car to another. Make sure
broke
brakesoff brake Forward-projecting
locked. pedal due to resistance of
master you select the worst loading condition for each component-that is, the
driver's foot.
cylinders pushed Because
bulkheadof rearward
severe and
leg Exact values and loading conditions willNotice
vary from
injuries,
condition most likely to cause a failure. that one car to condition
the worst another. Make
is notsure
the
broke off '85
brake Indy
pedal Car
duerules prohibited
to resistance of
forward-mounted
driver's master cylinders.
foot. Because of severeLaterleg
you
sameselect the worst
for each loading
component in condition
the brake forsystem. Hydraulic-system is,
each component-that the
components
rules prohibit
injuries, ' 8 5 pedals
lndy Car mounted
rules forward of
prohibited
condition mosttolikely
are designed to cause
withstand 300aIbfailure.
on the Notice
pedal, that thethan
rather worst
thecondition is not
600-lb load thethe
front-wheel centermaster
forward-mounted line. cylinders. Later same
pedal for each component
is designed in the load
for. The pedal brakeincludes
system.aHydraulic-system
factor for sudden components
load
rules prohibit pedals mounted forward of are designedwhich
application, to withstand
does not300 Ib on
apply to the
the pedal, rather
hydraulic than the 600-lb load the
system.
car hits acenter
front-wheel bump.line.Assume that the pedal is designed for. The pedal load includes a factor for sudden load
driver runs off the road and hi ts a application, which does not apply to the hydraulic system.
car
hard hits
bump. a The
bump. Assume
bracket should that the
be de-
driver for
signed runs off the
similar road and hits
maximum-load co n-a
hard bump.
dition as the The bracket should
suspension be de-
and frame.
This maximum-load condition is con-
signed for similar maximum-load dif- Factor of Safety-The maximum Loads - Brake-system componen ts
dition than
ferent as the thesuspension
maximum-load and frame.
condi- also are lo aded inertiaJly when the car
loads discussed in the previous section
This
tion maximum-load
for the brake condition pedal. Seeis dif- the Factor of effects
Safety-The maximum Loads
is -Brake-system
accelerating , decelerating, components
cornering
incl ude the of suddenly applied
sample list of maximum loads condi-
ferent than the maximum-load in the loads discussed
forces. However,inthey the previous
do nol includesectiona alsohitting
or are loaded
bumps. inertially
Inertia when
loads arethe ex-car
tion for table.the brake Writepedal. See the include the is accelerating, decelerating, cornering
above down the factor of effects
safety.of suddenly
As previously applied pressed in g's. One g is an inertia load
sample list of maximum loadsforin the or hitting bumps.
maximum-load conditions all forces. However,
discussed, the safety do not include
they factor accountsa equal to the weightInertia loads
of a part, are ex-
assembly
above parts table. Write the down loads.the pressed
system and calculate factor of safety.between
for the difference As previously
the maxi- or car; 2ing g's. One equal
is a load g is antoinertia
two timesload
maximum-load conditions for all discussed, equal to the weight of aI use
part,theassembly
For all parts of the system receiving mum load the on asafety
part andfactorits accounts
breaking the weight , and so on. follow-
system partstheandbrake
calculate
fluid,the
theloads. for the difference between
loads from normal strength. Never design a partthe to maxi-
break or
ingcar;
loads 2 gtoisdesign
a load bracke
equal to two struc-
ts and times
For all parts
operating load ofisthe systemmaximum-
during receiving mum load on a part and its breaking the weight, and so on. I use the follow-
just as it reaches its maximum load. tures that hold parts together:
loads from theSlamming
brake fluid, the foot
normal strength.
deceleration. your on Not evenNever design adesign
an airplane part toisbreakthat ing loads to design
Maximum bump brackets
load = 5and struc-
g except
operating load is during maximum- just as it reaches its maximum load. turesoff-road
that holdcars parts
the pedal and locking the wheels does marginal. for or together:
dirt-track racers.
deceleration. Slamming your footInona Not
1101 give maximum-deceleration. Theevensafetyan factor
airplane design for
accounts is that
un- UseMaximum
10 g or bump more load = 5 cars
for race g exceptthat
the pedal and
maximum-decelerationlocking the wheels
stop, does the marginal. for off-road cars or dirt-track racers.
knowns that cannot be calculated. normally hit large bumps.
not give maximum-deceleration. In a Theis safety factor accounts
wheels are not locked, but the brakes One needed because parts for un-
some- Use 10 g or cornering
Maximum more for race load cars
= 2.5 thatg
maximum-deceleration
maximum torque. stop, the knowns that cannot
flaws,bethey calculated. normally
develop The driver times have hidden corrode on a car hit large bumps.
without wings or at speeds
wheels
pushes are lessnot on locked, but than
the brakes One long
is needed because parts some- Maximum cornering
develop of. maximum
the pedal he is after use, and loads are often dif- below 100 mph. Cars load 2.5 g
with= wings
capable This is atorque.
normalThe stopdriver
in a times tohave
ficult hiddenaccurately.
calculate flaws, they corrode on a car without wings
above this speed will have higher or at speeds
pushes
race or a controlled fast stop onhethe
less on the pedal than is after long use, and using
I recommend loads are often dif-
a factor of below 100 mph. Cars with wings
capable of. This is a normal stop in a loads.
road. ficult to calculate accurately.
safety of 3 on critical components. above
Maximum this speed will have
deceleration = higher
2.5 g
race
All orbrake-system
a controlled fast stopmust
parts on the be ThisI recommend
means that the using
breakinga factor
strength of loads.
on a car without wings or at speeds
road.
made to operate properly at normal safety
of the of part3 should
on criticalbe atcomponents.
least three Maximum deceleration = wings2.5 g
below 100 mph. Cars with
All brake-system
operating loads. And, partsthey must
must not be This
timesmeans that the breaking
the maximum load on the strength
part. on a carthiswithout
above speed wings or at speeds
will have higher
made to operate properly atload normal of the part should be at least three below
breakwhile under maximum . You can test a part to see if it is strong loads. 100 mph. Cars with wings
operating loads. And, they must not times theifmaximum
enough, you can affordload ontothe part.
destroy above this speed will have higher
Maximum Loads-Each car and car Maximum acceleration = 2.0 g on
breakwhile under maximum load. You
one canpart.testIna apart to see if test,
breaking it is strong
apply loads.
designer will have different require- all cars except dragsters. Use 5.0 g or
Maximum
ments for what Loads-Each
loads to usecarfor and
design-car enough,
three times if you thecan afford toload
maximum destroythe Maximum
higher acceleration = 2.0 g on
for dragsters.
designer will have different
ing the brake system. I use the follow- require- one part. In a breaking
part was designed for. If it doesn't test, apply allOn
carssmall
exceptparts dragsters.
such Use 5.0 g or
as brackets
ments
ing whenfordesigning
what loadsa race
to use for design-
car: three
break, times
you have the amaximum
good design. load But,
the higher forother
holding dragsters.
parts to the frame, vi-
ing the brake system. I use the follow- part
destroywasthedesigned
part afterfor. theIftest it and
doesn't
use On small
bration must parts such as Abrackets
be considered. small,
75-lb pedal force at maximum
ing when designing a race car:
deceleration- normal operating abreak,
brandyou newhave one aingoodthe car.design.
The But,test holding other parts
lightweight part is subjected to the frame,
to higher vi-
75-lb pedal force at maximum
condition; destroy the part
may have caused damage. after the test and Re-
use bration must
vibration loadbe considered.
s than a large, A small,
heavy
deceleration-
600-lb forward normal operating
and 200-lb sideways amember,
brand new you one in the
tested it tocar. Thetimes
three test lightweight
part. The part is subjected
amount of to higher
vibration
condition;
maximum force on pedal-panic-stop may have load
the highest caused
that itdamage.
should ever Re- vibration onloads
depends engine than
designa large, heavy
, suspension
600-lb forward and 200-lb sideways
conditions. member,
experience. you tested it to three times part.
stiffness,The amount
engine of
mounts , vibration
road
maximum force on pedal-panic-stop the highest load that it should ever depends on engine design, suspension
conditions. experience. stiffness, engine mounts, road
91
Maximum loads can occur in two directions at once. Here, stock- Toughest type of vehicle to maintain brake balance under all load-
car driver cuts a close apex. Resulting bump load from going over ing conditions is nose-heavy, front-wheel-drive pickup. Load-
curb on right
Maximum front
loads canwheel
occuroccurs
in twoatdirections
same timeatasonce.
maximum
Here,corner-
stock- sensing proportioning
Toughest type of vehiclevalve between brake
to maintain body balance
and rear under
axle ofallDodge
load-
ing load.
car driver cuts a close apex. Resulting bump load from going over ing conditions
Rampage adjustsis brakes
nose-heavy, front-wheel-drive
so brake pickup.
balance is maintained Load-
under all
curb on right front wheel occurs at same time as maximum corner- sensing proportioning valve between body and rear axle of Dodge
load conditions.
ing load. Rampage adjusts brakes so brake balance is maintained under all
load conditions.

surface, and many other factors. If in car will have to stop in its heaviest above wheel center. A race-car CG is
doubt , design small parts to withstand form, traveling at m aximum speed. If lower than on a road car. If you know
surface,
twice theand many other
maximum loadsfactors. If in
just given. car will ishave
the car to stoptheincalculation
for racing, its heaviest is above wheel
where all the center.
heavy parts A race-car
of the car CGare is
doubt, design
If anything small
falls offparts to withstand
the car, increase
form, traveling at maximum
easy. Most race cars have nearly speed.
a con- If lower than
located, youoncan a road car. IfCG
calculate you height
know
twice the maximum
its design load when loads
doing just
the given.
repair.
the carweight
stant is for racing,
except the for calculation
fuel weight. is where all the heavy
with reasonable parts ofBut
accuracy. the, car are
if you
If anything falls off the car,
The only way to measure vibration increase easy.
So Most race
, design cars have
race-car brakesnearly a con-
assuming located, you can calculate
don't know where they are, it is proba-CG height
its design
loads loadexpensive
is with when doing the repair.
sophisticated
stant weight
full fuel load. except for fuel weight. with reasonable
bly too soon toaccuracy.
design But, the ifbrakeyou
The only way
equipment, whichto measure
most people vibration
can't
So,Ondesign
a road race-car brakes assuming
car, weight can vary don't
systemknow where the
. Establish theycarare,design
it is proba-
first,
loads is
afford . with expensive sophisticated full fuel load. The hardest vehicle to
considerably. bly
then too
comesoonback to design
to the brake the system brake
.
equipment, which most people can't On abrakes
design road forcar, isweight
a truck. canTrucks
vary system. Establish simple
As illustrated, the car chart
designcan first,
be
afford.
CALCULATING TIRE FORCES
considerably. The hardest
weigh much more fully loaded than vehicle to then
used come back to the
to calculate CGbrake system.
location. Find
design brakes for is a truck. Trucks
To start a brake-system design , first when empty. In addition , their centers theAsweight
illustrated,
of each simple
majorchart can be
component
CALCULATING
determine forces TIRE
acting FORCES
on the tires
weigh much
of gravity movemore fully when
greatly loaded than.
loaded used to calculate CG location.
of the car and its planned CG location Find
To start aa brake-system
during stop at design,
maximum first when empty. In addition,
The design of a brake system for suchtheir centers the weight from
measured of each the major
ground component
and dis-
determine forces
deceleration. This acting
includes onthetheeffects
tires aofvehicle
gravityshouId
move be greatly
basedwhen on itsloaded.
maxi- of the from
tance car andtheitsfront-axle
planned CG center location
line.
during a stoptransfer
of both weight at and maximum
aero- The
mum weight. However, brake for
design of a brake system such
balance measured
Multiply the weight times dis-a
from the ground and
deceleration. This includes
dynamic forces on the car. To do the effects
the amust
vehicle beshould be basedaton the
considered its maxi-no- tance from thelong
distance-as front-axle
as it'scenter from line. the
of both
job right, weight
you need transfer and some
to know aero- mum weight. However,
load/full-load extremes .brake Unless balance
the Multiply
same point-and the writeweight times ina
the number
dynamicfacts
specific forces
abou ont the
thecar:
car. To do the must has
truck be anconsidered
adjustable brake at the no-
balance distance-as
the chart. If totallongcarasweight
it's seems
from too the
job
Weight of car includingknow
right, you need to driversome
and load/full-load
or extremes.
a special anti-skid device Unless
, balance the same point-and write the
low , you left out something. Miscella- number in
specific
other facts about the car:
loads. truck probably
will has an adjustable brake balance
be incorrect when the
neouschart.small
If totalitems
car weight
are seems hard too to
Weight
Wheelbase of car including driver and
length. or a special
empty. Mostanti-skid
trucks device,
lock the balance
rear low, you left
estimate. out something.
However, try to Miscella-
estimate
other
CG loads.
height and fore-and-aft will probably be incorrect
wheels under hard braking if reasona- when neous small when
their weight items designing
are hard the to
Wheelbase
location . length. empty. Most trucks
bly well balanced lock the
when loaded . rear estimate.
brakes. Also, However, try toliquids
don't forget estimateand
C G
Maximum heighttire gr and
ip. fore-and-aft wheels under -CG
CG Location hard braking
location ifcan reasona-
be es- their weight
people. The sum whenof designing
the individual the
location.
Aerodynamic forces on body. bly well balanced
timated whenwith
or calculated loaded.
reasonable brakes. Also, don't forget
weights is obviously tota l car weight.liquids and
Maximum
A car has tire
to be grip.
almost completely CG
accuracy. Most sedans arecanslightly
Location-CG location be es- people.
The sumThe of thesum of the
weight timesindividual
distance
Aerodynamic
designed before forces on body.
this information can timated or calculated with
nose-heavy when empty and closer to reasonable weights is obviously
column divided totalweight
by total car weight.
gives
car has to accurately.
be Adetermined be almost completely
Therefore, accuracy.
50/50 weightMost sedans are
distribution when slightly
fully The sum of the weight times distance
CG location.
designed
all the abovebefore this information
information may notcan be nose-heavy when empty and
loaded. This puts the CG at the mid- closer to column divided by
Tire Grip-Tire griptotal weight gives
is important. It
be determined accurately.
available at the time the brake Therefore,
system 50/50 weight distribution
point of the wheelbase at full load. when fully C G location.maximum deceleration of
determines
all first
is the above
designed information may notyou
. Consequently, be loaded.
The This puts
majority the sports
of road C G at carsthe mid-also
Tire Grip-Tire
the car. grip is important.
On a car without aerodynamic It
available
must make at theassumptions-educated
time the brake system point 50/50
have of theweight
wheelbase at full Most
distribution. load. determines maximum deceleration
downforce , maximum deceleration of of
is first designed.
guesses. Start by Consequently,
making the brake you The majority
race cars are oftail-heavy,
road sportswith cars drag
also the car.
the car On a carmaximum
equals without aerodynamic
tire friction
must make
system adjustableassumptions-educated
if you don't start have 50/50 weight distribution.
racers being the most tail heavy and Most downforce, On
coefficient. maximum
a car with deceleration
aerodynamic of
guesses.
with Start byinformation.
accurate making the Later,brake race cars
stock cars arethe tail-heavy,
least. You with can get draga the car equals maximum
downforce, deceleration is higher. tire friction
system car
during adjustable
testing, if youyoucandon't
makestart
ad- racersfeel
good being the most
for weights andtail
CGheavy and
locations coefficient.
Tire grip On a car
varies with aerodynamic
considerably. Road
with accurate
justments information.
to the brake system . Later, from automotive-magazine road tests.a
stock cars the least. You can get condition is as importantis as
downforce, deceleration higher.
the tires
during carThe
Weight- testing,
weight youof can make
a car ad-
greatly good
CGfeel for weights
height is harderand CG locations
to guess at. Tire grip varies
themselves. Racingconsiderably.
tires on dry pave- Road
justments
affects thetobrake-system
the brake system. design. The from automotive-magazine
Most sports-car CGs areroadslightly tests. condition
ment can ishave as important
a grip ofasover the tires
1.0 .
Weight-The weight of a car greatly CG height is harder to guess at. themselves. Racing tires on dry pave-
affects the brake-system design. The Most sports-car CGs are slightly ment can have a grip of over 1.0.
92
 a tire with 1000 Ib of vertical force on
Component W x (WX) y (WY)
it and a grip of 0.8, friction force is
Engine a tirelb.with 1000 Ib were
of vertical
Component
Transmission W X (WX) Y (WY) 800 If the grip raisedforce on
to 1.1,
Engine i t and
that tirea could
grip ofdeliver
0.8, friction
1100 lb force is
of fric-
Driver
Transmission
Front wheels/tires
800 lb.
tion If the
force. Thegrip were force
friction raised istowhat1.1,
Driver
Rear wheels/tires that tire
stops thecould
car-it deliver
should1100 be as of fric-
lb high as
Front wheels/tires
Front suspension tion force.
possible. The friction force is what
Rear wheels/tires
Rear suspension stops
See the car-it page
drawing, should 94,bethat
as highshowsas
Front suspension
Front brakes possible.
the forces acting on a car during
Rear suspension
Rear brakes See drawing,
braking. For this page 94, that
calculation, shows
I assume
Front
Framebrakes the forces acting on a car
the right and left tires at both ends of during
Rear
Body brakes braking.
the car are For loaded
this calculation,
equally. IThis assume as-
Frame
Fuel tank the right and left tires at both ends of
Body
Radiator & water
sumption is more accurate than other
the car are loaded equally.
data usually used for this calculation. This as-
Fuel tank
Battery
Pedals 8, water
Radiator sumption
The is more
formulas with accurate than other
the drawing are
Battery
Seats data
used usually usedtire
to calculate for forces
this calculation.
. If you are
Pedals The
assumingformulas
somewith the drawing
aerodynamic are
lift, put
Seats used to calculate tire forces.
a negative number into the formula If you are
Totals W(total)
- - WX(total)
- WY(totail
- assuming
for downforce .some aerodynamic lift, put
a When
negative numbera car intoto the
run formula
XCG=:t~t~~tal ~
designing on vari-
Totals W(total) WX(total) WY (total) : for downforce.
ous surfaces or different types of tires,
(WX) total
X~~ == (WY) total ~ Y CG When the
change designing
grip avalue
car to accordingly.
run on vari-
Y CG W total CG ous surfaces or different types of tires,
Then perform a calculation for each
W= we%~~t~~
(WY) total
each compoment in pound~ Ground change the grip value accordingly.
grip. Grip might be as low as 0.3 for a
W
X
Y~~ =
X = distance

Y=
W totalof component CG from
front-wheel
= weight center
= distance
of eachincompoment
height of of
inches
component
componentCGCGfrom
in pounds
from
- - CG
'CG
the ground in inches
t Ground
Then
grip.
racingGrip
performto aperhaps
slick surface
tire might
slick surface
answers
on a be
will beto the
calculation
dryastrack
perhaps
range 1.4
1.4 forfor aeach
low .asResulting
hot
0.3 for a
for forces
of tire a hot
front-wheel center in
XCG = CG location inches
behind front-wheel center in inches
Y = height of component
racing tire on
you must deal with. a dry track. Resulting
Y CG = CG location above CG frominthe
ground ground in inches
inches
XCG= CG location behind front-wheel center in inches
answers will be the range of tire forces
,Y, = CG location above ground in inches you must deal with.BRAKE TORQUE
CALCULATING
CG location can be determined by filling out chart and performing calculations. Each Brake torque is the friction force on
component in a car has its own weight and CG location. List weight and CG location for
CALCULATING
the tire, multiplied BRAKE by theTORQUErolling
each component
CG location can as
beshown. If component
determined is out
by filling forward
chartof and
front-wheel
performingcenter, use a negative
calculations. Each Brakeoflorque
radius is the
the tire. Forfriction
designforce on
of the
number for X-in
component thishas
in a car case
its W
owntimes X will
weight andbeCGnegative.
location.When
List adding
weight totals
and CG forlocation
WX, make
for the tire, multiplied
brake system, always use maximum by the rolling
sure you
each add negative
component numbers
as shown. correctly orisWX
If component total will
forward be too large. center, use a negative
of front-wheel radius
brake oftorque.the tire.Maximum
For design torqueof the
number for X-in this case W times X will be negative. When adding totals for WX, make brake when:
system, always use maximum
sure you add negative numbers correctly or WX total will be too large. occurs
brake
Vertical torque.
force onMaximum
tire is maximum torque
.
Road tires seldom exceed 0.8. You'll Again, be ready to change the brake occurs when:
have to choose the tires before you system during testing if things don't Tire grip is maximum.
0.8. If Again,as be Vertical force on tireare
is maximum.
Roadestimate
can tires seldom exceedgrip.
maximum You'll
you work youready
estimatedto change
. the brake Largest-radius
Tire grip is
tires
maximum.
used.
have to
guess toochoose the tires
high, weight before
transfer willyou
be system during totesting
In addition if things
the amount of don't
aero- Car is stopped at maximum possible
can estimate maximum grip. If you work as you estimated. Largest-radius tires are used.
deceleration.
too high. dynamic force, you must know where
guess too high,Forces-Most
Aerodynamic weight transfer willcars
race be In force
this addition
acts toon the
the amount
body. The of aero-
point
Car
If a is has a at
carstopped nutmaximum possible
on the center of
too high. quickly at high speed be- dynamic force, you must know where deceleration.
each wheel, you could measure brake
decelerate where the center of all aerodynamic If a car hasa a large
nut on the center of
Aerodynamic
cause Forces-Most
of aerodynamic downforce racefrom
cars this force
forces actsactsis oncalled
the body.the The centerpoint
of torque with torque wrench.
decelerate quickly at high speed be- where the each
Whilewheel, you oncould themeasure
brake brake
wings and the shape of the body. pressure. Oncenter
a wing of , theallcenter
aerodynamic
of pres- pushing
torquean with
pedal
cause of aerodynamic downforce
Downforce varies with car design and from forcesis acts
sure roughlyis called
a fourth theof center
the way of with efforta needed
large torque to givewrench.
maxi-
wings While
mum deceleration, turn brake
pushing on the pedal
speed. and
On carsthe that
shapehave of huge
the wings
body. pressure.
back fromOnthe a wing,
front theedge center
of the of wing
pres-. the wheel
Downforce with an effort
torqueneeded
wrenchtoand give maxi-
or ground varies withdownforce
effects, car design mayand sure
On a is carroughly
body, ita couldfourthbeofanywhere
the way. with the measure
speed. On cars that have huge wings back from the front edge of the wing. mum deceleration,
torque as the wheel turns. turnEventhe though
wheel
exceed the weight of the car! If you don't have any information,
or ground effects, with the torque wrench and measure
Consequently, you downforce
should know may On a car body, it could be
assume the center of pressure is at the anywhere. this test is done rarely, this example il-
exceed
somethingtheabout weight of thebefore
downforce car! If you don't
center of have the any bodyinformation,
- not the
torque aswhat
lustrates braketurns.
the wheel torque Even though
means. A
Consequently,
you can design ayou brakeshould
system. know assume this test is donemustrarely,be this
ableexample il-
First, wheelbase. Designingpressure
the center of is at the
a ground-effects brake system to deliver
something
the supplier about
of your downforce
wing(s) should before
be center
car without of testing
the tobody-not
find the center the lustrates
the needed what braketorque.
brake torqueOtherwise,
means. A
you
able can
to design
give youa brake system. infor-
downforce First, wheelbase.
of pressureDesigning
may cause a ground-effects
big trouble .
brake system must be
the driver won't be able to stop able to deliver
the
the supplier
mation. of youronwing(s)
However, should be
a ground-effects car
Many without
handlingtesting to findontheground-
problems center the needed brake torque.
car at maximum deceleration with an Otherwise,
able to give you downforce
car, testing in a wind tunnel is usually infor- of pressure may cause
effects cars have been caused by a big trouble. the driver won't
acceptable be ableHe
pedal effort. to may
stop not
the
mation. However, on a ground-effects
the only way to get this information. Many handling
center of pressure problems
being inonanground- unex- car
haveat themaximum
strengthdeceleration
to achievewith maxi-an
car, testing
You in a wind anything
can't estimate tunnel is by usually
just effects cars have been caused by a
pected place. acceptable
mum deceleration' pedal effort. He may not
the onlyatway
looking to get this information.
the car. center
Add Upofthe pressure being in anwith
Numbers-Now, unex-
all have the strength
Calculate maximum to achieve maxi-
brake torque
YouAt can't estimate
highway anything
speed, by just
aerodynamic pected place.
the estimated weights or loads, calcu- mum
using deceleration!
the formulas given . Use the
looking are
forces at thesmall.
car. So ignore aero- Add tire
late Up the Numbers-Now,
forces. To make life with all
simple, Calculate
values of grip, maximum
car weight brake
andtorque
aero-
At highway
dynamic forces onspeed,
a road aerodynamic
car unless the estimated weights or
assume that friction force on a tire loads, calcu- using the formulas
dynamic force that give maximum given. Use the
forces
you are small. So ignore
have accurate information. aero- late tirevertical
equals forces.force
To maketimes itslifegrip.
simple,
For values offorce
friction grip,oncartheweight
tire. and aero-
Calculate
dynamic forces on a road car unless assume that friction force on a tire dynamic force that give maximum
you have accurate information. equals vertical force times its grip. For friction force on the tire. Calculate
93
Modern cars with wings and ground effects generate much more Design of ground-effects car should be left to experts. Wind-
downforce than ordinary cars. Indy Car cornering and braking tunnel testing is the only sure way to determine aerodynamic
loads
Modern arecars
much higher
with than
wings andforground
a modified roadgenerate
effects car. You much
must know
more loads
Designonof car. Note ground-effects
ground-effects car shouldexit
be tunnels at rear of
left to experts. car.
Wind-
speed and downforce
downforce to correctly
than ordinary cars, lndycalculate loads generated
Car cornering by
and braking Photo by
tunnel Tom Monroe.
testing is the only sure way t o determine aerodynamic
tires.
loads are much higher than for a modified road car. You must know loads on car. Note ground-effects exit tunnels at rear of car.
speed and downforce t o correctly calculate loads generated by Photo by Tom Monroe.
tires.
I = wheelbase of car (in.)
We = total weight 01 the car (lb)
~---------b--------~~I F, vertical force
I == wheelbase on (in.)
of car both front tires (Ib)
Center of F,, = =vertical
W force of
total weight onthe
both
carrear
(Ib)tires (lb)
FA
Ff = aerodynamic
= vertical force ondownforce
both front(lb)tires (Ib)
F, == grip
f-t (coeflcient
vertical force onofboth
friction)
rear of tires
tires (Ib)
d
FA M= maximum deceleration
= aerodynamic downforce(g's) (Ib)
b =
p = distance from front
grip (coeffcient axle to center
of friction) of tires of pressure (in.)
Xeg
dM = distance from
= maximum front axle(g's)
deceleration to CG (in.)
Y
b eg= -distance
height offrom
CG above ground
front axle (in.) of pressure (in.)
to center
Xcg = distance from front axle to CG (in.)
Ycg - height of CG above ground (in.)
[Xeg f-t Ye~ [b f.1. YegJ
F, = We~ --1- + -I-J+ FAL -I + --I-

2FFR , = w,[-p + 'j++ F] FA[-:

__- _ _ Xcg _ _ _ _...... 1 We
I
I-
I

.1 Fr = W, + FA- Ff d M = ~ +FAP
-
I
wc
FF = Friction Force On One Front Tire =~
f-t F,
LIL FF = Friction Force On One Rear Tire = - -
2 2
vFf /JFr
FF = Friction Force On One Front Tire =- FF =on
If you can estimate or calculate all data shown on drawing, 2you can calculate forces Friction
tires. From On One
Forcetire Rear
forces, - are computed.
Tire =forces
friction 2
Friction forces are then used to calculate brake torque during maximum deceleration. It is assumed FA is the only aer?dynamic downforce.
If you can estimate or calculate all data shown on drawing, you can calculate forces on tires. From tire forces, friction forces are computed.
Friction forces are then used t o calculate brake torque during maximum deceleration. I t is assumed FAis the only aerodynamic downforce.

both front- and rear-tire forces. lire loaded. You cannot get an accurate Brake diameter.
Maximum brake torque is calculat- rolling radius by measuring an unload- Brake mounting-inboard or out-
both
ed byfront- and rear-tire
the following forces.
formulas: ed loaded.
tire tire. TheYoutirecannot get an
deflects accurate
when sup- Brake diameter.
board.
Maximum brake torque is calculat- rolling
porting radius
a car. by measuring an unload- Brake mounting-inboard
Each decision must be madeorbeforeout-
Front-brake torque = FFF r FT in
ed by the following formulas: ed Rolling
tire. The tire depends
radius deflects on when
the sup-
load board. a brake .
selecting
i nCh-pou nds
Front-brake
FFF = Frictiontorque onF,front
force = rFTtire
in in porting a car.
on the tire, tire size, inflation pressure Each
Theredecision
are a must be made
number of before
brake
inch-pounds
pounds andRolling radius
stiffness of depends
the tire on the load
casing. So selecting a brake.
sources. Several manufacturers have
FFF Frictionradius
r FT == Rolling force on front tire
of front tire inin on the tire,
measure tire size,
rolling inflation
radius with the pressure
car on Thereforarespecial
brakes a number of brake
applications. Or,
pounds
inches and stiffnessMake
the ground. of the suretirecarcasing.
weight Sois sources.
you could Several
use manufacturers
standard road-carhave
,r = Rolling radius of front tire in measure
the same as yours will be. Also car
rolling radius with the on
check brakes for special applications. Or,
Rear-brake
inches torq ue = FFRr RT in brakes. Your choice depends primarily
inch-pounds the ground.pressure;
inflation Make surecorrect car weight
it isif you could use standard
on the intended use. For instance, is road-car
Rear-brake
FFR torque
= Friction force=onFF,rrear tire
in in the same as yours will be. Also check
necessary. brakes.
your carYour choiceuse
for street depends primarily
or racing? If it's
inch-pounds
pounds inflation pressure; correct it if aonrace
the intended
car, use use.brakesFordesigned
instance,foris
F
r,RT == Rolling
Frictionradius
force on rear tire
of rear tire inin necessary.
SELECTING & your
racing.carBrakes
for street
fromuse car areIfusu-
or racing?
a road it's
pounds
inches a racetoo car, heavy
use brakes
,,r = Rolling radius of rear tire in
POSITIONING BRAKES ally for designed
best racingfor
Rolling Radius - The rolling radius of SELECTING &
Take the following into considera- racing. Brakes from a road car
performance. And racing brakes on a are usu-
inches POSITIONING BRAKES
a tire is the distance from the center tion before selecting brakes: ally too
street car heavy
may be foran best racing
unnecessary
Rolling
of Radius
the wheel to -The rolling radills
the pavement of
wilh the Take
Disc orthe following
drum brakes. into considera- performance. And racing brakes on a
expense.
a tire is the distance from the center tion before selecting brakes: street car may be an unnecessary
of the wheel to the pavement with the Disc or drum brakes. expense.
94
 Unloaded Radius
of Tire
Unloaded Radius
Tire at Proper
Inflation Pressure
and
Tire Under Load
at Proper
Inflation Pressure
and Under Load

While most road-car brakes are too heavy,

some are worth considering for high-
performance
While use. Cast-iron
most road-car brakes1984
are too Corvette
heavy,
sliding are
some caliper was designed
worth consideringmore forforhigh-
high
performance thanCast-iron
performance use. low cost.1 9It8 4may be a
Corvette
natural for road
sliding caliper was car with 4-wheel
designed more for dischigh
--~-----r--~~~~----~--~r---~----~Ground
brakes. Photo than
performance courtesy
low Girlock
cost. ItLtd.may be a
natural for road car with 4-wheel disc
brakes. Photo courtesy Girlock Ltd.
F = Vertical Force on Tire

RollingF radius
= Vertical Force
of tire on Tire from wheel center to ground with car weight on tire. Tire
is distance
must be at correct inflation pressure.
Rolling radius of tire is distance from wheel center to ground with car weight on tire. Tire
must be at correct inflation pressure.

Disc Brakes or Drums? - Because to this is on a very light car or one

disc brakes are usually superior to with large-diameter wheels. Most
Disc Brakes
drum brakes, or most Drums?
people -Because
choose to this is on a very
high-performance light
cars car or from
benefit one
disc brakes are usually superior
discs for high-performance appli- to with large-diameter
the largest possible rotorwheels.that will Most
fit.
drum brakes,
cations. mostthere
For racing, people
is nochoose
other high-performance
Maximum rotor cars benefit
diameter from
is about
the largest possible rotor that will fit. Although fixed, aluminum race-car caliper
discs for
choice if youhigh-performance
want to win. Drum appli- 3-in. smaller than wheel diameter. appears similar to Corvette caliper in
cations.
brakes have many limitations. other
For racing, there is no You For Maximum
example, rotor a IO-in.diameter
rotor shouldis about go above photo.
Although APaluminum
fixed, CP2751 race-car
caliper was de-
caliper
choice
will needif a you want
special to to
reason win.use Drum
drum 3-in.
inside smaller than wheel
a 13-in. wheel or a 13-in.diameter.
rotor Signed forsimilar
appears IMSA toroad racers using
Corvette caliper13-
in
brakes have
brakes for many limitations.
racing-such You
as rules requir- For example,
in a 16-in. wheel.a 10-in. rotor
Caliper should
design deter-go in.-diameter
above photo.rotors.
AP C PThese
2 7 5 1 require
caliper minimum
was de-
will need a special reason to use drum inside a 13-in. wheel or a 13-in. rotor 14-in.-diameter
signed for IMSAwheels
road or inboard
racers brakes.
using 13-
ingthem. mines how big a rotor can be used for Photo courtesy AP Racing.
in.-diameter rotors. These require minimum
brakes
On a forroadracing-such as rules of
car, a combination requir-
disc aingiven
a 16-in. wheel. Caliper design deter-
wheel. 14-in.-diameter wheels or inboard brakes.
ing them.
and drum brakes may be best. Drums mines how
For pavement big a rotor
racing,canuse be used for
a large- Photo courtesy AP Racing.
Onbe
may a road car, aon
standard combination
the rear axle of disc
you a given wheel.
diameter wheel with a low-profile tire
and drum
will brakesroad
use. Also, may cars
be best.
mustDrums
have For than
rather pavement
a smaller racing,
wheeluse andaa large-
high-
may
parkingbe standard
brakes- drums on theare rearusually
axle youset diameter wheel with a
profile tire. With a given rollinglow-profile tire
will
up for parking brakes. Although have
use. Also, road cars must disc rather than a smaller wheel
radius, the large wheel allows the use and a high-
parking
brakes on brakes-drums
the rear are good are usually set
for a road profile
of a largertire.brake
Withrotor;
a givenand therolling
low-
up for
car, theyparking brakes. Although
may introduce added com- disc radius,
profile tirethe corners
large wheel better.allows the use
brakes
plexity onandthecost.
rear Aaredisc
good for athat's
brake road of a larger brake
Disc-Brake rotor;- and
Selection the low-
Rotors and
car, they mayforintroduce
not designed a parkingaddedbrakecom-
may profile tire corners better.
calipers should be selected as a
plexity
be andtocost.
difficult adapt.A disc brake that's Disc-Brake
matched By using -aRotors
set. Selection caliper andand
notNowdesigned
that I'vefor posed
a parking brake may
the disc/drum- calipers
rotor shouldto be
designed workselected
together,asyoua
be difficult to adapt.
brake question, I'll assume you are matched
don't have set.to By usingabout
worry a caliper
a dimen-and
Nowdisc
using that brakes
I've posed
on allthefour
discldrum-
wheels. rotor designed to work
sional mismatch between the two. So together, you Race cars generally use largest possible
brake high-performance
Most question, I'll assume cars you
are are
so don't have
choose to worry
the caliper andabout
rotor aintended
dimen- brake diameter. On this Indy Car, caliper
using disc brakes on all
designed. If you choose drum brakes,four wheels. sional
for themismatch
same roadbetween car or fromthe two.
a race-So almost rubs generally
Race cars against inside
use of wheel.possible
largest
Most high-performance cars areThe so choose the caliper and rotor intended brake diameter. On this lndy Car, caliper
the design procedure is similar. car- brake manufacturer. almost rubs against inside of wheel.
designed. Ifis you
difference thatchoose
you'll drum
have to brakes,
con- forCalipers
the same androad car or
rotors must frommeeta race-
the sive tl uid pressure.
the design
sider procedure
the servo actionis similar.
of a drum The car-brake requirements:
following manufacturer. One-Stop Temperature Rise Road-
difference is that you'll
brake. Servo action is discussed inhave to con- Calipers
Rotor must and be rotors mustenough
massive meet the to sive
Car fluid pressure. weight must be
Rotors-Rotor
sider the2. servo action of a drum
Chapter following requirements:
absorb heat from at least one stop One-Stop
high enough Temperature
to absorb Rise Road-
all kinetic
brake. Servo action is discussed
Brake Diameter-Disc-brake diame-in Rotor
from must be speed
maximum massive at enough
maximum to Car Rotors-Rotor weight must
energy stored in the moving car. The be
Chapter
ter is the 2. outside diameter of the absorb heat from at least one stop
vehicle weight. high enough
worst conditiontois stopping
absorb all a carkinetic
trav-
Brake Choose
rotor. Diameter-Disc-brake
the largest-diameterdiame- from
Rotor maximum
and caliper speed
mustatfit maximum
mounting energyatstored
eling in thewith
top speed moving
the carcar.atThe
its
ter
brakes that will fit in the wheels,ofif the
is the outside diameter the vehicle weight.
space on car. worst
maximum weight. Some road trav-
condition is stopping a car cars
rotor.
brakes areChoose
mounted the inlargest-diameter
the wheels, not Rotor and
Brake mustcaliperdeliver
must fit maximum
mounting eling at top that
have brakes speedprobably
with thedon't
car at
meetits
brakes that
inboard, will98.
page fit The
in theonly
wheels, if the
exception space
brake on car. required without exces-
torque maximum
this weight.This
requirement. Some road cars
is probably be-
brakes are mounted in the wheels, not Brake must deliver maximum have brakes that probably don't meet
inboard, page 98. The only exception brake torque required without exces- this requirement. This is probably be-
95
 Wc S2 works for most cars under normal
Kinetic energy =--- conditions. Go to the track and look at
W,S2
29.9 works
the brakes for on most carscarssimilar under normal
to yours. If
Kinetic energy =-
in foot-pounds conditions.
the rotor you G o selected
to the track and lookdif-
is greatly at
We = Weight of car 29.9
in pou nds the brakes
ferent on cars
in size andsimilar
weight, to yours.
you are If
Sin =foot-pounds
Speed of car in miles per hour the rotor you selected
probably wrong. If in doubt, go larger. is greatly dif-
W, = Weight of car in pounds ferent
SAfter
= Speedcalculating
of car inthe kinetic
miles energy
per hour Use thisinmethodsize and weight,
to select you onarea
rotors
of a car, determine how much energy probably wrong.your
race car, unless If incar doubt, go larger.
is unique.
goesAfter to calculating
the front the kinetic
brakes andenergy
how Use Onethisword
method to selectIfrotors
of caution: other on carsa
of a car, determine how
much to the rears. A good guess much energy
is to race car, unless your car
in your class are using water-cooled is unique.
goes
proportionto thekinetic
front energy
brakes according
and how One word of147
brakes-page caution:
-they Ifeither other have
cars
much
to the to the torques.
brake rears. A This
goodrelationship
guess is to in your classrotors
undersized are using water-cooled
or improper air
proportion kinetic energy
is only approximate, but theaccording
calcula- brakes-page
ducting. Water 147-they
cooling is aeither crutchhave and
tion for rotor weight does relationship
to the brake torques. This not have to undersized
should not rotors
be used or unlessimproper largerair
is
be only
exact.approximate,
Use the followingbut the calcula-
formula: ducting.
brakes cannot Water coolingbe fitted is a. crutch
In other and
tion for rotor weight does not have to should
words, if notthebecompetition
used unlessis larger using
be
K exact.
= Use the following formula:
KrTF brakes
water cooling, go to afitted.
cannot be larger or In thicker
other
F (T F + T R) words,
rotor than if they
the use. competition is using
KF = Kinetic energy to front brakes in water
Whilecooling,
at the go to ayou
track, largercanormakethicker in-
foot-pounds rotor than observations
teresting they use. about brakes.
Exception to the rule: Brake is considera-
bly smaller than wheel allows on front ofI
lu
KF =
Kr Kinetic
= Total energy
kinetic to front
energy brakes
of car in in If While
you are at the
at atrack,
flat, youpaved canovalmake trackin-
foot-pounds teresting
where hardobservations
braking is used about brakes.
going into
sprint car. Demands
Exception on Brake
to the rule: brakesisofconsidera-
car raced
on
bly dirt are than
smaller muchwheel
less allows
than ifonraced
front on
of
TKT Total kinetic
F == Front energyinofinch-pounds
brake torque car in If youone
turns areand at athree,
flat, time
pavedvarious oval track
cars
Tfoot-pounds
R = Rear brake torque in inch-pounds where
pavement.
sprint car. Demands on brakes of car raced
T, = Front brake torque in inch-pounds early in a long race and late in into
hard braking is used going the
on dirt are much less than if raced on turns onerace.and If three, time increase
various cars
pavement. T , KR = Kr - KF
= Rear brake torque in inch-pounds same lap times on
KR = Kinetic energy to rear brakes in early in
some carsa andlongnot raceon and others,latechances
in the
K,= K T - K,
foot-pounds same
K, = Kinetic energy to rear brakes in are therace. cars Ifrunning
lap times slower increase
near the on
The kinetic energy calculated is for some cars and not on
end are "running out of brakes." See others, chances
foot-pounds are
a pair of brakes-two front and two whatthethe carsvarious
running cars slowerarenear doingthe
TheDivide
rear. kineticthe energy
answerscalculated
by 2 tois get
for end are
differently. "running out of brakes." See
pair of
akinetic brakes-two
energy absorbed frontby each and two
brake. whatAt a the
road various
course with carslong arestraights
doing
rear.
Now, Divide
computethe answers by 2 to rise
the temperature get differently.
followed by tight turns, such as turn
kinetic energy absorbed
of the rotor after one stop using by each brake. fiveAtata road
Elkhartcourse Lake, withthelong straights
importance
Now, compute
formula on page the 11 .temperature
Use weightrise of followed
of good brakesby tight turns, such
is evident. Walkasalong turn
of therotor
single rotoror after
drum one for W stop using
s' This is five at Elkhart
the straight to Lake,
where the theimportance
cars start
formula
the average page 11. Use
on temperature of weight
the entireof of good brakes
braking and see is evident.
how much Walkdeeperalong
single
rotor, not rotor
theorsurface for W,. This is
drumtemperature. the straight to where
cars with good brakes go. Good the cars start
theIfaverage
the averagetemperature of the entire
rotor temperature is+ braking
brakes can andmean see ashow much much as a deeper
200-ft
rotor,
near not lOOOFthe surface
(538C) temperature.
use a heavier cars
advantagewith goinggoodinto brakes
a slowgo. cornerGood off
If the
rotor. average
This meansrotor temperature
a thicker rotor isif brakes can mean as
a fast straight. Imagine how much much as a 200-ft
Garage area or pits is best place to look at lOOOF
and photograph race-car brakes. Take ad-
near
you have chosen the largestheavier
(538C) use a rotor advantage
horsepowergoing and intohandlinga slowitcorner takes off to
vantage
Garage areaof oryears
pits isof
bestexpensive trial-
place to look at
rotor.
diameter This means The
possible. a thicker
type of rotor
brakeif amake
fastupstraight.
200 feet!Imagine how much
and-error
and development
photograph to select
race-car brakes. Takerotor
ad- you
linings have
usedchosen the largest
will determine howrotor
hot horsepower
Race-ear-brake and handling
manufacturers it takescan to
sizes and of
vantage designs.
yearsTalk of toexpensive
the mechanics.
trial- diameter
the rotor possible.
can be and The still
type have
of brake
the make up 200 feet!
be a big help when selecting rotors for
If they have
and-error brake trouble,
development to consider their
select rotor linings
brakes work.used will determine how hot Race-car-brake
a race car. They aremanufacturers
aware of all appli- can
problems
sizes and during
designs. your
Talkbrake
to thedesign. Indy
mechanics. the rotor Rotors-If
can be andyou stillarehave the
Car brake wasbrake
photographed at Phoenix In- Race-Car design- be a big for
cations helptheir
whenproducts
selecting and rotorswhat for
If they have trouble, consider their
ternational
problems duringRaceway-one-mile
your brake design.pavedlndy
brakes
ing work.
a race car, and the brakes are used a race car.
works best.TheyTheyare alsoaware of all aware
are made appli-
track that was
Car brake putsphotographed
high demands on brakes.
at Phoenix In- Race-Car
many times Rotors-If
during a you race,are design-
a calcula- cations
of it when for their
their brakes
productsdon't and work.
what
Photo by Tom Raceway
ternational Monroe. -one-mile paved ing a race car, and the brakes
tion for one stop will not mean much. are used works best. They also
Manufacturers work with race-car de- are made aware
track that puts high demands on brakes. many times
Photo by Tom Monroe. Before each during a race,
stop, brake a calcula-
temperature of it when
signers to their
develop brakes the don'tbest work.
rotor
tion be
will formuch
one stop willthan
higher not mean much.
100F (38C). Manufacturers
design for each racingwork with class.race-car de-
Before each stop, brake
For a road racer, assume the rotors temperature signers
Contact to companies
develop the suchbest rotor
as Hurst,
will
are be much500F
about than 100F
higher(260C) when ( 3 8the
0. design for each racing class.
JFZ, Tilton, Wilwood or their dealers
cause some road-car designers think For
brakes a road racer, assume
are applied. Also, each the rotors
brake Contact
before you companies
buy rotors for suchyour as special
Hurst,
it's unreasonable to drive at the top are about is500F
application (260C)topwhen
not from speed theto JFZ, Tilton, Wilwood or their dealers
race car.
cause
speed of some
a carroad-car
at maximumdesigners
weightthink
and brakes are applied. Also,
full stop as assumed in the previous each brake before Area-Another
Swept you buy rotors for aid your special
in selecting
it's unreasonable
suddenly do a hardtostop.
drive at thethink
I don't top application is not from top speed to
calculations. race car.
the proper rotor size is the swept area
speed of a car at maximum
it's unreasonable, weightdriv-
even though and fullRacers
stop ashave assumed in the previous
experimented with Swept
of the Area-
brake. Another
The chart aid onin selecting
page 28
suddenly
ing at topdo a hard
speed illegalI don't
is stop. think
and unsafe calculations.
different-size and -weight rotors for the proper
shows swept rotor areasizefor is the swept cars.
various area
on the road; but some people do it.driv-
it's unreasonable, even though Racers
years. have experimented
Although some work, others with of the brake. The chart
Consider using a swept-area-to-weight on page 28
ingFrom
at top speed 1,
Chapter is the
illegal and energy
kinetic unsafe different-size
can overheat. and After-weight
years rotors for
of trial- shows swept area for
ratio for a car of nearly the same various cars.
on the road; but some people
of a moving car is determined do it. as years.
and-error, Although
a brake some
designwork,has been others
de- Consider
power andusing speed a swept-area-to-weight
as yours. If you are
From
follows: Chapter 1, the kinetic energy can
veloped overheat.
for each Afterracingyearsclassof trial-
that ratio for aa car
designing raceofcar, nearly use the same
a swept-
of a moving car is determined as and-error, a brake design has been de- power and speed as yours. If you are
follows: veloped for each racing class that designing a race car, use a swept-
96
area-to-weight ratio for race cars, not Don ' t buy a caliper that must use a
for road cars. In both cases, if long flimsy mounting bracket. Make sure
area-to-weight
lining life andratio fadefor resistance
race cars, not are theDon't buy isa caliper
bracket very stiff thatandmuststrong.
use a
for road cars. In both
more important than brake weight, cases, if long flimsy
Extra "mounting
beeP ' on bracket.
this partMake helps sure the
lining life and
use a higher sweptfadearea. resistance are the bracket
braking. A ismounting
very stiffbracketand strong. that
more
Higherimportant
swept area thanmeans brakeyou weight,
must Extra "beef'
twists can cause onpoor
this brake
part helps
perform- the
use
use aa higher
larger-di swept
ameterarea.rotor. This may braking.
ance A mounting
and uneven pad wear.bracket that
Higher
also mean sweptusingarea means you must
larger-diameter twists
The canbrakecause poor delivered
torque brake perform- by a
use a larger-diameter
wheels, if the wheels limit rotor. Thisrotor
may ance and uneven pad wear.
caliper and rotor must be as great or
also
diameter.meanIf you usingsimply larger-diameter
cannot get The than
greater brakewhat torque delivered
is required by a
for maxi-
wheels,
enough swept if the area wheels becauselimit ofrotor
the caliper and rotor mustThe
mum deceleration. be as great or
maximum
wheels, you can reso rt tocannot
diameter. If you simply using get in- greater
possiblethan brake what is required
torque is limitedfor bymaxi-
the
enough swept page
board brakes, area 98. because of the
An inboard mum deceleration. The
maximum operating pressure the cali- maximum
wheels,
brake isyou can resort
mounted inboardto using
on the in- possible
per can brakewithstand.torqueIfisthis limited
maximumby the
board or
frame brakes, page transferring
transaxle, 98. An inboard brak- maximum
pressure isoperating
exceeded,pressure the cali-
the caliper can
brake
ing force is through inboard onto the
mounteda driveshaft the per can
flex withstand.theIf this
excessively, seals maximum
can leak
frame
wheel. or transaxle, transferring brak- pressure
and, is exceeded,
in severe cases, the the caliper
caliper can can
ing force
Vented or through
Solid Rotors a driveshaft
- When to look-the flex excessively, the seals
fail. Never design a brake system that can leak
wheel.
ing at cars like yours, note whether and, in severe
exceeds cases, the caliper
the manufacturer's recom-can
Vented ororSolid
vented solidRotors-When
rotors are look- used. fail.
mended Never design a brake system
maximum-pressure rating.that Caliper did not fit wheel correctly, so metal
ing at cars
Usually, rotorlikeweight
yours,and note whether
cooling re- exceeds
Caliper & theRotormanufacturer's
Placement-When recom- was removed from outboard edge. Don't do
vented or solid rotors ifare ventedused. mended maximum-pressure rating. this to get
Caliper a caliper
did not to fit.
fit wheel Caliperso
correctly, flexing,
metal
quirements determine fitting brakes to a new car, it's impor- cracking or other
was removed problems edge.
from outboard may Don't
result doif
Usually,
rotors arerotor weight
needed. and cooling
Vented rotors arere- tant to position Rotor theP1aeement-when
caliper in the best excess metal
this to get is removed.
a caliper Instead, flexing,
to fit. Caliper select
quirements
used where heavier determine
rotors are if needed.
vented fitting
positionbrakes
around to a the
new rotor,
car, it'sandimpor-the calipers and
cracking wheels
or other that clear
problems without
may result if
rotors
A very are thickneeded. Vented
solid rotor doesrotors are
not cool tant toand
rotor position
caliper theincaliper in the
the best best
lateral modification.
excess metal is removed. Instead, select
used where heavier rotors
adequately. Because of this, it is are needed. position around the rotor, and the
position. calipers and wheels that clear without
A very thick
unusual to see solid
a rotor
solid doesrotor not cool
thicker rotor and
First, caliper
let's considerin the bestposition
caliper lateral
adequately.
than 1/2 in. Because of this, it is position.
aro und the rotor. Assume you are to consider are eXistIng mounting
unusual
If yourto car see needs
a solidverotor nted thicker
rotors , First, let's
looking at the consider
left-front caliper
wheelposition
from bosses, and wheel and suspension
than 112 in.
refer to the rotor section in Chapter 3. around the rotor. Assume
the outside. Theoretically, the caliper you are to considerWith
clearances. are anexisting
existingmounting
car, you
If yourtypes
Various car of needsvented vented rotors,
rotors are lookinggoat at
could the anyleft-front
position wheel from from1 bosses, and wheel
may be able to use existing and suspension
bosses and
refer to theYour
available. rotorbrake
section in Chapter
supplier will be 3. the outside.
o'clock to 12Theoretically,
o'clock. Therethe arecaliper
many clearances.
hole locations, Withbut an you
existing car, you
will probably
Various types of
able to compare thevented
merits of rotors are
one type could
things to consider, such as from
go at any position existing1 may
have to fabric ate an adapter plate.and
be able to use existing bosses It
available.
versus another.Your brake I supplier
suggest will using be o'clock
mounting to 12 o'clock.bleeding,
bosses, There arespindlemany hole
must locations,
be rigid . I likebut I/2-in.
you will steelprobably
plate.
able
ventedto compare
rotors with thecurved
merits vents
of oneiftype
you things to consider,
deflection, such as and
air-duct location, existing
sus- have to fabricate
Position an adapter
each caliper so itplate.
has atIt
versus
can afford another.
them. The I suggest using
cooling advan- mounting
pension andbosses,steeringbleeding,
clearances.spindle must be rigid. I clearance
least O.080-in. like 112-in.tosteel
the plate.
wheel
vented rotors with
tages are worth the expense.curved vents if you deflection,
If you have air-duct location,
an existing car,and sus-
mount- andPosition
114 in.each to caliper it has at
moving sosuspension
can afford them. The cooling advan- pension and steering
ing bosses on the spindles- or clearances. least
parts. Be sure to check the fron wheel
0.080-in. clearance to the t sus-
tages are worth
CALIPER SELthe expense.
ECTION If you have
uprights- may an existingdictate car, mount-
caliper and
pension114within. theto steering
moving atsuspension
full lock,
Caliper and rotor selection go ing bosses
location. Bleedingon isthebestspindles-or
at 3 and 9 parts. and
right- Be sure to check
left-turn. If nothe front posi-
caliper sus-
CALIPER SELECTION
together because they often come uprights-may
o'clock. Usually, calipers dictate positionedcaliper pension with the steering
tion can be found that clears at full at full lock,
Caliper
from the sameand manufacturer.
rotor selection go
He will location. Bleeding is best
at 12 and 6 o'clock must be removed, at 3 and 9 right- and left-turn.
lock, consider If nostops.
'steering caliperExcept
posi-
together
supply a because they works
caliper that often with
comea o'clock.
rotated and Usually,
have acalipers positioned
spacer inserted to tiondirt
for canoval-track
be found cars, that few
clears at cars
race full
from the same manufacturer.
certain-diameter and -thicknessHerotor.
will at 12 .and
bleed 6 o'clock
Spindle and must be removed,
axle-shaft deflec- lock, as
need consider 'steeringangle
much steering stops.as Except
a road
supply
Make sure the caliper fits in thea
a caliper that works with rotated
tion duringand have a spacer can
cornering inserted cause to for dirt oval-track cars, few race cars
car.
certain-diameter
desired area. Some andcalipers
-thickness
are rotor.
more bleed. Spindle and axle-shaft
caliper-piston knockback with calipers deflec- need
RotorasOffset-Once
much steering anglecaliper
lateral as a road
po-
Make
compactsure thanthe caliper
others. fits in the
Pay attention to tiontheduring
at 12- andcornering
6-0'clock can cause
positions. car.
sition is found, the rotor position is
desired area. You
the details. Somemustcalipers
not are more
machine caliper-piston
This should not ktiockback
be a problemwith caliperswith Rotor Offset-Once
fixed. Determine lateral rotor-hat caliper po-
offset
compact
metal off than others.
a caliper Pay attention
to provide to
clearance at the 12- hubs
full-floating and or 6-o'clock positions.
sliding calipers. sition is found, the rotor
next. Hat offset is the distance from position is
the details. You must
to a wheel or suspension member.not machine This shouldairnot
Because be aenter
ducts problem
from with the fixed. Determine rotor-hat
the hub mounting surface to the rotor offset
metal
Also,offuse
a caliper to provide
a caliper clearance
that will mount full-floating
front hubs or
of a brake, sliding calipers.
3 o'clock is usually next. Hat offset
mounting surface.is Never
the distance
order fromhats
to a wheel
on your or suspension
suspension member.
or chassis Because
best for theaircaliducts
per soenter from can
the ducts the the hubthe
until mounting
calipersurface
and torotor the rotor
are
Also, use aSome
components. calipercalipers
that will
aremount
easily front of a brake, 3 o'clock
enter the center of the rotor at 9 is usually mounting
positioned. surface.
Rotor Neverhats with order hats
almost
adapted to existing components.chassis
on your suspension or Con- best for the
o'clock. caliper suspension
Although so the ductsclear- can untiloffset
any the cancaliper and off
be supplied rotor are
the shelf
components.
sult a brake Some calipers are
manufacturer. He easily
may enter differ
ances the center
from car thereatare9
of tothecar,rotor positioned.
or machinedRotor hats with byalmost
to specification your
adapted to existing components.
offer a ready-made Con-
caliper mounting o'clock.
usually ball Although
joints and suspension
uprights clear-
at 12 any
brake offset
dealercanorbe supplied off the shelf
manufacturer.
sult a brake manufacturer. He may
bracket. ances differ from
and 6 o'clock. Steering car to car, arms
there are are or
Rotor-Hat Holes-For some by
machined to specification your,
reason
offer a ready-made
If you caliper mounting
are also designing a new usually ball joints and uprights
either at 3 or 9 o'clock . Usually, when at 12 brake dealer or manufacturer.
many hats come with large holes
bracket.
suspension, be sure to consider the and 6 o'clock.
everything Steering
is considered , 3 arms
o'clockare is Rotor-Hat
around Holes-For
their some reason,
circumference. These
If you and
caliper are also designing
provide space a large
new either
best and at 39 or 9 o'clock.
o'clock Usually,
is second best, whenbut many hats come with
holes help air flow to the outboard large holes sur-
enough for it. A proper caliperthe
suspension, be sure to consider is everything
any positionis will work. It 3allo'clock
considered, depends is around
face of theirsolid circumference.
rotors and ventilated These
caliper bit
every and asprovide
importantspaceas large
the best and 9 o'clock
on what is best for your car.is second best, but holes help
rotors air flow
not using to theairoutboard
sealed ducts. With sur-
enough for it. A proper caliper is
suspension. anyFor position
lateral will work. It all
positioning, thedepends
things face ofducts
sealed solid rotors
, these holesandallowventilated
cooling
every bit as important as the on what is best for your car. rotors not using sealed air ducts. With
suspension. For lateral positioning, the things sealed ducts, these holes allow cooling
97
 Sprint-car rear axle: Single inboard brake
on solid axle is possible because of ex-
- -

Sprint-car
posed axle rear
shaftaxle:
and Single
locked inboard
rear end.brake
Not
only is weight
on solid axle isreduced
possibleby because
one-half,ofwhen
ex-
one
posedwheel
axlehits a bump,
shaft brake rear
and locked moves
end.smal-
Not
ler distance
only is weightthan wheel,byreducing
reduced brake's
one-half, when
effective
one wheelunsprung weight.
hits a bump, brakeImproved han-
moves srnal-
dling results. than
ler distance Photowheel,
by Tomreducing
Monroe. brake's
Inboard rear brakes are used on this Formula Ford. Brake COOling is excellent, rotor diame- effective unsprung weight. Improved han-
ter is not limited by wheel size, and handling on rough surfaces is improved . Inboard brakes dling results. Photo by Tom Monroe.
are not rear
lnboard usedbrakes
on ground-effects cars
are used on this because
Formula they
Ford. reduce
Brake tunnel
cooling width and
is excellent, resulting
rotor diame-
downforce.
ter is not limited by wheel size, and handling on rough surfaces is improved. lnboard brakes
are not used on ground-effects cars because they reduce tunnel width and resulting
downforce.

Caliper mounts to quick-change side-bell and rotor-to-axle adaptor clamps to axle shaft: Actual sprint-car installation is at right. Note
bearing housing- cage-with control-arm brackets at outer end axle. Photo at left courtesy AP Racing; photo at right courtesy Tilton.
Caliper mounts to quick-change side-bell and rotor-to-axle adaptor clamps to axle shaft: Actual sprint-car installation is at right. Note
air to escape
bearing from the center
housing-cage-with of the
control-arm brackets at outer
only doesend axle.allow
this Photo at left courtesy
larger rotors, AP Racing;
such asphoto at right
those forcourtesy Tilton.
an independently
rotor before it flows through the cooling is better because the brakes sprung, driven wheel, must be used.
air to escape
rotor. from the center
Consequently, these ofholes
the only not
are doesshrouded
this allowby larger rotors,
the wheels. such as the
those for must
an independently
Finally, spindle rotate in the
rotor before
should it flows
be plugged. Whenthrough the
ordering Wheel-weight reduction alsobrakes
cooling is better because the im- sprung, driven wheel,
upright. All this increasesmust be used.
complexity,
rotor.
new hats,Consequently,
specify with these holes
or without are not handling
proves shroudedon byroughthe surfaces
wheels. cost and weight. To top it off, inmost
Finally, the spindle must rotate the
should depending
holes, be plugged. on When ordering
your rotor and Wheel-weight
and brake torquereduction
does not goalso
into im-
the upright. All this increases
front-wheel-drive complexity,
cars don't have
new hats, specify with or
cooling system. If existing hats without
have proves handling
suspension. on rough surfaces cost
roomand for weight.
inboardTobrakes.
top it Race
off, most
cars
holes, and
holes depending
you wishon to your rotor alu-
plug them, and and brake
Why torque
aren't doesbrakes
many not gomounted
into the front-wheel-drive cars don't
using ground effects need the narrow- have
cooling
minum system.
tape withIf existing hats have
high-temperature suspension.
inboard? To begin with, they compli- roombody
est for possible
inboard brakes.
between Race cars
the side
holes andworks
adhesive you wish
well.to plug them, alu- Whya aren't
cate many . brakes
car design mounted
For example, using ground
ducts; inboardeffects
brakesneed
makethethe
narrow-
body
minum tape with
Inboard Brakes-For high-temperature
one reason or inboard?
mounting provisions must becompli-
To begin with, they made est
widerbodyandpossible
reduce between the side
the aerodynamic
adhesive works
another, well. want to consider
you might cate a car
for the rotordesign. For example,
and caliper on the ducts; inboard brakes make the body
downforce on the car. Use inboard
Inboard Brakes-For
mounting the brakes one reasonNot
inboard. or mounting
chassis. Then provisions mustand
an axle shaft be joints
made, wider and reduce the aerodynamic
brakes if it makes sense , but keep in
another, you might want to consider for the rotor and caliper on the downforce on the car. Use inboard
mounting the brakes inboard. Not chassis. Then an axle shaft and joints, brakes if it makes sense, but keep in
98
 TOTAL PISTON AREA FOR EACH TYPE OF CALIPER
AT = Total Piston
TOTAL PISTON AREA FOR EACH TYPE OF CALIPER
Type of Caliper Area (sq in.)
Fixed mount-one piston on each side of rotor
A, =Total Piston
Type of Caliper
Fixed mount-two pistons on each side of rotor
Area (sq in.)
Fixed mount-one piston
Fixed mount-three on on
pistons each side
each of rotor
side of rotor 2AP
Fixed mount-two
Floating mount-one pistons
pistonononeach
onlyside
one of rotor
side of rotor 4AP
Fixed mount-three
Floating mount-twopistons
pistonsononeach
only side of rotor
one side of rotor 6AP
Floating mount-three
Floating mount-one piston on on
pistons only oneone
only side of rotor
side of rotor 2AP
Floating
Ap = areamount-two pistons
of one piston on only one side of rotor
(sq in.) 4AP
Floating mount-three pistons on only one side of rotor GAP
A, = area of one piston (sq in.)
Chart gives total piston area for each type of caliper. Floating-sliding-caliper has one
piston doing job of two in a fixed caliper. If you don't know the type of caliper, remember
that
Chartfloating-mount calipers
gives total piston areahave piston(s)
for each typeon of only one Floating-sliding-caliper
caliper. side. Area Ap of each piston
has is in
one {
square doing
piston inches. Determine
job of two inAp for your
a fixed particular
caliper. If youcaliper.
don't know the type of caliper, remember
that floating-mount calipers have piston(s) on only one side. Area A, of each piston is in
square inches. Determine Ap for your particular caliper.
mind the disadvantages of the catalog. If you use a formula that re-
\--.-/
Effective radius of disc brake is measured
concept. quires using piston diameter, you
mind the disadvantages of the catalog. If you use from center of pad to center of rotor. Make
must compu te a effective
formula that re-
piston sure you have
Effective correct
radius of discrotor/caliper combi-
brake is measured
concept.
DETERMINE quires
diameter.using is the diameter'
This piston diameter of a nationcenter
from to determine effective
of pad to center ofradius.
rotor. Make
HYDRAULIC-SYSTEM must piston
circular compute that has an area piston
effective equal sure you have correct rotor/caliper combi-
DETERMINEPRESSURE
OPERATING diameter.
to Thisarea
the piston is the diameter
of the of a
non-circular nation to determine effective radius.
HY DRAULIC-SY circular piston that has an area equal there's space.
Once required Sbrake T E M torque is caliper. All formulas requiring piston Use a caliper that has a higher
OPERATING PRESSURE
known and you've made a caliper to the piston
diameter area using
will work of thethis
non-circular
method. there's space.
caliper. operating pressure.
Once required
selection, it's possible braketo determine
torque is Brake All formulas
effective requiring
radius piston
is the distance Use
If youausecaliper that one
more than has caliper
a higherper
fluid pressure. Some brake a catalogs
known and you've made caliper diameter will work using this
from the center of the rotor to the method. operating pressure.
rotor, each caliper supplies its rated
selection, it's possible to determine Brakeofeffective
center is the
radiuspad.
the brake distance
Once you If you Thus,
use more
give the relationship between hydrau-
fluid pressure. torque. twothan one caliper
calipers on eachper
lic pressure andSomebrakebrake torque catalogs
for a from
know the center ofradius,
the effective the rotor
use theto fol-
the rotor, doubles
rotor each caliper suppliesthat
the torque its brake
rated
give thecaliper
relationship betweenHowever, hydrau- center of the brake
lowing formula pad. Once
to compute you
fluid pres- torque. Thus,
given
lic pressure and
and rotor.
knowatthe effectivebrake
radius, use the fol- can deliver. Fortwo calipers
a given on fluid
torque, each
remember that brake
the torque for a
torque-ver- sure maximum torque. rotor doubles the torque that
pressure for a two-caliper disc brake brake
given caliper and rotor. However, lowing formula to compute fluid pres- can bedeliver. Forfor
a given torque,
sus-pressure relationship depends on
sure at maximum T will half that a single caliper;fluid
re-
remember that coefficient.
brake-lining friction the torque-ver- Maximum hydraulicbrake torque.
pressure = __ 8_ pressure fluid
quired for a displacement
two-caliper disc willbrakebe
sus-pressure
To find therelationship
fluid pressure depends on
required ,uLATrE will be half that for a single caliper; re-
brake-lining friction coefficient. in pounds hydraulic
per squarepressure
inch '8 double.
for your car, you need the following Maximum =- quired fluid displacement will you be
To find the fluid pressure required T 8 = Brake torque in inch-pounds PLAT'E Operating Pressure-In general,
information: in Dounds
,uL Der sauare inch of brake
= Coefficient-of-friction
double.
should use an operating pressure
for your car, you needcoefficient.
the following Operating
Brake-lining
information:
friction T,'=
linings rake torque in inch-pounds that's wellPressure-In general, you
below maximum-rated
Total piston area for each caliper. p Coefficient-of-friction
AT, == Total of brake
area of caliper pistons in should
pressure usefor aancaliper.
operating
Leaks pressure
and ex-
Brake-lining
Rotor effective friction
radius.coefficient. linings inches that's well below can maximum-rated
square cessive deflection result from
Total piston area
Brake torque at maximum for each caliper.
deceler- A, Total arearadius
r E == Effective of caliper pistons
of brake in
in inches pressurefluid
for apressure.
caliper. Leaks and ex-
Rotor effective radius. excess If maximum
ation. square inches cessive deflection
operating pressure can resulthalf
is, say, fromof
Brake
If you torque
have the at maximum deceler-
friction coefficient r, = Effective radius of brake in inches excess fluid pressure. If maximum
ation. Once maximum pressure is maximum-rated pressure for the
for your linings, use it. Otherwise, calculated, make sure the caliper can
operatingthepressure
caliper, is, say,
extra margin half of
of safety in
If you it's
assume have0.3.the friction
Most linings coefficient
are this Once at maximum maximum-rated pressure for the
for your linings, operate this pressure .pressure
Usually, the is the brake system is sufficient.
approximate value.useStartit. byOtherwise,
calculat- calculated, make sure the caliper can caliper, the extra margin of safety in
assume it's 0.3. Most maximum operati;lg-pressure rating
ing caliper-piston area: linings are this operate
of at thisis pressure.
the caliper specified Usually, the
by the brake the brake&system
PEDAL is sufficient.
LINKAGE DESIGN
approximate value. Start by calculat- maximum operatiag-pressure
Area of piston = 0.785 Dp2 in square
ing caliper-piston area: manufacturer. It varies from ratingabout After selecting and positioning the
inches of
1000the tocaliper
1500 ispsi,
specified by theonbrake
depending the PEDAL
brakes and & LINKAGE
calculating DESIGNmaximum
Area
Dp = of piston = pistonDP2
of0.785 in square After selecting and positioning the
inches
Diameter in inches caliper. The caliper cannot from
manufacturer. It varies safely about
oper- hydraulic-system operating pressure,
Total piston area is the area of one 1000continuously
ate to 1500 psi, abovedepending on the
maximum- brakes
the next and calculating
step is to design the maximum
pedals
D p = Diameter of piston in inches caliper. The caliper cannot safely oper- hydraulic-system operating pressure,
piston multiplied by the number of rated pressure because seal or caliper- and linkage. Various types of pedals
Total piston
pistons area is the area
for a fixed-mount of one
caliper. If ate continuously above
bridge fatigue failure may occur. maximum- are discussed in Chapter 6. As pedals
the next step is to design the stated
pistonhave
you multiplied
a floating by caliper,
the number of
multiply rated pressure
However, because seal
an occasional or caliper-
locked-wheel and linkage.
earlier, use Various
a hanging types of pedals
pedal if
pistons
the areaforof aone fixed-mount
piston by caliper. twice theIf bridgestop
panic fatigue
is OK. failure may occur. are discussed
possible . This in Chapter
allows 6. As stated
the master cylin-
you have a floating caliper,
total number of pistons to get total ef- multiply However, an occasional
If calculated locked-wheel
fluid pressure is too earlier,
ders to beuse a hanging
mounted high in the pedal
car forif
the area
fective of one
piston area.piston
This by mice the
is illustrated panic stop is OK.
high for the caliper, the solution is possible. This allows the master
easy servicing. Also, brake balance cylin-
on
total number of pistons to get total ef-
above. If calculated
simple. You can fluiddopressure
one ofis toothe ders to be mounted
balance-bar setups ishigh in tothe
easier car for
adjust.
fective piston selected
If you've area. Thisa iscaliperillustrated
with high for the caliper, the solution is
following: easy
Theservicing. Also, of
disadvantage brake balance
hanging on
pedals
above.
non-circular pistons, such as those simple.
Use a You calipercan with
do more
one ofpistonthe balance-bar setups is easier to
is the extra height required. On a low-adjust.
If you've
from selected a you
Alston Industries, caliper
mustwithuse following:
area - bigger pistons or more of them. The disadvantage
profile race car, thereofmay hanging
not bepedals
suffi-
non-circular
an effective pistonpistons,
area insuch as those
the formulas. Use
Use morea caliper withcaliper
than one more onpiston
each is the extra
cient roomheightfor required.
hangingOnpedals.
a low-
from Alston
Effective Industries,
piston area foryou each must use
caliper area-
rotor. bigger pistons or more of them. profile race car, there
Consequently, you'llmay not be
have to suffi-
use
an eJfective piston area in the
is given in the caliper manufacturer's formulas. Use more
Use than one
a larger rotorcaliper on each
diameter, if cient room for
floor-mounted pedals. hanging pedals.
Effective piston area for each caliper rotor. Consequently, you'll have to use
is given in the caliper manufacturer's Use a larger rotor diameter, if floor-mounted pedals.
99
 Hurst! Airheart 200X2 caliper is largest
one offered by this manufacturer. Brake
torque is rated2 0at
Hurst/Airheart 0 x 223,000
caliperin-Ib brake
is largest
torque at 1200-psi
one offered hydraulic pressure.
by this manufacturer. Brake
Double-piston
torque is ratedcaliper is popularin-lb
at 23,000 for use on
brake
racing stock
torque cars. Photo
at 1200-psi courtesy
hydraulic Hurst
pressure.
Performance.
Double-piston caliper is popular for use on
racing stock cars. Photo courtesy Hurst
Two calipers on rotor doubles brake torque for a given hydrauliC pressure-an easy and ef- Performance.
fective means of lowering pedal effort or fluid pressure. Smaller single-piston caliper is
stiffer
.TWO than a dual-piston
callpars caliper,
u r i rudor doubles too. torque
brake Photo by
TorTom Monroe.
a ylven nyaraullc pressure-an easy and ef- changes. An adjustable proportioning
fective means of lowering pedal effort or fluid pressure. Smaller single-piston caliper is valve has limited adjustment.
stiffer than a dual-piston caliper, too. Photo by Tom Monroe. changes.
If you planAn adjustable
on using aproportioning
balance bar,
valve has limited
consider using an adiustment.
adjustable propor-
If youvalve,
tioning plan on toousing a balance
. A balance bar bar,
can
consider using an adjustable
be adjusted to accomplish the desired propor-
tioning valve, brake
front-to-rear too. Abalance,
balance butbar can
the
be adjusted to valve
proportioning accomplish
does itthe desired
autom ati-
front-to-rear
cally over a limitedbrake balance, but the
range of tire-grip
proportioning valve does
values. The disadvantage of using a it automati-
cally over a limited
proportioning valve with rangea balance
of tire-gripbar
values.
is The disadvantage
the added of using a
weight , cost, complexity
proportioning
and pedal travel. valve with a balance bar
is Unless
the added weight,
you like climbing cost, complexity
into a race-
and pedal travel.
car cockpit upside down on your back,
Unless
make sureyouthelike climbing
balance bar into
can aberace-
ad-
car cockpit upside down
justed from a convenient position. on your back,
makemay
This sureaffect
the balance bar canposition
the mounting be ad-
justed
you choosefromfora the convenient
pedals. But position.
, pedal
This may affect the
and balance-bar mounting are
maintenance position
criti-
you
cal to keeping a. brake system inpedal
choose for the pedals. But, top
and balance-bar
operating maintenance
condition. A balance are criti-
bar
cal
withtoa keeping a. brake system
remote-adjustment cablein and
top
operating
knob may be condition.
the solution. A balance bar
with
Brake-pedal ratio and cable
a remote-adjustment and
master-
Ideal race-car brake- pedal setup; balance bar with remote adjuster. Remote - adjuster knob may be the solution.
cylinder size (s) should be selected at
cable is routed to left of balance bar under clutch pedal. Floor-mounted pedals are neces- theBrake-pedal
same time.ratio The and objectmaster-
is to
sary r,-- .,- of -.low-profile
Idealbecause ,.,
,., .-,,, body height.
d ; balance bar with remote adjuster. .,.,. ,,,,.
-r cylinder the
achieve size(s)
maximum shouldoperating
be selected at
pres-
cable is routed to left of balance bar under clutch pedal. Floor-mounted pedals are neces- the same time. The object is to
sary because of low-profile body height. sure you established with an accept-
achieve
able pedalthe effort
maximum usingoperating
the followingpres-
Decide at this point what type of surfaces. And, adjusting a balance bar sure you established with an accept-
steps:
brake-balance method to use . There while driving on the road is simply not able pedal
Select effort
pedal ratiousing
. the following
areDecide
severalatchoices
this point whatfortype
available of
a race surfaces.
practical. And,
On a adjusting
race tracka, balance bar
conditions steps:
Select pedal effort at maximum
brake-balance
car: method to use. There while driving on the road is simply
are stable or reasonably predictable . not Select pedal ratio.
deceleration.
are several
Balancechoices
bar. available for a race practical.
Also, the On a race
driver track, conditions
constantly uses the Select
Calculate pedal
forceseffort at maximum
on master-cylinder
car: Adjustable proportioning valve. are stable
brakes hardorandreasonably
can sense predictable.
the need to deceleration.
push rod (s) .
Balance bar. of the two.
Combination Also, the driver constantly uses the
adjust balance. Calculate
Select forces on master-cylinder
master-cylinder diameter(s)
Adjustable
Road proportioning
cars usually don't use valve.
balance brakes hardbars
Balance and arecan used
senseon therace
needcars
to pushrod (s) .
that gives proper maximum operating
bars Combination
because theyofare thedifficult
two. to in- adjust
for twobalance.
m ain reasons: Select in
pressure master-cylinder
hydraulic system. diameterk)
Road cars
corporate intousually don'tpedals.
existing use balance
Also , Balance
Provides bars are pedal
stiffer used onfee race
l thancarsa that gives geometry
Check proper maximum of the pedaloperating
and
bars
brakebecause
balance they are difficult
for road to in-
use is not as for two main reasons:
proportioning valve . pressure in hydraulic
linkage at extremes of travel. system.
corporate
predictableinto existing
as for ~acing.pedals.
This isAlso,
be- Provides master
Separate stiffer pedal feelare
cylinders than
easya Check
Design geometry
pedal bracket of theandpedal and
master-
brake road
cause balance
carsfor runroad use istypes
on many not as
of proportioning
to change to mvalve.
ake large bra ke-balance linkage atmount.
cylinder extremes of travel.
predictable as for racing. This is be- Separate master cylinders are easy Design pedal bracket and master-
cause road cars run on many types of to change to make large brake-balance cylinder mount.
100
 MASTER-CYLINDER SIZE VS. PISTON AREA
Nominal Diameter
MASTER-CYLINDER
Bore Size
SIZE VS. PISTON AREAArea
In. Sqln.
Nominal
5/8 in. Diameter
0.6250 Area
0.3068
Bore Sire
11/16 in. In.
0.6875 Sq In.
0.3712
5/8
19mm in. 0.6250
0.7480 0.3068
0.4394
11/18in.
3/4in. 0.6875
0.7500 0.371 2
0.4418
19mm
20mm 0.7480
0.7874 0.4394
0.4869
3/4
13/16 in.in. 0.7500
0.8125 0.4418
0.5185
20mm
21mm 0.7874
0.8268 0.4869
0.5369
13/16 in.
22mm 0.8125
0.8661 D.5185
0.5892
21 mm
22.2mm 0.8268
0.8740 0.5369
0.5999
22mm
7/8 in. 0.8661
0.8750 0.5892
0.6013
22.2mm
23mm 0.8740
0.9055 0.5999
0.6440
7/8 in.in.
29/32 0.8750
0.9063 0.661 3
0.6451
23mm
15/16in. 0.9055
0.9375 0.6440
0.6903
Making under-dash brake-balance adjust- 29/32 in.
24mm 0.9063
0.9449 0.6451
0.7012
ment forces mechanic into this uncom- 15/16 In.
25.4mm 0.9375
1.0000 0.6903
0.7854
fortable position. Hanging
Making under-dash brake pedal
brake-balance with
adjust- 24mm
1 in. 0.9449
1.0000 0.701 2
0.7854
balance
ment bar and
forces remote into
mechanic adjuster
this is more
uncom- 25.4mm
1~1/32 in. 1,0090 8.7854
1.0313 0.8353
practical.position. Hanging brake pedal with
fortable 1 in. 1.OOOO 0.7854
26.6mm 1.0472 0.8613
balance bar and remote adjuster is more 1-1/32 in.in. 1.0313 0.8353
practical.
1-1/16 1.0625 0.8866
26.6mm
1-1/8 in. 1.0472
1.1250 0.861 3
0.9940
Change anything necessary and 1-1/16in.
28.6mm 1.0625
1.1260 0.8866
0.9958
start over. 1-1/E3 in.
1-1/4in. 1.7250
1.2500 0.9940
1.2272
l Change anything necessary and 28.6mm
31.8mm 1.f26Q
1.2520 0.9958
Select Pedal Ratio- There is nothing 1.2311
start over. 1I-1/4
~5/16In. in. 1.2600
1.3125 1.2272
1.3530
magic about the pedal ratio. Many 3?.8rnm 1.2520 1.231 I
Select Pedal Ratio-There is nothing 1-11/32in. 1.3438 1.4183
values are possible. However, if you 1-5/16in.
1-1/2in. 1 3 125 1.3530
magic knowaboutwhat the topedal 1.5000 1.7671
don't use, ratio.
try a Many
pedal 1-1 1/32
1-3/4 in. in. 1.3438
1.7500 1,4183
2.4053
values
ratio of are
about possible.
5.0. However, if you 1-1/2 In. 1.5000 1,7671
don't
If youknowbuywhata settoofuse,
pedals,try use
a pedal
the 1-3/4 in. 1.7500 2.4053
ratio
pedalofratio
about 5.0.into them. Unless the
built Listed are diameters of popular mass-produced master cylinders and their areas. Note that
If you buy
resulting a set of pedals,
master-cylinder use the
size(s) or some metric sizes are close to standard inch sizes. Be careful to get correct sizes when
pedal them.
linkage movement is incorrect, you the buying replacement
Listed are diametersparts. Many mass-produced
of popular cylinders have diameters marked and
master cylinders on them.
their areas. Note that
resultinghave
should master-cylinder
a good design. Size(S)
Don'tor some metric sizes are close to standard inch sizes. Be careful to get correct sizes when
linkage amovement
design new pedal isunless incorrect, you
you have buying replacement parts. Many cylinders have diameters marked on them.
should
to. It is have a good design.
time consuming Don't
and difficult multiplying the pedal ratio by pedal Master-Cylinder Size-Now that
design a new
to do correctly. pedal unless you have effort. you know the desired maximum
to.Some
It is time consuming
points to consider whenand difficult multiplying
For example, the if
pedal
pedalratio
ratiobyis peda!
10.0 Master-Cylinder
operating pressure andSize-Now
force on that
the
to do correctly.
selecting a pedal ratio: effort.
and pedal effort is 75 Ib, force on the you
master-cylinder piston, it's maximum
know the desired simple to
Some a points
With given to pedalconsider
ratio, iswhen the For example, pushrod
master-cylinder if pedal isratio is 10.0
750 lb. operating the
calculate pressure and force
required on the
area for the
selecting a pedal ratio:
master cylinder(s) mounted in a con- and pedal effort is 75 Ib,
If you are using a balance bar, force on the
the master-cylinder piston,
master-cylinder piston: it's simple to
l With place?
venient a given pedal ratio, is the master-cylinder pushrod is 750 lb. calculate the required area for the
force just calculated above is the pedal
master
Can youcylinder(s)
get master mounted
cylinder(s)in a con-
with If you
force thatare
actsusing
on the a balance
balance bar.bar, Itthe
is master-cylinder piston: F
venient place? Master-cylinder-piston area = ~
enough stroke so the pedal hits the force
dividedjustbetween
calculated
the above is the cylin-
two master pedal p
l Can before
you getthe master cylinder(s) with force that acts ontothethe balance bar. Itonis
floor master cylinder(s) ders according formulas in square inches
~aster-cylinder-piston area - F M C
enough
bottoms?stroke so the pedal hits the divided
page 75. between the two master cylin- FMC = Force on master-cylinder P piston
floor
Doesbefore the the master
pedal cylinder(s)
position feel ders according to
I recommend thattheyouformulas
assume the on insquare
in pounds inches
bottoms?
comfortable? page 75. bar divides pedal force equally
balance FMc
P Force onpressure
Hydraulic
= = master-cylinder
in poundspiston
per
D o e s the
Selecting Pedal pedal
Effort position
at Maximum feel I recommend
between the two thatmaster
you assume the
cylinders. square inch
in Pounds
comfortable?
Deceleration-Most people can stop a balance bar divides pedal
This allows the maximum amount of force equally = Hydraulic pressure in pounds per
inch
Selecting
car Pedal Effort
that requires 100-lbatpedalMaximumeffort. between
balance-bar the adjustment
two master incylinders. either A list of piston areas for commonly
Deceleration-Most
However, this is highpeoplefor acan stop
road car.a This allowsItthe
direction. maximum
also makes the amount
designof available master-cylinder diameters is
car that requires 100-lb
And, it may not allow enough safety pedal effort. balance-bar adjustment
easier. If you do this, divide equallyin either A listinof piston
given areas for commonly
the accompanying table.
However,forthis
margin is high
brake fadefor fora street
road car.
or direction.
the resultingIt pushrod
also makes forcethe design
found by available master-cylinder diameters is
Most cars use 3/4-1-in.-diameter
And,
racing.it Imay not allowthat
recommend enoughyou safety
use a easier. If you
multiplying do effort
pedal this, divide
by pedal equally
ratio. given
master in the accompanying
cylinders. table.
If your calculated
margin
75-lb pedalfor brake effortfadeforformaximum
street or the resulting
This gives thepushrod
force onforce eachfound
master-by Most cars use 314-1-in.-diameter
area falls between two standard sizes,
deceleration. If you use less use
racing. I recommend that you pedala multiplying pedal effort by pedal
cylinder pushrod. If you do not center ratio. master the
choose cylinders. If your calculated
master-cylinder diameter
75-lb pedal effort for
effort, the brake pedal will feel less maximum This gives the
the balance bar,force on each
calculate master-
the force to closest to the required standard
area falls between two area. Yousizes,
can
deceleration.
rigid and will haveIf youmoreuse less pedal
travel. cylinder
each pushrod. If you do not center
pushrod. choose
make smallthe adjustments
master-cylinder
later diameter
with the
effort, the brake pedal
Master-Cylinder Pushrod Force-If will feel less theNow
balance
that bar,
you calculate
have force the on
force to
each closest
balance tobar.the required area. You can
rigid and will have more travel.
your car uses a tandem master cylin- each pushrod.
pushrod, you also have the force ap- make small adjustments
If the required later witharea
master-cylinder the
Master-Cylinder
der or a single master Pushrod Force-If
cylinder, the Nowto that
plied eachyou have force onpiston.
master-cylinder each balance bar.
is smaller than what's available, go to
your car
force on usesthe apushrod
tandem master
is found cylin-
by pushrod, you also
The forces are the same. have the force ap- a Iflarger
the required master-cylinder
numerical pedal ratio areaor
der or a single master cylinder, the plied to each master-cylinder piston. is smaller than what's available, go to
force on the pushrod is found by The forces are the same. a larger numerical pedal ratio 101 or
 Pedal

1 Centerline

F-;r;
.- Pedal

/J Must Be Less
Than 5 For All
Positions
0 Must BeofLess
Pedal
Than 5" For All
Positions of Pedal

Make a drawing to determine

rapid
Makecylinder
a drawing wear
L Pushrod
angle between pushrod and master-
cylinder centerline. Angle must not be excessive, or binding and
will result.angle
to determine Limit between
angle to 5 maximum.
pushrod If angle
and master-
I Floor-mounted Neal pedal bracket ties master cylinder to pedal
pivot in one assembly. Only forces on chassis are those delivered
Floor-mounted
directly Neal foot.
by driver's pedalLarger
bracketforces
ties master cylinder
on master to pedal
cylinder and
is too large,
cylinder increase
centerline. Anglelength
mustofnotpushrod or shorten
be excessive, total pedal
or binding and pedal pivot
pivot in oneare taken byOnly
assembly. bracket.
forces on chassis are those delivered
travel.cylinder
rapid Angle should be result.
wear will nearly Limit
zero angle
with pedal in positionIfwhere
to 5" maximum. angle directly by driver's foot. Larger forces on master cylinder and
maximum deceleration
is too large, increase occurs. Onpushrod
length of most cars or with hanging
shorten totalpedals,
pedal pedal pivot are taken by bracket.
this occurs
travel. Anglewith pedalbe
should at nearly
about 2zero
in. from
withfloor.
pedal in position where
maximum deceleration occurs. On most cars with hanging pedals,
power
this brakes
occurs with .pedal
However,
at about 2don't
in. fromuse
floor. the pedals and seat. Position them as important point: The bracket must
power brakes on a race car unless ab- they will be in the car and see how not deflect an excessive amount when
power brakes.
solutely necessary. However,
There don't use
are easier the
theypedals and seat.
fit. Now's the Position
time to them change as important
the pedal is point:
pushedThe hard. bracket must
A pedal
power brakes on a race
ways of avoiding this, unless your car unless ab- they will be in the car
things that are not comfortable. and see how not deflect an excessive
bracket mounted in the center of a amount when
solutely
race car isnecessary.
extremely There heavy. are easier they fit.theNow's
Check pedal in thethetime to change
extreme posi- the
thin pedal is pushed
sheet-metal fire hard.
wall A ispedal
1101
ways
If youof avoiding
select a this, unless your
5/8-in.-diameter things
tions of thattravel.areYounot comfortable.
should have no bracket mounted
satisfactory. This, in or the center pedal
a flexible of a
race car is extremely heavy.
master cylinder, be aware that you Check
more than the pedal
6 in. ofin the
totalextreme
travel atposi- the thin
bracket, sheet-metal
is worse than fire airwall
in theis hy-tfor
If you goselect
cannot to a a 5/8-in.-diameter
smaller size tions pad.
pedal of travel.
Try it toYou should have no
be sure. satisfactory. This, or a
draulic system. With a flexible pedalflexible pedal
master
later-there cylinder,
are nonebe aware that Ityou
available. is more
After thanyou6 in.
make of total travel of
a drawing at the
the bracket,
bracket, isyou worse than pump
cannot air in the
up hy-the
cannot
better to use go a to a orsmaller
3/4-in. size
larger cylin- pedal pad.
and Try it to be sure.
its mounts, check the link- draulic
pedal orsystem.
bleed the With a flexible
trapped air to pedal
cure
later-there
der so you are can none
makeavailable.
a change, It isif ageAfter
at theyouextreme
make apositions.
drawing of Therethe bracket,
the problem' you cannot pump up the
better to use a 314-in. or larger
needed. For example, if new tires give cylin- pedal and
should be its
no mounts,
binding.check the link-
Pay particular pedal or bleed the trapped air
I f you stress-analyze the to pedal
cure
der
moresogrip youthancanwhatmake youa allowed
change,for,if age at thetoextreme
attention the angle positions.
the pushrodThere the problem!
bracket, remember to use maximum
you'll need smaller master tires
needed. For example, if new give
cylinders should be no binding. Pay
makes with the master cylinder. If the particular If you normal
load-not stress-analyze
operatingthe load.pedal
The
more grip than what you allowed
to keep the same pedal effort for maxi- for, attention
pushrod goes to the
throughangleextreme
the pushrodangles bracket, remember to
maximum load occurs during a panic use maximum
you'll need smaller master
mum deceleration. So, leave yourself cylinders makes
to the withbore the m ~ master
of the s t e cylinder.
r cylinder, If the it load-not
stop when normal
the driveroperating
pushesload. withThe all
to keeproom
some the same
to makepedalchanges.
effort forTomaxi-in- pushrod
can goes This causes
bind. extreme severeangles maximum
of his might. loadIf occurs
the bracketduringis astrong
panic
mum deceleration. So,
crease the master-cylinder diameterleave yourself the bore of
problems, the t-naster
including cylinder, Ait
breakage. stop when
enough forthethis,
driver pushes
it will work withfineall
some room topedal
and maintain make changes.
effort, use aTo in-
larger Can
longer bind.pushrod Thismay causes
be required severe to of his might. If the
during maximum deceleration. bracket is strong
crease the
pedal ratio. master-cylinder diameter problems,
reduce the misalignment breakage.
angle. A enough Design
Sample for this,Problem-Following
it will work fine
and maintain pedal effort, use a larger longer
maximum pushrod may be required
of 5 misalignment between during maximum deceleration.
Pedal & Linkage Geometry-A is a sample race -car brake-design
pedal ratio.
brake pedal must be designed to fit reduce
pushrod the misalignment
and master cylinder angle.
is recom- A Sample
problem. Design
The steps Problem-Following
are in the same
Pedal
the driver. & As Linkage
the driver Geometry-A
pushes the maximumby brake manufacturers.
mended between See is a sample
order presented . race-car brake-design
brake
pedal, the ball of his foot shouldtostay
pedal must be designed fit pushrod and master
the accompanying Vlinder
drawing recorn-
forisan illus- problem. The steps
First select the disc- brake are in thesystem
same
the driver. As the driver
in contact with the pedal pad. Measurepushes the mended
tration ofby thisbrake manufacturers. See
pro blem. ordergives
that presented.
the requi red brake torque at
pedal,footthe orball the &drawing for an
your theofdriver's-if
his foot should stay
the sizes Pedal-Bracket Master-Cylinder a First
500-psi select the disc-brake
operating pressure system
at the
in contact with the pedal pad.
are significantly different-and check Measure Mount-On
Uation this problem.
many cars the pedal that gives the required
front brakes and 400-psi brakeat torque
the rear. at
your Master-C~linder a 500-psi operating are pressure at the
pedal foot or the driver's-if the sizes
positions. bracket and master-cylinder mount These calculations explained in
areAlso,
significantly
look for different-and
a car with pedals check in Mount-On many
are the same. This makes cars the pedal
a strong, front
the firstbrakes
part ofandthis400-psi
chapter.at the rear.
pedal positions.
the "perfect" position for the driver's b r x k system
rigid e t and withmaster-cylinder
minimum of overall mount These
A proven pedal are
calculations explained
system has an in
Also, look forthe a carrelationship
with pedalsbe- in are the Race-car
weight. same. This pedalmakes
brackets a strong,
manu- the first part
8.0-to-l pedalof this
ratio.chapter.
I wish to design
feet. Measure
the "perfect" position rigid system with minimum of overall proven
forAa pedal pedalof 75system has an
tween the floor, ped als for
and[he driver's
seat. Copy factured by companies such as Tilton, effort lb at maximum
feet. Measure weight.
Neal or Race-car
Winters pedal brackets manu- deceleration. The pedal force design
8.0-to-1 pedal ratio. I wish to
the design of a the
goodrelationship
car if you find be-
factured by colnpanies
use this concept. A acting
tween the floor, pedals and seat.
one that's suitable. There is no perfect Copy pedal bracket is difficultsuch as Tilton,
to design, so for the
on a pedal
balance barofis 75
effort lb at maximum
calculated:
the if you Neal
buyingor one Winters use this concept. A deceleration. The pedal force acting
pedaldesign
design, of abecause
good car each find
person's of these sturdy, light-
one pedal bracket is difficult to design, So Force
on the on balance
balance barbar = PE Rp in
is calculated:
bodythat's has suitable. There is nodifferent
slightly perfect weight brackets makes sense. These
pounds
parts areone of these sturdy,applica-
light-
pedal design,So,
dimensions.
body has
suit the driver.
because
designeach
slightly
person's
yourdifferent
car to weight
designed
tions andbrackets
are easy makes
for racing
to use. sense. These
PE = Pedal
pounds
Rp
on effort inbar
= Pedal ratio
pounds
= R~ i n',
dimensions. SO,doubts
design about
your car to parts are designed
I discuss for racing
pedal-bracket applica-
design in pE = Pedal effortinbarpounds
If you have pedal Force on balance = (75 Ib)(8.0)
suit the driver. tions and are easy to use.
Chapter 6. However, re member this R, = Pedal ratio bar = 600 lb.
position, make a full-size model of Force on balance
If you have doubts about pedal I discuss pedal-bracket design i n Force on balance bar = (75 lb)(8.0)
position, make a full-size model of 6 . However, remember this Force on balance bar = 6 0 0 Ib.
102
Accident waiting to happen: Steel brake line must be secured to Brake-line mounting bracket is simple plate, located near suspen-
frame with a bracket where the flexible hose attaches (arrow). sion pivots (arrow). This minimizes hose bending and pulling as
With this waiting
Accident setup, steel line is subjected
to happen: Steel brake to line
bending
must and fatigue as
be secured to wheel moves.
Brake-line Line and
mounting hose attaches
bracket is simple to bracket
plate, using
located an suspen-
near aircraft
the
framesuspension moveswhere
with a bracket up andthe down.
flexibleEventually, the line
hose attaches will
(arrow). bulkhead
sion fitting.
pivots Jam This
(arrow). nut clamps bulkhead
minimizes hose fitting to bracket.
bending and pulling as
fracture,
With this causing brakeline
setup, steel failure.
is subjected to bending and fatigue as wheel moves. Line and hose attaches to bracket using an aircraft
the suspension moves up and down. Eventually, the line will bulkhead fitting. Jam nut clamps bulkhead fitting to bracket.
fracture, causing brake failure.
Assuming the balance bar divides
pedal force equally between the front
Assuming
and the balance
rear master cylinders,barthedivides
force
pedal force equally
on each pushrod is 300 between
lb. the front
andAlthough
rear master cylinders,
the master the force
cylinders have
on eachforces,
equal pushrod is 300 lb.
different size cylinders
areAlthough
required the
for master
front andcylinders have
rear brakes.
equal forces, different size cylinders
This is due to the difference in the
are requiredpressure
operating for frontofand
therear brakes.
front and
This is due to the difference in the
rear systems.
operating
From thepressure
formula on of page
the front
101: and
rear systems. F
Fromarea
Piston ~ on page 101:
the =formula
P
FMC = Force F master-cylinder
M ~
Piston area =on - piston
in pounds P
FMc
P= = Force onpressure
Hydraulic master-cylinder piston
in pounds per
in pounds
square inches
P = Hydraulic pressure in pounds per
For
squaretheinches
front brakes, master-cylinder
Custom-fabricated reservoirs are secured Reduced diameters at centers positively
piston area is: with hose clamps and rubber cushions in locate fluid reservoirs in mounting clamps.
For
. the front 300lb
brakes, master-cylinder between. Reservoirs
CUJLUIII-~dbricated will slipare
reservoirs if secured
clamps Clamps
R e u u ~ awould have toatloosen
uularnerers considerably
centers poslr~vely
Piston area
oiston = 500 psi
area is: loosens.
with hose clamps and rubber cushions in before reservoirs
locate fluid could in
reservoirs slip.
mounting clamps.
= 0.6 sq in. 300 Ib between. Reservoirs will slip if clamps Clamps would have to loosen considerably
Piston area =
For the rear-brake master cylinder: cylinder is considerably larger than
loosens. to complete
before reservoirsa could
brake-system
slip. design.
= 0.6 sq in. the minimum size. This is good in The major items remaining are:
. 300lb
Piston
For thearea = 400 psi
rear-brake master cylinder: cylinder
case is considerably
I guessed wrong at thelarger
start ofthan
the to complete
Route brakealines
brake-system
on chassis. design.
= 0.75 sq in. 300 Ib
the minimum size. This is
design. I can easily change hydraulic-good in The major items remaining
Attach flex hoses to chassis. are:
Piston area =- case I guessed wrong Route brake lines on chassis.
400 psi
The closest standard-size master system pressure byat using
the startsmaller
of the Locate and mount remote master-
= 0.75 sq in. design. I can
cylinders. easilya change
When problem hydraulic-
occurs, Attachfluid
cylinder flex reservoir
hoses to chassis.
(s) (if used).
cylinder is selected from the table on system Locate and mount remote master-
The101:closest standard-size master
page usually a pressure by using
smaller master cylindersmaller
is re- Locate proportioning valve (if
cylinder is selected from the table on quired to reduce pedal effort. occurs,
cylinders. When a problem cylinder
used) . fluid reservoir(s1 (if used).
page 101 : usually
After a finishing
smaller master cylinder is re-I
the calculations, Locate mounts
Design proportioning valverotors
for calipers, (if
Front master-cylinder diameter = 7/8 quireda side
to reduce used).
in. (area = 0.601 sq in.) draw view pedal
of theeffort.
pedals to check and other brake hardware.
Frontmaster-cylinder
master-cylinder diameter
diameter == 7/8
After geometry.
linkage finishing theBecause I selectedI
calculations, Design mounts
Design for calipers,
cooling-duct system,rotors
if
Rear and other brake hardware.
in.in.(area
1 (area==0.601 sqsqin.)
0.785 in.). a standard pedal design to
draw a side view of the pedals checka
from required.
Rear master-cylinder diameter = linkage geometry. Because
manufacturer, this step is probably I selected Design that
Confirm cooling-duct
bleeders aresystem,
accessibleif
1 in.
Note(area = 0.785
that sq in.).
the front master cylinder anot standard pedal sets
required. Pedal design
shouldfrom
be de-a required.
and mounted high.
is almost perfect and the rear cylinder manufacturer, this step
signed to work without binding. is probably Confirmthethatcarbleeders
After are accessible
is completed, the
is Note that large.
a bit too the front master
I'll use the cylinder
balance not required. Pedal sets should be de- and mounted high.
brake system must be tested before
is
baralmost perfect
in testing and the the
to fine-tune rearsystem.
cylinder signed to work BRAKE
COMPLETE without binding.
SYSTEM After use,
serious theChapter
car is 10.completed, the
is Also
a bit note
too large. the use
that I'll the balance
smaller master There are now other steps required brake system must be tested before
bar in testing to fine-tune the system. COMPLETE BRAKE SYSTEM serious use, Chapter 10.
Also note that the smaller master There are now other steps required 103
78sting 10

Testing is required to get maximum performance ...

n any car, but particularly race cars. This includes brake testing. George B.,..>tti and
Tom Sneva discuss effects of changes to car between practice runs while tire engineer measures tire temperatures. Photo by Tom Monroe.

As any
Testing is required to get maximum performance from you car,
now butknow, a great
particularly racedeal
cars.of served brake
This includes while it George
testing. operates. Brake-
Bignotti and
the brake-system
Tom Sneva discuss effects of changes to car between design
practice runs while processmeasures
tire engineer is dynamometer testing
tire temperatures. Photo is
by usually done
Tom Monroe.
based on assumptions. For this by the big brake manufacturers, but if
reason, a brake-test program is abso- you are so inclined you can make such
lutely necessary. Often, when a new a device for yourself.
As car
race youisnow know,and
designed a great
built, deal of
testing served
Most while it operates.
brake-testing Brake-
time will be
the brake-system design process
is neglected in favor of getting the car is dynamometer
spent on the track. You take the done
testing is usually car to
based on assumptions. For
to its first race. This is false economy. this by the bigtest
a private brake
trackmanufacturers
and test the ,brakes.
but if
reason,
Testing aatbrake-test program
a race takes a lotis longer
abso- you are so inclined
Measuring brake you can make such
performance and
lutely necessary. Often , when
than at a planned private test session. a new apushing
device for yourself.
them to the limit should be a
race car is designed and built,
I've seen many people use up a whole testing Most
part of thebrake-testing
test. Many tests timethatwill
canbe be
isracing
neglected
season in favor
to getof getting the car
a car working spent on the track. You take
done very easily during track testing the car to
to its first race. This is false
properly when they could've sorted economy. awould
privateotherwise
test track and test the brakes.
be difficult or im-
Testing
out the carat in
a race takes
one full day aoflot longe r
testing. Measuring brake performance
possible during a race. Even a practice and
than at a pl anned private test session. pushing them to the limit should
session during a race weekend is not be a
Brake dynamometer, designed to run
Brake testing falls into two
I' ve seen many people use up a whole part of the test. Many tests that
appropriate for testing. Other cars on can be
continuously, is driven by a 289-cu in. Ford categories: laboratory testing and
racing season to get a car working done very easily
the track prevent during
you track
fromtesting
doing
V 8 through a gearbox. Power delivered to track testing. Laboratory testing in-
brake is equivalent to a sedan under a hard properly
volves runningwhen they couldbrake
a single ' ve sorted
on a what is needed for a good test. or im-
would otherwise be difficult
stop. Datsun drum brake is being tested. out the car in one full day of testing. possible during a race. Even a pract ice
testing machine called a brake
Brake dynamometer, designed to run Brake testing
dynamometer. falls on
See photo into two
the back session during a race weekend is not
BRAKE-DYNAMOMETER
continuously, is driven by a 289-cu in. Ford categories:
cover. This type laboratory
of testingtesting
is similar andto appropriate
TESTING for testing. Other cars on
V8 through a gearbox. Power delivered to track
testingtesting
an . engine
Laboratoryon testing
an engine in- theBrake
track manufacturers
prevent you usefrom doing
brake dy-
brake is equivalent to a sedan under a hard volves running a single brake on a what is needed for a good test.
stop. Datsun drum brake is being tested. dynamometer. Because a brake is out namometers for laboratory testing. A
testing machine called
in the open, it can be studied and ob- a brake single brake is mounted o n and driven
dynamometer. See photo on the back BRAKE-DYNAMOMETER
cover. This type of testing is similar to TESTING
testing an engine on an engine Brake manufacturers use brake dy-
dynamometer. Because a brake is out namometers for laboratory testing. A
in the open, it can be studied and ob- single brake is mounted on and driven

104
by the dynamometer. Instruments
measure and record such things as HOW MUCH HORSEPOWER Horsepower = 0 .00268W ed M S
DY Lne temperature,
brake uy narnomeler. rpm, 1nsLrumenrs brake GOES INTO THE BRAKES? We = weight of car in pounds
measure
torque, and record such
hydraulic pressure thingsand as HOW MUCHisHORSEPOWER
Horsepower the rate at which Horsepower
d M = maximum = 0.00268WCd,S
decleration in g's
brake temperature, rpm, brake GOES is
energy INTO THE BRAKES?
delivered. The heat energy WS, = = speed
weight ofof car
the incarpounds
in miles per
stresses. The dynamometer is pow-
torque, Horsepower
received by theis brakes
the rate at awhich
during stop d, = maximum decleration in g's
hour.
ered by anhydraulic
engine or pressureelectric motor. and
energy S = speed of the car in miles per
stresses. The dynamometer is pow- can be isexpressed
delivered. The heat energy
as horsepower.
Usually, a large high-speed flywheel is received
For by the
example, if brakes
a brakeduring a stop
is driven by hour.
ered Because the speed of a car
used. by an engine or electric motor. canengine
an be expressed
on a brakeasdynamometer,
horsepower. changes during a stop, power to the
Usually, a large high-speed
Dynamometer testing flywheel involves is For example, if a brake
brake is driventhe by Because
power into the equals brakes also the speedDeceleration
changes. of a car
used.
revving up the flywheel until there is an engine
power on of
output a brake dynamometer,
the engine. In a car, changes
may change during a stop,
during the power
stop dueto the
to
a Dynamometer
predetermined amount testing ofinvolves energy power
the intoenergy
kineic the brakeof the equals
moving thecar brakes
changesalso changes. and
in downforce, Deceleration
this also
revvinginupit. the
stored Theflywheel
driving until motorthere is
is dis- power output
supplies the of the engine.
power. However,In a that
car, may change
changes duringtothethe
power stopbrakes.
due to
aconnected
predetermined amount
and the brake is applied to of energy the kineic
kinetic energy
energy of the moving
originally came fromcar changes
Obviously,inthedownforce, and this
highest power also
is for a
storedthe
slow in flywheel
it. The driving motor is dis-
to a predetermined supplies
the engine.the power. However, that changes
fast, heavypowercar with to lots
the ofbrakes.
down-
connected
rpm or to a dead stop. Theis amount
and the brake applied of to kinetic energy originally
One horsepower equalscame550 from
ft-lb Obviously,
force and big theracing
highest power is for a
tires.
slow theenergyflywheelinto the a predetermined the energy
of engine. delivered each second, fast, heavy
Below arecarsample
with lots of down-
calculations
stored flywheel is
rpm or to a dead stop. The TheOne horsepower
total power intoequalsall four550 ft-lb
brakes force andexplain
that may big racing
whytires.
bra'k es are de-
known. It is equivalent to a amount
fraction of of of energy delivered
is given each
by thesecond. Belowtheare
stored energy in the flywheel is during a stop follow- signed waysample
they arecalculations
for various
the kinetic energy stored in a moving The total power into all four brakes
ing formula: that
typesmay explain why brakes are de-
of cars.
known. It is equivalent
car, or about one-third of the total to a fraction of
during a stop i s given by the follow- slgned the way they are for various
the kinetic
energy energy one
for testing stored frontin brake
a moving and ing formula: types of cars.
Ty,p eof Car We (lb) S (mph) d M (g's) Power(HP)
one-sixth for one rear brake. the total
car, or about one-third of
energy for testing one front brake and Large sedan, street tires
Type of Car
4000 60
W, (Ib) S (mph)
0.8
d, (g's) Power(HP1
515
Dyno testing tests a brake's energy- 257
one-sixth for one rear brake.
absorbing capaci ty for one or a series
Small sedan, street tires 2000 60 0.8
Large
Racingsedan, street
stock car, tires tires
racing 4000 60
200 0.8
1.2 51 5
2573
of Dyno
completetesting or tests
partial a brake's
stops. The energy-
fly- Small sedan,
Fast race car street
with hightiresdownforce 2000 60
200 0.8
2.5 257
2680
absorbing capacity
wheel can be stopped slowly for one or a series
or Racingrace
stock 4000 200 2573
Small carcar,
withracing tires
low downforce 1000 120 1.2 386
of complete
rapidly, dependingor partial on stops.
how much The fly-
hy- Fast race car with high downforce 2000 200 2.5 2680
wheel
draulic can pressurebe stopped
is applied slowly to the or Small race car with low downforce 1000 120 1.2 386
rapidly, depending on
brake. Sophisticated dynamometers how much hy- remote temperature measurement is Testing different types of calipers,
draulic
are pressure
computer is applied
controlled and can to the be possible. brake drums or other hardware.
brake. Sophisticated
programmed to duplicate dynamometers brake remote temperature
Thermocouples canmeasurement
be used on any is Testing
Comparisondifferent
of types of calipers,
different ro tor
are computerspeeds
applications, controlled and can be
and decelerations possible.
stationary brake part. To measure brake
designsdrums
. or other hardware.
programmed to duplicate
encountered in city traffic, a mountain brake Thermocouples
moving parts, suchcan as abe useda on
rotor, any
sliding Comparison
Testing effectof ofdifferent rotor
caliper-piston
applications,
descent, or laps speeds
around anda race
decelerations
track . stationary brake part. To
contact or more-sophisticated instru- measure designs.
insulators.
encountered
Another type in city
of traffic,
dynamometera mountain ap- movingare
ments parts, such. as
needed a rotor,
Often, a sliding
rotor tem- Testing effect oftorque
Finding maximum caliper-piston
the brake
descent,
plies constant power to thetrack.
or laps around a race brake. contact
perature is measured with ainstru-
or more-sophisticated ther- insulators.
is capable of achieving without struc-
ThisAnother type of input
steady-power dynamometer
can be atap-a ments are brought
mocouple needed. Often, rotor tem-
into contact with Finding
tural failuremaximum
. torque the brake
plies
particular rpm. As the brakethe
constant power to heats brake.
up, perature
the rotor immediately after thea brake
is measured with ther- is capable of achieving without struc-
This steady-power
its torque changes.input Torquecan be can atbea mocouple brought into contact with
stops. tural failure.
COMPONENT .TESTING
particular
measured rpm. with As the brake .heats
instruments up,
Friction theA rotor immediately
hand-held pyrometerafter connected
the brake Manufacturers do a lot of brake-
its torque changes. Torque
change with temperature at a constant can be stops.
to a thermocouple probe is a useful COMPONENT
system-part TESTING
testing. They test master
measured
rpm can with instruments.with
be determined Friction
this A hand-held
device for measuringpyrometer brakeconnected
and tire Manufacturers
cylinders and wheel do cylinders
a lot of on brake-
test
change with temperature at a constant
setup. to a thermocouple
temperatures at a raceprobetrack.
is a useful
When system-part testing. They test
rigs that automatically applymaster
the
rpm can be Measuring-The
Temperature determined withsecret this device for the
racers use measuring brake and they
term pyrometer, tire cylinders
brakes over andandwheel
over.cylinders
This testsondura-
test
setup.
of proper brake-dynamometer testing temperatures at a race track.
usually mean hand-held pyrometer or When rigs that
bili ty of automatically apply the
the parts.
Temperature
is Measuring-The
the instrumentation. A good secret setup racers use the term pyrometer, they
thermocouple. brakes
By cyclingand
over over. cylinder
a brake This tests dura-
rapidly,
of proper
will havebrake-dynamometer
numerous temperature- testing usually
There mean
are manyhand-held pyrometer
interesting com-or bility
testingof the
takesparts.much less time than
is the instrumentation.
measuring devices mounted A good setup
in critical thermocouple.
parisons to make when dynamometer By testing.
track cycling aInbrake cylinder
addition rapidly,
, components
will have numerous
locations on the brake. Generally, temperature- ThereHere
testing. are are
many someinteresting com-
possible tests: subjected to internal pressure than
testing takes much less time are
measuring
thermocouples devices
are usedmounted
for this.in critical parisons to make when dynamometer
Comparison of brake friction mate- track
testedtesting. In addition,
for bursting strengthcomponents
at pres-
locations on the brake.
A thermocouple is a joint Generally,
of two testing.
rials forHere
fadeareresistance
some possible
, wear tests:
and subjected
sures muchto higherinternalthanpressure
normal. areIt
thermocouples are used
wires with dissimilar metal. When thefor this. Comparison
torque. of brake friction mate- tested
must be proven that each itemathaspres-
for bursting strength the
A thermocouple
joint, or thermocouple is a joint
junction, of two is rials for fade resistance,
Determining wear part
the most critical and sures
strength much higher than
to withstand the normal.
maximum It
wires with dissimilar metal.
heated , it generates a small electrical When the torque.
of braking system when excessive must be proven that each item
possible pressure and have a signifi- has the
joint,
voltage.or Thisthermocouple
tiny voltage can junction,
be meas- is Determining
temperatures arethe most critical part
reached. strength
cant factortoofsafety.
withstand the maximum
heated, it generates
ured and converted to indicate a a small electrical of braking system
Finding the maximum whentemperature
excessive possible
If youpressure wish and to have a signifi-
pressure-test
voltage. temperature
specific This tiny voltage withcan be meas-
a pyrometer. temperatures are reached.
a brake can withstand without failure. cant factor of safety.
components, it is not difficult to set
ured
If and converted
the thermocouple to indicate
junction is in con-a Finding
Comparison the maximum
of brake-fluid temperature
perform- upIfa test.
you You wishmustto getpressure-test
a hydraulic
specific
tact withtemperature
the item towith a pyrometer.a
be measured, a brake
ance can withstand
at high temperatures. without failure. components,
pump or build i t is not difficult
a lever to seta
to operate
If the thermocouple junction is in con- Comparison of brake-fluid perform- up a test. You must get a hydraulic
tact with the item to be measured, a ance at high temperatures. pump or build a lever to operate
105
a
Complete line of temperature-measuring instruments is offered Handy pyrometer kit is manufactured by AP Racing and sold by
by Omega Engineering, Inc. Digital meters shown are designed to Tilton Engineering. It comes with two probes; one for soft mate-
be used with
Complete linethermocouples. By combininginstruments
of temperature-measuring a meter with a ther-
is offered rials
Handy such as tires, kit
pyrometer andisone for hard materials
manufactured by APsuch as brake
Racing rotors.
and sold by
mocouple
by Omega mounted in a Inc.
Engineering, special probe,
Digital you shown
meters C:ln custom-build
are designedyour
to Instrument
Tilton can be used
Engineering. to measure
It comes with twobrake temperatures
probes; on mate-
one for soft open-
own pyrometer.
be used Such instrumentation
with thermocouples. is useful
By combining for testing
a meter on a
with a ther- wheel cars.asPhoto
rials such tires, courtesy AP hard
and one for Racing.
materials such as brake rotors.
brake dynomounted
mocouple or race car.
in aPhoto courtesy
special probe, Omega
you canEngineering.
custom-build your Instrument can be used t o measure brake temperatures on open-
own pyrometer. Such instrumentation is useful for testing on a wheel cars. Photo courtesy AP Racing.
brake dyno or race car. Photo courtesy Omega Engineering.
Put a tee in the hydraulic line and
install the gage. Make sure air cannot
bePut a tee inin the
trapped the gage
hydraulic line high
or other and
installinthethe
spot gage. Make sure
system. air cannot
Pressurize the
Indicator Mount be trapped
system and inrecord
the gage or other
caliper high
deflection
spotincremental
at in the system. Pressurize
pressures. Drawthea
system
graph ofand recordversus
pressure caliper deflection
deflection . It
at incremental
should pressures. a Draw
be approximately straighta
---Force graph
line. If of pressure
it's not, versus
somethingdeflection.
in the It
should be approximately a
system has slack, which is being taken straight

! tp,,,,
line.
up, orIfsomething
it's not, issomething
failing. Checkin the to
system
see has deflection
if the slack, whichreturns
is beingto taken
zero
up, orpressure
when something is failing.If Check
is removed. some de- to
see if the deflection returns
flection remains without pressure, to zero
when pressure
something is removed.
has bent If some
or crushed . de-
Caliper flection
You can remains
measure without pressure,
brake-hose and
something
line deflection has bent or crushed.
as well. These deflec-
Master Cylinder
or High-Pressure Pump tions are small, but brake-hose
You can measure you should and be
line
able deflection
to measureasthem well. with
These deflec-
a dial in-
Master Cylinder
or Pressure
High-Pressure tions arewhile
dicator small,us ing
but extremely
you shouldhigh be
Caliper pressure-test setup: gage Pump
should have minimum 1S00-psi range; 2000
psi is preferable. If maximum pressure is exceeded, gage will be damaged. Spacer gives
able to measure them with
system pressure. Take a number of a dial in-
something for pads to push
Caliper pressure-test against.
setup: Notegage
Pressure how should
dial indicator is mounted:
have minimum Bracket
1500-psi is attached
range; 2000 dicator
measurementswhile just
using extremely
to be sure. high
to
psione side of caliper
is preferable. and gagepressure
If maximum is set square against oPPosite
is exceeded, gage willside so it will read
be damaged. totalgives
Spacer cali- system pressure. Take a number of
per deflection.
something Test to
for pads can alsoagainst.
push be performed
Note howon the
dial car if a pressure
indicator gage Bracket
is mounted: is installed in brake
is attached measurements just to be sure.
THE TEST TRACK
to one
line. side ofgage
Remove caliper and driving
before gage iscarsettosquare against opposite
avoid excessive side so it will read total cali-
pedal travel.
per deflection. Test can also be performed on the car if a pressure gage is installed in brake The only way to get the most from a
line. Remove gage before driving car t o avoid excessive pedal travel. THE systemTRACK
brake TEST is to test it on the car.
brake master cylinder. The lever can to the caliper. You must also measure The
You don only way to
' t have to get
testthe
on most
a racefrom
track.a
be operated by hanging weights on a either hydraulic pressure in the brake
Unlikesystem
chassisis testing,
to test itbrake
on the car.
testing
brake
pulley master
system.cylinder.
You can The
then lever
applycan
an to the caliper.
system or forceYou must
on the also measure
master-cylinder You
can don't
be done have tointest
a on a race track.
straight line.
be operated by hanging weights
exact load to the master-cylinder on a either hydraulic pressure
piston. System pressure can then in the be Unlike chassis
Therefore, youtesting,
may brake
have testing
more
pulley
pushrodsystem. You can itthen
and maintain so apply
you canan system or force
calculated. on the master-cylinder
A hydraulic-pressure gage can be
options. done in a straight line.
exact load to
make measurements . the master-cylinder piston.
with System pressure
a large-enough can do
scale will then
it. be Therefore,
Each area you of themay havehasmore
country dif-
pushrod Deflections-It
System and maintain itis so you can
interesting calculated. A hydraulic-pressure
An engine oil-pressure gage won gage't options.
ferent facilities and laws. List possible
make measurements.
to test the deflection of hydraulic- with a large-enough scale will do
have enough capacity. Relatively inex-it. Each locations
testing area of the country
so you don'thas dif-
forget
System components
system Deflections-Itwhileis the
interesting
system An engine
pensive gages oil-pressure gage psi
reading to 2000 won't
are ferent facilities and laws. List
any. Pick the one most suitable for possible
is pressurized . Of particular hydraulic-
to test the deflection of interest is have enough
available at capacity. Relativelystores.
industrial-supply inex- testingpurposes.
your locationsDon't
so you don'ttheforget
ignore legal
system
how components
much while the deflects
a caliper system pensive gages reading
Marsh Instrument to 2000' s psi
Company are
J4878 any. Pick the
limitations, suchoneas most
noise suitable
ordinances.for
is pressurized. Of particular interest
outwardly. You can measure this de- is available at industrial-supply
pressure gage is a 2000-psi gage thatstores. your purposes. Don't ignore
People next to your " test track" may the legal
how much
flection a indicator
with a dial caliper mounted
deflects Marsh Instrument
uses minimum Company's J4878
displacement. limitations,
not appreciate such
the as noiseofordinances.
sound screeching
outwardly. You can measure this de- pressure gage is a 2000-psi gage that People next to your "test track" may
flection with a dial indicator mounted uses minimum displacement. not appreciate the sound of screeching
106
 ~'mzo",
Caliper
Deflection
(in)
Caliper
Deflection
(in.) When testing a race car's brakes, do it on
the same type of track it will run on. This
track is
When best for
testing testing
a race car'sanbrakes,
oval-track
do itdirt
on
car. same
the It's not much
type good for
of track testing
it will a road-
run on. This
racing is
track car.
best for testing an oval-track dirt
car. It's not much good for testing a road-
racing car.
Hydraulic Pressure (psi)
intersections and with little traffic.
Hydraulic Pressure (psi) Race Tracks-Obviously, the best
Use data obtained from caliper-deflection test to plot pressure-versus-deflection curve. intersections
Curve should be a straight line. If deflection increases at a faster rate at high pressure, place to test and a race with
carlittle
is atraffic.
race track
something in the system
Use data obtained from is failing. Don't risk test
caliper-deflection trouble
to by
plotusing brakes in the problem zone.
pressure-versus-deflection curve.
Race Tracks-Obviously,
like the one you will compete the best on.
Curve should be a straight line. If deflection increases at a faster rate at high pressure, place
Even for testing a road car, a track
to test a race car is a race race
something in the system is failing. Don't risk trouble by using brakes in the problem zone. like
track the
has theone advantages
you will compete
of safety and on.
Even
privacy.forSome testingrace atracks
road are car,available
a race
high velocity. Isolate people from track hasthetheweek
during advantages of safety fee
for a nominal and.
the items being tested, and make privacy. Some race tracks
You should be prepared to bring what- are available
high tovelocity.
sure bleed allIsolate
air frompeople
thesy.stem. from during the week for a nominal fee.
the items being tested,before
and make
ever safety equipment the track
Always relieve pressure look- You should be prepared to bring what-
sure requires, even if you consider brake
ing attothe bleed all air from the system.
parts. ever
Always
If yourelieve pressure
pressurize before
a part look-
to three testing safety
much safer equipment
than going the track
flat-out.
ing at the
requires, even if you
Chances are that track managementconsider brake
times its parts.
maximum rated capacity
and If you
it does pressurize
nbt fail aorpart to three
distort, it is
testing
and much safer
insurance than going
companies won't flat-out.
make
times its maximum
well designed. rated .all
However, capacity
parts anyChances
distinctionare that track management
between one type of
and
tested it does to not fail or distort,
excessive pressures it is and insurance
driving and another.companies won't they'll
Usually, make
well
should designed.
not be used.However, all parts
They should be any distinction between
require the driver to wear a helmet one type of
tested
destroyedto or excessive pressures
marked permanently driving
and use and other another.
standard Usually,
racing they'll
safety
should
for easynotidentification.
be used. TheyThere shouldmay be require
equipment. the driver
You and to wearall thosea helmet in-
destroyed
be damageorhidden marked from permanently
view that and use other standard racing safety
Stock car has pressure gage mounted
for easy
volved may also have to sign a waiver
makes the identification.
part unsafe to use There . . may equipment.
on brake line next to each master
beIf damage
you are hidden makingfrom a testviewrig that for
that relieves You and of
the track all allthose
legal in-re-
cylinder.
Stock carBy hasrecording
pressure gagepressures, an
mounted volved may ifalso have tois sign a waiver
on brake
exact line next
numerical to of
record each master
brake bal- makes the part
pressures up tounsafe
3000to use.
psi, go to an sponsibility someone injured.
If you are making a test rig Air-
for
that relieves
If you the track
are testing of all legal car,
a road-racing re-
ance is available.
cylinder. Don't ,l eave
By recording pressure
pressures, an aircraft-surplus shop for parts.
gages numerical
exact in hydraulic system
record because
of brake bal- pressures
craft hydraulicup tosystems
3000 psi, go to an
operate at
sponsibility if someone is
you should test on a road course . The injured.
they increase
ance is pedal
available. travel.
Don't leave Pressure
pressure aircraft-surplus
3000 shop for their
psi. Consequently, parts.high- Air- If you
same are testing
holds true fora road-racing
other typescar, of
gages
gages arein for testing only.
hydraulic system because craft hydraulic systems
pressurehbses operatecan
and fittings at you should
cars. Oval-tracktest on carsa road
should course. The
be tested
they increase pedal travel. Pressure 3000
take this psi. pressure.
Consequently,Check their
withhigh- the same
on an ovalholdstrack-dirt
true for cars otheron types dirt andof
gages are for testing only.
WARNING pressure
shop to be hoses
sure you andgetfittings
parts rated can cars.
pavementOval-track cars cars should
on a be tested
paved
High-pressure testing is used take3000-psi
for this pressure.
pressure. Check
Handwith pumps the on an oval track-dirt
track-dragsters on a cars
drag on dirt and
strip, and
WARNING
only to find the limits of a design and shop
that can to bepressurize
sure you get a parts
system rated to pavement
High-pressure testing on down the cars line. This on will aallow paved
you
determine its safety factor.is If used
you for 3000-psi
3000 psi arepressure.
available.Hand You'll pumps
also track-dragsters on a or drag
are to finda the
onlyusing limits ofpump
hydraulic a design and
capable that
need can pressurize
pressure gages aforsystem3000-psi to to run the car around up strip,
and down and
on down the line. This
the track many times in succession will allow you
determine
of 3000 psiitsorsafety
more, factor.
you may If you
be 3000
capacity. psi are available. You'll also
are to runtest
and thethecar brakes
around for or up and down
temperature
ableusing a items
to test hydraulic pumpbecause
to failure capable need
Before pressure
using gages
surplus for lines
3000-psi and
of
most3000 psisystems
brake or more,operate
you may be
below capacity.wash them throughly with
fittings,.
the track
and wear many undertimes in succession
simulated racing
able
1500topsi.
test itemsistosome
There failure because
danger as- Beforeto using
alcohol removesurplus lines and
dirt, moisture , and test the
conditions. This brakes
will notfor betemperature
possible at
most brake
sociated withsystems operate so
such testing, below
be fittings,
aircraft wash them throughly
hydraulic fluid. Aircraft with and wear
other types of under simulated
test tracks. If youracing
can't
1500 psi.Air
careful. There is some
trapped danger
in the as-
system alcohol
brake fluid to remove dirt,different
is totally moisturefrom and conditions. This will
test on a race track, you'll havenot be possible
to useat
sociated
can escape with such
with testing,force.
explosive so be If aircraft
automotive hydraulic
brake fluid. fluid.
Always Aircraft
start other types
actual racingof fortest tracks. If"you
"real-world can't.
testing
careful. Air trapped
they canin go theflying
system brakeclean fluidcomponents.
is totally different from test on a racea track,
parts break,
can escape with explosive force. If
at with
automotive brake fluid. Always start Although drag you'll
strip ishave idealto use
for
actual racing for "real-world"
testing a drag-car brake system, one is testing.
parts break, they can go flying at with clean components. Although a drag strip is ideal
also useful for testing other types for of
tires, even if you think your testing is Drag strip rented for testing. cars. You can do one stop one
testing a drag-car brake system, from is
strictly legal. Large parking lot. also useful for
moderately hightesting
speed other
at a drag types of
strip.
tires,
Someeven if you think
possible your for
locations testing
brakeis Dragairport,
An strip rented for testing.
particularly one with cars.
Or, if Youthe trackcan allows
do one , you stop canfromrun
strictly legal.
testing are: Large parking lot.
light air traffic or unused runways . moderately high speed at
several stops in succession by running a drag strip.
Some possible
Road-racing locations
track fortesting.
rented for brake An airport,
Straight road particularly one with,
away from residences Or,
backif andthe track
forth. allows,
Usually you can run
, there is
testing are: light air traffic or unused runways. several stops in succession by running
Road-racing track rented for testing. Straight road away from residences, back and forth. Usually, there107 is
Drag strip can be used to test brakes at medium to high speeds. Small airports are potential brake-test sites. However, you must
Dragster reaches top speed in quarter mile, so its brakes get a first get permission from the airport manager.
realistic
Drag stripworkout.
can be Typical
used toroad
testcar will only
brakes reach about
at medium two-thirds
to high speeds. Small airports are potential brake-test sites. However, you must
of its maximum
Dragster reachesspeed. Regardless,
top speed dragmile,
in quarter strips
so are usually get
its brakes safe
a first get permission from theairport manager.
and handy
realistic for brake
workout. testing.
Typical road car will only reach about two-thirds
of its maximum speed. Regardless, drag strips are usually safe
and handy for brake testing.
plenty of room to bring the car to a ficult it will be to talk to the individual do not speed , make excessive noise or
safe stop. who makes the decisions. appear to be driving recklessly, you
plenty
The of room to of
advantages bring
a dragthe strip
car toarea ficult
If youit will
findbeatoparking
talk to lot
the to individual
run on, do
maynotbespeed,
able tomake excessive
convince noise
a police or
offi-
safe stop.
that it will be clean , smooth and level. who makes the decisions.
be aware of the legal and safety appear to be driving recklessly,
cer to allow you to test. It helps to be you
The advantages
These are important of aconsiderations.
drag strip are If you find aAlways
requirements. parking run lot to run on,
a muffled mayfrom
far be able
houses to convince
and other apeople
police. offi-
that it will be clean,
The problem with a drag strip smooth and level.
is its be aware of the legal
exhaust, unless you are really out and safety
in cer
Race to allow you to test. testing
Testing-Brake It helps while
to be
These are important
length. You usually can't get a car considerations. requirements. Always
the "sticks." Test during hours whenrun a muffled far from houses and other
running a race can be done as a last people.
Tnear
h e problem
its maximum with speed
a draginstrip is its
a quarter exhaust,
people will unless
not you are really If
be disturbed. outyouin Race
resort. Testing-Brake
If you do this, pick testing while
an event
length.
mile, unless You you usuallyare can't
running get a a drag
car the permission
get "sticks." Test to during
use thehours when
lot, try to running
that offers a race can be done
maximum practiceas atime
last
near its maximum speed
racer. Most road cars reach about two- in a quarter people
get it inwill not be
writing. disturbed.
Invite the person If youin resort. If you do this,
and mlntmum competition . For pick an event
mile,
thirds unless
maximum you arespeed running a drag
in a quarter get
charge to attend your test session.tryNot
permission to use the lot, to that offersa local
example, maximum practice
drag event time
is much
racer. Most road cars reach
mile. This represents about one-half about two- get
onlyitisinthis writing.
good PR, Invite butthe person
if the in
police and
better than a championship event. For
minimum competition. For
thirds
of maximum kinetic
the maximum speed in a quarter
energy a car charge he
come, to attend
can give your
themtestasession. Not
good story. example,
road racers, a local
try a drag
solo-I event is much
or time trial
mile.deliver
can This represents
to the brakes. about one-half
Thus, test- only is athis
Often, good PR, but
well-meaning if the police
bystander will better
rather than
than a achampionship
race. In solo-I event. For
events,
of the maximum kinetic
ing at a drag strip leaves some doubt energy a car come,
call the police, because he'sgood
he can give them a story.
not aware road racers, try a solo-I or
the cars run one at a time. The practicetime trial
can
about deliver
the to the brakes.
ultimate Thus, of
capability test-a Often, obtained
you've a well-meaning permissionbystander
. will rather than
sessions a race.quite
are often In solo-I events,
long. Another
ing
brake at system.
a drag strip leaves some doubt call the police,large
Airports-A because
testinghe'ssurface
not aware
can the carsisrun
option to one
enterat athe
time. carThe
in practice.
a race-
about
If you thecan'tultimate
rent capability
the drag strip, of a you've
be found obtained permission.
at an airport. The runways sessionsschool.
driving are often Butquite
firstlong.
, get Another
permis-
brake system.
enter the car in a drag race . You may Airports-A
are always long and large testing
usually surface
smooth,can option
sion fromis the
to enter the car
sponsoring in a race-.
organization
be Ifallowed
you can't to runrenttime theonly, drag
wherestrip,
you be found at an airport.
level and relatively clean. The best The runways driving school. But first, get permis-
enter
don't the engagecar in a drag competition.
in actual race. You may If are
placealways
to try longis a andsmallusually
airport, smooth,
which sion from the sponsoring
PLANNING BRAKE TESTS organization.
be allowed
you apply the to run time hard
brakes only,atwherethe you
end level and relatively clean.
may be used occasionally by private The best Plan your tests before you get to the
don't
of the engage
strip, you in actual
can get competition.
some idea of If place to try is a small
planes. They may have a runway not airport, which PLANNING
track. Testing BRAKE TESTS If you
time is valuable.
you
how apply the brakes
the brakes work at hard at the end
medium-high may
in use, beorused occasionally
possibly an accessbyroad private
that Plantoyour
have do anytestswork
before
on you
the get
car to the
other
of the strip, you can get some idea of
speeds. planes.
can They may
be closed have a runway
temporarily for testingnot. track. Testing
than what you've time is planned,
valuable. Ifyou'll
you
howDrag the racing
brakes will worklimitat medium-high
testing be- in use, or possibly an access
It helps if the airport manager likes road that have to do
probably runany
outwork on the
of time. car waste
Don't other
speeds.
cause carrying an observer during can
race be closed
cars. Don't temporarily
be afraid to forask
testing.
. You than what you've planned,
time trying to think up what to do you'll
Drag
each runracing
may not will be limit testingAlso,
allowed. be- It helps
might be if the airport
pleasantly manager likes
surprised. probably
next at therun out. Plan
track of time. Don't waste
ahead.
causewon't
you carrying
be ableanto get observer
as many during
runs race cars. Don't
Airports havebethe afraid to ask. You
advantage of time
Starttrying to thinkdown
by writing up whatyourto test
do
each
as in arun maytest
private notsession.
be allowed. Also, might be pleasantly surprised.
minimal noise problems and a lot of next at the track. Plan ahead.
plan. List what you'll be testing for.
you won't be
Parking Lots-Parking able to getlots
as many runs
are some- Airports
room . You may havehave theto advantage
sign a waiver of Start by
Include writing down
a step-by-step planyour test
of how
as in a private test session.
times available on weekends. The minimal
to releasenoise the problems and a lot of
airport management plan. List
you'll do thewhattesting.
you'll be testing
While for.
writing
Parking is
problem Lots-Parking
finding a lot big lotsenough
are some- for room. responsibility.
from You may have Also, to signthey a waiver
may Include
the test aplan step-by-step
, think of plan of how
all the test
times available on
testing brakes. Most are too small. weekends. The to release the airport
want proof of insurance. If you are management you'll do the tools
instruments, testing.
and While writing
parts needed
problem
Also, is finding
you'll run intoa lot problems
big enoughwith for from responsibility.
professional in your Also, they may
approach to to do the job . List these separately.test
the test plan, think of all the A
testing
dirt, bumpsbrakes.and Most
nearbyare too small.
people. And, want
testing,proof
it willofhelpinsurance.
a great deal. If you are instruments,
sample tools isand
test plan parts onneeded
shown page
Also,
it may you'll run into
be difficult to getproblems
permission with
to professional
Public Roads-If in you yourhave approach
a road cat,to to doItthe
109. willjob.
giveList
youthese separately.
an idea of what's A
dirt, bumps and nearby
use a really large lot because they arepeople. And, testing, it will help a great
you can try a pu blic road as the last deal. sample test plan is shown
needed . Determine exactly what's on page
it may beowned
usually difficult by to get permission
large corporations. to Public ItRoads-If
resort. may be legal you tohave
stopa aroad
car incar,a 109. It will
needed giveplan.
in your you an idea of what's
use alarger
The reallythe large lot because
company, the morethey dif-
are you can line
straight try ifa public
you do road as the
it safely. last
If you needed. Determine
Data Sheets-In addition exactly
to thewhat's
test
usually owned by large corporations. resort. It may be legal to stop a car in a needed in your plan.
108 larger the company, the more dif-
The straight line if you do it safely. If you Data Sheets-In addition to the test
 SAMPLE LIST OF SAMPLE TEST PLAN
BRAKE- TESTING EQUIPMENT 1. Inspect brakes and record starting data .
SAMPLE
Tool box LIST OF work on car.
for general 2.
SAMPLE TEST PLAN
Overall brake-performance test.
BRAKE-TESTING
Safety equipment EQUIPMENT
for driver, fire 1. lnspect brakes
a. Record and record
comments on starting data.
performance.
Tool box for general work on car.
extinguishers. 2. Overall brake-performance
b. Inspect and adjust brakes test.as required.
Safety equipment
Spare parts for forengine
driver, and
fire a. Record
3 . Balance comments
adjustment on performance.
tests.
extinguishers.
chassis, b. Record
a. lnspect deceleration
and adjust brakesbeforeassetting
required.
balance.
Spare
Spare tiresparts for engine and
and wheels. 3. Balance
b. Testadjustment
brakes andtests. adjust balance.
chassis.
Brake linings, brake fluid, special . a. Record deceleration
c. Continue until maximum before setting balance.
deceleration is attained.
Spare tires and wheels.
brake-maintenance tools. b. Test brakes
4. Cooling-duct testsand . adjust balance.
Brake linings,
Pyrometer, brake fluid, special
temperature~indicating c. Continue
a. Tuft tests until maximum
to confirm deceleration
airflow in duct. is attained.
brake-maintenance
labels, tools.
temperature-indicating paint. 4. Cooling-duct
b. Measuretests.
brake temperature after one stop.
Pyrorneter, temperature-indicating
Stopwatch. a.
c. Tuft
Run tests
car for tomeasured
confirm airflow in duct.
time and measure cooling effect.
labels, temperature-indicating
Toppling.block setup. paint. b. Measure
d. Modify ducts brake temperature
and test coolingafter one stop.
again.
Stopwatch.
Yarn for tufts, tape, scissors. c. Runlining
5. Alternate car fortests,
measured time and measure cooling effect.
Toppling-block setup.
Video camera, still camera, porta- d. Modify
6, Alternate fluidducts
tests.and test cooling again.
bleYarn for tufts,
TV and VCR. tape, scissors. 5. Alternate
7. liningtesting,
Long-distance tests.
Video camera,
Fuel, oil, stilltank.
water, air camera, porta- 6. Alternate
a. Checkfluid tests.
temperature.
ble TV and VCR.
Jack,jack stands, creeper. 7. Long-distance
b. Check wear testing.
rate after test.
Fuel, oil, water,
Materials for air tank.
modifying brake a.
c, Check
Recordtemperature.
driver comments and results of brake inspection,
Jack,racer's
ducts, jack stands,
tape, creeper.
rivets and rivet b. Check
8. Bed-in sparewear
linings rate
forafter
nexttest.
race .
Materials for modifying brake
gun. 9 . Setc.brake
Record driverwith
balance comments and results
wings adjusted of brake inspection.
to maximum downforce settings,
ducts, racer's
Notebook, tape,pen.
paper, rivets and rivet 8. Wet
10. Bed-in spare
down linings
track, forrain
install nexttires,
race.and balance brakes for wet.
gun. 9. Set brake balance with wings adjusted to maximum downforce settings.
Notebook, paper, pen. 10. Wet down track, install rain tires, and balance brakes for wet.
plan, make several copies of the blank
data sheet on this page for recording HPBooks BRAKE TESTING DATA SHEET Car _ _ _ Date _ _
plan, make
test results.several copies o
Pertinent f the blank
information 1, Brake System Specification,
data sheet on this page for recording HPBooksmBRAKE TESTING DATA SHEET Car Date -
about the exact brake-system setup A, Balance-bar setting _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _
test results. Pertinent 1 . Brake System Specification.
type information
should
fluid,
should
be included:
about balance-bar
the exact brake-system
be included:
of linings,
setting, and similar
type o f
setup
linings,
I B, Proportioning-valve setting _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A. Balance-bar setting
C. Lining material: Brand _ _ ___ (Front) _ _ __ ___ (Rear) I
information. These will be valuable B. Proportioning-valve setting
fluid, tobalance-bar
facts determine setting,
what setting and similar
caused D. Brake fluid : _______ Brand _ ______ Type
C. Lining material: Brand (Front) (Rear)
information.
what to happen. These will be valuable E, Rotor diameter & thickness: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (Front) _ _ _ _ _ _ (Rear)
facts to determine what on setting caused D. Brake fluid: Brand T y p e
Recorded comments brake per- F, Caliper brand & type: _ _ _ _ _ _ (Front) _ _ _ _ (Rear)
what to happen.
formance versus temperatures are E. Rotor diameter & thickness: (Front) (Rear)
2, Brake performance ,
Recorded
vital. If you are comments
recordingo ndeceleration
brake per-
F. Deceleration
A. & type:
Caliper brandreadings, (Front) -(Rear)
formance
rates, make versus
a form temperatures
for that, too. are 2. Brake performance.
B, Comments on each test.
vital. I f test-data
These you are recording
forms can deceleration
also be A. Deceleration
C. Tires readings.
used, size and brand _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (Front) _______ (Rear)
rates, make a to form for carthat, too. B.
useful at a race record settings D, Comments on each
Road condition _ __test._ __ __ (Weather) _ _ _ _ __ _ _
These test-data forms
and compare them to actual perform- can also be C. Tires used, size and brand (Front) (Rear)
E, Comments _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
useful
ance onatthea race
track.to record car settings D. Road condition (Weather)
3. Temperature testing,
and compare them to actual
bringperform-
I
Lists- You can never enough (Front) (Rear)
ance on the track. E. Comments
tools or parts to a test session. If you 3. A. Maximum caliper
Temperature testing.temperature (Front) . (Rear)
Lists-You
leave
tools
be sure
a part or
or it's
parts
cantool
thetoone
never
a testyou'll
bring you
at home, enough
need. IfMur-
session.
can
you I B, Maximum rotor-edge temperature
A. Maximum caliper temperature
leave
beMake
a part
phy's Law
sure it's
or tool
always
the one
at home, you can
applies.
you'll need. Mand ur-
I C. Maximum hub temperature
B. Maximum rotor-edge temperature
D. Maximum lining temperature
I
a list of tools, supplies C. Maximum hub temperature
phy's Law always
instruments. Addapplies.
to these lists any- E, temperature
Make a list for
o f car
tools, supplies and D. Maximum lining temperature
thing needed maintenance or F, Comments _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
instruments.
thing to
likely needed
Add
repair. Bring spare parts for
break.for
to these
car have
If you
liststhings
maintenance
room, also
any-
or
I E.
4. Wear
F. Comments
temperature
testing. (Front) (Rear)
repair. Bring spare
bring everything parts
that's notforlikely
things
to A, Lining
4. Wear thickness-beginning
testing. (Front) (Rear)
break.to break. I f you have room, also
likely
I B, Lining thickness-ending
A. Lining thickness-beginning
bring everything
Organize parts that's not likelyinto
and supplies to
break.
sturdy boxes and label them. This will 1 C, Wear (beginning/ending)
B. Lining thickness-ending
Organize D, Test duration _ _ miles, _ _ laps, _ _ stops @ _ _ mph
make taking parts
everythingand supplies
much easier. into C. Wear (beginning/ending)
sturdy boxes and
If possible, label one
assign them. pit Thiscrew will E, Test track Conditions _ _ _
D. Test duration -miles, -laps, -stops @ -mph
make taking everything
member to keep track of things, and much easier. F. Comments _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
If possible,
put everything assign one pit after
back immediately crew 1 E. Test track Conditions -
member
for
PutAyour
use.
to keep track team
use . A well-organized
putsuccessful
everythingtesting
back immediately
well-organized
o f things,
is a must
and racing. after
team is sheets,
test plan, test-data
and

a must
I F. Comments
or similar record-keeping system,
Bring a clipboard to write on, Keep
tion in it. The notebook will becomeI
your "bible " after a year or so . Be-
I
for successful testing and racing.
and parts and supplies lists into a note- or similar record-keeping
the notebook with you during system.
all tests tion in test
cause it. The
datanotebook will become
is valuable, make
Putconsisting
book your test plan, test-data sheets,
of a three-ring binder Bringraces;
and a clipboard
put all to write on.
technical Keep
informa- your
copies"bible" after a year
of everything whenor you
so. Be-
'!et
and parts and supplies lists into a note- the notebook with you during all tests cause test data is valuable, make
book consisting o f a three-ring binder and races; put all technical informa- copies o f everything when you n_et
109
Pyrometer is used to measure brake temperature on open-wheel race car. This is difficult Omega Engineering Inc. specializes in
on full-fendered cars. When checking temperature, quickly hold pyrometer probe firmly temperature-measuring devices. Some of
against
pyrometerrotor until meter
is used needle
to measure stops
brake rising. Peakontemperature
temperature open-wheelduring braking
race car. cannot
This is be
difficult their
Omegatemperature-indicating paint and
Engineering Inc. Specializes in
on full-fendered
measured cars. When
with hand-held checkingbecause
pyrometer temperature, quickly will
some cooling holdoccur.
pyrometer probe firmly
Peak temperature labels are shown here.devices.
temperature-measuring Photo courtesy
Some of
can only rotor
against be measured withneedle
until meter an on board
stopspyrometer, or temperature-indicating
rising. Peak label or
temperature during braking paints.
cannot be Omegatemperature-indicating
their Engineering. paint and
measured with hand-held pyrometer because some cooling will occur. Peak temperature labels are shown here. Photo courtesy
can only be measured with an onboard pyrometer, or temperature-indicating label or paints. Omega Engineering.
home. Store the copies somewhere 0-800C (32-1472F) range. It is ing Tempilaq temperature-indicating
other than in the notebook. Note- useful for checking both tire and paint. Another is sold by Tilton
home. get
books Storelost,
the particularly
copies somewhereat the 0-800C (32-1472F)
brake temperatures. range. It is
The liquid-crystal ing TempilaqUsually,
Engineering. temperature-indicating
these paints are
other than in the notebook. Note-
races. useful allows
display for checking
it to be bothused withtire ease
and paint. Another
applied to the periphery is soldofby the Tilton
brake
books get bring
Finally, lost, particularly
as many qualifiedat the brake temperatures.
in the sunlight. There are twoThe liquid-crystal Engineering. Usually, these
rotor. They can be used on the caliper paints are
races.
helpers as possi ble, and all the equip- display
probes-a allows
sharp it to
onebe forusedtires
withandeasea applied to the periphery of the brake
body as well.
Finally,
ment bring you
you think as ' llmany
need . qualified
Include in the
flat one sunlight.
for hard surfacesThere are suchtwo as rotor. They temperature
Another can be used on the caliper
indicator is a
helpers as possible, and
the required safety equipment. all the equip-
Even probes-a sharp oneI for
brake components. tiresrecom-
highly and a body as well.
stick-on label. These are sold by
ment
if you you
are think
testingyou'll
in a need. Include
straight line, flat
mendone suchforan hard
instrumentsurfaces suchseri-
for the as Another
Tempil temperature
(Tempilabel) andindicator
Omega En- is a
the
bringrequired
a crash safety
helmetequipment.
and drivingEven suit. brake components. I highly
ous racer. I t can also be used fo r. recom- stick-on label. These
gineering Products (Omega Label), are sold by
if you
You canare testing
never be tooincareful.
a straight line, mend such
engine an instrument
tuning, such asfor checking
the seri- Tempil (Tempilabel) and Omega En-
respectively.
bring a crash helmet and driving suit. ous racer.
which exhaustIt can pipe also be used
is running for.
hotter gineering Products (Omega
These adhesive-backed labelsLabel),
have
You can never be too careful.
BRAKE-TESTING engine tuning,
or cooler than the others.such as checking respectively.
white spots that turn black at incre-
INSTR UMENTS which exhaustwhen
Remember pipe using
is running hotter
a hand-held These temperatures
mental adhesive-backed , aslabels have
indicated
BRAKE-TESTING
Certain instruments are needed to or cooler thanthat
pyrometer the others.
the object being white
next tospots that turn
each spot: If someblack
spots at on
incre-
the
INSTRUMENTS
get maximum benefit from a test Remember
checked whenrapidly.
will cool using aTherefore,
hand-held mental
label turntemperatures,
black and others as do indicated
not , a
Certain Of
session. instruments are needed to
primary importance is it must be measured quickly being
pyrometer that the object after next
peak totemperature
each spot: If was somereached
spots on the be-
get
brakemaximum
temperature. benefit
It can from a test
be measured checked
maximumwilltemperature
cool rapidly.isTherefore,reached. label
tween the values of the dohighest-
turn black and others not, a
session.
with either Of aprimary
hand-held importance
pyrometer, is it must be measured
Unfortunately, quickly after
it is impossible to peak temperature
temperature black spotwasandreached
the follow-be-
brake temperature. It can be
remote pyrometer or with temperature measured maximum temperature
measure the peak temperature is reached.
of an tween
ing white thespot.values
If all of
spotstheturnhighest-
black ,
with either
indicators a hand-held
placed on the brake pyrometer,
. Unfortunately,
iron brake rotorit with is impossible
a hand-held to temperature
the black spot andonthethefollow-
highest temperature label
remote pyrometer pyrometer
Pyrometer-The or with temperature
is a spe- measure
pyrometer.theBut peakyoutemperature
can come close of anif was exceeded. IfInallsuch
ing white spot. spotsa turncase,black,
you
indicators
cial placed on Itthehas
thermometer. brake.
a probe that iron work
you brake rotor with a hand-held
quickly. the
needhighest
the nexttemperature on the label
higher-temperature
Pyrometer-The
can be placed against pyrometer
an object.is aTem-
spe- pyrometer. ButIndicators-You
Temperature you can come close mayif was
label exceeded.
available. IfInnosuch spot aturnscase,black
you,
cial
perature is then read from a meter.that
thermometer. It has a probe A you work quickly.
find that it's easier to use temperature need the next higher-temperature
the temperature of the lowest spot
can be placed
pyrometer against anused
is commonly object. Tem-
to meas- Temperature
indicators rather Indicators
than a -You pyrometer.may label
was notavailable.
reached. If In
no this
spotcase,
turnsgoblack,
to a
perature
ure is then
race-car tire read from a meter.
temperatures. A
It can find that
There areit's easiertypes
several to useof temperature
indicators. the temperature oflabel.
lower-temperature the lowest spot
pyrometer is commonly used
also be used to measure brake tem- to meas- indicators
Some rather changing
are paint, than a color pyrometer.
when was not areached.
Have wide rangeIn thisof case, go to a
temperature
ure race-car
perature up totirethetemperatures.
limit of the It can
meter There are several types
they reach a certain temperature of indicators.
. Dif- lower-temperature label.
indicators for your first test. You
also beThe
scale. used to measure brake
pyrometer-probe tem-
tip must Some are
ferent colorpaint,
paintschanging
change colorcolor atwhen
dif- Have a have
probably wide no range
idea ofwhat
temperature
the tem-
perature
be held inupfirmto contact
the limitwith
of the meter
the object they reach
ferent a certain temperature.
temperatures, so by using vari- Dif- indicators
perature ranges for your
will be.first
Once test.
youYouget
scale.
being checked so heat can soakmust
The pyrometer-probe tip into ferent color the
ous colors, paints change
peak color at dif-
temperature can probably have no idea
some experience, you'll know whichwhat the tem-
be
theheld in firm
probe. When contact with stabilizes,
the meter the object ferent temperatures,
be found. so by using vari- perature
temperature ranges will be.toOnce
indicators use . you get
being
the checked
reading so heat
is taken can soak into
and recorded. ous colors,
One line the peak temperature can
of temperature-indicating some
If youexperience,
want to be you'll
able to know which
get accurate
theAnprobe. Whendual-purpose
excellent the meter stabilizes,
pyrome- be found.
paint is available from Weevil Ltd . in temperature
peak and non-peak indicators to use.
temperature read-
the
ter reading
is AP's is taken and sold
CP-2650-8 recorded.
by Tilton One line
Europe. Also,of Tempil
temperature-indicating
has a complete If you
ings want stopping
without to be able theto getcar,accurate
you ' ll
An excellentThis
Engineering. dual-purpose
instrument pyrome-
has a paint is available
line of temperature from Weevil includ-
indicators, Ltd. in peak
need and non-peakpyrometel;
a remote temperature read-
a multi-
ter is AP's CP-2650-8 sold by Tilton Europe. Also, Tempil has a complete ings without stopping the car, you'll
Engineering. This instrument has a line of temperature indicators, includ- need a remote pyrometel; a mirlti-
110
 ap:
RACinG

Excellent temperature indicators are

manufactured by Tempil. Tempil's Tempilaq
paint meltstemperature
Excellent when heated to rated
indicators are
temperature. Tempilabel
manufactured spots turn
by Tempil. Tempil's black
Tempilaq As with other temperature-indicating paints, AP Racing's indicators can be used to check
when heated
paint melts towhen
rated temperature.
heated to Photorated rotor or brake-drum temperature. Temperature indicators will tell you the highest tempera
by Tom Monroe.
temperature. Ternpilabel spots turn black ture reached,
As with other iftemperature-indicating
you use the right range paints,
of paints.
APCourtesy
Racing's AP Racing. can be used to check
indicators
when heated to rated temperature. Photo rotor or brake-drum temperature. Temperature indicators will tell you the highest tempera-
by Tom Monroe. ture reached, if you use the right range of paints. Courtesy AP Racing.
position switch and thermocouples to
put in contact with the test objects. A
full lineswirch
position of andremotethermocouples
temperature- to
put in contact with the test
measuring equipment, including ther- objects. A
full line ofandremote
mocouples leads, temperature-
is available
measuring
from Omega equipment,
Engineering including
Productsther- .
mocouples and leads,
Their 12-volt model 650K is available
digital-
from
readoutOmega Engineering
pyrometers areProducts.
relatively
CB DRILL RO 3 1
3 103 <i561 '.':..
Their 12-volt
compact and aremodel easy 650Kto read digital-
. All
iPIc lrC'CRC .41>.0

readout pyrometers are

digital-readout pyrometers require ex- relatively
compact
ternal power.and are easy toseries-7000
Omega's read. All
digital-readout pyrometers
dial-readout pyrometers require are self- ex- 0 13 181 0C LOWER
TUBE OPEN I D
=-.::..:.:....----'''---'
ternal
powered, power.
compact Omega's
and lessseries-7000
expensive
GR IND TO
MA X EI[rOR[
18 f:!. IS ]

dial-readout
than digitals, but pyrometers
not as easy areto self-
read
P L ACING 11\ L' ~ I N C.

powered,
accura tely. compact and less expensive ~-008 .... ?(l:' luiC :'~5
than digitals, butElectronic
Nationwide not as easySystems' to read J ~. LE R r,O:;,-, ',(," I;:F C.C[

accurately.II digital-readout pyrometer

Slimline
Nationwide
IDT-7726 Electronic12-volt,
is compact, Systems' d-c
Slimline I1 digital-readout
powered, and is easy to read. It re- pyrometer
IDT-7726 is compact, d-c
quires a 100-0193-01 12-volt,isolator d-c
powered,
module . Beandsureis easy to read.type-K
to specify It re-
quires a 100-0193-01
thermocouples d-c isolator
when ordering. Also
module. Be sure to specify
specify whether you want a pyrometer type-K
thermocouples when ordering.
that displays temperature in Fahren-Also
specify whether you want a pyrometer
heit or Centigrade. Drawings show how to install thermocouple plugs in disc and drum-brake linings so brake
that displays temperature
Thermocouple Installation in Fahren-
- Ther- temperatures can be monitored while running. For this purpose, you can make your own
heit or Centigrade.
mocouple attachment is important. type-K thermocouples
Drawings show how to by twisting
install chromel and
thermocouple plugsalumel
in discwire
andtogether and linings
drum-brake silver soldering
so brake
Thermocouple
The thermocoupleInstallation
junction must -Ther-be the twisted end
temperatures canin be
a copper tube.
monitored You running.
while can get For
this this
wirepurpose,
from companies
you can such
makeas Omega
your own
mocouple Engineering. Reprinted with
type-K thermocouples permission
by twisting 1984
chrome1 andSociety
alumel of Automotive
wire together Engineers,
and silver Inc.
soldering
in contact attachment
with the istest important.
object. the twisted end in a copper tube. You can get this wire from companies such as Omega
The thermocouple
Otherwise , readings junction
will be low. must High- be thermocouples
Engineering. Reprintedmust be
with permissionsilver- in the lining
0 1984 Society material
of Automotive close to Inc.
Engineers, the fric-
in contact with the
temperature epoxy works well for at-test object. soldered or crimped into a small Oat tion surface. Temperatures measured
Otherwise, readings will betolow.
taching thermocouples High-
calipers. thermocouples
probe, insulated must be spring-
and lightly silver- in
in the
thislining
way material closelower
are slightly to the than
fric-
temperature epoxy works
Thermocouples can be pinched under well for at- soldered or crimped into a
loaded against the rotor friction small flat tion
actualsurface.
rotor Temperatures
temperature . measured
However,
taching thermocouples to
the head of a screw. Or, silver solder- calipers. probe, insulated and lightly
surface. Brake manufacturers who spring- in
the this way are
difference slightly lower
is consistent and thethan
in-
Thermocouples
ing works well oncan some be pinched
metals. What- under loaded against
measure the rotor with
rotor temperature friction
rub- actual rotor temperature.
stallation is much easier and However,
more
the head
ever you ofusea, screw.
be sureOr, thesilver
attachmesolder- nt surface. Brake manufacturers
bing thermocouples make their own;who the difference
durable thanis consistent
the and the in-
rotor-rubbing
ing worksinsulate
doesn't well on somethe metals.
thermocouple What- measure rotor
they are not for temperature
sale. with rub- stallation is much easier and more
thermocouples.
ever you
from use,object.
the test be sure the attachment A practical alternative used by own;
bing thermocouples make their most durable than the end
The thermocouple rotor-rubbing
is stripped
doesn't insulate
Rotor temperature the isthermocouple
difficult to they are not brake
American for sale.
and lining manu- thermocouples.
back approximately 0.500 in ., twisted ,
from the test
measure withobject.
a thermocouple. The A practical
facturers is to alternative used by most
install the thermocouple The thermocouple
inserted into a end is stripped
3/16-in.-long,
Rotor temperature is difficult to American brake and lining manu- back approximately 0.500 in., twisted,
measure with a thermocouple. The facturers is to install the thermocouple inserted into a 3116-in.-long,
111
 HOLE MUST BE OPE: ~ A r..O FRE E
>R O'..', SOLD ER SO .0.5 NC T TO
,T STRlcr FLUI O FLOW WHEN
/
.I
BLEE D' NG
*OLE MUST BE WEll ClliD FREE
FROM SOLDER SO 1 5 N O T TO
RESTRICT FLUtD FLOW W H E N

I L5cvE~ SO LDER
SECURELY SECTI ON A- A
L GRIN D O ~ F EXCE SS SOLDER
F LUS H WIT H SU RFACE SHOWN
SECURELY SECTION A-A
RIND OFF EXCESS SOLDER
Drawing shows bleed-screw
FLUSW WITH SURFACE SHOWN thermocouple for measuring brake- U-tube decelerometer is made by AM MCO Tools Inc . It's calibrat-
fluid temperature. The screw is first drilled through, then twisted Iedin feet per second per second (ft/sec/sec) rather than g's (1 gI
thermocouple
Drawing shows is bleed-screw
silver-soldered in place. Reprinted
thermocouple with permis-
for measuring brake- = 32.2 ftlsec/sec)
U-tube decelerometer. Instrument
is made byreads down Tools
AMMCO scale Inc.
for deceleration
It's calibrat-
sion
fluid 1984 Society
temperature. of screw
The Automotive Engineers,
is first Inc.
drilled through, then twisted andinup
ed scale
feet perfor acceleration.
second Deceleration
per second scale
(ft/sec/sec) is used
rather thanfor brake
g's (1 g
thermocouple is silver-soldered in place. Reprinted with permis- testing; accelerationlnstrument
= 32.2 ft/sec/sec). scale can be useddown
reads for engine
scale tuning and shift-
for deceleration
sion 0 1984 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. pointupdetermination.
and Instrument
scale for acceleration. can be mounted
Deceleration to windshield
scale is used for brake
with suction
testing; cups or scale
acceleration bolted to be
can instrument panel. tuning
used for engine Photo andcourtesy
shift-
1/8-in.-OD X 0.086-in.-IO copper AMMCO Tools Inc.
point determination. lnstrument can be mounted to windshield
tube and silver-soldered in place to with suction cups or bolted to instrument panel. Photo courtesy
form a plug. XThe0.086-in.-ID
118-in.-OD plug is installed copper
in AMMCO Tools Inc.
tube and silver-soldered
the friction material. Typical disc- andin place to with fluid before mounting it. And camera is an accura te data re-
form a plug. installations
drum-lining The plug isare installed
shown inin always put a valve at the gage so it can corder-much more so than a person
the friction material.
the drawing, page Ill.Typical disc- and with
be shutfluid beforenot
off when mounting
in use andit.soAnd the camera is an accurate data re-
using his eyes.
drum-lining
If the pluginstallations
hole is drilled are shown
throughin always won't
gage put a valvelose at its
the gage it can
bleedso when corder-much
Decelerometer-A more decelerometer
so than a person is
the drawing,
the lining andpage shoe 11with
1 . a number-31 be shut offThe
removed. when nottointhe
line usegage
and can
so thebe using his for
valuable eyes.testing the stopping capa-
If the plug
(O.IOO-inJ hole
drill, theisplugdrilled
can through
be reset gage
bled by loosening the valve jamwhen
won't lose its bleed nut Decelerorneter-A
bility of a car. One can decelerometer
be as simple as is
the lining
easily when andtheshoe withwears
lining a number-31
down to removed.
while The line
applying to the
slight gage can
pressure to thebe valuable for testing the stopping
toppling blocks or as complex as a capa-
(0.100-in.)
the drill, the
plug surface. If theplugthermocouple
can be reset bled bypedal.
brake loosening
Whenthefluid valvebegins
jam nut to bility of a car.
recording One can
g-meter. See be as simple as
accompanying
easily
plug is not reset, readings willdown
when the lining wears to
fluctu- while applying slight
leak, retighten the nut pressure to the
to complete toppling blocks
illustration and or as complex
photos. Buy the as besta
the
ate plug surface.
between If the
rotor and thermocouple
lining brake
the pedal.. When fluid begins to
bleeding recording g-meler. See accompanying
decelerometer you can afford. Use the
plug is not reset, readings will fluctu-
temperature. leak, retighten
Hydraulic pressure the nut relates
to complete
pedal illustration
Tapley meter and inphotos.
a car Buy the besta
in which
ateThebetween
drawing atrotor top of and lining
page shows the bleeding.
effort to actua l force on the brakes. decelerometer
passenger can ride you along
can afford. Use the
and observe.
temperature.
how to install a thermocouple on a Hydraulic
When used with pressure relates pedal
a decelerometer, the Tapley
Perhaps metera camera in a cancar in whichthea
replace
Thescrew
bleed drawing at top of page
for measuring shows
brake-fluid pressure gage can be usedtheto brakes.
effort to actual force on deter- passenger
passenger can ridecare
if you alongto and rig observe.
one up .
how to installin a athermocouple
temperature caliper or wheel on a When used with a decelerometer,
mine brake-system effective ness , the or Perhaps a camera can
The Tapley meter indicates actual replace the
bleed screw for measuring brake-fluid
cylinder. pressure
to plot pedalgage can effortbe versus
used to vehicle
deter- passenger if you
deceleration ratescareasto the rig onecar up.is
temperature in a caliper
With a mUlti-positio or wheel
n switch, many mine brake-system effectiveness, or
deceleration. The Tapley meter indicates actual
stopping.
cylinder.
thermocouples can be connected to to plot pedal effort
Camera-Photos are a versus
good source vehicle of deceleration
AMMCO rates Tools' as model the car7350 is
theWith a multi-position
pyrometer so they switch,can be manyread deceleration.
test data. Use a camera that provides stopping.
U-tube decelerometer is easy to install
thermocouples When
individually. can berunning connected to
ther- Camera-Photos
instant prints. Photograpare a good h thesource
car justof andAMMCO Tools' well.model
adj ust. It works 7350
This instru-
the pyrometer so they
mocouple leads from the brakes to the can be read testthe
as data. Useslams
driver a camera
on the thatbrakes
providesat a U-tube decelerometer is
ment is used widely by the Americaneasy to install
individually.
chassis, band them Whento the running
flexiblether-
hy- instant prints.
prescribed Photograph
braking point. You the car
mayjustbe and adjust.
automob ile Itanworks
d brake well. This instru-
industries, and
mocouple
draulic line leads from
with the brakes
plenty of slackto the
so able to detect whether the front or at
as the driver slams on the brakes thea ment is used widely
many state vehicle-inspectionby the American
stations
chassis,
they donband them
' t break whento thethe flexible
suspensionhy- prescribed
rear wheelsbrakinglock uppoint.first.YouIt's may
some- be automobile
in the U.S. and brake industries, and
draulic line with plenty of slack so
moves. able
timestotough
detecttowhether
tell which thelocks
frontuporfirst
the many
The state vehicle-inspection
simplest decelerometerstations is the
they don't Gage-Brake-tluid
Pressure break when the suspension pressure rear wheels lockTouphelp,
by observation. first.paint
It's asome-
large in the U.S.
toppling blocks. Set up a tray with rec-
moves.
can be measured with a simple pres- X on the wheels and tires with up
times tough to tell which locks first
water- The simplest
tangular blocks as decelerometer
shown. The blocks is the
Pressure
sure gage .Gage-Brake-fluid
Marsh Instrument pressure Compa- by observation.
soluble white paint.To help, paint a large toppling
are lined blocks.
up along Seta up a tray
ledge on with rec-
the tray.
can be measured
ny's 14878 gage has withlowa displacement
simple pres- X Even
on the better
wheels andthantires usingwith awater-
still tangulartheblocks
When as shown.
car stops, The blocks
the taller blocks
sure isgage.
and usedMarshwidely.Instrument Compa-
Another pressure soluble white paint.
camera to detect brake lockup is a are lined
topple overup atalong
lowera deceleration
ledge on the rates tray.
ny's J4878
gage is also gageavailable
has low displacement
from Hurst Evencamera.
video better It than
can beusing playeda backstill When the car stops, the
than the shorter ones. Deceleration taller blocks
and is used widely.
Performance . Another pressure camera
immediately to detect
after brake
makinglockup a shot.is Aa toppleis over
rate betweenat lower
the deceleration
tallest block rates that
gage
A pressure gage can befrom
is also available used inHurst
the video
video camera.
camera It cancanalsobe be played
usedback to than the shorter
toppled and the shortes ones. Deceleration
t one that
Performance.
shop or at the track . If used at the immediately after making
record instruments in the car during a shot. Aa rate is between the tallest block that
didn't.
A pressure
track, mount itgage where canthe bedriver
used orin ob-
the video Tocamera
stop. do this,canthealsocamera be must
used be to toppled
Toppling andblocks
the shortest
can be one knockedthat
shop orcan
server at see
the ittrack.
easily.If Fill
usedtheatgage
the record
mounted instruments
securely in in thea car during
bracke t. Aa didn't.by bumps or vi brations, so make
over
track, mount it where the driver or ob- stop. To do this, the camera must be Toppling blocks can be knocked
server
112
can see it easily. Fill the gage mounted securely in a bracket. A over by bumps or vibrations, so make
 Forward
Motion
of Car
Forward
Motion
X1 =~ = 067 X2=~=090 of Car
H1 1.5 . 9 H2 1.0 . 9
XI =- =
0.679 0.9 x3 - 0.8 - Dwyer's 2010 magnehelic gage is easier
x2 =-= 0.90g 1.339
HI 1.5 H1 1.0 H3 0.6 to install and use than manometer for
Dimensions of toppling blocks determine maximum deceleration they can take before measuring air pressure.
Dwyer's 2010 magnehelic gage is easier
toppling. Blocks dimensions don't have to be precise as long as they are square. Measure
to install and use than manometer for
height and width,
Dimensions of each
of toppling block determine
blocks and calculate its toppling
maximum deceleration
deceleration as shown.
they can Each
take before measuring air pressure.
block is positioned
toppling. against adon't
Blocks dimensions thin have
ledgetoonbea precise
flat trayastolong
allow
as it to topple
they whenMeasure
are square. the car
decelerates. Tray can
height and width, be angled
of each blocktoand
compensate
calculatefor itsvehicle-dive angle.
toppling deceleration as shown. Each
block is positioned against a thin ledge on a flat tray to allow it to topple when the car
decelerates. Tray can be angled to compensate for vehicle-dive angle. is repeatable for later comparisons.
at least three runs to verify the wheel of a cramped formula car. After you finish testing, carefully
results. If you don ' t get consistent re- Dwyer also carries all types of is repeatable
touch the wheel for where
later comparisons.
it bolts on.
at least
sults and threethe brakes runs definitely
to verify work the wheel of a cramped formula car.
manometers. After you
Record finish testing,
the following comments: carefully
results.
the same If you
eachdon't time,get tryconsistent
another test re- Dwyer also carries all types of touch the wheel
Are front where
and rear wheels it about
bolts on.
the
sults and the brakes
method. However, be aware that vari- definitely work manometers.
BRAKE-PERFORMANCE TESTS Record
same the following comments:
temperature?
the same
ations in each
results time,cantrybeanother
caused testby There are a few basic-performance Are
Can front
you and
smellrearthe
wheels aboutBoth
brakes? the
method. However, be
brake-temperature aware that
changes vari-
or other BRAKE-PERFORMANCE
tests that can be made without TESTSmuch same temperature?
sets?
ations in results can be caused by
changes. Thereorare
trouble a few basic-performance
expensive instruments. All Can youblack
Is there smelldustthe
on brakes?
the outsideBoth
of
brake-temperature
Tire-Test changes or other
Instruments-Don't for- tests
brakethat can beshould
systems made without
deliver much mini- sets?
the wheels?
changes.
get that tire grip affects braking. Thus, trouble or expensive instruments.
mum performance regardless of the All Is
Is there
greaseblack dust on
leaking fromthe outside
the frontof
Tire-Test
to test brakes, Instruments-Don't
also test the tires. You for- brake
car type.systems should deliver mini- the
hubs?wheels?
get
maythatwish tiretogrip affectstires
try other braking.
during Thus,
the mum performance
To run regardless of the
a basic brake-performance Is grease
The comments leaking from
you've the front
recorded are
to
testtest
andbrakes,
changealso brake testbalance
the tires. to You
suit car type.
test, pick a distance between stops, hubs?
for comparison with other cars or with
may wish to trytires.
the different otherBringtires during
along thethe To as
such run0.4a mile,
basic or
brake-performance
a time between Thetests.
other comments
There you've recorded be-
are no numbers, are
test and
extra tireschange brake balance
and instruments to suit
needed to test, pick
stops, suchaasdistance
one minute.between stops,
Accelerate for
causecomparison
you are not withusing
otherinstruments.
cars or with
the
test t1:different
em. A tire tires. Bring and
pyrometer along the
an air- such asrest
from 0.4atmile, or a time
wide-open between
throttle to other tests.you
However, Therecanare no numbers,
record your com-be-
extra
pressure tiresgageandare instruments needed to
the usual minimum stops,best
your suchspeed-to
as one minute.
55 mphAccelerate
for a road cause you are not using
ments about specific parts of theinstruments.
test tkem. A tire pyrometer
instruments for tire testing . and an air- from
car orrest 80 atmphwide-open
for a small throttlerace to However,
brake-system youperformance.
can record your com-
The effect
pressure
Air-Pressure gage Gages-One
are the usuallast minimum
instru- your best maintain
car-and speed-to that 55 mphspeed foruntil
a roadit ments
of about specific
brake-system. changes parts of the
should be
instruments
ment to consider for tire is testing.
a gage for measur- car or for
is time 80 themphnextfor a Distance
stop. small race or brake-system
recorded as part performance.
of learning Thehow
effect
to
Air-Pressure Gages-One
ing low air pressures in brake-cooling last instru- car-and maintain that speed
time between stops can be adjusted until toit of brake-system.
maintain and adjustchanges should be
a brake system.
air ducts and at the exterior measur-
ment to consider is a gage for surfaces is time fororthedecrease
increase next stop. Distance
test or
severi ty. recorded as part ofperformance
The overall learning howtest to
ing the
of low car.air pressures
These pressuresin brake-cooling
are not time
Applybetween stops firmly
the brakes can be so adjusted
the car to maintainbeand
should adjust abybrake
followed some system.
work on
air ducts and
measured in atpsi,thebut exterior surfaces
in inches of increaserapidly
stops or decrease
without test severity.
locking the theThe overall
brakes. performance
Usually, there'll be one test
of
waterthe (in.Hp).
car. These Forpressures
comparison, are not
the Apply the
wheels. brakes
After the firmly
car stops,so the car
record should be followed by some
aspect of performance that you wish work on
measured
pressure 27inin. psi, below butwaterin inches
surface ofis stops rapidly without
some comments on your data sheet: locking the the brakes. Usually, there'll
to improve. See the trouble-shooting be one
water
27 in.Hp, (in.H,0).
or 1 psi.For comparison, the wheels.
Did theAfterfront the carwheels
or rear stops,lock?record aspect of
section performance
following Chapter that12you
for wish
sug-
pressure
Gages 27 for in. below water
measuring low surface
pressures is some
Didcomments
the car swerveon yourordata pullsheet:
to the to improve.
gestions on Seehowtheto trouble-shooting
correct specific
27 in.H20, or 1 psi.
are very useful for developing brake Did the front or rear wheels lock?
side? section
problems. following Chapter 12 for sug-
Gages
ducts for measuring low
, engine-induction ducts,pressures
water- Did there
Was the car swerve inor deceleration
a change pull to the gestions on how to correct specific
are very
and usefulairfor
oil-cooler ducts,developing brake
driver-cooling side?
as the car slowed? problems.TESTING
TRACK
ducts, engine-induction
ducts and even car body-surface ducts, water- Were there anoises
Was there change fromin deceleration
the brakes? A race car or high-performance
and oil-cooler air
aerodynamics. ducts,manometers
U-tube driver-cooling are as the car slowed?
Was the pedal firm? TRACK
road carTESTING
should be track tested .
ducts and even
used often for measuring car body-surface
low air Were
Was the there noises
stop fromor
smooth thewas
brakes?
there A race
However, the car time
or high-performance
and effort that
aerodynamics.
pressures, but U-tube a dial gage manometers
is easierareto anyWas the pedal firm?
vibration? road car testing
goes into shouldat abe tracktrack
is nottested.
worth
used often for
read and install in a car. measuring low air Was the stop repeat
Immediately smooth the or wastest there
and However, the timetransportation
it for the ordinary and effort that car.
pressures, but a dial gage
Dwyer Instruments' 2010is easier
Magne- to any vibration?
record your comments. Do this until goes into testing
Performance testsatjust
a track is not worth
described done
read
helic andgageinstall
readsinupa car.
to 10 in. Hp . This youImmediately
notice a change repeat the perform-
in brake test and it for
on the ordinary
a country road transportation
should suffice.car. In
Dwyer
small 5-in.Instruments'
round gage can 2010 be Magne-
mount- recordoryour
ance untilcomments.
about tenD ostops this have
until Performance
this section, tests just described
I discuss done
track testing
helic gage reads up
ed temporarily on an instrument to 10 in. H,O. This you notice a change in brake
been completed . It's important to be perform- on a country
aimed roadtheshould
at getting highest suffice. In
possible
small
panel 5-in.or in round
the centergage of canthe be steering
mount- ance or until
consistent with about ten so
each stop stops
yourhavetest this section, I discuss
performance from a brake system. track testing
ed temporarily on an instrument been completed. It's important to be aimed at getting the highest possible
panel or in the center of the steering consistent with each stop so your test performance from a brake system. 113
 Pushrod Pushrod

Pushrod

Balance-Bar
Adjuster
Balance-Bar

Measure lining thickness with dial caliper

or micrometer before and after each test
session
Measure to
wear
or
determine
lining
micrometer
thickness
can be related
before
wear
toand
with rate.
number
Brake
dial caliper
afterofeach
stops or
test
\.'-..--Jr--1
II
o o
I ~ Reference
laps; particularly
session to determine important
wear for
rate.planning
Brake
strategy
wear
to
canfor
measure
laps;
be long-distance
pads in same
particularly
racing.
related t o number
place for
important
Be sure
of stops
eachplanning
strategy for long-distance racing. Be sure
time.
or
r- Distance

to measure pads in same place each time. When making brake-balance changes with a balance bar, make a reference measurement
so you know where you started. With this measurement, you can quickly return to your
starting
When balance,
making if required. changes with a balance bar, make a reference measurement
brake-balance

- Torque
Force
Wrench
Position A
Torque
so you know where you started. With this measurement, you can quickly return t o your
starting
follows:
balance, if required.
Recommended track tests are as
Recommendedadjustment. track tests are as
If you are unfamiliar with the race
car, you may not know where to set
Wrench Brake-balance theIf balance
you are bar. unfamiliar
Start settingwith the it at race
the
follows:
Deceleration. car, you may not know
center of its adjustment and perform where to seta
Position A
Brake-balance adjustment.
Effectiveness. the balance
simple bar. Starttest.
brake-torque setting
Jackit up at the
the
Torque Wrench Deceleration.measurements. center
Position B Temperature car and put it on jack stands so thea
of its adjustment and perform
Effectiveness.comparisons.
Brake-lining simple
tires are brake-torque
off the test. Jack upHave
ground. the

.- ~.
o r--- o . o~
Temperature measurements.
Lining Thickness-Before you start car and put it on jack
someone sit in the car and lightly stands so the
I Force Brake-lining
testing, check comparisons.
brake lining thickness. tires are
apply off the With
the brakes. ground.the helperHave
(!) Center of Wheel Lining Thickness-Before
Remove the linings and measure you their
start someone sit in the car
holding the brake pedal, turn a front, and lightly
Force testing, check brake lining thickness. apply
thicknesses with a micrometer. It's then athe rearbrakes.
wheel With usingthe helper
a torque
Wheel Lug Nut
Center of Wheel Remove the alinings andcaliper.
measure their holding the brake pedal, turn a front,
OK to use vernier Record wrench on a lug nut as shown in the
thicknesses
each lining with
thicknessa micrometer.
on your data It's then a rear wheel
accompanying drawing. usingRecorda torque the
w heel Lug Nut OK wrench
to use a vernier
sheets. Also indicate where on the caliper. Record results. on a lugcan't
If you nut asmeasure
shown in the
brake
To measure torque about wheel center, put each lining thickness onwasyour data accompanying drawing. Record the
torque wrench in position B. Wrench in po- lining each measurement taken. torque with a torque wrench, use your
sition A willtorque
read about
low because distance
sheets.
Disc-brake pads wear on a taper,the
Also indicate where on so results. If you
hands and estimate it. can't measure brake
To measure wheel center, put
from wrench
torque wrench handle to wheel
in position center
B. Wrench is
in po- lining eachthem
measure measurement
in the middle was taken.
and at torque
Start withwitha torque wrench,torque
front-brake use your at
greater
sition A than length
will read low ofbecause
wrench. Don't
distance Disc-brake
each pads wear
corner. Measure on a taper,lin-
drum-brake so hands and estimate it.
about 50% greater than rear-brake
exceed torque capacity
from wrench handle toof wheel
lug nutscenter
or bolts.
is measure them in the middle
ings at each corner and at the inside and at Start ifwith
torque, front-brake
the car has 50-60% torque at
of its
greater than length of wrench. Don't each corner. Measure drum-brake lin- about 50% greater than rear-brake
exceed torque capacity of lug nuts or bolts. and outside edges of the center. Meas- weight on the rear wheels. If the car is
ings the
ure at each corner and
combined at the of
thickness inside
the torque, if the
extremely car has 50-60%
nose-heavy, set front-brakeof its
and outside edges of the
lining and shoe plate. Subtract shoe- center. Meas- weight
torque on the rear
at about 100%wheels.moreIfthan the car is
rear-
ure the
plate combined
thickness to get thickness of the
lining thickness. extremely nose-heavy, set
brake torque. But if it is extremely tail-front-brake
lining and shoe plate.
The purpose of these measuremen Subtract shoe- ts torque at about
heavy, start with100%front-more than rear-
and rear-brake
plate
is thickness
to check for to get lining
lining wear. thickness.
By record- brake
torques torque. But if it is extremely
approximately equal. This tail-
ingThethepurpose of these measurements
total number of hard stops heavy, start with front-
also confirms that both front- and and rear-brake
during testing, lining
is to check for you can wear. By record-
calculate the torques approximately
rear-brake systems work. equal. This
ing the total
amount of wear number per stop. of hardYoustopscan also confirms that
If front-brake torqueboth isfront-
less than and
during testing, about
then calculate you can how calculate
long your the rear-brake
rear, adjustsystems
the balance work. bar.
amount of wear
brake linings will last. per stop. You can If front-brake
The tricky part torque
is less than
of balance testing is
then
Brakecalculate
Balance-If aboutthehow longareyour
linings not rear, adjust the balance bar.
figuring out which end locks up first.
brake linings will last.
bedded in, do it before testing. This The tricky
You'll need somepart ofhelpers
balancetotestingdo this. is
Brakealso
will Balance-If
warm upthe thelinings
engine are and
not figuring out which end locks
As suggested, this is the time to use a up first.
Locked wheels is indicated by the smoke. bedded in, do it before
chassis. Check page 40 for details testing. This You'll
still need or
camera somevideo helpers
camera. to With
do this.an
Excessive wheel locking can flat-spot will also
about how warm
to bed in upbrakes.
the engine and As suggested, this is
instant-replay video camera, you the time to use cana
tires,
Locked making
wheels is brake-balance testing
indicated by the smoke. chassis.
If you are testing 40
Check page for car,
a race details it still
observecamera or video
at leisure whatcamera.
happened. With an
expensive.
Excessive Itwheel
takes locking
a sensitive
can driver and
flat-spot about how
careful
tires, observation to keep from testing
making brake-balance ruining should havetoanbedadjustable
in brakes.balance bar. instant-replay
A driver willvideo have camera,
difficultyyou can
telling
tires.
expensive. I t takes a sensitive driver and A Ifbalance
you are bar testing
is usually a race
mountedcar, init observeend
which at leisure
of a car what happened.
locks up without
careful observation to keep from ruining should have an adjustable
the pedal and is adjusted from one balance bar. A driver will
flat-spotting the have
tires. difficulty
Instead, he telling
has
tires. A balance
end bar is ausually
by loosening jam nut mounted
and turn- in which end of a car locks
to ease off the pedal the moment a up without
the the
ing pedal and aisscrewdriver.
bar with adjusted from one flat-spotting
wheel starts to thelock
tires. up.Instead, he has
If he doesn't,
end by loosening a jam nut and turn- to ease off the pedal the moment a
114 ing the bar with a screwdriver. wheel starts to lock up. If h e doesn't,
White spot on tire is cord showing through
where rubber was worn off. Locking
brakesspot
White risks
on flat-spotting tires and
tire is cord showing also
through
going through
where rubber towas cord.worn
Tire is
off.ruined and
Locking
must be risks
brakes replaced.
flat-spotting tires and also
going through to cord. Tire is ruined and
must be replaced.
he can grind right through the tires.
Flat spots can ruin a tire. Be careful!
heDo canthegrind firstright through thetest
brake-balance tires.
at IatWinghighat speed.
.-
rear of sports racer improves rear-tire traction for improved handling and braking
I -*.
As speed drops, so does wing downforce, increasing the chance of rear-
Flat spots can ruin a
moderate speed-about 40 mph . Iftire. Be careful! wheelat
Wing lockup when
rear of braking
sports racerfor rear-tire traction f-. ....,.
tight corners.
improves -.id braking
youDO gothetoo first
fast, brake-balance
the car will be hard test to at at high speed. As speed drops, so does wing downforce, increasing the chance of rear-
moderate
observe safely. speed-about
If yo u're 40 not mph.
using Ifa wheel lockup when braking for tight corners.
you
videogocamera,
too fast,position
the car people
will be on hard to
both
observe
sides of the track . Use two observersa
safely. If you're not using
video
on eachcamera,
side ifposition
possible.people on both
Tell them to
sides
try and of thesee track.
if the Use front twoorobservers
the rear
on eachlock
wheels sideupif first.
possible.Don Tell
't lock themup allto
try and see if the front
four wheels. The test will then mean or the rear
wheels
nothing,lock up first.
so don't brake Don't lock up all
too hard.
four wheels.
If the frontThe wheels test lock
will first,
then adjust
mean
nothing, so don't brake
the balance for more braking. Make too hard.
If the
sure youfrontturn wheels
the adjusterlock first,
in theadjustcor-
the
rect balance
direction! forRecord
more braking.
the number Make of
sure
turnsyou on turn
the the adjuster
adjuster in inyourthe data
cor-
rect direction!
sheet and retest. Record the number
Continue testingof
turns on the adjuster
until you are satisfied with brake in your data
sheet
balance.and retest. Continue testing
until
The you frontare wheels
satisfied should with brake lock
balance.
before the rears. Rear-wheel locking
The instability.
causes front wheels If the car should lock
is turning
before
or has theany rears. Rear-wheel
side forces on it, locking
it will
causesFront-wheel
spin. instability. If locking the car iscausesturninga
or has any side forces
loss of steering control, but the on it, it will
car Ground effects and rear wing provide maximum aerodynamic downforce. Wing also in-
spin.
usually goes in a straight line. Thea
Front-wheel locking causes creases drag dramatically. NACA ducts optimize airflow to brakes with minimum drag.
loss of
final steering
setting control,onbut
will depend the thetypecarof Ground effects and rear wing provide maximum aerodynamic downforce. Wing also in-
usually goes in 's a preference. line, l-he creases drag dramatically. NACA ducts optimize airflow to brakes with minimum drag.
car and the driver
final setting
If your carwill
has depend
wings oronaerodynam-
the type of average braking speed for the particU- as a wing-angle change.
car and the driver's preference.
ic downforce from ground effects, lar track and set the balance for that Brake temperature-fade may
If your
brake car has
balance maywings or aerodynam-
be different at high average
speed . Ifbraking speedstrongly
the driver for the particu-
prefers as a wing-angle
occur at one end change.
of the car before the
ic downforce
speeds. A rearfrom wing ground
loads the effects,
rear lar track
one type and set theover
of balance balance for that
another, the Brake
other end . temperature-fade may
brake balance
wheels as speed mayincreases.
be different Onatahigh car speed.
brakes Ifmay thebedriver strongly
balanced prefers
perfectly at occur at one end of the car
Change to different-size or -com-before the
speeds.
that has onlyA rear a rear wing wing,loads
if the thebrakes
rear one type of
top speed andbalance over another,
increasingly unbalanced the other end.
pound tire.
wheels
are evenlyas speed
balanced increases.
at 40 mph, On a the car brakes
as speedmaydropsbe. Abalanced perfectly at
lot of experimenting Change to
Change to different-hardness
different-size or -corn-
brake
that has
front only will
wheels a rearlock wing,
first ifatthe
100brakes
mph. is needed to arrive at unbalanced
top speed and increasingly the best pound
lining. tire.
areis evenly
It impossible balanced at 40 the
to balance mph, brakesthe as speed drops.
compromise . A lot of experimenting Change toto different-hardness
Change brake
the car weight distri-
front wheels will lock
for all speeds on such a car. first at 100 mph. is Remember
needed tothatarrivebra ke at the isbest
balance af- lining.
bution.
It is impossible
Compromise . to balance the brakes compromise.
fected by the foJ]owing: Change intomaster-cylinder
Change the car weight size.distri-
forRace-car
all speedsbrakes on such more
are used a car. at Remember
Tire-grip that brake balance
changes-could is af-
be caused bution.
Because it is difficult for a driver to
Compromise.
high speed than at low speed. The fected by the following:
by either track-surface changes or tire- Change
detect in master-cylinder
small brake-balance size.changes,
Race-carbraking
minimum brakes speed are used on the more trackat Tire-grip changes-could
temperature changes. be caused Because it is
don ' t be concerned difficult for a driver
about smallto
high
is goingspeedinto than at lowturn.
the slowest speed. PickThe an by
Aerodynamic-force changes,or such
either track-surface changes tire- detect small However,
adjustments. brake-balanceif youchanges,
make a
minimum braking speed on the track temperature changes. don't be concerned about small
is going into the slowest turn. Pick an Aerodynamic-force changes, such adjustments. However, if you make
115
a
 deceleration. Remember, as decelera-
tion increases, so must front-wheel
deceleration.
braking. Remember, as decelera-
tion
If your car has so
increases, must front-wheel
well-balanced brakes
braking.
and you want to change a master cylin-
derIf or
your
go tocara has well-balanced
different brakes
type of propor-
and you valve,
tioning want tothis change
can abemaster
done cylin-
with-
der or
out go to a different
changing balance. type of propor-
However, you
tioning valve, this
must measure and canrecordbe pressure
done with- in
out
bothchanging
hydraulicbalance.
circuits However,
before chang- you
must measure
ing parts. and be
This can record
donepressure in
by install-
both hydraulic circuits
ing pressure gages downstream frombefore chang-
ing
the parts. This can
front master be doneand
cylinder by propor-
install-
ing pressure
tioning valvegagesor downstream
the rear master from
the front Amaster
cylinder. cylinderplace
convenient and ispropor-
at the
tioningandvalve
front- or thebleed
rear-caliper rearscrews.
master
cylinder. A convenient
Modify two spare bleed screws place is at the
by
Severe changes in track conditions is why brake balance needs to be adjusted by the front- and rear-caliper bleed
brazing the cross-hole shut, drilling screws.
driver. If Geoff Lee's Formula Ford was set up for the dry, front wheels would lock in the Modifythe
through twocenter
spare hole
bleedand screws
brazingby
Severe
wet. To changes
correct, in track adjuster
balance conditions
is is why brake
changed balance
to give more needs to bebraking
rear-wheel adjustedandby less
the brazing the cross-hole shut, drilling
driver. If Geoff
front. During Lee's you
testing, Formula Ford was set
can deliberately upthe
wet fortrack
the dry, front
to find wheels
correct would
rain lock Photo
settings. in the an adapter fitting to the end of the
by Steven
wet. Schnabel.
To correct, balance adjuster is changed to give more rear-wheel braking and less through
screw the center
. Install hole and
one modified brazing
screw in a
front. During testing, you can deliberately wet the track to find correct rain settings. Photo an
frontadapter
caliperfitting
and one to inthea rear
end caliper.
of the
by Steven Schnabel. screw.
Connect Install one modified
a gage to each screw in a
modified
front caliper and one in a rear caliper.

~A
screw with flexible brake hose or steel
Connect
tubing and a gage
bleed to theeachgages.modified
While
A screw
someone withapplies
flexible the
brakepedal
hose toor steel
give
1.0 tubing and
800-psi frontbleed the gages.
pressure, read theWhilerear

---
someone
pressure . applies
You canthenow pedalmaketo give
the
1.0-- 800-psi front pressure,
0.81--====::::::-=--- ---- B system changes. Withread thethegages
rear

0.8 - -
pressure.
system
proportioning
You can
installed, adjust
changes.
the now
valve With
balance
so front
make bar the
theandgages
or
rear

~c
Average B
Deceleration A. installed, read
pressures adjustthethesame balance
as beforebar the
or
(g)
Average proportioning valve so
change. Be sure to keep this gage-front and rear
Deceleration
(g) yc pressures read the same
and-bleeder-screw
change.
an excellent Be sure
and-bleeder-screw
balance-bar,
setup as
toolto for
before itthe
because
keepsorting
this gage-
setup because itand
master-cylinder
is
out
is
an excellent
valve problems later. tool for sorting out
balance-bar, master-cylinder and
valve problems later.TESTS
DECELERATION
o 40 80 120 160
I
I
I I
I
A verage Deceleration - This test is
Speed When Brakes Are Applied (mph) DECELERATION
used to determine TESTS
I
0 40 80 120 160 how rapidly a car
Average TheDeceleration-This
test can be done withtest is
I
Average deceleration tests will tell
deceleration
I
you When
Speed something
Brakes about
Are aApplied
car's aerodynamic
(rnph) downforce. If
increases with higher-speed stops, stopping is improved with downforce, asI I stops.
used to determine how rapidly
mum effort using a stopwatch. If you
mini-
a car
shown bydeceleration
Average curve A. Curve
testsB will
reflects a car
tell YOU with littleabout
something or noadownforce. Curve Cdownforce.
car's aerodynamic is a car with
If stops.
know The test can
the time be done
it takes withtomini-
a car stop
problems-it has
deceleration lift at high
increases withspeed. Most road
higher-speed cars have lessisdeceleration
stops,-stopping at higher
improved with speeds,
downforce, as mum effort
from using a speed,
a known stopwatch. If you
calculate
but not by
shown as curve
severeA.asCurve
curve BB reflects
shows. a car with little or no downforce. Curve C is a car with know the time it takes a car to stop
problems-it has lift at high speed. Most road cars have less deceleration at higher speeds, deceleration:
but not as severe as curve B shows.
from a known speed, calculate
Average deceleration = :2t in g's
deceleration:
big adjustment, brake balance should
be checked by testing. The most im-
servers what they saw. If you make
more than one change before testing,
servers whatbe they
Average deceleration
S = Car speed before the
= stop &
in g's
in miles
big adjustment,
portant factor is brake balance
tire grip, should
caused by you won't able saw. If you make
to pinpoint what per hour
either changing track conditions orim-
be checked by testing. The most by change to the brake system testing,
more than one change before caused
S Car speed
t ==Time it takesbefore theinstop
to stop in miles
seconds
you per hour
portant
the tires.factor
Tiresis often
tire grip,
lose caused
grip withby whichwon't be able change
observable to pinpoint what
in brake t =ToTime
do itthis
takestesttoyou
stopmust know the
in seconds
either changing
age , wear track conditions
or temperature change.orTest
by change to the brake system caused
performance. speed of the car. If the car has a
the tires. Tires often lose grip
the car with the setup you will be run- with which
If theobservable
track surfacechange
is dirty in brakea
or wet, To do this test
speedometer, have youthemust know the
speedometer
age,
ning wear
in theorrace.
temperature change. Test performance.
balance test will be useless unless you speed of the car. If the
calibrated at a speedometer-repair car has a
theIfcar
yourwith
carthe
hassetup you will be run-
a cockpit-adjustable If the
plan to track
race surface
on a is dirty orsurface.
similar wet, a speedometer,
shop. If there ishave the speedometer
no speedometer, have
ning
balancein the
bar,race.
check it during a test ses- balance test
Instead, makewilla be useless
crude unless
attempt at you
set- calibrated
a speedometer at ashop speedometer-repair
put the car on
If your
sion at thecartrack.
has aThe cockpit-adjustable
driver should plan to raceif on
ting balance the abrakes
similar
were surface.
never shop.
their Ifspeedometer-testing
there is no speedometer, have
machine,
balance bar, check
change balance to see it during
howa test ses-
it feels. Instead,
set. Record make a crude deceleration
maximum attempt at set-so aandspeedometer shop put the
record the miles per hour that cor- car on
sion
Also, atobservers
the track.should
The driver
recordshould
what ting
you balance
can judge if the
howbrakes
muchwere never
to change their speedometer-testing
respond to various tachometermachine,
change
happens balance
during tohard see braking.
how it feels.
Run set.
the Record
balance maximum
when traction deceleration
improves. so and recordMake
readings. the milessureperyouhour that cor-
record the
only a few laps, makerecord
Also, observers should only what
one you can judge how much to
After a few brake-balance tests, you'll change respond to various tachometer
gear ratio , driving-wheel tire size and
happens and
change, during
then hard
discussbraking.
with theRunob- the balance
be able when balance
to relate traction settings
improves. to readings.
what gear Make
the carsureis inyou
when record the
making
only a few laps, make only one After a few brake-balance tests, you'll gear ratio, driving-wheel tire size and
change,
116 and then discuss with the ob- be able to relate balance settings to what gear the car is in when making
this test. Speedometer and tachometer Toppling Block

\J Z+;
calibrations are necessary because
this
they test. Speedometer
usually read in and error,tachometer
causing y
Toppling Block
calibrations are necessary because Wedge~ /rTra Floor
errors in calculations.
they
When usually read in
stopping from error, verycausing
high

----
errors indeceleration
calculations. changes during wedge
speed,
theWhen stopping from
stop. Therefore, averagevery high
decelera-
speed, deceleration changes
tion must be compared to other stop- during Forward
the
pingstop.
tests Therefore,
done at the averagesame speed. decelera- -
M Direction
tion must be compared to other stop- Forward
Bring the car up to speed and hold it Direction
ping tests done at the same
steady. Start the stopwatch the instant speed.
theBring
brakesthearecarapplied;
up to speed stopand the hold
watch it
steady.
the instantStartthe thecar stopwatch
stops. Timing the instantcan
the brakes
be done by are applied; in
a passenger stopthethe carwatch
or by
an observer. Several tests should can
the instant the car stops. Timing be
be done
run by a passenger
to minimize errors, in the
butcar letorthe
by
an observer.
brakes Several tests.
cool between tests should
If you are be
run to minimize
getting about the errors, same resultsbut leteach the
brakes
time, your cool testing
between tests. Ifareyou
methods goodare.
getting about the same
However, it's difficult to do this test results each
time, your testing
accurately, so don't methods are good.
be surprised if
However,
you can't get it'sconsistent
difficult to do this test
results. To compensate for nosedive during a toppling-block test, first photograph car from the side
accurately,
To reducesoerror, don't begin be surprised
your stops if Iduring hard braking. From photo, measure dive angle A of car as shown. Make a wedge atI
you can't get consistent results. this angle and place
To compensate it under during
for nosedive toppling block tray. Usetest,
a toppling-block a protractor/level to car
first photograph check tray
from theangle
side
from a higher speed. Start the stop in car. hard braking. From photo, measure dive angle A of car as shown. Make a wedge at
during
To reduce
watch error, begin reaches
as the speedometer your stops the this angle and place it under toppling block tray. Use a protractor/level to check tray angle
from a speed.
desired higher Ifspeed. Start observer
a trackside the stop in car.
watch
is as the
timing, speedometer
you'll need to reaches signal him the Again, accelerate the car to a con- without hitting the brakes. Back off
desired speed.
when to start timing. If a trackside observer stant speed and make several practice the throttle at a mark on the road
is It's
timing, you'll toneed
interesting measure to signal him
the aver- Again,
tests. If you accelerate
do both time the carandtodistance
a con- without hitting the
before crossing the line
brakes.
and Back
observe off
whendeceleration
age to start timing. when braking from stant speed andon
measurements make
eachseveral practice
test, compare the throttle at a mark on
the speed as you cross the line. Adjust the road
It's interesting
various speeds. Iftoyour measure test the aver-
methods tests. If you If
the results. doyoubothmeasured
time and the distance
time before crossing
initial speed the line
so you crossand theobserve
line at
age deceleration when
are consistent, you can plot a graph braking fromof measurements on each
and the distance accurately, you test, compare the speed as
the desired speed. you cross the line. Adjust
various speeds.
deceleration If your
versus car testspeed.methodsThis the results.
should get If the
you same
measured the time
deceleration initial
If you speed so youto cross
are going run a the
numberline ofat
are
will consistent,
indicate the you canamount plot aof graph
aero-of and
using the distance methods.
the different accurately, On youthe the desired speed.
deceleration tests, you should invest
deceleration versus car speed. This should get errors
the same deceleration
dynamic downforce . If average decel- other hand, in measuring will in If you are going to run a number of
a decelerometer.
will indicate
eration increases the amount
with stops of aero-
from using inconsistent
give the different methods. On the
results. Because deceleration tests, you should invest
Maximum Deceleration Tests-You
dynamic
higher speeds,downforce. the car If average decel-
has increasing other hand, errors in
speed is squared in the stopping- measuring will in a decelerometer.
can measure maximum deceleration
eration
downforce increases
at higher with speeds. stops
Mostfrom cars give
distance inconsistent
formula, theresults. Because
speed measure- Maximum
during a stop.Deceleration
You can alsoTests-You
test decel-
higher speeds, the car
have less deceleration at high speed has increasing speed
ment is is squared in the stopping-
critical. can measure
eration maximum
at particular deceleration
speeds without
downforce
for several at higher The
reasons. speeds. wheelsMostrotat-
cars distance formula,
If you are having the speed
troublemeasure-
getting during a stop.
stopping. To doYou this,can
usealso test decel-
a decelerom-
have
ing atless highdeceleration
speed takeat away high speed
some ment is critical.
accurate deceleration measurements, eration
eter at particular
or toppling b10cks.speeds without
for several reasons.
deceleration the instant Thethe wheels
driver rotat-
hits tryIfthis:
youMark are ahaving
line ontrouble
the roadgetting
or set stopping.
Decelerometer-this,
To do use athe
Follow decelerom-
instruc-
ing
the brake pedal. Also, many cars some
at high speed take away have accurate
up markers deceleration
where brakingmeasurements,
should eter
tionsorthat
toppling
comeblocks.with the instrument.
deceleration the
aerodynamic liftinstant
at high the driver
speed, hits so try this:Start
begin. Markthe a line on the road
stopwatch as the or car
set Decelerometer-Follow
Most decelerometers require the a instruc-
passen-
the
theybrake
have pedal. Also, . many cars have
less traction up markers where braking
crosses the line. To apply the brakes should ger to take readings . On ainstrument.
tions that come with the single-seat
aerodynamic
While lift at highdeceleration
performing speed, so begin. Start
exactly at the theline,
stopwatch
approach as the car
it with Most
racer, decelerometers
this is not practical.require a passen-
Instead, use
they have less traction.
tests, also measure stopping distance crosses
your foottheoffline.theTothrottle
apply theandbrakes
posi- ger
a videoto take
camerareadings.
mounted On ainsingle-seat
the car to
forWhile
each speed performing
. Providingdecelerationyou know exactly
tioned over at the theline, approachpad.
brake-pedal it This
with racer,
recordthis is not practical.
decelerometer Instead, use
readings.
tests,
car speedalsoandmeasure
stopping stopping
distance, distance
decel- your foot off the throttle
reduces driver-reaction time. It takes and posi- aToppling
video camera mounted in
Blocks-The toppling-block the car to
for each speed. Providing
eration can be calculated from the you know
fol- tioned 1/2
about oversecond
the brake-pedal
to move your pad. This
foot record decelerometer readings.
method doesn't require a passenger.
car speed and
lowing formula: stopping distance, decel- reduces
from the driver-reaction
throttle to the brake time.pedal.
It takes Toppling Blocks-The
Toppling blocks-see toppling-block
drawing-can
eration can be calculated from the fol- Have112
about second to read
a passenger movethe your foot
speed- method doesn't
be built in a home require
workshop.a passenger.
Make a
lowing formula:
A d I t
S2., from the throttle to the brake
ometer or tach. It may be necessary to pedal. Toppling blocks-see drawing
flat surface for the blocks to rest on. -canA
verage ece era Ion = 29.9d In 9s
Have a passenger
reposition the instrument read thefor speed-
easier be built
flat in a can
tray that home be workshop.
mounted firmly Makeina
Average
S deceleration = a
in g's
= Car speed before the stop in miles
S2
ometer
reading. orOr,tach. It may
if you havebea necessary
camera that to flat
yoursurface
car is for the blocks
ideal. Don't to restthe
use on.car
A
per hour reposition the instrument
can be tripped electrically - necessary for easier flat tray that can be mounted
floor. Chances are it's not flat enough firmly in
S
d= Car speedit before
= Distance theto
takes car stop ininmiles
stop feet reading.
with Or, if you have a camera
a single-seater-you could thatuse youraccurate
for car is measurements.
ideal. Don't use the car
per hour can
the be brakelight switch to-necessary
tripped electrically trip the floor.
Set Chances are it's gradually
up the blocks, not flat enoughbring
d= Distance
This test is itmuch
takes harder
car to stop
thaninusing
feet with
camera a and
single-seater-you
take a photo of the could use
speed- for
the accurate
car up tomeasurements.
speed and hit the brakes.
a stopwatch because it's difficult to hit ometer the moment the brake pedalthe
the brakelight switch to trip is YouSet upwillthe blocks,
topple gradually
the bring
blocks
theThis testatis amuch
brakes harder
certain spot. than using
Observers camera
hit. and take a photo of the speed- the car up to speed and
immediately, so you don't have to hit the brakes.
a stopwatch
can becausethat
help confirm it's braking
difficult really
to hit ometer
To get thethemomentspeed the brake
right whenpedaltheis You
lose much will speed.toppleWiththe blocks
the blocks,
the brakes
starts whereatthe a certain
driver spot. Observers
intends. hit.
brakes are applied, run some tests immediately,
you'll find maximumso you ordon't peak have
deceler- to
can help confirm that braking really To get the speed right when the lose much speed. With the blocks,
starts where the driver intends. brakes are applied, run some tests you'll find maximum or peak deceler-
117
 Check Changes-When making
deceleration tests , now's the time to
Check
check howChanges-When
deceleration is affected makingby
deceleration tests, now's the
changes other than to the brakes. For time to
check how deceleration is
example, you can combine the decel- affected by
changes other
eration test withthan to the brakes.
aerodynamic testsFor
to
example,
see how you can combine
downforce affectsthe decel-.
braking
eration test this
Combine with aerodynamic tests to
with brake-balance
see how
changes downforce
to achieveaffects braking.
maximum
Combine
deceleration.thisRemember,
with brake-balance
maximum
changes
decelerationto occurs achieve maximum
when brake bal-
deceleration.
ance is set soRemember,
all four wheelsmaximumlock
deceleration
simultaneously. occurs when brake bal-
ance
Although tire all
is set so gripfour wheels
is the most lock
im-
simultaneously.
portant item affecting deceleration , it
is Although
also affectedtirebygrip is theinmost
a grade im-
the road
Temperature-indicating paint is best way portant item affecting deceleration,
or the wind. So test in both directions it
to measure rotor temperatures. Paint can is also
and affectedthebyresults
average a gradetoineliminate
the road Effect of scoop on brake temperature can
be applied to outer edgepaint
Temperature-indicating of rotor and way
is best ob- or the effects.
these wind. So Ontest in bothday,
a windy directions
a large be tested by enlarging scoop. If you make
served
to after rotor
measure test run. ExperimentPaint
temperatures. with dif-
can and average the results to eliminate scoop larger andontemperature drops, use
error is introduced . Wind forces vary Effect of scoop brake temperature can
ferent temperature
be applied to outerranges
edge ofto rotor
get good
and test
ob-
data.
servedOn an test
after open-wheel car, a pyrometer
run. Experiment with dif-
these
as the effects.
square On a windy
of the day, a On
wind speed. largea this information
be tested to design
by enlarging scoop.anIf you
improved
make
error isday,
introduced. Wind willforces vary scoop. larger
scoop Use theand
smallest scoops drops,
temperature to give use
ac-
can be temperature
ferent used, but youranges
must act fastgood
to get to avoid
test windy drag forces change ceptable
this brake temperatures
information to design an because big
improved
having
data. Onrotor
an cool off before
open-wheel car,measurement
a pyrometer as
deceleration of the wind speed. On a
the squaresignificantly. scoops increase
scoop. Use air drag.scoops to give ac-
the smallest
is taken.
can be used, but you must act fast to avoid windy day, drag forces will change ceptable brake temperatures because big
having rotor cool off before measurement deceleration significantly. scoops increase air drag.
is taken. EFFECTIVENESS TESTS one line pressure and compare
ation during that range of speed when Brake-system effectiveness is the decelerations.
the brakes were applied . By running a EFFECTIVENESS
amount of deceleration TESTSobtained for a one line pressure and compare
ation
number during that, you
of tests rangecan of plot
speed when
a graph particular pedal effort. A isbrake
Brake-system effectiveness the decelerations.
BRAKE TEMPERATURE TESTS
of deceleration versus car speed.a
the brakes were applied. By running system that is more effective stops aa
amount of deceleration obtained for Brake temperature is important to
number
Again, this of tests,
is an you can plot
indication of avehicle
graph particular
car with less pedal effort. A brake
pedal effort. BRAKE
know . IfTEMPERATURE
the brakes get TESTS too hot,
of deceleration
downforce. versus car
If deceleration speed.
is higher at system that is more
Effectiveness testseffective
are useful stopsfora Brake temperature
cha nges may be necessary. is important
By measur- to
Again,
higher this is an aerodynamic
speeds, indication of vehicle down- car with less pedal effort.
comparing brake systems and also for know.
ing the Iftemperature
the brakes , youget can
too check
hot,
downforce.
force If deceleration
is present and vice versa. is higher at Effectiveness
comparing linings.tests are tests
These usefulmust for changes
the success mayofbeanecessary.
ch ange. Usu By ally,
measur-
im-
higher speeds, aerodynamic
Each block falls over at a certain down- comparing
be run with brakea systems and also for
continuous-reading ing the temperature,
proved airflow to the brakes will you can checkbe
force is present
deceleration . Mand vice versa.
aximum deceleration comparing
decelerometer, linings.
suchThese tests must
as aU-tube de- the most
the success of a change.
effective change. Usually, im-
Each a block
during stop willfallsbeover at a certain
indicated by the be run with a continuous-reading
celerometer or reco rding g-meter and proved
Measure airflow
brake to temperature
the brakes will withbea
deceleration. Maximum
shortest block that fell over. The deceleration adecelerometer,
line-pressure gage.such Withas a U-tube
a recording de- the most effective change.
hand-held or remote pyrometer. You
during acan
driver stop tell
will be indicated bywhat
immediately the celerometer
g-meter, these or tests
recording
can beg-meter
run by and the canMeasure
also use brake temperature with a
temperature-indicating
shortest
deceleration block he isthat fell by
getting over. The
looking adriver
line-pressure
alone. gage. WithWith aa recording
U-tube hand-held
paint or labels. or remote The pyrometer.
hand-held You py-
driver
at can tell immediately what
the blocks. g-meter, these tests
decelerometer, ancan observer
be run by the is can
rometer also gives
use thetemperature-indicating
temperature at the
deceleration
There is some he iserror
getting
in thebytoppling
looking- driver
required. alone. With a U-tube paint
time or of labels. The hand-held The
the . measurement. py-
at the blocks.
block test. If the car nosedives while decelerometer, an
To run an effectiveness observer
test, dri ve is rometer gives the temperature
remote pyrometer with thermocou- at the
There isthe
stopping, some errorwill
blocks in thetendtoppling-
to fall required.
the car at a predetermined speed- time gives
ples of the 'measurement.
continuous temperatuThe res.
block
more test.
easilyIf than
the car nosedives
if the while
car stopped such To as
run60an effectiveness
mph- and applytest, drive
the brake remote pyrometer
Temperature with give
indicators thermocou-
maxi-
stopping, the blocks will
level. Most race cars don't nosedive tend to fall the car at a predetermined
pedal until a 100-psi pressure is speed- ples gives continuous
mum temperature experienced at a temperatures.
more easily than if the
enough to matter, but the error may car stopped such
reached.as 60 Atmph-and
that point ,apply the brake
deceleration is Temperature
specific location. indicators give maxi-
level. Most race
be significant on cars don't nosedive
a high-CG, softly pedal and
read untilrecorded.
a 100-psi Thenpressure
accelerate is m uThe
m disadvantage
temperature of experienced
a hand- heldatpy-a
enough
sprung road to matter,
car. but the error may reached.
the car back At that
to 60point,
mph deceleration
and repea t the is specific
rometerlocation.
is it takes time to stop the
beTosignificant
compensate on fora nosedive,
high-CG, take softlya read and recorded. Then
test in increasing 100- or 200-psi accelerate car,Thegetdisadvantage
to the brake, of aand
hand-held
make the py-
sprung road car.
photo of the car from the side while it the car backuntil
increments to 60lockup
mph and repeat the
is reached. Be rometer is it takes time
measurement. By that time, tempera- to stop the
is To compensate
stopping at maximum for nosedive, take a
deceleration. test to
sure in allow
increasing
sufficient 100-timeor between
200-psi car,
turesgethave to the brake,
dropped and make the
. Therefore, the
photo
Using of thethe car from
photo, measure the side while of
the angle it increments
each pedal until lockupfor
application is reached.
the brakes Be measurement.
hand-held pyrometer By that time,
will be tempera-
useful
is stopping at maximum
tilt of the body. Compare it to a photodeceleration. sure to
to cool. allow sufficient time between tures ifhave
only you candropped.
get fastTherefore,
access to thethe
Using the photo,
taken from the samemeasure anglethe ofangle
the carof each pedal application
Following for the brakes
each test , calculate pedal spot to be measured . For be
hand-held pyrometer will useful
example,
tilt of the
sitting body.
level. Compare
Once the dive it to angle
a photo is to cool.required for each pressure . Plot
effort only if you
it'll work on can get fast race
open-wheel access to but
cars, the
taken from , the
determined samethe
adjust angletrayof for
the the
car this Following each paper
data on graph test, calculate pedal
with decelera- spot
is almostto beimpossible
measured.on For example,
full-fendered
sitting
topplinglevel.
blocks. Once
Tip the dive up
the tray angle is
at the effort
tion in g's on the vertical axis Plot
required for each pressure. and it'll work
cars on open-wheel
that don't have largerace cars, but
openings in
determined, adjust the
front , at the same angle the car tray for the this
pedaldata on graph
effort on the paper with decelera-
horizontal axis. is almost
the wheels. impossible on full-fendered
toppling
nosedives. blocks.
This Tip willthe tray up at the
compensate for tion in
For easy g's comparison,
on the vertical if youaxis and
test cars that are
There don'tmanyhavewayslargetoopenings
determine in
front,
the error at caused
the same angle theOncara
by nosediving. pedal effort
another car oronwith thedifferent
horizontal liningaxis.
on the wheels. Whatever you do, plan
temperature.
nosedives.
car with littleThisnosedive,
will compensate
position the for For easy car,
the same comparison,
plot the second if you testtest
on theThere are and
test first many waysthetowritten
follow determine
plan.
the
toppling-block tray level on the cara
error caused by nosediving. On another
the samecar or with
graph. Fordifferent lining on
a quick compari- You must have good recordsdo,to plan
temperature. Whatever you get
car with little nosedive, position the
floor. the same
son and nocar, plot, the
graphs run second
the teststest on
at just the
any test
useful and follow theIt written
firstinformation. doesn'tplan.
do
toppling-block tray level on the car the same graph. For a quick compari- You must have good records to get
floor.
118
son and no graphs, run the tests at just any useful information. It doesn't do
any good to say, "My brakes get to
lOOOF." You must know how many
any good
stops weretomade, say, "My from brakes get to
what speed,
1000F."
and how You muchmust time know elapsed how many
between
stopsstop.
each wereAlso, made, a car fromthatwhat speed,
sits still be-
and
tween howstopsmuch is a time elapsed than
lot different between if it
each stop. Also,
was moving at 100 a car mph thatforsitsthestill be-
same
tween stops is a lot different than if it
time period.
was If moving
you don at 100 ' t mph have fora theremote same
time period.
pyrometer, use the next best
If you don't
thing-apply temperature have aindicators remote
pyrometer,
to your brakes.use The paint the and nextlabelbest in-
thing-apply
dicators go on temperature
the edges of indicators the brake
to yourand
rotor brakes.
caliper Thebody, paint respectively.
and label in-
dicators
Usually, go rotoron temperature
the edges of gets the brake
twice
rotor and caliper
that of the caliper. body, respectively.
Usually,
Accelerate rotor temperature
to a predetermined gets twice
that ofand
speed the caliper.
make one full stop. Check Temperature-indicating labels are for use Temperature-indicating paint at different
theAccelerate
temperaturetoindicators a predetermined
and record on disc-brake calipers. Note the word locations on caliper : Paint on outboard-
speed and make
the maximum-indicated one full temperature.
stop. Check CAUTION starting at 320F
Temperature-indicating (160C).
labels are forTem-
use piston housing is most important
Temperature-indicating because
paint at different
theyou
If temperature
have a pyrometer indicatorsasand record
well, use perature
on indicates
disc-brake fluid may
calipers. Note bethe boiling
word it indicateson
locations fluid temperature
caliper: Paint where cooling
on outboard-
theTemperature
maximum-indicated temperature. CAUTION starting
inside caliper. Photoatcourtesy
320F (160C). Tern-
AP Racing. air is minimal.
piston housing Caliper
is most should not because
important exceed
it. rise in one stop can 350F (177C) at temperature
this point.
If perature indicates fluid may be boiling it indicates fluid where cooling
be you have a topyrometer
compared a calculated as well,
number use
inside caliper. Photo courtesy AP Racing. air is minimal. Caliper should not exceed
it. Temperature rise
using the formula on page 11. The dif-in one stop can 350F (1 7 7 C ) at this point.
be compared
ference to a calculated
between number
calculated-temp-
using therise
erature formula
and the on measured
page 11. The risedif- is
ference between
the energy-heat-Iost elsewhere, calculated-temp-
erature
such as rise
to theand caliper,
the measured wheel, rise brake is
the
hats and energy-
air drag. heat-lost elsewhere, .'" ~ .
suchIf youas tohave thea caliper,
road-racing wheel,car, brake
make ,
... ' ~ .
.
, ."'.
hats and air drag.
a number of fast laps around the track \.' .
, ...\
at Ifracing
you havespeed. a road-racing
After aboutcar, 10 make
laps, 'I.. "
abring
number the of carfastin lapsand around
measure the brake
track L FL1 + L27
at racing speed. Afterthis about 10 laps,
laps, ,,~ I . Wear = =
La - LF
temperature. After many . , >
bring the car in and
brake temperature should stabilize. measure brake '
......
.., ..
"
'~
Wear
Wear/S
Wear
Lo -= LFNo. of Stops
=top
temperature.
To check this, After make this several many laps,
multilap "
Wear 1000 x Wear
brake temperature
tests, checking temperatureshould after stabilize.
each Wear /1000 =
Wear/Stop No. =of No.
Stops of Stops
Stops
To
set check this,Eventually,
make several multilap 1000 x Wear

-
of laps. you'll find
tests, checking temperature after each Wear/1000 Stops = No, of Stops
how many laps it takes for the brakes
set
to of reachlaps. maximum
Eventually,temperature. you'll find
how many
They laps get
will not it takesany forhotterthe brakes
unless LO
to reach maximum
there's a major track , car or driver temperature. Wear per stop can be calculated using simple formulas shown. If pads weQr in a taper, use
They
change.will Withnota getremote any pyrometer
hotter unless and I
average final thickness T f to compute wear. Usually, wear per 1000 stops is more usefulI
there's a major linings,
thermocoupled track, car thisorcan driver be than
Wear wear per can
per stop stop.beLining-wear calculations
calculated using simple are very important
formulas for long-distance
shown. If pads racing.
wear in a taper, use
change.
done With
easily a remote
in one seriespyrometer
of laps. and Wear perfinal
average lap or wear per T,
thickness hour
to may be most
compute important
wear. Usually,so pad per
wear changes
1 0 0 0can be planned
stops is more at fuel
useful
thermocoupled stops.wear
than Have per crew make quick calculations
stop. Lining-wear lining checks during
are very tire changes
important to double-check
for long-distance racing.
Pay particular linings, attentionthisto can caliper be calculations.
Wear per lap or wear per hour may be most important so pad changes can be planned at fuel
done easily innear
temperature one series
the pistonof laps.
(s). If the stops. Have crew make quick lining checks during tire changes to double-check
Pay particular
temperature gets attention
close to the to caliper
brake- calculations.
temperature
fluid dry boilingnear the piston(s).
point, watchIf the for car, watch out for uneven braking. in this chapter 1 suggested measuring
temperature
trouble. gets close
A caliper to theatbrake-
running over The driver can lose control! lining thickness befo re testing. If you
fluid
SOOF (260C)dry boiling point, watch
will experience trouble for. Nowatch
car, matterouthowfor careful
uneven youbraking.
are, in this
do you canI measure
this,chapter suggestedlining
measuring
thick-
trouble.
The caliper running
sealsAeventually leak even at ifover
the T h e driver
there are can lose control!
always test-to-test dif- lining afterward
ness thickness before
to judge wear.If The
testing. you
500F doesn't
fluid (260C) boil. will experience
So try to limit trouble.
cali- No matter
ferences howeliminated
that are careful you are,
by run- do this, you
amount can measure
of wear lining But
is interesting. thick-
to
The seals eventually
per temperature to 3S0F (177C) leak even if the or there are always test-to-test
ning both configurations at once. dif- ness afterward
be useful, you toneedjudgeto wear. The
determine
fluid
less, to doesn't boil. So
give longer sealtrylife.to limit cali- ferences that are eliminated by
Rerunning a test with the configura- run- amount
wear per of wear is interesting. But to
SlOp.
perTotemperature
evaluate differencesto 350F (177C) between or ning both configurations
tions switched and averagingat results
once. beTouseful, you wear
calculate need perto determine
stop, you
less, to give longer seal
different components or setups, such life. Rerunning side-to-side
eliminates a test with differences
the configura-
. wear
must per
knowstop. the number of stops or
as Tocool evaluate
ing-duct differences
systems orbetween rotor tions
Whenswitched and parts
evaluating averaging results
designed to Tooncalculate
laps the pads.wear You per
shouldstop, you
be able
different
types, it iscomponents
best to test or setups,
one such
configura- eliminates
run in oneside-to-side
direction differences.
only, such as must know the number of
to find this in your records if you stops or
as
tion cooling-duct
on the left andsystems one on the or right.
rotor When evaluating
curved-fin rotors, beparts
suredesigned
to switch to laps on the
recorded pads. Youin should
everything be able
your notebook
types,, switch
Then it is best sidesto andtest rerun
one configura-
the test. run in
parts oneyou
when direction only, such as
switch sides. to suggested.
as find this in your records if you
Caution: When runningontests
tion on the left and one the right.
with curved-fin rotors,
Brake-Wear be sure
Test-Brake to can
wear switchbe recorded
After youeverything
finish in your notebook
testing, measure
Then, switch
different setupssidesonandeach rerun sidetheoftest.the parts when you switch sides.
tested only after many stops. Earlier as suggested.
brake-lin ing thickness. Measure the
Caution: When running tests with Brake-Wear Test-Brake wear can be After you finish testing, measure
different setups on each side of t h e tested only after many stops. Earlier brake-lining thickness. Measure the
119
 ,r
pad pad
Backing Backing
/ Plate

Plate
/ Plate
k:king
Plate

Bonded Riveted
Lining Lining

Lining Rivet Head

--1 __ --11-- Minimum Lining

1I
When measuring lining thickness to com- Minimum Lining Thickness
pute wear rate, take several measurements Thickness
and
--c -t Minimum Lining
Whenaverage them.
measuring Because
lining brake
thickness to shoes
com- +Minimum Lining
and Thickness
pute pads weartake
wear rate, unevenly,
severalwear rates are
measurements To compute number of stops available from a new lining, you must know its minimum-
Thickness
based
and on average
average them.wear over the
Because lining.
brake To
shoes
compute I allowable lining thickness. This is different for riveted and bonded linings. Use depth-gageI
and padsminimum lining thickness,
wear unevenly, wear rateslook are
for
endcompute
To of dial caliper
numberto measure
of stops available
availablewear
fromofa riveted lining.you
new lining, More wear
must will result
know in rotor
its minimum-
thinnest
based onspot.
average wear over the lining. To or drum scoring.
allowable lining thickness. This is different for riveted and bonded linings. Use depth-gage
compute minimum lining thickness, look for end of dial caliper to measure available wear of riveted lining. More wear will result in rotor
thinnest spot. or drum scoring.
linings in the same places as before mum lining thickness in their shop harder on brakes than one with short
and compare thicknesses to the origi- manual. If you can't find this figure, straights and high-banked turns.
linings in the sameWear
nal measurements. places
is as
the before
origi- mum
assumelining thickness
you can wear thein their shop
linings to harder on brakes
Lining-wear than one are
calculations withimpor-
short
and compare thicknesses to
nal thickness minus the thicknessthe origi- manual. If you can't find this figure,
within 1/16 in. of the plate or rivets. straights and high-banked
tant in long-distance road racing. If turns.
nal measurements.
after testing. Look Wear is theatorigi-
carefully the assume youminimum
Subtract can wearliningthe linings to
thickness you Lining-wear
wear out linings calculations
and ruin are aimpor-
rotor,
nal
liningthickness
to see if minus the onthickness
it is worn a taper. 1/16
withinthe
from in, of theofplate
thickness or rivets.
a new lining to atant
lot in
of long-distance
time will be lost road inracing.
the pits If
after testing.
Make Look carefully
a diagram to recordat the the getSubtract
maximum minimum liningwear.
allowable thickness
You you wear out linings
changing it. By determining liningand ruin a rotor,
information, as shown in theondrawing
lining to see if it is worn a taper.. from the thickness of a
can then calculate the maximumnew lining to awear
lot during
of timepractice will besessions
lost in andthe cal-
pits
Make a diagram to record the get maximum
number of stops: allowable wear. You changing
culating the it. number
By determining
of stops orlininglaps
information, as shown
Lining-wear per ~ the drawing.
stop = in can then calculate the maximum wear during
allowed, youpractice sessions
can predict howandmanycal-
number of stops: W culating the number of stops or laps
Lining-wear
in inches perper stop
stop =r W Number of stops allowed =_M_
Ws
laps you can run before changing
allowed,
pads. Be sure you can to havepredict
enoughhow sets
many of
W = Total amount of lining wear in Number of stops allowed = - WM laps
pads you can run
bedded-in to before
go the changing
distance
in inches per stop W M = Maximum lining wear w allowed in pads.
inches s beforeBe thesure
race to have enough sets of
starts.
W Total
N = =Total amount
number of lining wear in
of stops inches pads bedded-in to go the isdistance
W, Maximum
Ws == Lining wearlining wearinallowed
per stop inches in This sort of calculation useful
inches before the race starts.
only for race cars. Usually, you can
N= The answer
Total from
number this formula will
of stops inches
per stop
be very small. So, multiply it by 1000 W, = Lining wear per stop in inches This sort both
determine of calculation
wear rate isand useful
the
to The answer
get wear per from this formula
1000 stops. will
This figure perRemember
stop that brake wear in- only for
exact number race of cars. Usually,
possible stopsyou can
before
be very
will small.toSo,
be easier use multiply
. it by 1000 creases with temperature. And, if you determine
a pad changeboth wear rateTheand
is necessary. the
brakes
to Once
get wear
you per have1000 stops.
wear This figure
per stop, calcu- Remember
increase enginethat horsepower,
brake wear the in- exact number of possible
are always used as hard as possible, so stops before
will be easier to use.
late the number of stops it takes to creases with temperature. And,
brakes will get hotter because you'll if you athepadwear
change rateisisnecessary.
predictable. TheOn brakes
the
Once
wear outyouthe have wear completely.
linings per stop, calcu-To increase
be stoppingengine horsepower,
from higher speeds. Wearthe are always
street, the used
number as hard as possible,
of stops depends so
late this,
the number brakes willwill
get also
hotterincrease.
because Aero-
you'll the wear rate is predictable. On the
do find theof minimum
stops it takes to
lining per stop on the type of driving . City driving
wear out the linings completely.
thickness allowed. Your car manu- To be stopping
dynamic from higher
changes also speeds. Wear
affect lining street,
takes the morenumber stops of than
stops depends
freeway
do this, find
facturer or the brakeminimum lining
manufacturer per stop will also increase.
temperature and wear. Therefore, Aero- on the type
driving. of driving.
Fast driving in theCity driving
mountains
thickness allowed.
should be able to supply thisYour car manu- dynamic
keep recordschanges alsothickness
of lining affect lining
each
takes more stops than
is a lot different than taking the family freeway
facturer
information. or Obviously,
brake manufacturer
you should- temperature
time and the
you inspect wear.brakes.
Therefore,
Also driving. Fast driving
to the drive-in. in the calculating
Therefore, mountains
should
n't allow be able to
the lining to wear
supply
so muchthis keep records
record of lining
the number of thickness each
stops between is
wear per stop is impossiblethe
a lot different than taking family
. So, for
information. Obviously, you
that the metal backing plate contacts should- time you inspect the brakes.
inspections so you can keep track of Also to the drive-in.
street use, keepTherefore,a record calculating
of the car
n't
the allow
rotor.the Or,lining to wear
if you havesoriveted
much record
changing thewear
number ratesof from
stops track
between to wear
mileage per eachstop is timeimpossible.
the brakes So, are
for
that the it's
linings, metalthe backing
distance plate contacts
the rivets are inspections
track and setupso you can keep track of
to setup. street use, keep a record
inspected. This, along with a record of of the car
the rotor. into
recessed Or, theif you havethat
lining riveted
you changing
Wear rateswearwillrates
change from track to
dramatically mileage each time
lining thickness, the you
will give brakes are
an idea
linings,be
should it'sconcerned
the distancewith.the rivets are track and setup to setup.
from track to track. One with long
inspected.
of how many This,milesalongyourwith brakes
a recordwillof
recessed
Most carinto the lining give
manufacturers that mini-
you Wear rates
straights and will
tightchange dramatically
flat turns is much
lining
last. thickness, will give you an idea
should be concerned with. from track to track. One with long of how many miles your brakes will
Most car manufacturers give mini- straights and tight flat turns is much last.

120
Maintenance II
Proper maintenance is essential for
brake-system safety and performance.
If Proper
you have maintenancea good is maintenance
essential for
brake-system safety and
program, you can usually find a prob- performance.
If
lemyou before have a good serious.
it becomes maintenance Don't
program,
wait untilyoubrake can usually problems find a occur
prob-
lem before
before doingitsomething-you
becomes serious.may Don'ten-
wait until
counter brake problems
a life-threatening situation. occur
before doing system
The brake something-youis one of the maymost en-
counter a life-threatening
critical parts of a car. Luckily, situation.brakes
areThe verybrakereliable,
system iseven one of the most
with poor
critical
maintenance . Brake trouble can brakes
parts of a car. Luckily, usual-
arebe very
ly sensedreliable,
at the pedal even , sowith
the driverpoor
maintenance.
knows it immediately. Brake trouble For can usual-,
example
ly
thebepedal
sensed getsat the
lower pedal,
and so the driver
lower if the
brakes need adjusting. Andexample,
knows it immediately. For it goes
the pedal
soft if air getsgetsinto lower theand
system lower if the
through
brakesseals.
bad need Worn-out
adjusting. linings And it make goes
soft if air gets into
horrible noises as metal contactsthe system through
bad seals.
metal. Most Worn-out
problems become liningsevident make
horrible noises as
before a total brake failure occurs. metal contacts
metal.
One Most of the problems become evident
most dangerous prob-
beforeisa total
lems a line brake
or failure occurs. This
hose failure.
One of problem
potential the mostcan dangerous
go unnoticed prob-
lems is a line or hose
until the brakes are used hard . Then failure. This,
apotential
line or hose problem rupture can cango occur
unnoticed with
until the brakes
the pedal suddenly are useddroppinghard. to Then,the
afloor.
line Ifor thehosecar rupture
has a can modernoccur dual-with
the
brakingpedal systemsuddenly
, the driverdropping to the
can usually Brake maintenance on race car should be done after each time car is raced. Mechanic pre-
floor.
stop the If thecar. carBut,hasif athe modern
systemdual- has pares to disassemble and inspect brakes on this Indy Car after a practice session. He is
braking
only twosystem,
wheelsthebraking driver can andusually
is in using
Brakebrake cleaningonfluid
maintenance racetocar
remove
shouldcontamination. Cleanliness
be done after each time carisisvital when
raced. workingpre-
Mechanic on
stop brakes.to disassemble and inspect brakes on this lndy Car after a practice session. He is
pares
need the car. But, if the
of maintenance, it maysystem be im- has
using brake cleaning fluid to remove contamination. Cleanliness is vital when working on
only
possible twoto wheels
stop quickly.brakingOnly anda is goodin recommendation
brakes. is a good place to BRAKE ADJUSTMENT
need of maintenance, it may
preventive-maintenance effortbe willim- start. Here is my brake-maintenance Brake adjusting is not needed with
possible
prevent such to stop quickly. Only a good
problems. recommendation
schedule for a roadiscar: a good place to BRAKE
many ADJUSTMENT
cars. Disc .brakes are self adjust-
preventive-maintenance
Schedule-A good maintenance effort plan will start. Here is my brake-maintenance
Every 5000 miles: Inspect hoses Brake adjusting
ing and modern drum is notbrakes
needed with
usually
prevent
requires such problems.
a schedule. If the car is raced, schedule
and lines;for a road
check car:level.
fluid many cars. Disc,brakes are self
have automatic adjusters. If your car adjust-
Schedule-A
always do some goodbrake maintenance
maintenance plan Every 10,000
Every 5000 miles: Inspect linings
miles: Inspect hoses ing such
has and modern
features,drumforgetbrakes
brake usually
adjust-
requires a schedule. If
before each race. Inspect the system the car is raced, andwear.
for lines; check fluid level. have automatic
ment except when adjusters. If yournew
installing car
always
for weardoand some
damage. brakeAlso maintenance
bleed the Every
Every 10,000
25,000 miles:
miles Inspect
or everylinings
year: has such features, forget
drum-brake linings. Often, a drumbrake adjust-
beforebefore
fluid each each race. event.
InspectIf the yousystem
fail to for wear.
Replace brake fluid . ment exceptbe when
brake must adjustedinstalling
manuallynew to
for this,
do wearbrake and performance
damage. Alsowill bleedsuffer.the Every 25,000
Every 50 ,000miles or every
miles: year:
Overhaul drum-brake
allow linings. adjuster
the automatic Often, ato drum
work
fluid before each event.
On a race car, major brake-system If you fail to Replace brake fluid.
calipers; wheel cylinders, master brakefirst
the musttime.
be adjusted
Automatic manually to
adjusters
do this, brake performance
maintenance is done each season - or will suffer. Every 50,000 miles: Overhaul
cylinder. allow the automatic adjuster
only maintain clearance-they don't to work
moreOn often
a race ifcar, major brake-system
problems occur. Major calipers; wheel cylinders,
This maintenance schedulemasterdoes the first
make largetime. Automatic
adjustment changes.adjusters
maintenance
maintenance ismay doneinclude
each season-or
replacing cylinder.
not cover everything. It just outlines only
On maintain
drum brakes clearance-they don't
without automatic
more
the seals oftenand if problems
surfacing occur. Major
or replacing theThis
mostmaintenance
common items schedule does
and approxi- make large adjustment
adjusters, changes.
periodic adjustment is
maintenance may include
the rotors. Wheel-bearing lubrication replacing not
matescover everything.
brake-maintenance It just outlines
needs. On drum
needed. brakes wear,
As linings without automatic
clearance be-
theusually
is seals done and at surfacing
this time.or replacing the most
Your car'scommon items and
needs depend on itsapproxi-
design adjusters,
tween the shoes periodic adjustment
and drum increases.is
theOnrotors.
a road Wheel-bearing
car, your shop lubrication
manual mates
and how brake-maintenance
it's used . If the car needs. is not needed.
This As linings
results in morewear, pedal
clearance be-
travel.
is usually done at
will give a recommended brake-this time. Your
drivencar's needs
often, youdepend
shouldoninspect
its design
the tween
Also, thetheparking
shoes andbrakedrum increases.
requires more
On a road schedule.
maintenance car, yourUsually, shop manual it sug- and how
fluid andit'soverhaul
used. If the the car is not
hydraulic This results in more
travel. You can usually tell whenpedal travel.
the
will give
gests inspectinga recommended
the fluid level brake-
and driven often,
system at you lowershould inspectthan
mileage the Also,
brakesthe parking
need brakebyrequires
adjusting more
the increase
maintenance
checking schedule.
the linings for Usually,
wear after it sug-
cer- fluid and overhaul
recommended . Although thelining
hydraulic
wear travel.
in pedalYou can However,
travel. usually tellifwhen the
you wait
gests inspecting
tain mileage has the fluid level You
accumulated. and system not
should at belower
a problem,mileage than
corrosion brakes need adjusting by the
too long, the pedal may go to the floorincrease
checking the linings for
can modify this schedule if you find wear after cer- recommended. Although
and seal leakage may be, because timelining wear in pedal fade
if brake travel. However,
occurs. if youadjust
Therefore, wait
tain mileagebuthasthe
problems, accumulated.
manufacturer's You should
becomesnot more be ofa aproblem,
factor. corrosion too long, the pedal may go
the brakes often; don't take risks.to the floor
can modify this schedule if you find and seal leakage may be, because time if brake fade occurs. Therefore, adjust
problems, but the manufacturer's becomes more of a factor. the brakes often; don't take risks.
121
 system . If you discover that fluid level
has dropped each time you look at it,

>i~
system.
locate the If you discover
problem andthatfixfluid level
it. Fluid
has dropped each time
shouldn't leak from a brake system. you look at it,
locate the aproblem
Typically, leak canand be fix it. Fluid
traced to a
Torn I nner Lining Restricts Flow, shouldn't leak from a brake
Acts as Valve. defective wheel-cylinder seal, system.
caliper
Torn Inner Lining Restricts Flow,
Typically, a leak canOr,be atraced
or master-cylinder. leak to maya
defective wheel-cylinder
occur at a fitting or hole in a line or seal, caliper
or
brakemaster-cylinder.
hose. Look forOr,drips a leak and may wet
occur near
areas at a the fitting or holesystem.
hydraulic in a line Fluid or
Fitting Leakage Seeps Out
or Forms Bubble.
brake hose.
leaks should Look for
be fixed drips and wet
imme-
Fitting Leakage Seeps Out areas near the hydraulic system.
diately-procrastination can Fluid be
or Forms Bubble. leaks should be fixed imme-
dangerous!
Bottom : Blistered brake hose is ready to
fail. Replace such a hose immediately!
diately-procrastination
In addition to fluid level can , you be
Top:
Bottom: Hidden brake-hose
Blistered brake hosefailure restricts
is ready to dangerous!
should check all brake hoses and
flow to
fail. or fromsuch
Replace brake. Thin layer
a hose of inner
immediately! In This
lines. addition can be to donefluid while
level,youyou ' re
lining Hidden
Top: can lift off surface and
brake-hose restrict
failure flow
restricts should check all brake hosesunder and
of
flowfluid
to to
or brake. This may
from brake. Thincause
layer brake to
of inner
performing other maintenance
apply laterliftonoffone side, and
causing carflow
to
lines.car,
the This such canasbeadjusting
done while the you're
brakes
Although duo-servo brake uses automatic lining can surface restrict
adjuster, brakes must be manually adjusted swerve.
of fluid toOld
brake.brake hoses
This shouldbrake
may cause be re-to or doing a lube job. Inspect the under
performing other maintenance brake
after brake-lining
Although duo-servoreplacement.
brake usesBlade-type
automatic placed later
apply as aonsafety precaution.
one side, causingDrawing
car to the
hosescar,
at such
both ends as adjusting
of the car. theLook brakes
for
tool is used
adjuster, to turn
brakes mustadjuster through
be manually slot in
adjusted courtesy
swerve. Old Bendix Corporation.
brake hoses should be re- or doingchafe
cracks, a lube job. Inspect
marks, or otherthe brake.
damage
placed as a safety precaution. Drawing hoses at both
on aends hoseofindicates
the car. Look for
backing
after plate (arrow).
brake-lining replacement. Blade-type
tool is used to turn adjuster through slot in courtesy Bendix Corporation. A lump failure.
cracks,
Fluid can chafe seep marks,
through or other damage.
the first few
backing plate (arrow).
many types of brake adjusters. One is A lump
layers of on a hose indicates
reinforcing cord and failure.
form a
a square bolt head projecting from the Fluid can seep through
lump or blister on the hose. the If first few
a hose
many
backing types of brake
plate. adjusters. Onead-is
Most domestic-car layers
blisters,ofreplace
reinforcing cord and form
it immediately. Don'ta
a squarerequire
justers bolt head projecting
inserting from
a tool intothea lump orsudden
chance blister brake
on the hose. If a hose
failure.
backing plate. Most domestic-car
slot in the backing plate and turning ad- blisters,
Occasionally, a pinhole in a Don't
replace it immediately. brake
justers
the star wheel. There may be one ora
require inserting a tool into chance
hose can sudden
allow air brake failure.
to get into the brake
slot
moreinadjusters
the backing on eachplate and depend-
brake, turning Occasionally,
fluid . The hole acan pinhole
be theintype a brake
that
the on
ing starthewheel.
design.There may be one or hose can
leaks onlyallowwhenair to get the into the brake
brakes are
more adjusters
Follow the on each brake, depend-
shop-manual instruc- fluid. The drawing
released, hole can in be the
air, type that
creating
ing on the design.
tions for brake adjustment. Be sure leaks
bubblesonly. When when the brakes
pressurized , this leak are
notFollow the shop-manual
to overtighten the brakes. instruc-
A drag- released,
can seal and drawing
not let in fluidair,
out. creating
If your
tions brake
ging for brake adjustment.
will overheat and canBecause
sure bubbles.
brake hoses When arepressurized,
old and weathered, this leak
not to overtighten the brakes.
damage, excess wear, lower mileage A drag- can seal and not let fluid
replacing them may cure a recurring out. If your
ging brake
or fade . will overheat and can cause. brake hoses
spongy pedal. are old and weathered,
damage,
Make sure excess
the wear,
parking lower
brakemileage
is not replacing
Brake hoses them may can cure a recurring
fail because of
Inspecting and changing brake fluid is an or
on fade.
when adjusting rear brakes. spongy pedal.
improper installation. If a hose is
important part of brake maintenance. Race Make sureyou
Otherwise, thewon parking braketo.isThe
' t be able not Brake or
twisted hoses can fail
installed in because
the wrong of
car is getting
Inspecting andachanging
filling of brake
AP Racing fluid.
fluid is an on when adjusting rear
parking brake is applied to the rear brakes. improper installation. If
position, it can break. Or, if a car is a hose is
Note reservoir
important cap
part of withmaintenance.
brake rubber bellows.
Race It Otherwise, youare won't be able to. The twisted onor rough installed in large
the wrong
isolates
car fluid from
is getting the of
a filling airAP
when cap fluid.
Racing is in brakes, which usually drums. You driven terrain, wheel
place, but allowscap
Note reservoir fluid to rise
with and bellows.
rubber fall. It
parking brake is applied
will think the brake is fully adjustedto the rearif position,
movements it can
can .break.
strain Or, a brakeif a carhose. is
isolates fluid from the air when cap is in brakes, which are usually
you try it with the parking brake on.drums. You driven on rough terrain,
Also , hoses can be damaged by rocks large wheel
place, but allows fluid to rise and fall. will
Don'tthink the fool
let this brake is fully adjusted if
you. movements
or road debris can strain
throwna brake up byhose. the
Most modern road-car brakes are you try it with
Normally, rear thedrum-brake
parking brake on.
adjust- Also,
wheels.hosesI've canseenbebrake-hose
damaged by rocks
damage
discs on the front and drums in the Don't let this
ment will fool
take you.of parking-brake
care or roadbydebris
caused thrown over
a car running up bydebris the
Most
rear. With modern road-car brakes
this dual-braking are
system, Normally, rear
adjustment. Except drum-brake
on some adjust-
four- wheels. I've seen brake-hose
that gets tangled in a wheel and damage
discs on the front and drums
only the drum-brake system can go in the ment
wheel, disc-brake cars,parking-brake
will take care of you should caused
wrappedby around a car running the brake over debrishose.
rear.
out ofWith this dual-braking
adjustment. system,
Typically there is a adjustment.
never need Except to adjust on the
someparking
four- that
Anothergetscause tangledof hose in damage
a wheelis and let-
only the drum-brake switch
brake-warning-light system in can the
go wheel, disc-brake cars, you
brake unless it won't work ajteradjust- should wrapped aroundcaliper
ting a disc-brake the hang brakefrom hose.its
system that senses excess movementa
out of adjustment. Typically there is never
ing the need to adjust
rear brakes. the parking
Parking-brake ad- Another
hose during cause of hose damage
maintenance: Use ofis cor-let-
brake-warning-light
of the rear-brake fluid. switchWhenin thethe brake unless it won't
justment is discussed on page work afteradjust-
135. ting
rect a maintenance
disc-brake caliper hang fromwill
procedures its
system
brakes needthat senses excess
adjusting , more movement
displace- ing the rear brakes. Parking-brake ad- hose during
avoid such maintenance:
potentially Use of cor-
dangerous
of
ment the is rear-brake fluid. the
required than When the
master justment is discussed on page 135.
HYDRAULIC-SYSTEM rect maintenance procedures will
situations.
brakes need adjusting,
cylinder can supply; the brakemore displace- INSPECTION avoid
Check such Clearances potentially
- If yourdangerous car has
ment is required
warning-light switchthan the on
turns master
the HY DRAULIC-SYSTEM
Besides brake adjustment, the most situations.
wide wheels, fat tires , or other suspen-
cylinder
warning light. can This
supply; thewillbrake
switch also INSPECTION
common maintenance item is check- Checkmodifications,
sion Clearances-If look yourforcarchafe has
warning-light
detect fluid loss switch
causedturns
by a onleakthe
in ingBesides brake adjustment,
the hydraulic system . To the
be most
safe, wide
markswheels,
on the fat tires,
brakeorhoses other. suspen-
A tire
warning light.
either system. This switch will also check the fluid level about everycheck-
common maintenance item is 5000 sion
touchingmodifications,
a hose eventually look for can chafe
wear
detect fluid loss
Adjusting caused
the rear by agenerally
brakes leak in ing the Fluid
miles. hydraulic system.
leakage can To
causebe safe,
total marks on the brake
through it. Even something Aminor hoses. tire
either
requires system.
jacking up the car, supporting check the fluid
brake failure onlevel about
a single every
brake 5000
system. touching
like a set of a large-diameter
hose eventuallyheavy-duty can wear
it, Adjusting
and getting theunderneath
rear brakes generally
. There are miles.
It Fluidcause
can also leakage can cause
problems on a total
dual throughcanit.cause
shocks Evensimilarsomething
problems. minor
requires jacking up the car, supporting brake failure on a single brake system. like a set of large-diameter heavy-duty
it, and getting underneath. There are It can also cause problems on a dual shocks can cause similar problems.
122
 To check clearances, turn the front
wheels to full right and left lock and
To check
check them.clearances,
Check atturn boththe sides.
front
Clearances may not be exactly and
wheels to full right and left lock the
check Jack
same. them.upCheck the car at andbothlook sides.at
Clearances with
clearance may the not wheels
be exactly the
at full
same.
droop. Jack
Next, up jacktheup car oneand rearlook
wheel. at
clearance with the
This will compress the diagonally wheels at full
droop.
oppositeNext, frontjack suspension.
up one rear wheel. Check
This will compress
clearances, then jack up thethediagonally
opposite
oppositeandfront
corner recheck. suspension.
Conditions Check
and
clearances, then jack up
clearances change a great deal as the the opposite
corner and recheck.
wheels travel up and down Conditions
as they andare
clearances
steered. Trychange every apossible
great deal as the
combina-
wheels Someone previously installed wide wheels When brake line rusts, fittings can seize on
tion to travel
be sure. up Although
and down front as they are
hoses on myoid Ford truck, but didn't check steel tube. This can happen when seized
steered. Try every possible
have the most clearance problems, combina- brake-hose clearanceinstalled
with front wheels at fitting brake
When is turned with a
line rusts, wrench.
fittings canAlthough
seize on
Someone previously wide wheels
tion to be sure.
particularly whenAlthough
turning, front check hoses
the full my
on lock.old
After some
Ford use,but
truck, wheel-rim edge
didn't check such tube.
steel a lineThis
maycan
nothappen
leak, it should
when be
seized
havehoses
rear the as most
well.clearance problems, rubbed
brake-hose through line,with
clearance causing a leak.
front wheels at replaced.
fitting is turned with a wrench. Although
particularly
If your carwhen turning,
has been usedcheck the
off road, Fortunately,
full lock. Afterdamage
some use, was discovered
wheel-rim edge such a line may not leak, it should be
rear hoses as well. during
rubbed brake maintenance,
through rather athan
line, causing by
leak. replaced.
check the condition of the steel brake "accident."
Fortunately, damage was discovered
If your
lines under car the
has car.
beenIt's used off road,
possible to during brake maintenance, rather than by
check the condition of
pinch a line when going over a roughthe steel brake "accident!'
lines under
surface. If youthe findcar. It's possible
a damaged line, re-to sion where they are real "knuckle
pinch a line when going
place it. Look closely. A crack or a over a rough busters" to get at. Some systems also
surface.
thin spotIfisyouveryfindhard a damaged
to see. line, re- sion
have wherebleeders theyotherare realthan"knuckle
at the
place it. Look closely.
If your car is older, check A crack or a
the steel wheels, such as on systems
busters" to get at. Some the masteralso
thin
linesspot
foris very hard to Rust
corrosion. see. can eat have
cylinder. bleeders
Consultother your than at the
shop manual
If yoursteel
through car is older,
lines, evencheck the steel
though they wheels,
for any hiddensuch bleeders.
as on the If youmaster
miss
are about as corrosion-proof ascan
lines for corrosion. Rust scienceeat cylinder. Consult
one, you will wonder why youryour shop manual
pedal
through steel lines, even
can make them. The likelihood of though they for any hidden
is spongy even after bleeders.
bleeding. If you miss
are about
having as corrosion-proof
rusty brake lines is as science
greater if one, you will
Bleeder wondercan
screws whyusually
your pedalbe
can make them. T h e
you drive where salt is used on the likelihood of is spongy
turned even
with after bleeding.
a small Six-pOint box-end
havinginrusty
roads the brake
winter.lines You iscan greater
expect if BleederA void
wrench. screwsusing can anusually
open-endbe
you drive where salt is
trouble from salt-water spray. Older used on the turned with a small sk-point
wrench to prevent rounded-off bleed- box-end
roadsfrom
cars in thethe winter.
Northeast Youand canMidwest
expect wrench.
er screwsAvoidand bloody using knuckles.
an open-end For
trouble from salt-water
are likely to require brake-line spray. Older wrench to prevent rounded-off
difficult-to-get-to bleeders, specialbleed-
cars from the Northeast
replacement. Rusty brake lines is a and Midwest er screws
bleeder and bloody
wrenches knuckles.
are available For
at auto-
are
usual likely
problem to require
on vintage brake-line
cars. difficult-to-get-to bleeders,
parts stores. These look like a box-end special
replacement. Rusty
Consequently, brake lines
most restorers is a
replace bleeder
wrench with wrenches
a hugeare available at auto-
offset.
usual problem on
them without bothering to check . vintage cars. parts
Be stores.
aware These look like
that there is ausually
box-enda
Consequently,the
Remember, most restorers
inside rustsreplace
from wrench with a huge offset.
bleeder at each brake, but some sys-
water in the brake to
them without bothering fluidcheck. as Be use
tems aware that there
a single bleederis to usually
servicea
Remember, the inside
well-something you can't rusts check
from bleeder
both rearatbrakes.
each brake, but some sys-
water
visually. in the brake fluid as tems use anormally
Bleeders single bleeder
are found to at:
service
well-something you can't check both rear brakes.
Each drum-brake wheel cylinder. Brake bleeding can be awkward and
visually.
BRAKE BLEEDING Bleeders normally are
Each disc-brake found two
caliper- at: or messy. Consequently, it's easy to do the
Bleeding is important to proper Each
more drum-brake
bleeders may be wheel
used.cylinder. job wrong
Brake or miss
bleeding a bleeder.
can be awkwardTake your
and
BRAKE BLEEDING
brake-system maintenance. It is usual- Each
Outlet disc-brake
port at caliper-two
some master or time,
messy.plan the job right,
Consequently, it'sand
easyuse
to correct
do the
Bleeding is important to trapped
proper more bleeders may be used. tools.
job Startorbymiss
wrong jacking up theTake
a bleeder. car your
and
ly done to remove air bubbles cylinders, particularly those mounted removing
time, planthe
thewheels to improve
job right, access.
and use correct
brake-system
in the system. maintenance.
Bleeding isIt isa usual-
must O an
at u t angle.
l e t port at some master tools. Start by jacking up the car and
ly donetime
every to remove air bubbles
the hydraulic trapped
system is cylinders,
On someparticularly
combination those mounted
valves used removing the wheels to improve access.
in the system.
opened up for anyBleeding
reason is. Ita ismust
im- at an angle.
with disc brakes.
every
possibletimeto the hydraulic
prevent some system
air from is On some
On combination
accessories, such valves used
as trailer bleeder-screw caps if your brakes
opened uptheforsystem
entering any reason. It is im-
if a fitting is with
brakes. disc brakes. have them . They protect the bleeder-
possible
loosened. toMostprevent
systems some
haveairnumer-
from On accessories,
Don't forget to looksuch as trailer
for bleeders on bleeder-screw
screw caps if from
seat and threads yourmoisture
brakes
entering
ous high the system
spots whereif aira fitting
will be is brakes.sides of a disc-brake caliper.
both have them. They protect the
and prevent corrosion seizure. These bleeder-
loosened.
trapped . Most systems have numer- Don't
Some forget
fixed to look
calipers for bleeders
have bleeders on
on screw seat andcan
caps, which threads from moisture
be purchased from
ous highbleeding
Brake spots can
where air will be
be frustrating or both
the insidesides where
of a you disc-brake caliper.
would expect, and prevent dealers,
Volkswagen corrosionareseizure.
a goodThese
addi-
trapped.depending on the system
easy, Some fixed calipers
plus another have bleeders
on the outside hidden on
by caps,
tion towhich cancar.be purchased from
any road
Brake Some
design. bleedingbleeders
can be frustrating
are reached or the inside where you
the wheel. If you don't remove would expect,
the Volkswagen dealers,
Another frustration are involves
a good addi-
the
easy, depending on the
easily on the inboard side of the system plus another
wheel, you'll on themissoutside
the hidden by
outboard tion to any road car.
metering valve used on some road
design. Someunderneath.
brakes, from bleeders are On reached
others, the wheel.
bleeder. If you don't remove the Another
cars. A specialfrustration
clip is used involves the
to hold this
easily
they may on bethe inboard
tucked insideside of the
the suspen- wheel,
Be sure you'llto miss replacethetheoutboard
rubber metering
valve openvalveso theused on can
brakes some road
be bled.
brakes, from underneath. On others, bleeder. cars. A special clip is used to hold this
they may be tucked inside the suspen- Be sure to replace the rubber valve open so the brakes can be bled.123
Note that caliper has a bleeder on each side. Forget to remove the Pressure bleeder is used in most repair shops because of its
wheel and you'll miss bleeding outboard side. This can result in a speed. Huge can of fluid is used to fill pressure bleeder. Because
spongy pedal.
Note that Photo
caliper hascourtesy
a bleederAP
onRacing.
each side. Forget to remove the most racers
Pressure fear possible
bleeder is used use of oldrepair
in most or contaminated fluid, of
shops because pres-
its
wheel and you'll miss bleeding outboard side. This can result in a sure bleeders
speed. Huge canareofnot popular.
fluid is usedFor road
to fill cars, they
pressure offerBecause
bleeder. speedy
spongy pedal. Photo courtesy AP Racing. low-cost brake
most racers bleeding
fear possiblein ause
shop.
of old or contaminated fluid, pres-
sure bleeders are not popular. For road cars, they offer speedy
low-cost brake bleeding in a shop.
If it's not held open , the brakes can't ing hard on the pedal to be sure it until no air is left in the system.
be fully bled. stays firm. If the pedal is spongy, re- The advantage of pressure bleeding
If Consult
it's not heldthe open,
shop the brakes
manual forcan't
the ing
bleedhard systemon or thecheck
pedalfortoa leak.
be sure it until
is thatnoit air is leftand
is fast in the
onesystem.
person can do
be fully bled.
correct information on your car. If stays firm. If the pedal
To check for air in the brake is spongy, re- The advantage
the job. But, there of pressure
are bleeding
several
you Consult the shop
don ' t have a shopmanual
manual,for thea
visit bleed system or check
system, have someone pump the for a leak. is that it is fast and one
disadvantages: The tool is expensive person can do
correct
car dealerinformation on your It's
and ask a mechanic. car.tooIf pedalTo several
check times,for airthenin hold the it brake
down the ajob.
and lot of But, fluidthere are several
is wasted. If you
you don't have
dangerous a shop manual,
for guesswork in thisvisitarea.a system,
firmly while have yousomeone
remove thepump reservoir the disadvantages:
don't use the pressure The toolbleeder
is expensive
often,
car
Youdealer
may andalso askhavea mechanic.
to buy a It's too
special pedal several times, then
cap. Watch the fluid surface while hold it down and a lotin of
the fluid it gets is wasted. If even
fluidcontaminated, you
dangerous for guesswork in
tool from the dealer. This tool is often this area. firmly helper
your while you remove
slides the reservoir
his foot off the don't use the pressure
though it' s in a sealed container. bleeder often,
aYouspring
may also have to
designed to buy
flex awithout
special cap.
pedal Watch
pad so the the pedal
fluid snaps
surface backwhile
and theFluid
fluid flow
in it gets
in the contaminated,
lines is higheven if a
tool from the
damaging thedealer.
valveThis as tool
fluidis flows
often your
systemhelper pressure slidesdropshis immediately.
foot off the though
bleeder it'sis inopened
a sealed container.
too far during
athrough
springit. designed to flex without pedal apad
With so the pedal
well-bled system, snaps
there back
willandbe' Fluid flow
bleeding. Thisin can the cause
lines isbubbles
high if toa
damaging the
Sequence of valve as fluid
Bleeding flows
- Bleeding system pressure drops immediately.
a little turbulence at the surface of the form within the system from during
bleeder is opened too far turbu-
throughbe
should it. done in a specific sequence With
fluid. aIfwell-bled
fluid boils system,
up more there will1/4
than be' bleeding.
lence created Thisas can causeflows
the fluid bubbles
around to
Sequence
to avoid the of need Bleeding
to double-Bleeding
back and ain.little turbulence at the surface
above the surface, there's probably of the form within
sharp corners.theThis system fromtheturbu-
defeats pur-
should
rebleed . Follow athis
be done in specific sequence
sequence if fluid.
air in theIf fluid
system. boils up more than 1/4 lence created
pose of bleeding. as the Conversely,
fluid flows around rapid
to avoidbleeding
you're the need onetowheel
double at aback
time:and in. above the surface,
Bleeding Methods - Three there'scommonly
probably sharp corners.
fluid flow flushes out This defeats the pur-
air trapped in
rebleed.
Master Followcylinder-if this itsequence
is bleeder if air
used in the system. for brake bleeding
techniques pose
high of spots bleeding.
in the Conversely,
system . Bubbles rapid
you're
equipped. bleeding one wheel at a time: Bleeding Methods-Three commonly
are: fluid flow
clinging to flushes
the wallsout of air
roughtrapped
compo- in
l Master cylinder-if
Combination valve. it is bleeder used
Pressuretechniques
bleeding. for brake bleeding high spots in the system.
nents will be washed away by the flow. Bubbles
equipped.
Bleeders on intermediate hardware are:
Manual bleeding. clinging
With all to thethe pros
wallsand of rough
cons, itcompo-
is not
l Combination
in system. valve. l Pressuremethods,
bleeding. such as gravity nents if
clear willpressure
be washed away byis the
bleeding goodflow.or
Special
l Bleeders on intermediate hardware
Wheel farthest from master l Manual bleeding.
bleeding or vacuum bleeding. bad . Most auto-repai r garages usenot
With all the pros and cons, it is it
in system.usually the right rear wheel.
cylinder, l Special
These allmethods,
work. People suchargueas gravity
which clear
becauseif pressure
pressure bleedingbleedingis isgood fast-or
W h e eIfl wheel
Note: farthest from have
cylinders master
two bleeding or vacuum bleeding.
method works better. All good argu- bad.
most Most
racers,auto-repair
don't duegarages use it
to potential
cylinder,
bleeders, usually
do upper the one
rightfirst;
rear ifwheel.
a cali- Theseare
ments all so
work. People that
complex arguenothing
which because pressure bleeding
fluid-contamination problems.is fast-
Note:
per hasIftwo wheel cylinders
bleeders, have one
do inboard two method
will everworks be settledbetter.
. So,All good argu-
I suggest that most racers,bleeding
Pressure don't due has anto advantage
potential
bleeders, do upper one first;
first. If it has more, follow the manu- if a cali- ments
if you have are so complex
trouble with onethat method,
nothing fluid-contamination problems.
on an older car which has had little
per has two recommended
facturer's bleeders, do inboard one
bleeding will ever beuntil
try another settled.
youSo, findI suggest
the one that that Pressure
brake bleeding The
maintenance. has an advantage
master cylin-
first. If it has more, follow the manu-
sequence. if you best
works havefor trouble with one method,
your car. on
der andoesoldernotcar havewhichto behasstroked
had little to
facturer's
Bleed recommended
other brake bleeding
at that tryI'll
another
explain until you of
some findthetheproblems
one that brake maintenance.
push fluid through the Thesystem
master cylin-
. This is
sequence.
end - usually left rear. works best for your car.
with each method. Then I'll explain der
unlikedoes thenot have to be stroked
manual-bleeding method to
B lBleed
e e d next otherwheel brakefarthest at from that how I'lleach
explain
job issomedone. of the problems push fluid through
that requires the system.
full strokes of theThisbrake is
end-usually left rear. right front.
master cylinder-usually with each method.
Pressure bleeding Then requires
I'll explaina unlike
pedal. On theanmanual-bleeding
older car, there method may be
Bleed next
l Bleed wheel wheel farthest from
remaining-usually how each job is done.
pressure-bleeder tool. The pressure that requires
corrosion andfull dirtstrokes
insideofthethemaster
brake
master cylinder-usually
left front. right front, Pressure
bleeder bleeding
pressurizes requires
the fluid in thea pedal. On an older car,
cylinder. Stroking the pedal to the there may be
l Bleed
After the wheelbleeding
remaining-usually
process is pressure-bleeder tool. The you pressure corrosion
floor moves andthedirt inside
piston theinto
deep masterthe
reservoir. Once pressurized, open
left front. check the system by press-
complete, bleeder
each pressurizes
bleeder in the the fluid innoted
sequence the cylinder. Stroking
master cylinder, where the itpedal
would to the
other-
After the bleeding process is reservoir. Once pressurized, you open floor moves the piston deep into the
complete, check the system by press- each bleeder in the sequence noted master cylinder, where it would other-
124
 eTA Manufacturing's bleeder hose, availa-
ble at many auto-parts stores, makes it
possible
CTA for one person
Manufacturing's to manually
bleeder bleed
hose, availa-
brakes.
ble Hoseauto-parts
at many is slipped over makes
stores, bleeder,it
bleeder is
possible foropened and free
one person end is put
to manually in
bleed
catch canHose
brakes. or bottle. Fluid orover
is slipped air can only
bleeder,
Most racers prefer manual-bleeding method : One person opens and closes bleeders while flow out isofopened
bleeder hose. When pedal
and free endcomes
is putup,
in
helper operates brake pedal. Although optional, it's helpful for third person to watch reser- one-way
catch canvalve closes.
or bottle. This
Fluid or prevents air
air can only
voir
Mostand add fluid
racers preferwhen needed. Method
manual-bleeding is reliable,
method: but success
One person opensdepends on communication
and closes bleeders while from out
flow entering hose.
of hose. Using
When hose
pedal requires
comes up,
between
helper those doing
operates job.
brake pedal. Although optional, it's helpful for third person t o watch reser- getting in valve
one-way and out of carThis
closes. to check
preventsfor air
voir and add fluid when needed. Method is reliable, but success depends on communication bubbles
from in hose
entering andUsing
hose. fluid hose
in reservoir.
requires
between those doing job. Photo byinRon
getting andSessions.
out of car t o check for air
bubbles in hose and fluid in reservoir.
Photo by Ron Sessions.
wise never travel. Corrosion and dirt
would likely damage the seals, causing
wise
them never travel. Pressure
to leak. Corrosion bleeding
and dirt Master Master
would likely
avoids this. damage the seals, causing Cylinder Cylinder
them to leak. Pressure
Manual bleeding is cheaper, but re- bleeding Master Master
avoids this. Cylinder
quires
operates
quires
at least two people; while one
Manualthe
at
bleeding
least
pedal, isthe
two
cheaper,
people;
and closes the bleeders. The fluid
other but
while
re-
opens
one
1 - -
I - Cylinder

-
operates
reservoir the
and
has pedal,
closes the
the bleeding
the other
to be topped
bleeders.
process. FluidThe
opens
up during
flowfluid
can
t'.
To 0
Reservoir
To o
reservoir
the
the bleeding
has todepending
be fast or slow, be toppedonuphow
process. and Fluidhow
during
flow
fast
can
Reservoir
.
be
pedal is pushed
fast or slow, depending
each bleeder is opened. Manual bleed-on how
much
fast - Trapped
Bubbles -
the pedal
ing can is pushed better
be controlled and how thanmuch
pres-
each bleeding
sure bleeder is, so opened. Manual
most racers bleed-
prefer it.
ing
Andcan
, thebe job
controlled
wastes better
little than
fluidpres-
and
sure bleeding,
doesn't requireso most racers
expensive prefer it.
tools.
And, the job wastes little
Gravity bleeding can be done only fluid and
doesn't require expensive
with certain brake systems. As you tools.
Gravity
know, air inbleeding
the brakecan beforms
fluid done bub-
only
with
bles that float to high points in you
certain brake systems. As the
system.airIfin
know, thethehigh
brake fluid
point is forms bub-
the master Gravity Bleeding
or Caliper No Gravity Bleeding Possible
or Caliper
bles that float
cylinder, air to will
high points
come in out the
system. If the high point is the master
automatically. Gravity
If brake system Bleeding
is free of high spots that trap No
air,Gravity Bleeding
bleeding can be Possible
done automatically by
cylinder, air
Gravity bleeding will
is notcomeused oftenout gravity. Air bubbles rise to reservoir. If system has high spots in lines, as shown at right,
automatically.
because it takes too long. Also , in system
If brakewill not gravity
system is freebleed.
of high spots that trap air, bleeding can be done automatically by
Gravity bleeding gravity. Air bubbles rise t o reservoir. If system has high spots in lines, as shown at right,
almost every brake is not used
system, thereoften
are system will not gravity bleed.
because
high spotsit that
takesmaketoo itlong. Also, . in
impossible If vacuum pump is attached to a jar-or it has a potential problem. Brake-
almostareevery
you brake system,
designing a brakethere are
system plastic bottle-with a closed top. The cylinder cup-type seals are meant to
high spots
from that you
scratch, makemay it impossible.
be able to If vacuum
jar has a pump is attached
hose that to ableeder.
goes to the jar-or it haswith
work a potential problem.
fluid pressure Brake-
greater than
you
make areit designing
possible toa brake self-bleedsystemby plastic
Air bottle-withfrom
is evacuated a closed
the jartop.
and The
the cylinder cup-type
the outside seals are With
air pressure. meant theto
from scratch,
gravity, but most yousystems
may be are able
not de-to jar has a ishose
bleeder that goes
opened. The to the bleeder.
vacuum pulls work
vacuumwith fluid fluid
pump, pressure greater
pressure than
is below
make it possible
signed that way. to self-bleed by Air
fluidisand
evacuated from
air bubbles the the
from jar hydrau-
and the the outside air.
the outside air This
pressure. Within the
may draw air
gravity, but most systems
Vacuum-bleeding can be aredone
not de-
by bleeder is opened. The
lic system and into the jar. vacuum pulls vacuum
past the pump,
seals, fluid
unlesspressure is below
your hydraulic
signed that way.
one person. A small hand-operated fluid and airbleeding
Vacuum bubbles sounds
from theneat,
hydrau-
but the outside
system has air.
cupThis may drawI in
expanders. donair
't
Vacuum-bleeding can be done by lic system and into the jar. past the seals, unless your hydraulic
one person. A small hand-operated Vacuum bleeding sounds neat, but system has cup expanders. I don't
125
 recommend the vacuum-bleeding
method, although some people use it.
recommend
Many modern theroadvacuum-bleeding
cars are vacuum
method,
filled at although
the factory some . Thepeoplesystemuse it.is
Many modern
pumped down to roada cars are vacuum
nearly perfect
filled at through
vacuum the factory. The system
the master cylinder is
pumped down to
by a very large vacuum pump. Then, a nearly perfect
vacuum
fluid through
is forced in atthe master
about 100 cylinder
psi. Be-
by a very
cause virtuallylarge all vacuum
the airpump. Then,
is removed
fluid is forced in at about
before the fluid is put in, no bleeding 100 psi. Be-
cause virtually all the
is required. Systems filled like this air is removed
before
must have the fluid cup is expanders,
put in, no bleeding but no
is required. Systems
residual-pressure valves. filled like this
mustPressurehave and cup manual
expanders, bleeding but areno
residual-pressure valves.
detailed in the following pages. Before
Pressure
starting, and manual
consult your shop bleeding
manualare to
detailed
see in theprocedures
if special following pages. must be Before
fol-
starting,
lowed forconsult your car. yourI'llshop manual
describe whatto
see if special procedures
is done for a typical car, but be aware must be fol-
lowed
that it may for your not be car. I'll describe
correct for yourwhat par-
Vacuum bleeder sucks fluid or air into container through tube connected to opened bleeder. is done for a typical car, but be aware
Although tool is easy to use and requires only one person, I don't recommend it. Seals in ticular model.
brakes
Vacuumcan allowsucks
bleeder air to be drawn
fluid or airininto
if vacuum is applied
container throughtotube
brake fluid.
connected to opened bleeder.
that it may
How not be correct
to Pressure Bleed for- your par-
Pressure
Although tool is easy to use and requires only one person, I don't recommend it. Seals in ticular model.
bleeders are used to save time by
brakes can allow air to be drawn in if vacuum is applied to brake fluid. How to Pressuremechanics.
most professional Bleed-Pressure It is a
bleeders are
one-man job. It is also theused to savefastest
timeway by
most
to bleed brakes . You must have a pres-a
professional mechanics. It is
one-man
sure bleeder job. Itto isdo alsothe thejob,
fastestpluswaya
to bleed of
source brakes. You mustair.
compressed have a pres-
Pressure
sure
bleeding bleeder to do the
also requires job, amount
a large plus a
source of compressed
of brake fluid to fill the pressure air. Pressure
bleeding
bleeder. also requires a large amount
of Abrake
pressure fluidbleeder
to fillhasthe pressure
a tank con-
bleeder.
taining brake fluid, plus an air com-
Master Cylinder A pressure
partment bleeder has
to pressurize thea fluid.
tank con-
The
taining
fluid andbrake air arefluid, plus anormally
separated n air com- by
Bleeder Hose apartment to pressurize
rubber diaphragm to the fluid.mois-
prevent The
-Glassor fluid
ture in and theairairare separated
from normallythe
contaminating by
Clear-Plastic a rubber
fluid. Thediaphragm
fluid outlet to prevent
connectsmois- and
Jar ture intothe
Pressure Bleeder Clear-Plastic seals theairmaster-cylinder
from contaminating reservoirthe
Jar
fluid. The fluid outlet
with an adapter that fits in place of the connects and
Pressure bleeder setup: Pressure-bleeder tank is charged with compressed air, which seals
cap. This to the onlymaster-cylinder
works on a master reservoir
cylin-
pushes fluid into brake system. Adapter clamps to reservoir, sealing fluid entering system. with an adapterwith that fits in placeintegral
of the
Drawing courtesy
Pressure bleeder Bendix
setup: Corp.
Pressure-bleeder tank is charged with compressed air, which
der designed a sturdy
pushes fluid into brake system. Adapter clamps to reservoir, sealing fluid entering system.
cap. This only
reservoir. Some works
masteron acylinders
master cylin-with
Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp. der designed with
remote reservoirs cannot be pressure a sturdy integral
reservoir.
bled. Again, Some check master
the shop cylinders
manual. with
remote
With the reservoirs
pressure cannot
bleeder be connect-
pressure
bled.
ed to Again,
the master checkcylinder,
thz shoppressure
manual. is
With the pressure
applied to the hydraulic fluid from bleeder connect-the
ed to
air the master
pressure in thecylinder,
tank. About pressure30 psi is
Press slowly on applied
is used. to the hydraulic
Follow bleedingfluid sequencefrom de-the
Master air pressure in the
Cylinder
1 3 brake ~ e d a l . scribed earlier. To tank.
do the About 30 psi
bleeding,
each bleeder is opened about de-
is used. Follow bleeding sequence 1/4
scribed
turn - noearlier. more.ToOtherwise,
do the bleeding, excess
each flow
fluid bleeder is opened
results, allowing aboutair and114
turn-no more.
fluid to escape. When only fluid Otherwise, excess
fluid
comesflow out, the results,
bleeder allowing
is shut. air and
Bleeder Hose fluid to escape. When only fluid
,--1''-<-- G lass or Each pressure bleeder comes with
Clear Plastic Jar
comes out, theAlso
instructions. bleeder is shut.
supplied are adap-
Glass or Each
ters thatpressure
fit popular bleeder comes with
master-cylinder
Clear Plastic Jar instructions. Also supplied
reservoirs . Bled fluid flows through are adap-a
ters that
clear plastic fithosepopular
pushed master-cylinder
on the bleed-
Setup for manual bleeding: It takes two people, one at the brake pedal and another at the
bleeder. Person operating bleeder should give instructions to person operating the pedal.
reservoirs.
er and intoBled fluid flows
a container. Oldthrough
fluid ora
Bleeder
Setup foris manual
openedbleeding:
only whenItpedal
takesistwo
being pushed
people, onedown;
at thebleeder is closed
brake pedal andbefore
anotherpedal is
at the clear plastic hose pushed
any fluid bled through a hydraulic on the bleed-
returned. Drawing
bleeder. Person courtesybleeder
operating Bendix should
Corp. give instructions to person operating the pedal. er and into a container.
system should never be reused. Old fluid or
Bleeder is opened only when pedal is being pushed down; bleeder is closed before pedal is any fluid bled through a hydraulic
returned. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp. system should never be reused.
126
 A pressure bleeder is convenient
for changing all the fluid in a brake
A pressure
system. It allows bleeder
the whole is convenient
system to
for changing all
be refilled without the need the fluid in atobrake stop
system.
and topIt allows up the the master
whole system cylinder. to
be refilled without
However, if you the haveneed theto fluid
stop
and
changed top byupsomeone the master else, you cylinder.
may
However, if you have
not get to choose the fluid that goes the fluid in
changed
your brake bysystem.
someone else, you
Whatever is inmay the
not
tankget is to
whatchooseyou the get,fluid that goes
no matter what in
your brake system.
you think is best Whateverfor your car. is inThe the
tank
fluid is maywhat be you get, or
the best no itmatter
may bewhat the
you
cheapest the shop could buy.car.
think is best for your AndThe , it
fluid
may be maynew be or theold.bestThis or itismay whybemost the
cheapest
racers won't theuse shop could buy.
a pressure And, it
bleeder.
may be new or
How to Manual Bleed-Manualold. This is why most
racers
bleeding won't use a pressure
is simple, but takes bleeder.
at least
How
one helper,to Manualas mentioned Bleed-Manual
earlier. The
bleeding is simple,
equipment needed includes but takes at some least Not a good setup for bleeding brakes : Plastic bottle and clear plastic hose is
one helper, as mentioned earlier. The Hose should be clear and free end im- handy for brake bleeding. Note that bottle
clear plastic tubing to fit the bleeder, is supported
equipment mersed in fluid
Not a good in clear
setup for bottle or jar.
bleeding Bub-
brakes: Plastic bottlebyand
wireclear
looped over hose
plastic bleeder
is
and a glass orneeded clear-plastic includes jar to somecatch bles can
Hose then be
should beseen andand
clear mess is avoided.
free end im- screw. for
handy Bottle
brakeatbleeding.
each wheel minimizes
Note that bottle
clear
the bledplastic
fluid. tubing
You must to fit have the bleeder,
a quart mersed in fluid in clear bottle or jar. Bub- mess
is and brake-bleeding
supported by wire looped chore. Clear
over bleeder
and a glass or clear-plastic
or two of fresh fluid, unless jar to youcatchare bles can then be seen and mess is avoided. plastic bottle
screw. Bottle isat better
each than
wheelone shown.
minimizes
the bled fluid.
changing the You fluid.must Then, have you a quart
may Photo by
mess Tombrake-bleeding
and Monroe. chore. Clear
or two of fresh fluid, unless you are plastic bottle is better than one shown.
need about one gallon. Photo by Tom Monroe.
changing
Bleedingthesequence fluid. Then, remains you may the must always be pushed out the Once both sides are bled, test the
need about one gallon.
same. Pedal pressure forces fluid and bleeder, never drawn in. On a race action of the balance bar. With the
airBleeding
bubbles sequenceout the bleeder. remains Push the must
car, thealways be pushed
fluid is usually clean, out
so draw-the Once
tubes stillboth
in thesides
jars,are
open bled,
one test the
bleeder
same.
down on Pedalthepressure
pedal and forces
hold fluidit. Open and bleeder,
ing in oldnever fluid is drawn in. On
less risky a race
because it action
and push of thethepedal
balanceslowlybar.to With the
the floor.
air bubbles Fluid
the bleeder. out should
the bleeder. flow outPush the car,
should thebe fluid is usually
relatively clean, so draw-
fresh. tubes simulates
This still in the jars,
failureopen of one
onebleeder
set of
down on the pedal
bleeder, through the tube, and and hold it. Openinto ing in old fluid is less risky because it
Simultaneous and push the pedal slowly
brakes. The balance bar shouldn't to the floor.
the
the bleeder.
jar. If the Fluid should
jar-end of flowthe outtubethe is should
Bleeding- be relatively
Simultaneous fresh. bleeding is This
bind, simulates
nor the pedal failurebottom.
of one IfsetOK, of
bleeder,
covered with through fluid,theyou tube,
' ll beand ableinto to Simultaneous
another manual-bleeding method brakes.theThebleeder
close balanceandbarrelease shouldn'tthe
the air
see jar.bubbles
If the come jar-endout.of the tube is Bleeding -
sometimes Simultaneous
used on race cars bleeding
with dual is bind,
pedal. nor Test the the pedal bottom.
other brake If OK,
system by
covered
After the bleeder you'll
with fluid, is opened, be ablethe to another manual-bleeding
master cylinders. With this method, a method close
opening a bleeder at the other endthe
the bleeder and release of
see airshould
pedal bubblesbecome go down out. slowly until sometimes
front and a used rear on raceare
brake carsbled
withatdualthe pedal.
the car.Test This thetests
other thebrake
balancesystem bar by
at
After against
it stops the bleeder the floor is oropened,
stop . Close the master time.
same cylinders. With this method,
Simultaneous bleedinga opening
its maximum a bleeder
angle.atOne the master
other end of
cylin-
pedal should be go
the bleeder before the pedal is down slowly until front
allowsand a rear
a full brakeofareeach
stroke bled master
at the the is
der car. Thiswith
filled tests theunder
fluid balance bar at
pressure;
it stops against
released. Usually, the thefloorpedalor stop. will Close
have same time. Simultaneous
cylinder and a straight motion of the bleeding its maximum angle.
the opposite one has no pressureOne master cylin-
at
the
to be bleeder
pumped several before times the to pedal
" bring is allows
balance a bar. full To stroke
do of this,each
youmaster
need der is filled
all. If everythingwith fluid under pressure;
is properly des igned
released.
it up" before Usually,opening the the pedalnext will have
bleeder cylinder helper
another and a and straight
tube motion
andjar. of the the
and opposite
built, theone has no
balance barpressure
should be at
to be pumped
in the sequence.several times to "bring balance
To performbar. To do this, you
simultaneous need
bleeding, all. If everything is properly
free at either . extreme angle. If it designed
it up"
Watch before
the opening
reservoir theatnext all bleeder
times. another helper and tube and
partially fill the jars with fresh brake jar. and
bindsbuilt,
, find the outbalance
why and barremedy
should the be
in thetosequence.
Plan add fluid at least once while fluidTo. perform
Connect simultaneous
one end of each bleeding,
tube to free
problem. at either, extreme angle. If it
Watch each
bleeding the reservoir
wheel. If at the all times.
reservoir apartially
bleederfill andthe jars withthefresh
submerge otherbrake
end binds, find out why
Simultaneous and remedy
bleeding is notthe
Plan to add fluid at
runs out of fluid, air will be drawn least once while fluid.
in a jarConnect
of fluid. oneBleed
end ofthe each tubeand
front to problem.
recommended for road cars. Unlike a
bleeding
into the each
master wheel.
cylinder If theand reservoir
you'll arear
bleeder and submerge the
wheels farthest from the master other end raceSimultaneous
car, brake fluidbleeding in a road is not
car gets
runs to
have outstart
of bleeding
fluid, airallwill overbeagain. drawn It in a jar of
cylinder fluid.
first. Bleed
If the the front
calipers have and two recommended
bled infrequently, for road
so it cars.
will Unlike
be dirtya
into the master cylinder
helps if a third person watches and you'll
the rear
bleeders, bleed the inboard side master
wheels farthest from the first. race contaminated.
and car, brake fluidDon in a'troad
risk car gets
pulling
have to
fluid start bleeding
reservoir while all oneover pumpsagain.the It cylinder first. Ifpressure
With gentle the calipers have
on the two
pedal, bled infrequently, so
old fluid back into the system by it will be dirty
helps and
pedal if athethirdotherperson
bleeds watches
. the bleeders, bleed the inboard
simultaneously open both front and side first. and contaminated.
pumping the pedal Don't with the risk bleeder
pulling
fluid
As reservoir
you pullwhile the one hosepumps off the the rearWith gentle pressure
bleeders. Air will on the pedal,
bubble from old
open. fluid back into the system by
pedal and the other bleeds.
bleeder, fluid in the hose will run out. simultaneously open
the hoses and some fluid will both front and
follow. pumping the pedal
Eliminating Bubbles-Brakes are with the bleeder
As you
When you bleedpull the the next hosewheel, off the the rear bleeders. Air will
With the bleeders open, slowly pump bubble from open.
sometimes spongy after manual
bleeder,
first fluid in
bleeding willthepush hoseairwill outrun of out.
the the pedal
the hoses up andand some
down fluiduntil
willbubbles
follow. EliminatingSlowBubbles
bleeding. pedal-Brakes movement are
When
hose. This you bleed
makesthe lotsnext wheel, the
of bubbles in With Then,
stop. the bleeders
close theopen, slowly Go
bleeders. pump to sometimes spongy
avoids fluid turbulence that would after manual
first bleeding will
the jar. So don't assume this push air out of is the
air the pedal up and down
the other side of the car-inboard until bubbles bleeding. form
otherwise Slow bubbles.
pedal movementBut, slow
hose. the
from This makes lots of bubbles in
bleeder. stop. Then,
bleeders if youclose thethem
have bleeders.
- and Gbleed
o to fluid flow will not dislodgethat
avoids fluid turbulence smallwould
bub-
theOnjar.a So road don't car, assume
don't pump this is the air the other
those brakes.side of the car-inboard
Remember, always otherwise
bles that cling form tobubbles. But, slow
rough surfaces. If
from
brake the bleeder.
pedal with the bleeder open , bleeders
keep you have them -level
theif reservoir-fluid and bleed
high fluidtap
you flow thewill not dislodge
calipers gently withsmalla plas-
bub-
On though
even a road the car,hose don'tis filled
pump with the those brakes. Remember,
enough to prevent running out always of blesmallet
tic that cling whileto bleeding,
rough surfaces. this willIf
brake pedal with the
fluid and submerged in fluid in the jar. bleeder open, keep during
fluid the reservoir-fluid
the bleeding. Iflevel you suckhigh you tap the calipers gently
help dislodge those stubborn bubbles. with a plas-
even though
There's a risk the hose iscontaminat-
of drawing filled with enough
air into the to master
preventcylinder,
runningyouout must of tic mallet
Bleeder while bleeding, thisbleed-
Problems-Sometimes will
fluid and submerged
ed fluid back into the system in fluid in .the jar.
Fluid fluid over.
start during the bleeding. If you suck help dislodge those stubborn
ers cause trouble. A common problem bubbles.
There's a risk of drawing contaminat- air into the master cylinder, you must Bleeder Problems-Sometimes bleed-
ed fluid back into the system. Fluid start over. ers cause trouble. A common problem
127
 To Master Cylinder With Fluid Being Bled Out.

To Master ~ylinder'with
Fluid Being Bled Out.

Penetrating oil is sprayed around studs

before removing stuck brake drum. Before
using penetrating
penetrating oil isoil,sprayed
make sure adjuster
around is
studs
loose, parts
before are stuck
removing clean,brake
and drum.
all attaching
Before
Pedal clips
usingand screws are
penetrating removed.
oil, make surePenetrating
adjuster is
oil mustparts
loose, be removed after and
are clean, use. all attaching
clips and screws are removed. Penetrating
Master cylinder being bled strokes its piston forward until pedal hits stop. Other cylinder oil must be removed after use.
piston doesn't travel as far. As a result, balance bar assumes extreme angle when one cylinder with care. It's not good prac-
master
Master cylinder
cylinderisbeing
bled. bled
Balance bar must
strokes not bind
its piston at thisuntil
forward angle, or breakage
pedal hits stop.may result.
Other cylinder tice to pour in fluid and pump the
piston doesn't travel as far. As a result, balance bar assumes extreme angle when one cylinder
pedal. With with air
care.trapped
It's not inside,
good prac-the
master cylinder is bled. Balance bar must not bind at this angle, or breakage may result. tice to pour in fluid
piston will bottom and possibly and pumpcause the
pedal.
internalWith damage. air trapped inside, the
Caution: Be careful to piston
If thewill bottom
master and possibly
cylinder is off thecause
car,
avoid spraying brake internal damage.
fill it at the workbench. Remove inter-
fluid. Do not
Caution:
directly
hold face
Be careful to
above reservoirs.
nalIfbubbles
the master cylinder itisasoffshown
by bleeding the car,in
avoid spraying brake fill
fluid. Do not hold face the itaccompanying
at the workbench. Remove inter-
photographs. The
directly above reservoirs.
nal
tubes bubbles by bleeding
illustrated can itbeas made
shown of in
the accompanying photographs.
copper or steel. They install in the The
Press in and tubes illustratedoutlet
master-cylinder canports.
be made of
release several copper
After or steel. They
bleeding all theinstall
bubbles,in thein-
times.
Press in and master-cylinder outlet ports.
stall the master cylinder on the car.
release several After connecting
bleeding all the the brake
bubbles, in-
When lines,
stall
transferthe them
master cylinder
quickly on the
to avoid car.
losing
When
all the connecting
fluid. Thistheprocess brake makes
lines,
transfer them quickly to avoid
bleeding easier, because no small bub- losing
Bleeder Tubes
all
bles the get fluid.
trappedThis process
inside makes
the master
bleeding easier, because no small bub-
cylinder.
Bleeder Tubes blesA getmaster trapped
cylinderinside
usedthewith master
disc
cylinder.
brakes usually doesn't have a resid ual-
Dry master cylinder should be bled as shown. This can be done off the car. Bleeder tubes A master cylinder
can be made of copper or steel brake tubing. When reinstalling master cylinder, transfer pressure valve. Thus, used with disc
bench-bleeding
lines quicklycylinder
Dry master to minimize fluidbeleakage.
should bled asDrawing courtesy
shown. This Bendix
can be doneCorp.
off the car. Bleeder tubes
brakes
will only usually
movedoesn't haveand
fluid back a residual-
forth in
can be made of copper or steel brake tubing. When reinstalling master cylinder, transfer pressure
the tube. valve. Thus, bench-bleeding
To prevent this, hold a
lines quickly to minimize fluid leakage. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp. will
finger onlyovermove fluidofback
the end the and
tubeforth
during in
is a rusted bleeder that seizes. It must ing it completely with brake-cleaning the
the return stroke of the piston. Thisa
tube. To prevent this, hold
be loosened with care with the correct fluid or alcohol. finger
prevents over thefrom
fluid end of the tube
being drawnduring
back
is a rusted bleeder
wrench-no that seizes.
open ends. It must
A broken-off ingThe
it completely with brake-cleaning
best penetrating oil I have the return
into the tube stroke
on ofthethe piston.stroke.
return This
be
bleeder screw means you'll havecorrect
loosened with care with the to re- fluid or alcohol.
found is called Kroil. Available from prevents fluid from being
The drum-brake side of a tandem drawn back
wrench-no
place the entireopen component-wheel
ends. A broken-off The best
Kano penetrating
Laboratories in oil I have
Nashville, into the may
cylinder tubehave
on the returnpressure
a residual stroke.
bleeder
cylinder,screw means
caliper, you'll cylinder
master have to re- or found is called
Tennessee, Available
Kroil. in
it comes a sprayfrom can The
valve drum-brake
that preventsside of flow
reverse a tandem
of the
place the entire
whatever- becausecomponent-wheel
it is almost im- Kanoa plastic
with Laboratories
tube that in Nashville,
attaches to the cylinder
fluid belowmaythe have a residual pressure
residual-pressure set-
cylinder,
possible to caliper,
remove master cylinderhalf
the broken or Tennessee,
nozzle. Thisitallows
comesyou in toa spray
direct can
the valve
ting ofthatthe prevents
valve. reverse flow of the
whatever-because
without damaging theitdelicate is almostseat. im- with a plastic tube that attaches
oil exactly where you want it with to less
the fluid below the residual-pressure set-
possible
Loosentoa remove the broken
stuck bleeder screw halfby nozzle.
risk of This allows you to
contaminating otherdirect the
brake ting of the valve.
DRAINING BRAKE FLUID
without damaging the delicate
cleaning the area around it with seat.
a wire oil exactly where you want it
parts. Be careful! If penetrating oil with less When changing brake fluid, drain
Loosen
brush. Try a turning
stuck bleeder
it after screw
cleaning.by risk on
gets of brake
contaminating othermust
linings, they brake
be DRAINING
the hydraulic BRAKE FLUID This
system completely.
cleaning
As a lastthe area try
resort around it with
a good a wire
grade of parts.
replaced.Be careful! If penetrating oil Whenbe changing
cannot done throughbrakethefluid, drain
bleeders.
brush. Try oil.
penetrating turning
This is it aafter cleaning.
last resort be- gets
To onhelpbrake linings,
prevent they corrosion
internal must be the hydraulic
This is due to system completely.
the basic function ofThisthe
As a oil
cause lastcan get try
resort a good
inside grade of
and contami- replaced.
and sticking, install rubber bleeder- cannot beBleeders
bleeder. done through the bleeders.
are designed to let
penetrating oil. This is a last
nate the brake fluid. After using resort be- To help
screw caps. prevent internal corrosion This is due
air out of a tohydraulic
the basicsystem,
functionsoofthey
the
cause oil canoil,
penetrating get inside
removeandit contami-
by dis- and sticking,
Filling Dryinstall rubber bleeder-
Tandem Master bleeder.
are Bleeders
located at eacharehigh
designed
spot into the
let
nate the brake
assembling fluid. After
the component using
and clean- screw caps.
Cylinders-Fill a dry tandem master air out of After
system. a hydraulic system,
draining fromso they
the
penetrating oil, remove it by dis- Filling Dry Tandem Master are located at each high spot in the
assembling the component and clean- Cylinders-Fill a dry tandem master system. After draining from the
128
bleeders, fluid remains in all low
spots. Some people think that pump-
bleeders,
ing the pedal fluidwillremains
push all of in theall fluid
low
spots. Some people think
out. Although this gets most out, that pump-
ing the
some pedal
fluid willwill push all of the fluid
remain.
out. Although
To get this gets
all new fluid, most out,
one method re-
some fluid will remain.
quires refilling and pumping out the
To getmany
system all new fluid,This
times. oneforces
method all re-
of
quires
the oldrefilling
fluid from and thepumping
low spots out the by
system
mixing withmanythe times.
cleanThis
fluid.forces
This all of
proc-
the old fluid from the low
ess is better than nothing at all, but it spots by
mixing
is with the
expensive to clean
do it fluid.
right This
because proc-a
ess of
lot is better
fluid is than nothing
wasted. And, at all, but it
it never
is expensive
gives 100% clean to do it right because a
fluid.
lotThe
of fluid is wasted.
correct way to drain And, never
olditfluid is
gives 100% clean fluid.
to open up the system at every low
TheThis
spot. correct way tomeans
usually drain old fluid is
disassem-
to
blingopenwheelup the system removing
cylinders, at every low or
spot. This usually
disassembling means
calipers, and disassem-
unscrew-
blingfittings.
ing wheel The cylinders,
master removing
cylinder will or
disassembling calipers,
also have to be removed and drained. and unscrew-
ing fittings.
Because thisThe masteras cylinder
involves much work will
alsoa have
as to be removed
hydraulic-system and drained.
rebuilding job,
Because
it makes this senseinvolves
to replace as allmuchthe work
seals Cleaning brake parts should be done with special brake-cleaning fluid. CRC Brakleen is
as a hydraulic-system
at the same time. rebuilding job, used at start of brake-maintenance job. Petroleum products should never be used on brake
it makestoSense
Glycol to replace all changing
Silicone-When the seals parts, as brake
Cleaning brakefluid is easily
parts shouldcontaminated.
be done with Photo courtesy
special CRC Chemicals.
brake-cleaning fluid. CRC Brakleen is
at the asame
from time.
glycol-based fluid to silicone used at start of brake-maintenance job. Petroleum products should never be used on brake
~ l to silicone-when
~ draining ~ ~is a must.
changing
l To parts, as brake fluid is easily contaminated. Photo courtesy CRC Chemicals.
fluid, complete
from a glycol-based fluid
take full advantage of the properties to silicone chine shop can bore out the old cylin-
fluid, complete
of silicone fluid,draining
drain every is a must.
drop To of der and press in a stainless-steel or
take full advantage of
the old fluid, flush the system with the properties chine shop can
brass sleeve. bore Post
White out the old cylin-
Restorations
of siliconeand
alcohol, fluid,rebuild
drain every all of dropthe of of White Post, Virginia, specializes or
der and press in a stainless-steel in
the old fluid, flush the system with
cylinders. brass sleeve.
sleeving White Post
collector-car brake Restorations
cylinders.
alcohol, and rebuild all of the of Brake-cylinder
White Post, Virginia, rebuildspecializes
kits usually in
cylinders.
HYDRA ULIC-CYLINDER sleeving collector-car brake
include rubber seals, dust boots and, cylinders.
REBUILDING Brake-cylinder
sometimes, internalrebuild kits or
springs usually
seal
HY InDRAULIC-CY
time, the seals LINDER in a wheel include rubber
expanders. Often,seals, dust boots
an older designand,will
REBUILDING
cylinder, master cylinder or caliper sometimes,
have newer-style internalseals springs
in theor seal
kit.
willIn leak.
time, the seals in
Contamination a wheel
or corrosion expanders.
Many Often, ancup-type
replacement older design will
seal kits
cylinder, master cylinder
makes this happen sooner. Caliper or caliper have newer-style
include expanders. These seals add in reliabili-
the kit.
will leak.
seals Contamination
that are old or have been or corrosion
subject- Many
ty to thereplacement
seal. Rebuild cup-type seala kits
kits are lot
makes
ed to highthistemperature
happen sooner.also loseCaliper
their include expanders.
cheaper than a new These add reliabili-
cylinder, partic- Wheel-cylinder rebuilding kit typically con-
seals that are old or have been
elasticity and limit piston retraction. subject- ty to the
ularly if youseal.
have Rebuild
to buy akits are a lot
caliper. tains cup-type seals, boots and spring.
ed to highalltemperature also lose their cheaper than a new cylinder, partic- Make sure wheel
Wheel-cylinder cylinder
rebuilding kit is rebuildable
typically con-
Usually, brake-system cylinders Disc-brake calipers usually must be beforecup-type
tains buying kit.seals, boots and spring.
elasticity and limit piston retraction.
need rebuilding. ularly if you
removed fromhavetheto car
buyfor a caliper.
rebuilding. Make sure wheel cylinder is rebuildable
Usually,
Rebuilding all abrake-system
wheel or master cylinders
cylin- Disc-brake
Some caliperswheel
drum-brake usually cylinders
must be before buying kit,
need rebuilding.
der should start with getting your removed from the car
can be left in place on the backingfor rebuilding. honing is required to remove surface
Rebuilding
car's a wheel
factory shop or master
manual. Therecylin-
are Some
plates fordrum-brake
rebuilding,wheel cylinders
providing you imperfections. After honing, check
der should
many differentstartbrake
withdesigns.
getting Some
your can reach
can be leftthemin with
placea hone.
on the backing honing is required
bore diameter with to remove
a feeler surface
gage. If a
car's factory
require specialshop manual.procedures.
rebuilding There are plates
Wheel for Cylinders
rebuilding, providing & you
Master imperfections.
narrow 0.006-in.After
feeler honing,
gage can check
be in-
many different brake designs.
Most wheel or master cylinders can Somebe can reach them with a hone.
Cylinders- The first task is disassem- bore diameter
serted betweenwiththe apiston
feeler and
gage.bore,
If a
require special rebuilding
rebuilt, but some are impossible be- procedures. Wheel Cylinders
bling the cylinder &
completely. Master
If it is narrow 0.006-in. feeler gage
you should replace the cylinder. Youcan be in-
Most wheel
cause or masterare
bore surfaces cylinders
usually can be
pitted Cylinders-Theclean
rebuildable, firstup taskthe
is disassem-
cylinder serted
can alsobetween
use an the pistonmicrometer
outside and bore,
rebuilt,corrosion.
from but some The are impossible
cylinder then be- bling the cylinder
bore with completely.
a brake-cylinder hone.If You
it is you
and should replacegage
telescoping the cylinder.
to measure You
cause bore
cannot surfacesTherefore,
be honed. are usually before
pitted rebuildable, clean up the
can buy a hone at an auto-parts store. cylinder can also use an outside micrometer
piston and bore diameters. If the dif-
from corrosion. The cylinder
buying rebuilding kits, disassemble then bore awith
Get honea with
brake-cylinder
three smallhone. You
replacea- and telescoping
ference between thegage twoto measure-
measure
cannot be honed.
the cylinders Therefore,
and inspect them.before
Even can buy a hone
ble stones. Theyatlook an auto-parts store.
like a miniature piston
ments and bore in.
is 0.005 diameters.
or more, If the dif-
replace
buying your
though rebuilding
cylinderskits,
can disassemble
theoretical- Get a hone with three
engine-cylinder hone.small Usereplacea-
brake ference between the two measure-
the cylinder.
the cylinders and inspect
ly be rebuilt, they may be too them. Even
damaged ble stones. They look
fluid-the type you'll be using like a miniature
in the ments is 0.005 seal
If a cup-type in. is
or used
more, in areplace
cylin-
though
to allow your
it. cylinders can theoretical- engine-cylinder
brake system-ashone. Use brake
a lubricant while the cylinder.
der that has excessive clearance be-
ly To
be rebuilt,
be safe,they may an
replace be too damaged
entire cylin- fluid-the
honing. Never typeuseyou'll
solventbe or
using
any in the
petro- If a cup-type
tween the pistonseal
andisbore,
useda in a cylin-
condition
to allow it.
der if it leaks. For older cars for which brake system-as
leum product on brake parts. a lubricant while der that has excessive clearance
known as heel drag can occur. The seal be-
newTocylinders
be safe, arereplace an entire acylin-
not available, ma- honing. Never use
If a cylinder cansolvent or anyapetro-
be rebuilt, light tween the piston and bore, a condition
gets pinched in the space between the
der if it leaks. For older cars for which leumproduct on brakeparts. known as heel drag can occur. The seal
new cylinders are not available, a ma- If a cylinder can be rebuilt, a light gets pinched in the space between the
129
 @
Cylinder

Cylinder

Seal

Seal
- Pushrod

Motion
Piston

Cup-Type Seal
Pinched Between
Piston andSeal
Cup-Type Cylinder
Pinched Between
Piston and Cylinder
If bore-to-piston clearance is too great,
Two types of brake cylinder hones: Upper hone one is made for a specific cylinder rubber seal may wear excessively and can
diameter; lower one is more expensive, but will adjust to different bore sizes. Buy the ad- inhibit piston movement.
If bore-to-piston The cause
clearance is too isgreat,
heel
justable
Two typeshone,
of asbrake
it will cylinder
be cheaper in theUpper
hones: long run.
hone one is made for a specific cylinder drag-sealseal gets pinched
may wear betweenand
excessively piston
can
diameter; lower one is more expensive, but will adjust t o different bore sizes. Buy the ad- and
inhibitbore.
pistonHoning beyondThefactory
cause islimits
heel
justable hone, as it will be cheaper in the long run. causes
drag-sealthis condition.
gets pinched between piston
and bore. Honing beyond factory limits
causes this condition.

Wheel-Cylinder Clamp

Wheel-Cylinder Clamp
Wheel-cylinder clamp is used to keep pis-
tons inside wheel cylinder while shoes are
removed. Once clamp
Wheel-cylinder shoes isand return
used springs
to keep pis-
are reinstalled,
tons inside wheelclamp is removed.
cylinder Drawing
while shoes are
Hone is driven by drill motor while brake fluid lubricates hone and keeps stones from loading courtesy Bendix
removed. Once Corp.
shoes and return springs
up with metal particles. Never use oil or solvent for honing brake parts, as it will damage are reinstalled, clamp is removed. Drawing
seals.
Hone is driven by drill motor while brake fluid lubricates hone and keeps stones from loading courtesy Bendix C q p .
disassemble the caliper to remove the
up with metal particles. Never use oil or solvent for honing brake parts, as it will damage
seals.
pistons. Don' t get brake fluid on the
piston and bore. This causes the will make brake bleeding much easier disassemble
pads if you the plancaliper to remove
to reuse them . the
On
piston to retract very slowly or stick. later. Bench-bleeding a master cylin- pistons. Don't get brake
some calipers it is hard to removefluid on the
the
piston
A voidingandheel bore.
dragThisis acauses
must the for will
der ismake brakeon
discussed bleeding much easier
page 128. pads
pistonif(s).
youSpecial
plan tocaliper-piston
reuse them. On re-
piston to retract very slowly or stick.
proper braking. later. Bench-bleeding
Wheel cylinders don't a master
have tocylin-
be some
moving calipers
tools itare
is hard to remove
available. Anotherthe
Avoiding
When you heelreplace
drag theis aseals,
mustwash for der is discussed on page 128.
filled with fluid, only lubricated with piston(s).
method is toSpecial caliper-piston
use compressed re-
air at the
proper braking.
all of the parts with clean brake fluid, it. Wheel cylinders
They will fill easilydon't
duringhave to be
bleeding. moving tools are available.
hole where the hose installs. If you Another
When you
blowout with replace
clean drythe air,seals, wash
and lubri- filled
Youwithmayfluid,
findonlya lubricated with
wheel-cylinder method is to use compressed
use compressed air at will
air, the pistons the
all of with
cate the parts
cleanwith
brakecleanfluid.
brakeAgain,
fluid, -it.
clampTheyhandy
will filltoeasily
holdduring
in thebleeding.
pistons hole where
come flying the
out.hose installs. If
Be careful! you
Flying
blow out with
remember to clean
use the dry same
air, andtypelubri-
as whileYou installing
may find a wheel-cylinder
a wheel cylinder. The use
partscompressed
can cause air, the or
injury pistons
damage!will
cate
what with
you ' llclean brakeinfluid.
be using Again,
the system. clamp handy to
dust boots don't always hold in hold
the pistons
in the come flying out. Be careful!
Wrap rags around the caliper and trap Flying
remember to use thecleaner
Use only brake-part same type for theas while
pistons.installing a wheel cylinder.
The wheel-cylinder clamp,Thea parts can And
the parts. causedon't
injuryuseortoodamage!
much
what you'll be using in the
first cleaning, but use only new brake system. dust boots
simple tool don't always
available at hold
most ingood
the Wrap rags Be
pressure. around the caliper
especially carefulandwhen
trap
Use for
fluid onlylubricating
brake-part cleaner
. Don't for thea
assemble auto-parts stores, keeps the internala
pistons. The wheel-cylinder clamp, the parts. And don't use
removing plastic pistons. They are too much
first cleaning,
cylinder dry. Gritbut and
use only
grease newmustbrake
be simple
spring fromtool pushing
available out at the
mostpistons
good pressure.
easily chippedBe especially
and scratched careful
. when
fluid for of
kept out lubricating.
the brake Don't
systemassemble
as well. a auto-parts
and seals. stores, keeps the internal removing
Some caliper plasticbores
pistons.
can beThey are
cleaned
cylinder
If youdry. areGrit and greasea must
rebuilding masterbe spring from Rebuilding-
Caliper pushing out Disc-brake-
the pistons easily
up withchipped
a hone; andothers
scratched.
cannot. Check
kept out of the brake system
cylinder, fill it with the exact type ofas well. and seals.
caliper rebuilding is more complicated Someshop
your calipermanual
bores canforbe cleaned
specific
If you
fluid you planare rebuilding
to use and a bleed master it Caliper
than rebuilding Rebuilding-Disc-brake-
a master cylinder or up
instructions. Forothers
with a hone; thosecannot.
that canCheckbe
cylinder, fill it with
before installing the the
it on exactcar.type of
This caliper rebuildingYou
wheel cylinder. is more complicated
usually have to your
honed, shop manual isforsimilar
the operation specific
to
fluid you plan to use and bleed it than rebuilding a master cylinder or instructions. For those that can be
before installing it on the car. This wheel cylinder. You usually have to honed, the operation is similar to
130
 Caliper

Caliper

v
Usually, disc-brake piston can be removed
with low air pressure applied through
brake-hose
Usually, hole. Make
disc-brake pistonsure
canarea in front
be removed
of piston
with low isair
we"pressure
padded to preventthrough
applied piston
from flying hole.
brake-hose out and
Makebouncing
sure areainto your
in front
face.
of Don't
piston apply
is well air pressure
padded until
to prevent you
piston
cover flying
from everything with bouncing
out and a rag. When
intopiston
your
comesDon't
face. out, brake-fluid spray will
apply air pressure follow!
until you
Job can
cover be dangerous,
everything with so be careful.
a rag. Draw-
When piston
ing courtesy
comes Bendix Corp.spray will follow!
out, brake-fluid
Job can be dangerous, so be careful. Draw-
ing courtesy Bendix Corp.
Retracting caliper piston on Honda with a screwdriver. Some manufacturers recommend
Wooden or using their special tool or a C-clamp. See your shop manual for specifics.
Plastic Stick Retracting caliper piston on Honda with a screwdriver. Some manufacturers recommend
using their special tool or a C-clamp. See your shop manual for specifics.
Brakes Corp., in Clarence, New York. surfaces should be cleaned and lu-
These stainless-steel calipers mini- bricated with high-temperature brake
Brakescorrosion
mize Corp., in damage,
Clarence, particularly
New York. surfaces
grease to should
minimize be friction
cleanedand andresist
lu-
These stainless-steel
on cars using glycol brake calipers
fluid. mini- bricated with high-temperature
corrosion. Your shop manual will pro- brake
mize
Some corrosion
two-piecedamage,
calipers particularly
can be dis- grease to minimize
vide specific friction
instructions . and resist
on cars usingfor
assembled glycolrebuilding.
brake fluid. Others corrosion.
Caliper-mounting bolts will
Your shop manual pro-
typical ly
Some even
cannot, two-piecethoughcal~pers
it maycan be dis-
appear to vide
are specific instructions.
high-strength and should be
assembled
be possible.for Consult rebuilding. your Others
shop Caliper-mounting
torqued to specificationboltsusing atypically
torque
cannot,
manual evenbeforethough i t may appear
disassembling the cali-to are high-strength and
wrench . If the caliper-mounting shouldbolts be
be body.
per possible. Consultcaliper
A two-piece yourwith shopan torqued to specification using
loosen, serious problems can result. a torque
manual
internal before disassembling
fluid passage has seals thewhere
cali- So, makeIf su
wrench. there caliper-mounting
the correct boltsbolts are
per body. A two-piece
the caliper splits. Make sure thesecaliper with an loosen,
used, they are inproblems
serious can result.
good condition, and
internal fluid passage has
seals are replaced before reassembling seals where So,
they make sure the
are torqued correct
to the value bolts are
specified
the caliper.
the caliper The splits.
boltsMake
holding surethethese
cali- used, they are
in the shop manual.in good condition, and
Removing piston seal from Chrysler float- seals are replaced
per body togetherbefore reassembling
are high-strength they are torqued to the value specified
ing caliper: Seal is installed in groove in the caliper.
and require The bolts holding
a specified torque. the cali-
Be sure in the shop
LINING manual.
REPLACEMENT
caliper
Removing bore. Use seal
piston a plastic
from or woodenfloat-
Chrysler tool per body together are high-strength
to to tighten these bolts to the specified The most frequent brake job is
ingavoid damaging
caliper: Seal isgroove edges.
installed Such in
in groove a
and require a specified LINING REPLACEMENT
tool should
caliper also
bore. Usebea used to or
plastic install sealstool
wooden on torque to avo id potentitorque.
al catasBe sure
trophic replacing friction material. Before
pistons.
to avoidDrawing
damagingcourtesy
grooveBendix
edges.Corp.
Such a to tightenlater.
problems these bolts to the specified The most
starting frequent
thi s job, check the brake job for
brakes is
tool should also be used to install seals on torque to avoid
Removing potential catastrophic
or installing the seals on replacing friction material.
roughness by driving the car at high- Before
pistons. Drawing courtesy Bendix Corp. problems later.
some calipers can be tricky. They fit starting
way this ajob,
speed nd check
lightly the brakes th
applying fore
honing a wheel cylinder or master Removing
into a groove, or which
installing must the be
seals on
clean roughness by driving the
brakes. If the brakes shudder or the car at high-
cylinder. Usually, caliper bores are and free of burrs. Be careful not to cufitt
some calipers can be tricky. They way speed
pedal pulsates and lightly the
, repeat applying the
test using
honing ato wheel
limited cylinder
O.002-in. or master
oversize. Any into
or dam a age
groove,
the sealwhich
or groovemust when
be clean in- the parking brak e -if the brakes the
brakes. If the brakes shudder or are
cylinder.
larger, andUsually,
the seals caliper boresOnarea
won't work. and free of burrs. Be careful
stalling seals. Use pl astic tools not to cutto pedal
on thepulsates,
rear whee repeat
ls . The thepresence
test usingor
limited that
caliper to cannot
0.002-in. oversize.
be honed, Any
the bore or damage
avoid the sealcritical
damaging or groove when
parts. Also in-, the parking
absence brake-ifwill the
of shudder tell brakes are
you which
larger,
can and the seals
be refinished withwon't
crocuswork.
cloth.On a stalling
don't seals.
ignore the Use
rubber plastic
pistontools
boot. to It on the
pair of rear
brakes wheels.
is roughThe . presence
Be careful or
caliper
If itsthat cannotis benot
bore(s) honed, the bore
scratched or keeps moisture and dirt out of theAlso,
avoid damaging critical parts. cali- absence of shudder will
while apply ing the rear brakes. tell you which
can be refinished
pitted, a ca liper canwithbecrocus cloth.
rebuilt. When don't
per ignore
bore. theboot
If the rubber piston
is torn, boot.
water and It pair of rear
Locked brakes is rough.
brakes make the Becarcareful
very
If its bore($
corrosion has pittedis notthescratched
bore, you or keeps
dirt willmoisture
ruin theand dirt out
caliper of the cali-
quickly, par- while applying the
unstable . Always have the release rear brakes.
pitted,replace
must a caliper can be or
the caliper rebuilt.
sleeveWhen
it. per bore.onIf athe
ticularly roadboot
car.is torn, water and Lockedorrear
button brakes
handle make the
activated so car
you very
can
corrosion has pitted
Caliper bores on oldthe bore, you
Corvettes are dirt
Before installingcaliper
will ruin the calipers quickly,
on a par-car, unstable. Always have
release the parking brake quickly. the release
must replace
suscepti ble tothecorrosion
caliper or damage.
sleeve it. In ticularly
make sureonthey
a roadarecar.
perfectly clean and button
Whenorreplacing
handle activated
linings, you so you can
should
Caliper
fact, this hasbores
beenonsuch
old aCorvettes
problem that are Before
free of dirtinstalling calipers
and corrosion on isa par-
. This car, release the parking brake quickly.
also inspect the rotor or drum surfaces
a company has come up with In
susceptible to corrosion damage. a make sure they are perfectly
ticularly important on sliding calipers. clean and andWhenotherreplacing
brake parts, linings,
andyou should
check for
fact, this has
solution. been such aCorvette
Stainless-steel problem cali-
that free of are
There dirtcontacting
and corrosion. partsThisthat ismust
par- also inspect
sea l leakage. the rotor or drum surfaces
a company
pers are avai lab has comeStainless
le from up withSteela ticularly
slide while important
under load.on sliding
Thesecalipers.
sliding and other
Pad brake parts, and disc-brake
Replacement-Most check for
solution. Stainless-steel Corvette cali- There are contacting parts that must seal leakage.
pers are available from Stainless Steel slide while under load. These sliding Pad Replacement -Most disc- brake
131
 Checking rotor runout is done with dial in-
dicator clamped to a jack stand. Runout of
0.005 in. isrotor
Checking considered upper
runout is donelimit
withfor most
dial in-
cars.
dicator clamped to a jack stand. Runout of
Rotor is being surfaced with tool mounted on car. Rotor can be rotated by engine with this
front-wheel-drive car. Tool machines both sides of rotor simultaneously, ensuring that sur- 0.005 in. is considered upper limit for most
faces
Rotor will be parallel.
is being surfacedRotors
with that
tool cannot
mountedbe on
surfaced on car
car. Rotor canare
beremoved andengine
rotated by done on a spe-
with this cars.
ciallathe.
front-wheel-drive car. Tool machines both sides of rotor simultaneously, ensuring that sur- brake rotors have a dimension cast
faces will be parallel. Rotors that cannot be surfaced on car are removed and done on a spe- into them. This is the minimum-wear
cial lathe. brake rotors have acalled dimension cast
pads are easy to change. They can be install the new pads, make sure the thickness, sometimes the discard
removed on many cars simply by fluid reservoir isn't full. Otherwise, into them. This is the minimum-wear
thickness. A rotor is considered unsafe
pads are easy
removing to change.
a wheel, pullingThey a can
pin be
or install
fluid willthespill
neworpads, squirtmakeout thesurevent.
the thickness,
if sometimes
it's machined thinner.called
So, the
never discard
use
removeddevice
locking on many cars simply
, and sliding the pads by fluid will
This reservoir
be messy. isn'tYoufull.mayOtherwise,
find out rotor thatAisrotor
athickness. is considered
machined to or lessunsafe than
removing
out. Sometimesa wheel, thispulling
job takes a pinonlyor fluid
how wellwill glycol-based
spill or squirt outworks
fluid the vent.
as a if
theit'sdiscard
machined thinner.discard
thickness- So, neverit! use
locking device, and sliding
about fiv e minutes per wheel. The the pads This
paint remover. A void this by find
will be messy. You may out
opening aRotor
rotor Runout-Rotor
that is machined runout-wob-
to or less than
out. Sometimes
only effort required this job takes only
is pushing the how
the bleeder on the caliper before re-a
well glycol-based fluid works as the discard
bling of thethickness-
rotor friction discard it!
surface-is
about five into
piston back minutes per wheel.
the caliper cylinder The
so paint
tractingremover.
the piston.AvoidFluidthis by willopening
come Rotor
critical,Runout-Rotor
particularly on runout-wob-
a race car. It
only
the new effort required
thicker pad canis pushing
be inserted the the bleeder on the caliper
out the bleeder rather than being' before re- bling of be
should the checked
rotor friction everysurface-is
time the
piston
between backtheinto the caliper
piston cylinder
and rotor. so
Your tracting the piston. Fluid
pushed back to the reservoir. Run a will come critical, particularly
brakes are serviced. Runout on a race
can car. cause It
the new
shop manualthicker
will pad
tell can
you be how inserted
to do out
hose the
into ableeder
jar fromrather than tobeing'
the bleeder pre- should
vibrationbeorchecked
roughness every
in thetimepedal, the
between the piston
this. Be careful not to and
damagerotor. Your
a piston pushed back onto
vent spillage to the the reservoir.
floor. Run a brakes are
excess pedalserviced.
travel, or Runout can direct
can even cause
shop manual
by prying on it. will tell you how to do hose
As into a jar from
a policy, mostthe bleeder
brake shops to pre-
sur- vibration or roughness
air into the caliper past the seals. in the pedal,
this. Be careful not to damage
With the pads out, inspect the rotor a piston vent spillage onto the
face rotors whenever pads are floor. excess
Rotorpedal travel,
runout or can even
is usually caused directby
by prying
face. Check on it.for cracks or scoring. As a policy,
replaced most brake
. This results in good shops sur-
braking air into the caliper
overheating. You past the seals.
can expect it if you
With the
Minor pads out, inspect
imperfections are OK, the rotor
but face rotors whenever
if surfacing is done pads are
properly. useRotor
your runout is usually hard.
brakes extremely caused by
It can
face. Check for cracks
large imperfections must be machined or scoring. replaced. This results in
However, many times the job may not good braking overheating. You can
also be caused by overtorquing the expect it if you
Minor
out. imperfections
Rotors usually must arebe OK,
removed but if surfacingTo is
be required. done this,
determine properly.
care- use your brakes extremely
wheel-mounting nuts. Many hard. repair
It can
large
to do imperfections
this. Take damagedmust berotors machinedto a However,
fully manythetimes
inspect the job
rotors for may
damagenot also
shopsbe usecaused
an impact by wrench
overtorquing
to tighten the
out. Rotorsbrake
reputable usually
shop mustfor be removed
resurfacing. be required.
and runout. To determine this, care- wheel-mounting
wheels. Don't letnuts. them Many
use one repairon
If you resurface one rotor, do tothea
to do this. Take damaged rotors fully
On inspect
most road the cars,
rotorstheforpads damage
wear shops use
your car. anUsed
impact wrench to tighten
incorrectly, impact
reputabletobrake
same theshopopposite
for resurfacing.
rotor. and runout.
out long before any rotor work is wheels.
wrenchesDon't apply letexcessive
them usetorque one on to
If you resurface
Otherwise, one may
the brakes rotor,pull dountil
the On most
needed , Smallroadsurface
cars, the pads wear
scratches and your
the wheel car. lugs,
Used possibly
incorrectly,
warping impact the
same
the newly to surfaced
the oppositerotor is rotor. worn out long
scores before
of little concernany arerotor workpre-
always is wrenches
rotor-mounting apply flange.
excessive torque to
Otherwise, the brakes may pull until
smooth. needed. Small surface
sent on a used rotor. And shops withscratches and theCheckwheelrotor
lugs,runout
possiblywith warping
the rotor the
theAnnewly
easily surfaced
made mistake rotor that is worncan scores
poorly of little concern
maintained lathesarecanalways
ruin pre-
per- rotor-mounting flange.
mounted on the car. Before checking,
smooth.
occur when replacing disc-brake pads sent
fectlyongood
a used rotor.orAnd
rotors shops
drums witha
. As makeCheck surerotor runoutbearings
the wheel with thearerotor ad-
is An
thateasily
manymade pads mistake
can be that can
installed poorly, maintained
result avoid machining lathes can ruin per-
unless the mounted
justed on the preload.
to proper car. Before Setchecking,
up a dial
occur when
backward. replacing
Although disc-brake
it pads
seems fectly
parts are scored heavily or As
good rotors or drums. youra make
indicator suresotheitswheeltip isbearings
square are to ad-the
is that many
obvious, make pads canfriction
sure the be installed
mate- result,
brakes avoidare rough.machining unless the
Roughness is justed to proper preload.
rotor surface near the outer edge Set up a dialof
backward.
rial is installedAlthough
so it faces the it rotor.
seems If parts
caused are scoredrunout
by rotor heavily or your
or thickness indicator
the frictionsosurface.
its tip Makeis square
sure to the thetip
obvious,
you put amakepad insure the friction
backward, mate-
the brakes brakes are
variation, and rough.
drum runout Roughness
or ovality.is rotor
is on the surface
frictionnear the outer edge of
surface.
rial is installed
won't so it faces
work correctly andthe therotor. If
rotor caused by rotor runout
Consult your factory manual for or thickness theTurnfriction surface.
the rotor until Makeyou surefind the thetip
you put a pad
will be destroyed. in backward, the brakes variation, and drum runout or ovality.
specific information. is on the friction surface.
minimum indicated reading on the
won't
Whenwork correctly
retracting and pistons
caliper the rotor to Consult
Since 1971,your factory
all U.S.-mademanual disc- for Turn the
indicator. Markrotor untila grease
it with you find pencil,the
will be destroyed. specific information. minimum indicated reading on the
When retracting caliper pistons to
132 Since 1971, all US.-made disc- indicator. Mark it with a grease pencil,
Special puller is designed to remove brake drums. Thin jaws grasp Brake-spring-removal tool is a must when working on drum
back of drum. Handle is then turned carefully by hand-not with a brakes. Bloody fingers or damaged springs can result from using
wrench
Special or lever.
puller Excess force
is designed will break
to remove brakeordrums.
distortThin
drum or puller.
jaws grasp pry bars or screwdrivers-springs
Brake-spring-removal tool is a can be dangerous.
must when working on drum
Tapping drum lightly
back of drum. Handlewith a plastic
is then turned mallet is OKbytohand-not
carefully assist removing
with a brakes. Bloody fingers or damaged springs can result from using
a stubborn
wrench drum. Excess force will break or distort drum or puller.
or lever. pry bars or screwdrivers-springs can be dangerous.
Tapping drum lightly with a plastic mallet is OK to assist removing
amachinist blueing, or masking tape.
stubborn drum. each side. Never cut rotors one side at assembly with the mating part.
Zero the indicator dial. Now, turn the a time. This will cause thickness Normally, Corvette rotors cannot be
machinist
rotor and findblueing, or masking
the maximum tape.
reading. each side. Never
variation. Most cut rotorsrotors
racing one side at
with assembly with the mating part.
shimmed.
Zero the indicator dial. Now,
This is called total indicated runout turn the aremovable
time. This will cause thickness
hats can be ground using a Normally,
If you put Corvette
shims rotors
only atcannot
the low be
rotor and find the maximum
(TIR), or simply runouf. Mark it, too. reading. variation. grinder.
Blanchard Most racing rotors with shimmed.
spot, shim thickness should be about
This called total
Theistolerance indicated runout
for maximum runout removable
Shimminghats can will
a rotor be ground
work if:using a If you putofshims
one-fourth total only at the
runout. low
Install
(TIR), or
should be simply
specified runout.
in theMark it, too.
factory shop Blanchard
Rotor is grinder.
flat and mounted on a tilt. spot,
shim (s) shimonthickness
the proper should be about
bolt. Place
The tolerance
manual. If not, make for maximum runout
sure the runout You Shimming
can see athis rotoronwill
thework if:
indicator. A one-fourth
shims of total
one-eighth runout.
of total runoutInstall
on
should be specified
is less than 0.005 in. in the factory shop Rotor
tilted is flat
rotor has andone mounted
high spot on anda one
tilt. shim(s)
the two adjacent bolts. Install Place
on the proper bolt. rotor
manual.
Rotor Ifrunoutnot, make can sure the runout
be reduced by You
low spotcan see
exactlythis 180
on 0 the indicator.
apart. Multiple A shimstorque
and one-eighth
boltsof tototal runout on
specification.
is less than 0.005 in.
one of two methods-resurface the tilted rotor has one high spot
high and low spots on a rotor require and one the two adjacent bolts.
Remeasure rotor runout and adjust Install rotor
Rotoror runout
rotor shim itcanat beits reduced mounting. by low spot exactly 180" apart. Multiple
machining. and torque bolts to
shim thickness as needed. More than specification.
one of two should
Resurfacing methods-resurface
be used if the the high
Rotorand low spots ontoa rotor
is bolted require
a machined Remeasure
one try may be rotor runout and adjust
required.
rotor or
rotor shim isit scored
surface at its or mounting.
deeply machining.
surface. Some rotors are riveted on or shimDon't thickness as needed.
worry about runoutMore than
less than
Resurfacing should
scratched. If the rotor surface be used if theis areRotor
integralis bolted
with theto wheel-bearing
a machined one try may be required.
0.002 in. It's all but impossible to
rotor surface is
smooth, shimming can be used.scored or deeply surface. Some rotors are
housing or axle. Such rotors cannot riveted on or Don't
make worryzero.
runout aboutAnd,runout less than
surprisingly,
scratched.
Before shimmingIf the rotor surface
a rotor, make is are integral with the wheel-bearing
be shimmed. a0.002 in. It's of
tiny amount all runout
but impossible
can actually to
smooth,
sure shimming
wobble is not cancaused
be used.by out- housing
To shim or aaxle. Such
rotor, yourotors
must cannot
deter- make runout zero.
help braking! It keepsAnd,thesurprisingly,
pads from
Before shimming
of-parallel surfaces. This a isrotor,
commonlymake be shimmed.
mine the location of the high and low a tiny amountrubbing
continuously of runout
on the canrotor
actually
sur-
sure wobble is not caused
called thickness variation. Measure by out- To shim
spots. Youa rotor,shouldyouhave must already
deter- help braking! It keeps
face by pushing them back a small the pads from
of-parallel
rotor surfaces.
thickness withThis is commonly
a micrometer at mine thethe
marked location of the
two spots. high and
Roughly low
calcu- continuously
amount from rubbingthe rotor.on the rotor sur-
the highthickness
called and low spots variation.
you foundMeasure
with spots.
late the You shim should
thicknesshave already
required to face by pushingReplacement-To
Brake-Lining them back a small re-
rotor
the dial thickness
indicator. withThe a micrometer
rotor should at marked thethetwo
straighten spots. Roughly calcu-
rotor. amount from the rotor.
place drum-brake shoes, you must
the high and low spots you
have a constant thickness at all points. found with late the should
Shims shim thickness
be made from required to
steel or Brake-Lining
first remove theReplacement-To
drum. Some drums re-
thethedialwobble
If indicator. The rotor
was caused should
by varying straighten
brass shimthestock, rotor. available in hard- place
come off drum-brake
easily aftershoes,
the wheelyou ismustre-
have a constant thickness
thickness, the rotor must be surfaced. at all points. Shims
ware should
stores in be made from
various steel or
thicknesses. first remove the are
moved-others drum. moreSomedifficult.
drums
If On
the road
wobble was caused by
cars, thickness variation isvarying Make sure you buy O.OOl-in. or hard-
brass shim stock, available in thin- come off easily after the
You may have to use a special puller wheel is re-
thickness,
the biggestthe rotor
causemust ofbe disc-brake
surfaced, warematerial.
ner stores Otherwise,
in various you thicknesses.
may not moved-others are
to remove a stubborn brake drum.more difficult.
On road cars,
roughness. Maximum thickness variation
thickness is
varia- Make
be able sureto you buy the
adjust 0.001-in.
rotor or in thin-
fine You maythe
Consult have to useshop
factory a special
manual puller
for
the biggest cause of
tion on new rotors is 0.0005 in. If a disc-brake ner material.
enough Otherwise, you may not
increments. to remove
specific a stubborn
instructions beforebrake
youdrum.
start
roughness.
rotor has 0.0010 Maximum in. or thickness
more variation,varia- beSpecial
able totaperedadjust the rotorrotor
shimsin fine
are Consult the factory shop manual for
working.
tion
it willonprobably
new rotors cause is roughness
0.0005 in. and If a enough increments.
available for Corvette rotors from specific
If the instructions
drum shouldbefore come offyoueasily
start
rotor has
must 0.0010 in.ororreplaced.
be machined more variation,
Rotors Special Steel
Stainless taperedBrakes rotor Corp.
shims Thisare working.
but doesn't, don't use a prybar be-
it will be
must probably
turned cause roughness
on a lathe with andtwo available for Corvette
shim was developed to allow adjust- rotors from If thethedrum
tween drumshould come off
and backing easily
plate. If
must be machined or
cutting tools simultaneously-one replaced. Rotorson Stainless
ment of rotors,Steel which
Brakesare Corp.
made as This
an but doesn't, don't use
you pry against the backing plate, a prybar be-
must be turned on a lathe with two shim was developed to allow adjust- tween the drum and backing plate. If
cutting tools simultaneously-one on ment of rotors, which are made as an you pry against the backing plate,
133
 Parking brake is at output shaft of trans-
mission on this front-engine, rear-drive
car.
ParkingBrake
brakeadjustment
is at outputcompensates for
shaft of trans-
lining
mission wear.
on Such
this parking brakes rear-drive
front-engine, are rarely
foundBrake
car. on late-model cars. compensates for
adjustment
Installing brake springs requires same tool used to remove them. End of tool is simply lining wear. Such parking brakes are rarely
hooked over anchor pin and spring is popped on. Doing this any other way invites injury to found on late-model cars.
yourself
Installingand the springs.
brake springs requires same tool used to remove them. End of tool is simply to lubricate and will probably stick
hooked over anchor pin and spring is popped on. Doing this any other way invites injury to again anyway.
yourself and the springs. to Some
lubricate
cars and willfour-wheel
with probably stick
disc
again anyway.
brakes have a drum brake inside the
Lubricate the shoes with a dab of PARKING-BRAKE-LINKAGE Some cars
rear-wheel discwith four-wheel
brakes disc
as a parking
high-temperature brake grease where SERVICING brakes have is
brake. This a drum brake
adjusted andinside the
serviced
Lubricate
they rub on the the shoes
backingwith a dab
plate and of at PARKING-BRAKE-LINKAGE
Usually, a parking brake requires rear-wheel disc brakes as a
the same as a normal drum brake. parking
high-temperature brake
. pivots. Always use brake grease, grease where
not SERVICING
little servicing. All that's needed is an brake. This is adjusted and serviced
they ruboronwheel-bearing
chassis the backing plate grease.and Be at Usually, greasing
occasional a parking brake
of the requires
linkage. On the same &asLINKAGE
PEDAL a normal drum brake.
pivots. Always
. careful to use an useabsolute
brake grease,
minimum not little
some servicing.
cars, however,All that's needed park-
a separate is an MAINTENANCE
chassis or
amount wheel-bearing
of grease. grease.
It's critical that youBe occasional
ing brake greasing of the linkage.
needs adjusting or otherOn Except& LINKAGE
PEDAL for periodic inspection,
careful to use an absolute
keep grease off the linings. minimum some cars, however, a
serVICIng. Others have a parking separate park- MAINTENANCE
lubrication is about all a brake pedal
amount of grease. It's critical
Assembly-Drum-brake that you
assembly is ing brake
brake on the needsdriveadjusting or other
shaft. Typically, and Except
linkage for
needs.periodic
Make sure inspection,
there is
keep grease off
the opposite of the linings. Installing
disassembly. servicing.
this is a simple Others drum have brake,
a parking
often lubrication
no is about
slop or failure all system.
of the a brakeExam-
pedal
Assembly-Drum-brake
the automatic adjuster andassembly putting the is brake an
with on external-band
the drive shaft. drum Typically,
brake and
ine the pedal pads and replace them is
linkage needs. Make sure there if
the opposite of disassembly.
brake springs on are the only tricky Installing this is to
similar a wheel
simplebrakesdrumused brake,on anoften
an- nthey
o slop
areorworn
failure of or
slick thecoming
system.apart.
Exam- A
the automatic
parts. Here, you adjuster
must anduse putting
the specialthe with an external-band
tique car. The shop manual should drum brake ine
footthe pedal pads
slipping off aand replace
pedal canthem
be as if
brake
brake springs
tool for on areinstallation
safe the only .tricky The similar
providetospecific
wheel brakes used onforan ser-
instructions an- they are worn
dangerous as a slick
brakeorfailure.
coming apart. A
parts. Here,
springs you must
sometimes canusebe themixedspecial
up tique car. The shop
vicing this type of brake . manual should footTheslipping o.ff acan
brake pedal pedal can be for
be adjusted as
brake tool for safe installation.
and installed in the wrong place. The provide
Parking-specific
brake instructions
linkages are for ser-
adjust- dangerous as a brake failure.
free play. A brake pedal has a lot less
springs
Refer tosometimes
the shop can manualbe mixed
and your up vicing this type ofgenerally
able , although brake. this is not freeTheplay
brake
thanpedal can
a c1u tchbepedal.
adjusted for
There
and installed
sketch, photos or in notes
the wrong
to be sure.place. If Parking-brake
required . However, linkages if arethe adjust-
cable free play.beA only
should brakea pedal
slighthas a lot less
amount of
Refer to the adjuster
an automatic shop manualwas used, and oper-
your able, although generally
stretches, you may have to adjust this is not
it. free
pedalplay than a between
movement clutch pedal. There
its fully re-
sketch, photos ortonotes
ate it manually to beitsure.
be sure works If required.
Do not use However,
the "MickeyifMouse" the cable U- should be only and
tracted position a slight amount of
the beginning of
an automatic
properly before adjuster
installingwasthe used,
drum. oper- stretches,
bolt-type slack you adjuster.
may haveIt to canadjust
breakit.a pedal movement between movement.
master-cylinder-piston its fully re-
ateToit install
manually to be you
the drum, suremay it works
have D o notInstead,
cable. use the "Mickey
buy a new Mouse@"
cable ifU- it tracted position
Consult your shop and manual
the beginning
for exactof
properly before installing
to run in the adjuster to allow the the drum. bolt-type
has stretched slacktooadjuster.
far to beIt can breakora
adjusted master-cylinder-piston
specifications. Usually) free play movement.
To install
drum to fitthe drum,
over the you newmay have
linings. cable.
if it has Instead,
brokenbuy a new And,
strands. cable only
if it Consult
never needs your shop manualunless
adjusting, for exact
the
to run run
Don't in the it adjuster
in moreto than allow nec-the has stretched
adjust a parking toobrake
far to after
be adjusted
the wheel or specifications.
master cylinder has Usually, free . play
been replaced
drum to fit enough
essary-just over the to getnewthelinings.
drum if it has
brakes are broken
operating strands.
perfectly.And, only never needs adjusting, unless the
Don't
on. run goit too
If you in far,
more you'llthan havenec-to adjust
One aofparking brake affer.
the biggest problemsthe wheel
with master cylinder has been
BRAKE-BOOSTER replaced.
CHECK
essary-just enough to get
adjust the shoes back out from under the drum brakes are operating perfectly.
parking brakes on cars driven in If power brakes are causing
on. If you go too far, you'll have to
the car. One of
winter salttheis biggest problems with
cable corrosion and BRAKE-BOOSTER
problems , first checkCHECKthe hydraulic
adjust
Oncethe shoes
both drumsbackareouton,from
you under
must parking brakes
sticking. A stuck on carscandriven
cable burn up in If power
system . This brakes
includes are
the causing
master
the car.
adjust their clearances before driving winter salt is cable corrosion
brakes because it won't release , or and problems, first check the
cylinder and wheel cylinders. hydraulic
If the
theOnce
car. both
Evendrumsbrakesarewithon, automatic
you must sticking.
makes theA parkingstuck cable brakecanimpossible
burn up system. This
basic brake includes
system theproperly,
operates master
adjust theirmust
adjusters clearances
be set before
close or driving
they brakes
to apply.because it won't
If you have release,
a sticking or
cable, cylinder
check theand wheel cylinders. If the
booster.
the car.
won't workEven
. Yourbrakes
shop with
manual automatic
will in- makes
replace the parking
it. Don't botherbrakewith impossible
lubricat- basic
Thebrake system operates
following properly,
trouble-shooting
adjusters
dicate must be
the correct set close or they
procedure. to
ingapply.
them. IfEnclosed
you havecablesa sticking cable,
are difficult check the booster.
procedure is for a vacuum booster:
won't work. Your shop manual will in- replace it. Don't bother with lubricat- The following trouble-shooting
dicate the correct procedure. ing them. Enclosed cables are difficult procedure is for a vacuum booster: 135
 disassembled correctly. Often, a pres-
sure of 1500 psi is involved. There's
also a very strong spring behind itl If
you don't have the proper in-
structions, leave the unit alone. Take
the car to a mechanic knowledgeable
of your type of car.

NOISY BRAKES
Disc-brake squeal can be very
annoying on a road car, particularly if
the rest of the car is quiet-running.
Usually, squeal is caused by vibration
of the front brake pads against the
rotor. Some manufacturers use anti-
01 tne rront
squeal shims DraKe or other paas devices
against de- tne
rotor. Some manufacturers
signed to damp these vibrations. use anti-
squeal
When ashims car or getsother old, devices
anti-squealde-
signed
devices can to dampbecomethese vibrations.
ineffective. Re-
When
placement a car of gets
parts old, may anti-squeal
eliminate
devices can become
noise. Consult your factory shop ineffective. Re-
placement
manual for this of maintenance.
parts may eliminate
noise. Consult linings
High-friction your factory tend toshop be
C~C Disc Brake Quiet compound is applied to backside of brake pads to reduce brake manual for this maintenance.
noisier than low-friction linings. And,
nOise. CRC r~commends uSing compound on outboard pads. They can be reassembled on High-friction linings
asbestos-filled linings generally
tend to are be
the
CRC carDisc
following
BrakeaQuiet
1 O-minute curing is
compound time. Photo
applied tocourtesy
backsideCRC Chemicals.
of brake pads to reduce brake noisier than
noise. CRC recommends using compound on outboard pads. They can be reassembled on
quieter than low-friction
those without linings. And,
asbestos.
asbestos-filled
This is the main linings
reasongenerally
why manu- are
the car following a 10-minute curing time. Photo courtesy CRC Chemicals.
quieter than those without
facturers have taken so long to devel- asbestos.
With the engine off, press the brake to be drawn into the engine and, This is the mainlinings. reason why manu-
op asbestos-free
pedal several times. This bleeds off all subsequently, the vacuum booster. facturers have taken socompounds
long to devel-
to be ATF drawn attacks
into the the engine and, There are anti-noise de-
theWith
vacuum the engine
in the off, pressand
booster thethebrake
re- The booster op asbestos-free linings.
pedal several subsequently, the vacuum booster. signed to be applied the pad backing
sulting power times.
assist. This bleeds off all diaphragm, causing it to fail There are anti-noise
the vacuum in on
the the
booster The ATF Transmission-modulator
attacks the booster plate as shown at left. compounds
One of thesede- is
Press lightly brakeand theand
pedal re- eventually. signed to be applied
diaphragm, CRC Chemicals' Discthe Brakepad Quiet.
backing It
sulting power assist.
start the engine. The pedal should failure shows causing
up as fluid it toin the fail plate as shown
Press lightlyunder
on theyour brakefoot
pedal eventually. Transmission-modulator is a thick paste, atsimilar
left. One of these is
in appearance
drop slightly if and
the vacuum hose from the manifold to CRC
start theis working
engine. properly.
The pedal should failure shows white
up assmoke fluid outin the
the to RTV sealer or bathtub calkQuiet.
Chemicals' Disc Brake . When It
booster If there is the booster, is a thick paste, similar in appearance
vacuum correctly applied, it can quiet squeal-
drop
no drop,slightly under your
the booster is notfoot if the
working. exhaust, hose or a from the manifold
malfunctioning transoto to RTV sealer orBeforebathtub calk.
booster isthe working properly. If there is the booster, white smoke out the ing disc brakes. using thisWhen
type
Without booster, pedal effort will mission . Replace the modulator if it is correctly applied,
exhaust, of material, make itsure canthe quiet squeal-
brakes are
no drop, the booster
be much higher than normal. is not working. at fault. or a malfunctioning trans: ing disc
mission. Replace booster
the modulator clean andbrakes.
in goodBeforeoperatingusingcondition.
this type
Without
Before the booster,
replacing thepedal effortmake
booster, will If a hydraulic is used,if ittheis of material,
be much at fault. Noise can bemake caused surebythe brakesmal-
serious are
sure it's higher
getting than
the normal.
correct supply of troubleshooting process is similar : clean and or in wear
good in operating
If a hydraulic booster functions a brake. condition.
Before Check
vacuum. replacing all the booster,
vacuum lines make
for With the engine off, ispump
used, thethe Noise can be caused
sure it's getting the correct supply of troubleshooting process is similar: Sanding lining and byrotorserious mal-
surfaces
leaks and kinks. A vacuum leak often brake several times to bleed off all hy- functions or wear in a brake.
With pressure
the engine will quiet noise temporarily. Usually ,
vacuum.like
sounds Check
a hissallasvacuum
the enginelines for
idles. draulic in the off, pump the
accumulator.
brake theSanding
ends of lining
the and linings rotor surfaces
vibrate, so
leaks and
Check kinks. A vacuum
intake-manifold leak with
vacuum oftena Push on the brake pedal off
several times to bleed andallstart
hy-
will quietchamfersnoise temporarily. Usually,
sounds draulic pressure in the accumulator. grinding on the leading and
vacuum gage and compare it toidles.
like a hiss as the engine the the engine. The pedal should drop the endslining of the linings
Pushyour on foot,
the brake pedal and start trailing edges will vibrate,
sometimes so
specs intake-manifold
Check in your shop vacuum manual. with Poora under usually followed by a grinding chamfers on the leading and
the engine. eliminate noise.
vacuum vacuum
engine gage andmay comparemean it burned
to the slight surge. TheThis pedal
confirmsshouldthatdrop
the trailing lining edges willassometimes
specs in your shop manual. Poor under your foot, usually followed by a If drum brakes squeak you apply
valves, hose or intake-manifold- booster is working. eliminate noise.
slight and release the pedal, it's probably
engine vacuum may
gasket leak or some other engine mean burned If thesurge.
boosterThis confirms
doesn't that test,
pass this the
valves, boosterthe is working. theIf drum
edge of brakes
the squeak
shoes as you apply
rubbing the
problems.hose or intake-manifold- check power-steering pump. Con- and
If the backing-plate shoe ledges. probably
release the pedal, it's Apply a
gasket
If the leak
vacuum or supply
some isother engine
OK, correct sult yourbooster
shop doesn't
manualpass for this test,
specific the
problems. check the power-steering pump.
checks. A slipping belt or low power- Con- thin edge
film of of high-temperature
the shoes rubbingbrake the
the booster. Most boosters are re- backing-plate shoeledgesledges. Applythea
If therather
vacuum supply is OK, correct sult your
steering shop
fluid maymanual for specific
be the cause. grease to the shoe to quiet
placed than overhauled due to thin
checks. A slipping belt or low noise film of high-temperature
. Be careful not to get grease brake
on
the
their booster.
low cost and Most boosters
critical are re-
construction. If there's pressure from the power-
power- grease to the shoe ledges to quiet the
placed steering fluid may consult
be the cause. the lining.
Makerathera finalthan
check, overhauled
if you foundduethe to steering pump, your shop noise. Be iscareful not to get forgrease on
their low cost and critical
vacuum booster to be at fault. A construction. If there's
manual for pressure fromonthe
instructions power-
servicing There no sure cure brake
the lining.
noise. If one existed, the manufactur-
Make a final
common causecheck, if you found the
of vacuum-booster your booster. Be sure to read theshop
steering pump, consult your in-
vacuum isbooster
failure to be at fault. A
automatic-transmission- manual for carefully.
structions instructions on servicing
High pressure ersThere
would is be no
using sure
it. cure for brake
your booster. Be sure to read noise. If one existed, the manufactur-
common
modulator cause of vacuum-booster
failure. This allows stored in an accumulator can the
be ex-in-
ers would be using it.
failure is automatic-transmission-
automatic-transmission fluid (ATF) structions carefully. High
tremely dangerous if the unit is not pressure
modulator failure. This allows stored in an accumulator can be ex-
automatic-transmission fluid (ATF) tremely dangerous if the unit is not

136
Modifications 12

Grand Prix cars have some of the best-designed brakes. Mechanics modify brakes to suit course and temperature conditions on race day.
Lightest brakes that work are used to avoid excess weight. Smallest-possible cooling scoops are used to reduce aerodynamic drag. As
with engines
Grand in highly-competitive
Prlx cars racing, brakes must
have some of the best-designed be pushed
brakes. to their
Mechanics performance
modify brakes to limits, or youand
suit course don't win!
temperature conditions on race day.
Lightest brakes that work are used to avoid excess weight. Smallest-possible cooling scoops are used to reduce aerodynamic drag. AS
with
If engines in highly-competitive
your brake racing, brakes must be pushed to their performance limits, or you don't win!
system is not working
as desired, consider modifying it for
If yourperformance
better brake system or is notreliability.
working
as desired, consider modifying
Modifications are often the result it for
of
better performance or
testing, either on the road or the reliability.
Modifications
track. However, are don't
often the resultany
attempt of
testing, either
modification onyou:
until the road or the
track.
InspectHowever,
and repairdon'ttheattempt
brakes any so
modification until
they operate properly. you:
Inspect
Test the and
brakesrepair
and the
recordbrakes so
the re-
they operate
sults so you'll properly.
know what aspects of
Testperformance
their the brakes need and improving.
record the re-
sults so you'll know what
Analyze your car to determine aspectsthe of
their performance
forces and pressures need improving.
in the brake
Analyze
system. your
Also, testcar
thetocardetermine
to determine the
forces and pressures in
brake temperatures. You may have the brake
system.
done thisAlso, test the car to determine
already.
brake
you
The temperatures.
done can
The first
money
You may before
first step is necessary
this already.
justify spending time and
step is necessary
on modifications.
have

Mostbefore
new
./
you
cars have well-engineeredtime
can justify spending and
brakes. Numerous components are available to help improve a brake system. Trick is learning how
money will on modifications. I choose and apply them. Some products available from AP Racing include: steel-braided I
to
They work fine ifMost new
properly hoses, various
Numerous size master
components arecylinders, vacuum
available to boosters,
help improve and fluid
a brake reservoirs.
system. Trick Photo courtesy
is learning how
cars have well-engineered
maintained. However, jf the brakes. car is tAP Racing.and apply them. Some products available from AP Racing include: steel-braided
o choose
They will work fine if properly hoses, various size master cylinders, vacuum boosters, and fluid reservoirs. Photo courtesy
maintained. However, if the car is AP Racing.
137
 Formula Ford brake is small, light and
simple. It works great on a light race car
with 110 HP. If allowed, bigger brakes may
stop car faster, but lap times might be
slower due to added weight. Always use a
Before you begin modifying a car's existing brakes, first make sure they are in top condition brake that's big enough, but not too big.
and test them. Modification may be unnecessary. Don't fix something that doesn't need Extra weight hurts in racing.
fixing.
BeforeAyourace track
begin is ideal for
modifying testing.
a car's existing brakes, first make sure they are in top condition brake that's big enough; but not -too big.
and test them. Modification may be unnecessary. Don't fix something that doesn't need Extra weight hurts in racing.
fixing. A race track is ideal for testing.
driven beyond its design limits or if it Improve stability. diameter brakes. Thicker rotors are
is highly modified to different not necessarily required when rotor
driven beyond its
specifications, thedesign
brakeslimitsmay orneedif it ImproveBRAKES
BIGGER stability. diameter brakes.
diameter ThickerRemember:
is increased. rotors are
is highly
modifying. modified to different Bigger brakes almost always im- not necessarily required
Add brake weight only if required when rotor
to
specifications,
To do an theintelligent brakes may jobneed of BIGGER
prove brakeBRAKESperformance. The addi- diameter is increased.
cure a severe cooling problem. If a Remember:
modifying. first identify what needs
modification, Bigger
tional weightbrakesof a almost
bigger disc always
or rotorim- Add brake
light, solid weight
rotor coolsonly ifwell required
enough, to
To do The
modifying. an next intelligent job out
step is to find of prove brake
reduces performance.
temperatures. If Tdrum
h e addi- or cure a use
don't severe cooling problem.
a heavier, vented rotor. If a
modification, first identify
exactly what's wrong with brake what needs tional weight
rotor diameter of aisbigger disc or pedal
increased, rotor light, solid
When changing rotortocools
largerwelldrums,enough,
con-
modifying.
performance. T h e next
If you step is list
to findthese
out reduceswilltemperatures.
effort also be reduced. If drum And, or if don't use a heavier,
sider reducing weight by switching vented rotor.
exactly
problems,what'syou arewrong with tobrake
less likely lose rotor diameter
swept is increased,
area is increased, pedal
the linings W h e n iron
from changing to larger drums,
to aluminum. Aluminum con-
performance.
track of them during If you list these
the modification effort
probably willwillalso
wearbelonger.
reduced. And, if sider reducing
drums cool better weight
than iron by switching
drums of
problems,
process. you are less likely to lose swept area is increased,
The disadvantage of bigger the linings
brakes from
the same iron size.to aluminum.
And they are Aluminum
lighter.
track of them during
Be specific when listing the the modification probably will wear longer.
is the adverse effects added weight dTheyr u m sarecool better than
well worth the expense. iron drums of
process.
problems. Don't just say, "The T h e on
have disadvantage
accelerationof and bigger brakes
handling. theSeparate
same size. And they
cooling problemsare lighter.
from
Be are
brakes specific
lousy."when listing say
For example, the is t h e adverse effects
More weight slows acceleration. Addi- added weight They are well worth the
pedal-effort problems. If the brakes expense.
problems. Don't just
"The brakes fade after two stops from say, "The have on
tional acceleration
rotating weight makesand handling.
it even have Separate
both high cooling problems
pedal effort from
and exces-
brakes
100 mph," are lousy." For example,
or "Temperature say
reaches More weight slows acceleration.
worse. Also, added unsprung weight Addi- pedal-effort
sive problems. Ifthethe needed
temperatures, brakes
"The brakes
600F after fadethreeafter two stops
stops from from 100 tional
bouncing rotating
up and weightdown makeswith i t even
the have bothare
changes highobvious.
pedal effort Yourandcar exces-
will
100 mph,"
mph." The more or "Temperature
specific you are, reaches
the worse. reduces
wheels Also, added unsprung
traction in bumpy weight
cor- sive temperatures,
benefit from both larger-diameter and the needed
600F after three stops
easier, cheaper and more effective from 100 bouncing
ners and when up accelerating
and down orwith brakingthe changes
heavier brakes are obvious.
to cure both Yourproblems.
car will
mph." T h e more
modifications will specific
be. you are, the wheels reduces traction
on bumpy surfaces. So, don't install in bumpy cor- benefit from both larger-diameter
However, if pedal effort is the only and
easier,
Use thecheaper
formulas and inmore Chapter effective
9 to ners and when brakes
the heaviest acceleratingyou or canbraking
find. heavier brakes
problem, t o cure
stay with bothrotors,
lighter problems.
cali-
modifications will be.
calculate internal brake-system forces on bumpy
Select brakesurfaces.
size to suit So, thedon't install
perform- However,
pers or drums. if pedal effort is the only
andUse the formulas
pressures. These in be found9 by
canChapter to the heaviest
ance needs of the brakes
car. you can find. problem, stay
It's easy to predictwith lighter rotors,larger
the effect cali-
calculate
measurement,internalif brake-system
you prefer. forces You Select
On Grandbrake Prixsize to suitthe
cars, thebrakes
perform- are pers orordrums.
rotor drum diameters will have on
and
mustpressures.
understand Theseclearlycanhowbe found
and why by ance needs
sized closelyof the to car.
the performance of pedal It's easy
effort.to Because
predict the effect
pedal larger
effort is
measurement, if you
you're modifying the brakes before prefer. You theOncar. Grand They Prixare cars,nothebigger
brakesthan are rotor or d r u m diameters
related directly to brake torque, use will have on
mustcan
you understand clearly Temperatures
do it properly. how and why sized closely to the
what's needed to do their job. On performance of pedal
the formulas effort. givenBecause pedal effort
in Chapter 9. Cal- is
you're
must modifying
be measured the brakesby before
testing the car.
tracks thatThey
are hard are on n o brakes,
bigger either
than related the
culate directly
new braketo brake torque torque,
and com- use
you can d o i t properly.
modifications, includingTemperatures
cooling what's needed
bigger rotors or totwodcalipers
o their per job.rotorOn tpare
h e formulas
it to thegiven old brakein Chapter
torque. 9. Cal-
The
must be measured by testing
changes. tracks that are hard o n
are used. On tracks with less braking brakes, either culate t h e new brake
new pedal effort will be the indirecttorque and com-
modifications,
Following are some including cooling
brake modifica- bigger rotors orbrake
requirements, two weight
calipersisper rotor
reduced pare of
ratio it tothethe twoold brake torque.
numbers. The
Pedal effort
changes.
tions and objectives to consider: are used.
with lighter Oncomponents.
tracks with This less braking
may be new pedal
always decreaseseffort with
will increased
be t h e indirect
brake
Following
Install biggerare s obrakes
m e brake to modifica-
increase requirements,
carrying things brake tooweight
far is forreduced
most ratio of t h e two numbers. Pedal effort
diameter.
tions and objectives
brake torque and reduce braketo consider: with lighter components.
applications, but serious racers This maywith be always decreasesrise
Temperature withper increased
stop can brakebe
Install bigger brakes to increase
temperatures. carrying things too
unrestricted funds do it to win in far for most diameter.
calculated if you know the weight of
brake
Improve torque
cooling. and reduce brake applications,
tough competition.but serious racers with theTemperature
old and new rise rotors.per Because
stop cantem- be
temperatures.
Eliminate fade. unrestricted
Regardless funds of the do it application,
to win in calculated
perature rise if per
you stop
know the weight
is related direct-of
Improvepedal
Reduce cooling.
effort. tough competition.
always use the largest-diameter brakes the old and new rotors.
1y to brake weight, doubling rotor or Because tem-
Eliminate
Increase liningfade. life. Regardless
possible. of the application,
A large-diameter drum or perature
drum rise per
weight stop reduce
should is related direct-
tempera-
Reduce
Add brake- pedal effort.
balance-adjustmen t always use the pedal
rotor reduces largest-dic1n7eler
effort and brakes makes ly to rise
ture brake weight, doubling
by one-half. The weight rotor
of anor
Increase lining life.
features. possible.
braking easier. A large-diameter
You can perhaps d r uelimi-
m or diron
r u mdrumweight should
affects the reduce
temperature tempera-rise
Add brake-balance-adjustment
Reduce deflections. rotor reduces pedal effort
nate power assist by installing larger- and makes ture
the samerise by as one-half.
rotor weight. T h e You
weight canofpre-
an
features. braking easier. You can perhaps elimi- iron d r u m affects the temperature rise
Reduce
138 deflections. nate power assist by installing larger- t h e s a m e as rotor weight. You can pre-
Small caliper on solid disc works well on
front of sprint car run on dirt. Photo courte-
sy AP Racing.
Small caliper on solid disc works well on
front of sprint car run on dirt. Photo courte-
sy AP Racing.
Porsche Can-Am car under hard braking: Because nose is so low to track surface, under-
body airflow is blocked. Ducts route cooling air to brakes, page 141 .
Porsche Can-Am car under hard braking: Because nose is so low to track surface, under-
body airflow is blocked. Ducts route cooling air to brakes, page 141.

dict how many stops from a certain brakes usually is easier than on a road
speed it will take to reach a certain car. First off, special brakes typically
dict how many
temperature from stopsthefrom a certain
formula for brakes
are usedusually is easier
on a race thanthey
car, and on gener-
a road
speed it will rise,
temperature take pageto reach
11. Ita doesn't
certain car. Firstavailable
ally are off, special brakessizes.
in various typically
The
temperature
indicate from the
anything formula
about coolingfor, are used onpattern
mounting a race for
car,aand they
rotor gener-
is usually
temperature
however. rise, page 11. It doesn't ally are available
specified in variousit.sizes.
when ordering The
A rotor
indicate
Cooling any is thing about cooling,
nearly unchanged with mounting pattern for a rotor
I-in. or so larger in diameter may is usually
however.
brake-size changes. Improve cooling specified
accept thewhen same ordering it. A rotor
caliper. Check with
Cooling
with is nearly or
air ducting unchanged
aerodynamicwith I-in. manufacturer
the or so larger or in diameter may
dealer before
brake-size changes.
changes to the car. Improve cooling accept the same caliper.
assuming they will work. If you Check with
with
Installingair ducting
Bigger Brakes or aerodynamic
- Finding the manufacturer
change rotor thickness,or either
dealer thebefore
cali-
changes to the for
bigger brakes car. a road car can be a assuming
per will have they
to bewill work.or If
changed the you
lin-
Installing
problem . You Bigger
may find Brakes-Finding
a bolt-on con- change rotor thickness,
ings machined thinner.either the cali-
Companies
bigger brakes for
version that increases brakea road car can be ifa
size per will
like have Tilton
Hurst, to be changed or the and
Engineering lin-
problem. You may find
you have a popul ar performance car.a bolt-on con- ings machined thinner. Companies
JFZ can help with either approach .
version
Or, you that may findincreases
biggerbrake
brakessize
on ifa like Hurst, Tilton Engineering and
you have a popular performance
station wagon that will bol t on. Often car. JFZ can helpIMPROVEMENTS
COOLING with either approach.
Or,
these brakes will have wider drums ora
you may find bigger brakes on Modifications to improve cooling
station
heavier wagon
rotors, that
but will bolt on.diame-
sometimes Often COOLING
are commonIMPROVEMENTS
on race cars . Some road
these
ter may brakes
also be willlarger.
have Look
widerfor
drums or
larger- Modifications
cars can also benefitto improve cooling
from cooling Vented rotors in place of solid rotors will
heavier rotors, but sometimes diame- improve brake performance if tempera-
di ameter wheels to go with la rge r- are common on but
improvements, race your
cars. Some
choicesroad
of tures are too inhigh. Scoops
Vented rotors place of solidorrotors
modified
will
ter may also
diameter be larger. Look for larger-
brakes. cars
what tocando also benefit from cooling
are limited. ducting
improveshould
brakebeperformance
tried first . if tempera-
diameter
By studying wheels shop to manuals
go with for larger-
dif- improvements,
There are several but ways
your to choices
improveof tures are too high. Scoops or modified
diameter
ferent brakes.
model years for your car, you what
braketo do are limited.
cooling: ducting should be tried first.
may studyingthat
By discover shopthemanuals
brake-drumfor dif-
or There
Add or are several
enlarge ways toto brakes.
air ducts improve is to add air ducts . These start with
ferent
rotor sizemodel yearsforfor
is larger your car,
a certain you
year. If brake cooling:
Change or modify wheels for in- scoops or holes in the body on most
may discover
you discover that this the brake-drum
situation, go to ora Add orairflow
creased enlargeto air ducts to brakes.
brakes. is to add airrace
full-bodied ducts.
cars.These start with
On open-wheel
rotor size
dealer is larger
or junk yardfor anda check
certainwhether
year. If Change
Change from or modify
solid towheels
ventedfor in-
rotors scoops
cars, theorducts
holescanin be
thescoops
body attached
on most
you
the brake will bolt on. It may be to
discover this situation, go thata creased airflow
on disc brakes. to brakes. full-bodied race cars. On
to the brakes, uprights or axle. open-wheel
dealer
the sizeororjunk yardofand
design thecheck
brake whether
mount- Change from
Change solid to orvented
to finned rotors
aluminum cars, the ducts
A brake duct can
mustbebescoops attached
designed care-
the also
ing brakechanged,
will bolt eliminating
on. It may be thethat
in- on disc brakes.
drums. to thetobrakes,
fully get the uprights
most airor axle.
for the least
the size or design of the
terchange possibility. Another possi-brake mount- Change
Remove or to mOdify
finned dustor shields
aluminum on A brake
amount of duct
added must beThe
drag. designed
most care-
criti-
ing
bilityalso changed,
is that someeliminating
cars could the in-
be or- drums.
disc brakes. fully to get the most air for
cal parts of a duct are its entrancethe loca-
least
terchangewith
dered possibility.
optionalAnother possi-
heavy-duty Removebacking
Vent or modify dust on
plates shields on
drum amount of added drag. The most
tion and where air exits the duct at the criti-
bility is Sometimes
brakes. that some cars thesecould
brakesbe are
or- disc brakes.
brakes. cal parts
brakes of aconstant-diameter
. A duct are its entrance loca-
tube to
dered with optional
larger. Study the parts books for heavy-duty Vent water-cooling
Install backing plates on drum
system. tion and
carry thewhere air exits
air is often usedthebetween
duct at the
the
brakes. Sometimes
options. Your dealerthese can brakes
help with are brakes.
Change car-body aerodynamics for brakes.
duct A constant-diameter
entrance and exit. tube to
larger.Look
this. Study for the
Police,partsTaxi,books
or Heavy for Install water-cooling
increased airflow to brakes.system. carry
When installing a brake duct, the
the air is often used between be
options.
Duty Yourin the
listings dealerpartscanbookhelp
. with AirChange
Ducts -car-body
The easiestaerodynamics
and most for ef- duct
sure entrance
its entranceand faces
exit. forward and is
this.
On Look
a raceforcar, Police,
changing or bigger
Taxi, to Heavy increased
fective airflow
way to brakes.
to improve brake cooling in When installing area.
a high-pressure a brakeTheduct,
verticbe
al
Dufy listings in the parts book. Air Ducts-The easiest and most ef- sure its entrance faces forward and is
On a race car, changing to bigger fective way to improve brake cooling in a high-pressure area. The vertical
139
Dual master cylinders are used in place of
stock tandem master cylinder on this dual-
purpose car.
Aftermarket spoiler has holes for brake-cooling ducts. High pressure exists in front of
spoiler, making ideal spot for brake ducts. Spoiler without ducts adversely affects brake
cooling. On a race car, tubes should be used to route air directly to brakes.

Dual master cylinders are used in place of

stock tandem master cylinder on this dual-
purpose car.
Aftermarket spoiler has holes for brake-cooling ducts. High pressure exists in front of
spoiler, making ideal spot for brake ducts. Spoiler without ducts adversely affects brake
cooling. On a race car, tubes should be used to route air directly to brakes.

This may help front-brake cooling, but not

looks. Neat brake scoops under bumper or
behind grille would do same job and not re-
quire cutting torch.

front surface of a car-body nose is

always a high-pressure area. So is an
air dam.
This A topfront-brake
may help surface ofcooling,
a body butis usu-
not
looks.
ally aNeat brake scoopsarea,
low-pressure under bumper
so avoid or Brake ducts on McLaren Can-Am car are simple holes in body with tubes attached. Forward
behind grille would do same job and not re- surfaces of sloping front fenders are in high-pressure areas.
these areas
quire cutting torch.
unless you have
aerodynamic-test data that shows
otherwise. Almost any duct that pro- but will reduce engine cooling known as a NACA duct, is often used
front
trudessurface
forward of a the
into car-body nose be-
air stream is slightly. Engine-induction plenums for rear-brake-duct entrance. If you
always
comes aa high-pressure
high-pressure area,
area. but
So itisalso
an on Can Am and sports-racing cars have a wind tunnel or do serious aero-
air dam. Adrag.
increases top surface of a body
A protruding is usu-
duct will with large overhead air scoops are dynamic track testing, you can find a
ally Brake
alwaysducts on McLaren Can-Am
Theycarcan
arebesimple holes in body with tubes attached. Forward
work;a itlow-pressure
may be the only area,wayso toavoid
cool at high pressure. suitable high-pressure area in which
surfaces of sloping front fenders are in high-pressure areas.
these areasHowever,
rear brakes. unless try you have
other ideas tapped for rear-brake cooling without to locate such a duct. A NACA duct
aerodynamic-test
before resorting to data that shows
a protruding scoop increasing drag. Testing should be may flow some air in a medium-
otherwise.
for the ductAlmost
entrance. any duct that pro- but
done towillcheck
reduce engine cooling
that reduced coolingor known
pressureasarea,
a NACA won'tis flow
but itduct, oftenmuch,
used
trudes forward into the engine-coolant
A front-mounted air stream be- slightly.
plenum Engine-induction
pressure does notplenums cause for
if any, in a low-pressure area. If you
rear-brake-duct entrance. If you
comes
radiatora high-pressure
is always in aarea, but it also
high-pressure on Can overheating
engine Am and sports-racing
or reduce cars top have
must aguess
windattunnel
a spotorfordoa serious
duct, ataero-
least
increases
area. Tappingdrag.into
A protruding duct duct
it with a brake will with
speed,large overhead air scoops are
respectively. dynamic tracktest
try a wool-tuft testing,
first. you can find a
work; it may be the only way
for the front brakes will not add drag, to cool always at high pressure. They
NACA Duct-A flush duct entrance, can be suitable
Wool-Tuft Testing-A area
high-pressure in which
wool-tuft test
rear brakes. However, try other ideas tapped for rear-brake cooling without to locate such a duct. A NACA duct
before resorting to a protruding scoop increasing drag. Testing should be may flow some air in a medium-
for the duct entrance. done to check that reduced cooling or pressure area, but it won't flow much,
A front-mounted engine-coolant plenum pressure does not cause if any, in a low-pressure area. If you
radiator is always in a high-pressure engine overheating or reduce top must guess at a spot for a duct, at least
area. Tapping into it with a brake duct speed, respectively. try a wool-tuft test first.
for the front brakes will not add drag, NACA Duct-A flush duct entrance, Wool-Tuft Testing-A wool-tuft test

140
 <8>= Possible High-Pressure Area
9= Possible
@= Possible Medium-Pressure Area
High-Pressure Area
(0=
@= Possible Low-Pressure Area
Possible Medium-Pressure Area
High-pressure areas on car body(& exist atLow-Pressure
Possible nose leadingArea
edge and base of windshield. Low
pressure always exists behind tail. Accurate wind-tunnel tests or pressure measurements
Cooling duct on March Indy Car maximizes
airflow and minimizes drag. Rather than
must be used toareas
High-pressure find other areas
on car bodysuitable fornose
exist at ductleading
entrances.
edge and base of windshield. Low projecting
Cooling ductduct intake
on March lndyinto airstream,
Car maximizes
pressure always exists behind tail. Accurate wind-tunnel tests or pressure measurements which would
airflow and also increase
minimizes drag,
drag. advantage
Rather than
must be used to find other areas suitable for duct entrances. is taken of existing
projecting high-pressure
duct intake area at
into airstream,
front
whichofwould
tire. Duct directs air
also increase fromadvantage
drag, intake at
front
is of tire,
taken through high-pressure
of existing duct, and into area
centerat
of suspension
front of tire. Ductupright
directsand brake
air from rotor.
intake at
Photo bytire,
front of Tomthrough
Monroe.duct, and into center
of suspension upright and brake rotor.
Photo by Tom Monroe.

Wool tufts are installed on car body before aerodynamic testing. Bits of yarn are taped in
even rows. Assuming body is symmetrical, tufts on one side of car are sufficient.
Wool tufts are installed on car body before aerodynamic testing. Bits of yarn are taped in
even rows. Assuming body is symmetrical, tufts on one side of car are sufficient.
requires driving the car. Tape short slightly, such an area is a second
lengths of yarn-tufts-on the body a choice. This is turbulent attached flow,
requires
few inches driving
apartthewith car. transparent
Tape short slightly,
and usually such an area
is found near isthea rear
second
of a
lengths of yarn-tufts-on
tape. The yarn strips should thecontrast
body a choice.
body. IfThis is turbulent
the yarn wiggles attachedflow,
violently and Brake ducts on Porsche Can-Am car use
few inches apart with
with the body color so you can see transparent and usually
points in all is found near
directions, theis rear
this of a
separat- different designs at front and rear of body.
tape. .The
them Cut yarn stripsabout
the yarn should5-in.
contrast
long body.
ed air. It is low pressure and not and
If the yarn wiggles violently the Front
Brakeducts
ductsface direct airflow;
on Porsche Can-Am rear
carducts
use
with tape
and the each
bodypiece
coloracross
so you canwith
the car see points
place inforalladirections, this is separat-
duct entrance. You'll use flush designs
different NACA-type ducts.
at front andEffectiveness
rear of body.
them. of rear
Front ducts
ducts faceshould be confirmed
direct airflow; by
rear ducts
the tapeCut
in the yarn about
the middle. When 5-in.
thelong
car ed air. find
always It is separated
low pressure andbehind
airflow not thea
testing-pressure
use flush NACA-type on top of body
ducts. can't be
Effectiveness
and
is intape each piece
motion, the yarnacross
willthe car awith
form U- place for a duct
body, behind blunt entrance.
protrusions, You'll
and determined by simple observation.
of rear ducts should be confirmed by
the tapepointing
shape in the middle.
in the When the car
direction of often, all over the tail end. Regardlessa
always find separated airflow behind testing-pressure on top of body can't be
is in motion,
airflow. If the theflow yarn will formtoa the
is attached U- body,
of the behind
indicated blunt
flowprotrusions,
, never install anda determined by simple observation.
shape
body-itpointing
is not in the directionyarn
turbulent-the of often, all over the
duct entrance tail end.
on any Regardless
rearward-facing opening . Some duct entrances have
airflow. If the flow is attached
will lie flat and straight with little to the of the indicated
surface, even ifflow, it is never
only install
slightlya air coming out of them because pres-
body-it is not turbulent-the yarn
wiggling. duct entrance
rearward-facing. on any rearward-facing opening.
sure at theSome
exit duct entrances
is higher than athave
the
will lie the
Place flat duct
and straight
in an area withonlittle
the surface, even if ittheis ducts,
After installing only slightly
retest air comingSo
entrance! out of them
, test because
the duct pres-
entrance
wiggling.
most forward-facing surface where rearward-facing.
with wool tufts. Put tufts in and sure atand
alone thewith
exit the
is higher
entire than
brakeatduct
the
Place the
smooth airflowductisinindicated
an area. on the
If the After the
around installing
brake-duct the entrance
ducts, retestand entrance! So, test the duct
installed. There may be critical entrance
most forward-facing
yarn points rearward and wigglessurface where with wool tufts. Put tufts
check that air actually flows into in and
the alone and with the entire brake duct
differences.
smooth airflow is indicated. If the around the brake-duct entrance and installed. There may be critical
yarn points rearward and wiggles check that air actually flows into the differences. 141
 Air-Pressure Gage-An air-pressure
gage that measures in inches of water
Air-Pressure
Cin .Hp), pageGage-An 113, can air-pressure
be used to
gage
find high-pressure in
that measures inches
areas andoftowater im-
(in.H20),
prove ducting.pageMount 113, can be used
the gage so the to
find
driverhigh-pressure
can see it. Run areas
rubberand ortovinyl im-
prove
tubing ducting.
from theMount area you the want
gage to so testthe
driver can see it. Run
to the high-pressure port on the gage. rubber or vinyl
tubingthe
Tape from the area
tubing to theyou wantPosition
body. to test
to
thethe tubehigh-pressure
on the surface portofon thethebodygage. so
Tape
air flows theacross
tubingthe to ends,
the body.not intoPosition
it.
theIf tube
you on leavethe thesurface of the bodyport
low-pressure so
air flows across the ends,
disconnected, the gage will measure not into it.
theIf pressure
you leavedifferencethe low-pressure between port the
Tuft test was to confirm that air flows smoothly over body at radiator-duct exit. High-
disconnected,
test area andthewhere gage will the measure
gage is
pressure areas are indicated by tufts laying flat on body surface. Flow is somewhat the pressure
located. However, difference
you can between
run a tube the
disturbed, but intoproper
Tuft test was direction.
confirm that air flows smoothly over body at radiator-duct exit. High- test area and where
from the low-pressure port to the area the gage is
pressure areas are indicated by tufts laying flat on body surface. Flow is somewhat located.
of the However,
car you want you can therunducta tube to
disturbed, but in proper direction. from the low-pressure
pressurize- the brake port rotor.toThethe gage
area
of the car you want
will then measure the pressure dif- the duct to
pressurize-
ference the brake
between the rotor.
test areaThe gage and
will then measure
brake-rotor area. Before the pressure
running dif- the
ference between the
test, blow velY lightly at the end test areaofand the
brake-rotor
tube in the test area.area. BeforeIf therunning
gage read- the
test,
ing blow very lightly
increases, it is at the end of the
hooked up
tube in theRun
correctly. test area.
the If cartheatgage read-
constant
ing increases,
speed, say 80 mph,it and is readhooked
pressure. up
correctly.
If the gage Run reads the below carzero,
at constant
the duct
speed,
will notsay work 80 .mph,
Air flowsand read frompressure.
high to
If
lowthepressure
gage reads only.below zero,the
Tape thehigh-
duct
will not work. Air flows
pressure tube to different locations from high to
low pressure
around the body only.until Tape youthe findhigh-the
pressure
highest-pressure tube toarea different
that is locations
practical
around the body
to accept a duct inlet. until you find the
highest-pressure
If you have a duct areaexit thatthatis practical
seals to
to
theaccept
rotor aand ductyou inlet. want to improve it
If you
with largerhave a ductfewer
tubing, exit thatbends seals or toa
the rotor and you want
different inlet location, drill a hole in to improve it
with
the rotor plenum close to the rotor.a
larger tubing, fewer bends or
different
Connect inlet it to location,
the high-pressuredrill a holeport in
Brake ducts on this stock car are mounted under front bumper. A flexible hose leads cool the
on the rotorgage. plenum close to the
Disconnect the rotor.
low-
air to front brakes. This type duct is easily modified to change brake cooling . Connect
Brake ducts on this stock car are mounted under front bumper. A flexible hose leads cool pressure it gageto theport.high-pressure
Run a constant- port
air to front brakes. This type duct is easily modified to change brake cooling.
on the gage. Disconnect
speed test before and after modifying the low- .
pressure
the duct. gage port. Run
If pressure a constant-
increases after
speed test before, and
the modification the after
duct modifying
will flow
the
moreduct. air. TheIf pressure
same procedure increasescan afterbe
the modification, the
used for optimizing engine-induction duct will flow
more air. The and
ram-air-scoop sameradiator-inlet
procedure can sizes. be
used for optimizing
Just be sure the high-pressure gage engine-induction
ram-air-scoop
pickup is in front and of radiator-inlet
and close tosizes. the
Just be sure
item being the high-pressure gage
pressurized.
pickup
Thereis are in front
some ofcomplex and close to the
methodS
item being pressurized.
to determine the exact dimensions of
a There
NACAare some
duct. The complex
easiest methods
way to
to determine
design a ducttheis exact to copy dimensions
one from of
a NACAcar.duct.
another A lotThe easiest waytest-
of wind-tunnel to
design a duct is to
ing and track testing has been done on copy one from
another car. Arace
factory-built lot ofcars wind-tunnel
. There'stest- no
ing
reasonand track
to repeat testingtheir has been work. doneThey on
factory-built
can't hide therace duct cars.shape,There's
so go into no
A well designed duct is simple and neat. Ducts sealed to center of rotor such as this are reason to repeat their
the pits with a camera and photograph work. They
much more efficient than those that just point at center of rotor. Flex hose used for air can't
ducts
A well on cars is duct
designed available in auto
is simple andparts
neat. or surplus
Ducts stores.
sealed Noticeofboth
to center rotorends
suchofashose
this are ducts hide on the duct shape,
winning so go into
factory-designed
securely
much more attached with
efficient hose
than clamps.
those that just point at center of rotor. Flex hose used for air
the pits
cars. with a camera
Enhance and photograph
the information you'll
ducts on cars is available in auto parts or surplus stores. Notice both ends of hose are ducts on winning factory-designed
securely attached with hose clamps.
142
cars. Enhance the information you'll
get with
get with the
the photo
photo byby measuring
measuring the the
duct, ififthe
duct, the car
car owner
owner will
will allow it.
it.
repeat, the front of
To repeat, of a car
car body
body or I I I

nose spoiler-air dam-is

nose spoiler-air dam-is an ideal T
JI I I

place to
place to install
install a duct entrance
entrance for the the Vented
Vented Drum
Drum Drum
front brakes.
front brakes. MakeMake aa round,
round, smooth- 8acking-
Backing-
Plate
Plate
edged hole hole the the size of of the
the duct. Scoop
Scoop
Rounded edges at the
Rounded the entrance mini-
mize turbulence
mize turbulence inside the the duct.
duct. Use
a round
round tube or duct to route air to to the
brake. Use smooth tube for straight
ducts and corrugated heater-type duct-
ing for curves. Mount the duct secure-
won't fall off. Check wheel and
ly so it won't
suspension clearances in all turn and
wheel-travel extremes: bump, droop
and steering lock.
Exit-The duct exit should be
Duct Exit-The I -
Vented Backing
Backing Plate Non-Vented
Non- Vented Backing
Backing Plate I
at a specific location. On a drum Cooling
Cooling duct should be pointed
pointed as shown depending on backing-plate design.
design. If there are
brake, direct the exit at the drum so cooling holes or scoops in backing
backing plate, duct should point toward backing
backing plate and drum.
drum.
air hits both the drum edge and back- If there are no holes
holes in backing
backing plate, point
pOint duct entirely toward drum.
ing plate. If If tlie
the backing plate is
vented, make sure air blows into the
vents. All race cars that use drum
brakes should have vented backing
plates-assuming
plates-assuming rules allow
them - bu t road cars may not. If there
them-but
are no vents, point the duct more at
the drum and less at the backing plate. Rotor~
The accompanying drawing shows
how to locate a cooling-duct exit for
drum brakes. ~DiVider
HotSide~~1
Hot Side ,-
Cool Side
A disc brake with a solid rotor Duct
should have the duct pointing at the I I

I
I
I
forward edge of the rotor so both
sides of the rotor are cooled. cooled. This is LJ
not a suitable duct-exit location for a
vented rotor.
rotor. I discuss ducting vented
~ Original Shape
Original Shape
rotors later.
later.
It's difficult to cool both sides of a
It is
is essential
essential toto get cooling
cooling air to both
both If aa rotor
rotor is
is cooled
cooled more
more onon one
one side
side than
than
solid rotor equally.
equally. A duct pointed to sides of a solid
sides solid rotor.
rotor. Divider
Divider in
in duct will
will the other,
other, it
it can
can warp
warp as
as shown
shown here.
here. Hot
Hot
the inboard side side of the rotor will take split
split airflow
airflow soso it
it can be directed to
can be to each
each side expands
side expands more
more than
than cold
cold side
side and
and rotor
rotor
care of that side
care side very well. However,
However, side
side of rotor.
rotor. Some
Some experimenting
experimenting with
with takes the
the shape
shape of a saucer.
saucer. Braking
Braking is
is not
not
the outboard side side of the rotor gets dividers and
dividers and duct
duct locations
locations may
may be
be neces-
neces- good on
good on aa warped
warped rotor.
rotor. Equal
Equal cooling
cooling on
on
sary
sary to
to get it
it right.
right. each side
each side prevents
prevents this
this situation.
situation.
little or no air if it is close
little close to the the
wheel. Consequently,
Consequently, the the duct should
be designed to force force air between the the
wheel and the the outboard
outboard sideside of the the firm how
firm how successful
successful aa duct duct design
design is. is. Area-The
Duct Area- ideal air-duct cross-
The ideal
rotor. If the
rotor. the rotor has has one
one hot side
side and disc brake with a vented rotor
A disc sectional area
sectional area should
should be at at least
least as
as
one
one cool
cool side,
side, it may
may warp.
warp. A warped should have
should have the
the cooling air directed to to large as
large as the
the rotor cooling-passage-inlet
cooling-passage-inlet
rotor
rotor will
will adversely
adversely affect braking.
braking. the center of the
the the rotor.
rotor. AsAs itit turns,
turns, thethe area. To
area. To determine
determine this
this area,
area, measure
measure
The
The nearby drawing shows shows a ductduct de-de- rotor acts
rotor acts as
as anan airair pump,
pump, although
although the distance
the distance between the the inboard
inboard andand
signed
signed to cool sides of a disc-
cool both sides disc- an efficient
not an efficient one.
one. Air isis drawn
drawn into into outboard rotor
outboard rotor side
side plates.
plates. Also
Also meas-
brake rotor.
rotor. ThisThis may
may be easy or or the center
the center ofof the
the rotor and and isis thrown ure the
ure the inner
inner diameter
diameter ofof the
the inboard
inboard
impossible,
impossible, depending
depending on on the
the specific
specific out the
out the edge.
edge. Vented-rotor ducts ducts cancan rotor side
rotor side plate.
plate. Calculate
Calculate thethe area
area
configuration.
configuration. be sealed
be sealed toto the
the center
center of of thethe rotor.
rotor. this formula:
using this formula:
A duct
duct design
design mustmust bebe proven by by This much more
This isis much more efficient
efficient than than Inlet area
Inlet area == (3.14)
(3.14)(inboard-plate
(inboard-plate
testing.
testing. This
This isis because brakebrake cooling
cooling merely pointing
merely pointing the the duct
duct at
at thethe rotor
rotor ID)(distance
10) between plates)
(distance between plates)
isis complicated
complicated by by other
other factors.
factors. ForFor center because
center because air air isis forced
forced through
through
example,
For aa rotor
For rotor with
with aa 6.25-in.
6.25-in. inboard-
inboard-
example, wheel wheel design
design also
also affects
affects the rotor.
the rotor. See
See thethe drawing
drawing for for how
how aa plate 10 and 0.63
ID and 0.63 in.
in. between
between plates:
plates:
cooling of
cooling of the
the outboard
outboard sideside ofof thethe plate
vented rotor
vented rotor should
should be be ducted.
ducted. If If
rotor.
rotor. Measuring
Measuring temperature
temperature on on both
both more cooling
more cooling isis required,
required, seal
seal the the duct
duct Inlet area
Inlet area == (3.14)
(3.1 4 )(6.25
( 6 . 2 5in.l(O.63
in.I(O.63in.)
in.)
sides of
sides of the
the rotor
rotor and
and caliper
caliper will
will con-
con- to the
to the center
center of
of the
the rotor.
rotor. 1 2 . 3 6sq
== 12.36 sq in.in.

143
 o
o
o ~Rotor
D
Rotor
=
0
0

Vented rotor needs cool air directed at its

center. Air from duct is picked up by rotor
and sucked
Vented rotor through vents.
needs cool Best cooling
air directed at its
Fiberglass scoop on this Indy Car brake is ducts
center.are
Air deSigned
from ductwith duct exit
is picked up bysealed
rotor
sealed to front upright. Air is ducted direct- against rotor center.
and sucked through vents. Best cooling
ly to centerscoop
Fiberglass of vented rotor.
on this lndyThis
Carduct was
brake is ducts are designed with duct exit sealed
obviously designed
sealed to front with
upright. Air rest of the
is ducted car,
direct- against rotor
calipers willcenter.
have to be replaced or
and
ly to not merely
center added
of vented on This
rotor. afterduct
brakes
was modified if you change to vented
overheated. Photo bywith
obviously designed Tom Monroe.
rest of the car, This brake duct directs air to center of
calipers
rotors. But, will most
have of to the
be time,
replaced or
you'll
and not merely added on after brakes modified if you change to vented
overheated. Photo by Tom Monroe.
vented rotor. Rotor motion sucks cool air in need a different caliper. On some two-
and
This blows
brakeitductout the vents.
directs airThis duct also
to center of rotors. But, most
piece calipers, spacersof the
can time, you'll
be installed
Common duct diameters and areas puts cold
vented air Rotor
rotor. on rubbing
motionsurface of rotor,
sucks cool air in need a different
to allow the thicker caliper. Ontosome
rotors two-.
be used
are as follows: but only
and blowson itinboard
out theside. ThisThis
vents. could lead
duct to
also piece calipers, spacers can be installed
Common duct diameters and areas uneven
puts coldcooling of thesurface
air on rubbing two of rubbing
rotor, Longer bolts are required to make this
to allow the thicker rotors to be used.
modification.
are5-in. Diameter/Area 19.6sq in .
as follows: surfaces,
but only on and may cause
inboard rotor
side. This to warp.
could A
lead to
Longer
4-in. Diameter/Area 12.6 sq in . baffle
unevenshould
coolingbe added
of the to upright to seal
two rubbing If youbolts are required
change to ventedto make this
rotors,
5-in. Diameter/Area 7.1
3-in. 19.6sqsqin.in. gap between
surfaces, and inboard braking
may cause rotorsurface
to warp. and
A modification.
change the brake ducts to supply air to
4-in. Diameter/Area 12.6sq in. upright. This would
baffle should force
be added toall air collected
upright to seal
theIf center
you change
of the rotor.to vented
This will rotors,
pro-
IdealDiameter/Area
3-in. duct size for this 7.1 sq rotor
in. is 4 in. by
gapscoop through
between rotor-cooling
inboard passages.
braking surface and
If there isn't enough room to package change
vide a constant supply of cool air air
the brake ducts to supply to beto
upright. This would force all air collected
theIdeal duct duct
correct size for
in this
yourrotorcar, isget 4 in,
as by scoopthrough rotor-cooling passages. the
pumpedcenterthrough
of the rotor. This will
the interior of pro-
the
Iffthere isn't enough room
close as you can. The exit adaptor that to package always flow more cooling air through vide
rotor.a constant supply of cool air to be
the correct
seals the duct ductto intheyour car, of
center gettheas a bigger hole, but it always adds drag. Modified through
pumped Wheels-Some the interior
wheels of help
the
close as you can. The exit adaptor that always
The carflow
will more cooling
lose top speed air with through
larger rotor.
brake cooling by providing a place for
rotor should almost touch the rotor.
seals
Allow the aboutduct1/16-in.
to the clearance.
center of Ifthe it aducts.
bigger hole, but it always adds drag. Modified
cooling airWheels-Some
to exit the wheel wheels help
well. This
rotor should almost touch
rubs, the adaptor will make noise the rotor.and The car willtolose
Changing top speed
Vented with larger
Rotors-Solid can happen by the wheel acting as for
brake cooling by providing a place an
Allow the
wear about 1116-in.
excess away,clearance.
but it won't If it ducts.
rotors are cheaper and lighter than cooling
air pump, air or
to the
exitwheel
the wheel
merely well. This
having
rubs, the adaptor will make
hurt the rotor. Be sure the adaptor noise and Changing
vented to Vented
rotors, but they~ ocan t o r sget
- s o ltoo
id' can
enoughhappenventbyholesthe wheel
in it to acting
allowashotan
wear the excess
does not restrict airflow.away, but it won't rotorsVented
hot. are cheaper
rotors andare lighter
better than for air to
air pump,
escape. or the wheel merely having
hurt
Thethe rotor. Be sure
cross-sectional area the
of the adaptor
adap- vented rotors,
several reasons.butTheythey arecan heavier,
get too enough
When vent I was holes in it to allow
.developing hot
the first
does not restrict
tor should be asairflow.
large as the duct. hot. Vented rotors are
thus have less temperature rise per better for air to escape.
monocoque split-rim racing wheels, I
The cross-sectional
Squeezing a tube oblong areareduces
of the adap-area. several reasons. They are
stop. They also have four surfaces in- heavier, Whensome
found I was ,developing
interesting effectsthe from
first
Start with a cone and formthe
tor should be as large as theduct,
exit thus have
stead of twoless temperature
to provide rise cooling Per. monocoque
wheel centers. split-rim racing cars,
On some wheels, theI
Squeezing
end to the aproper tube oblong
shape. It reduces
shouldarea. seal stop.
Finally, They also have
vented rotorsfour
alsosurfaces
pump in- air found
brakes some
ran much interesting
cooler if effects from
vent holes
Start with acenter
the entire cone and of theform the The
rotor. exit stead
throughofthetwo to Vented
brake. providerotors cooling.
usu- wheeldriJled
were centers.in the Onwheel
some cars, The
centers. the
end to the proper shape.
adaptor should blend to a round sec-It should seal Finally, vented rotors
ally are necessary on a also
heavypump race car air brakes ran much cooler
outside of the wheel would be coveredif vent holes
the
tion entire
to which center
the of ductthewillrotor. The
connect. through
such as a the brake.
stock car. Vented rotors usu- were drilleddust
with black i n the
from wheel
the centers.
brakes. This The
adaptor should blend
Make provisions for tomounting
a round sec- the allyThearebest
necessary
ventedon a heavy
rotors haverace curved car outside
indicated of the thatwheel airwould
really be covered
flowed
tion
adaptorto which
to the the duct orwill
spindle connect.
suspension such as a stockcar.
vents. Curved-vent rotors pump with
throughblackthedust
ventfromholes.theOnbrakes. This
other cars,
Make
upright.provisions
It must befor mounting
secure and move the The air
more best than
vented rotors have curved
straight-vent rotors, indicated that air really
vent holes did not affect brake cooling. flowed
adaptor
with the to the spindle or suspension
wheel. vents. Curved-ventrotors
plus curved-vent rotors are pump more through the vent
After some holes.
study, weOnlearned
other cars,
that
upright.
If yourIt car must be secure
already and move
has ducts, but more air tothan
resistant straight-vent
cracking . However, rotors,
this vent holes did
the shape of thenot corners
affect brakeof the cooling.
body
with the wheel.
brake temperatures are too high, duct plus curved-vent
makes rotors used rotors
on the are rightmore and After
nose made somethe study, we learned
difference. As air flowsthat
If your car may
modifications already hasPerhaps
help. ducts, but the resistant
left sides of to the
cracking. However,
car different. They this are the shape of the corners
around the corners of a rounded nose, of the body
brake entrances
duct temperatures or are
exitstooare high, in duct
the makes
designedrotorsto pumpusedaironas the
theyright
rotateand in anose made the difference.
low-pressure area is createdAs airatflowsthe
modifications
wrong place. Tuftmay test
help.themPerhapsto seethe if left sides
one of the
direction car different. They are
only. around the corners
front wheel wells.of This
a rounded drawsnose, air
ductis entrances
air really flowing or exits
into the are duct.
in the If designed
If you tocan'tpump afford
air as they rotate in
curved-vent athrough
low-pressure
the wheels areaandis created
helps cool at the
the
wrong place.looks
everything Tuft good
test ,them to see if
try installing one direction only.
rotors , use straight-vent rotors . They front
brakes.wheel
On cars wells.
with This draws
flat sides andaira
air is really flowing
larger-diameter ducts.intoTestthe theduct.
brakes If willIf run
youconsiderably
can't affordcoolercurved-vent
than solid through the wheels
square-edged nose, andthis helps cool the
low pressure
everything
with the new looks good,
ducts undertry the installing
same rotors, use
rotors. straight-vent
RegardJess of whichrotors.wayThey you brakes.notOnexist.
does cars Airflow
with flat through
sides andthea
larger-diameter
conditions as theducts. Test the
old ones and brakes
see if go, remember that vented rotorssolid
will run considerably cooler than are square-edged nose, this
wheels had to be supplied entirely low pressureby
with
they made any difference. the
the new ducts under Yousame can rotors. thicker
much Regardlessthan ofsolid
whichrotorsway. Theyou does not exist.
the brake-cooling ducts. Airflow through the
conditions as the old ones and see if go, remember that vented rotors are wheels had to be supplied entirely by
they made any difference. You can
144
much thicker than solid rotors. The the brake-cooling ducts.
This brake duct suffers from too many bends and tight clearances. Angled vent and grooved rotors are directional. Left-side rotor
Designing brake cooling ducts with rest of car can help avoid must turn counterclockwise for maximum cooling.
these problems.
This brake Best duct
duct suffers from istoo
nearly
many straight
bends andwith large,
tight smooth
clearances. Angled vent and grooved rotors are directional. Left-side rotor
bends.
Designing brake cooling ducts with rest of car can help avoid must turn counterclockwise for maximum cooling.
these problems. Best duct is nearly straight with large, smooth
Because of the large area of a wheel
bends.
well compared to an air duct, suct ion
at Because
a low-pressureof the wheel large areawe ll ofcana wheel
move
much more air than an air duct.suction
well compared to an air duct, When
at a low-pressure
low-pressure wheel wheel
wells well
with canvented
move
much more air than
wheels and sealed air ducts are an air duct. When
low-pressure
combined, thewheel
results wells with vented
are dramatic for
wheels
moving air through a ventedducts
and sealed air rotor. are
combined,
Before you the tryresults
vented are wheels,
dramaticfirst for
moving
test the airnosethroughof the a vented
car with rotor.wool
Before
tufts. you flows
If air try vented out of wheels, first
the front
test the nose of the
wheel wells, vented wheels will proba- car with wool
tufts. If air brake
bly improve flows cooling.
out of the Thisfront
will
wheel
occur ifwells, vented
th e nose wheels
of the car haswill round-
proba- Centerline wheels were originally a solid-
bly corners,
improvealbrake center construction. As need to direct
ed lowingcooling.air to flow Thiseasily
will Hurst! Airheart caliper is available with or
Iwithout a spacer between caliper halves:I cooling airwheels
Centerline through wheels became
were originally a solid-
occur if the nose of the
around the sides of the car. The air car has round- evident,construction.
center these vented versions
As need were
t o direct
With spacer, caliper
Hurst/Airheart caliper can be usedwith
is available on ora
ed corners,
speeding upallowing
as it rounds air tothe flowcorners
easily 0 .810-in.-thick
without a spacer rotor. Without
between spacer,
caliper cali-
halves: created. Because
cooling this wheel
air through wheelsis so deep,
became
around
of the body the sides causes of athesuction
car. The at theair per is
With suitedcaliper
spacer, for can
a O.375-in.
be used on rotor
a duct should
evident, be used
these to take
vented advantage
versions of
were
speeding up as i t rounds
front wheel wells . This flow can be ob- the corners thickness.
0.81 If converting
0-in.-thick to thicker
rotor. Without spacer,rotors
cali- cooling holes.
created. Because this wheel is so deep,
of the body duct should be used to take advantage of
when causes a suction at the and you
per have unspaced
is suited calipers, merely
for a 0.375-in. rotor
served watching cars run in add spacers.
thickness. Photo tcourtesy
If converting Hurst
o thicker rotors cooling holes.
front wheel wells. This
heavy rain . If air flows out of flow can be ob-
the Performance.
and you have unspaced calipers, merely
served
wheel wells,whena great watching deal cars
of spray run will in add spacers. Photo courtesy Hurst
heavy rain. If air
come out too; you can see it. flows out of the Performance. Front Tire
wheel Air
Manywells, a great
racing anddealstreet
of spray will
wheels From
come out too; you can
come with vent holes. If the wheels see it. Brake
areMany
also racing
designedandto street act as wheelsan air From
\
come
pump, the effect willIf be
with vent holes. the greater.
wheels I
are also designed
Hubcap-like lightweight to act fans as anhave air I
pump, the effect will
been fitted to wheels to help pump air be greater.
Hubcap-like
out. Chevroletlightweight
been fitted to wheels
have been used for this .
out.
TheChevrolet
most important
Corvair cooling
to
Corvairaspect
help
fans have
cooling
fans
pump air
fans
of vent-
1
have been used for this.
ing air through a wheel is the total
The most
amoun important
t of cut-out area.aspect
As this of vent-
area
ing
increases , airflow increases. A total
air through a wheel is the few
amount
large holes
increases,
of arecut-out
betterarea.
airflow
thanAs
increases.
many thissmal-
not haveAmuch
area
few ~
1
\ ----f--.----F-.Jr
o nt
ler ones, but yo u may
large
choice. holes
Most arewheels
better than must manyhave smal-
small Airflow \ Airllow of Body
ler ones, but you may not have much \
holes for structural reasons. Shape of front corner of body determines how much air is pulled out through holes in wheel.
choice.
Another item that helps have
Most wheels must brake small
cool- This drawing shows two different body shapes, looking down on top of body. Car on left has
holes for structural reasons.
ing is wheel material. An aluminum a square
Shape of nose, with little
front corner suction
of body on front wheel
determines well.air
how much Rounded-body on right holes
is pulled out through drawing tends
in wheel.
or Another
magnesium item thatwheelhelps brake cool-
conducts heat to pull
This a lot ofshows
drawing air through front wheel.
two different body shapes, looking down on top of body. Car on left has
ing is wheel material. An aluminum a square nose, with little suction on front wheel well. Rounded-body on right drawing tends
or magnesi~~rn wheel conducts heat to pull a lot of air through front wheel.
145
 4 , - I . ,

.,:.*
,-: u : .
.

;.; .: ! ,.
9.
,:~. %'

L -,
1

Although this optional finned Corvette

1drum is same diameter as standard drum, itI
is 1/2-in. wider.
Although Thus, it isfinned
this optional not possible to
Corvette
merely
drum isslip
same finned drumsasonstandard
diameter in place drum,
of non-
it
finned Corvette
is 1/2-in. drums.i t is
wider. Thus, Entire brake as-
not possible to
sembly slip
merely must be drums
finned replaced.
on inBe careful
place to
of non-
take allCorvette
finned dimensions when
drums. converting
Entire to
brake as-
heavy-duty
sembly must brake
be drums.
replaced. Be careful t o
This Porsche race car has cooling fans mounted outside of each wheel. At high speed, fan take all dimensions when converting to
sucks cool air out through wheel. Cool air is ducted to brake through car nose. heavy-duty brake drums.
This Porsche race car has cooling fans mounted outside of each wheel. At high speed, fan
sucks cool air out through wheel. cool air is ducted t o brake through car nose. - fins for maximum cooling area . For
years , Buicks and some Lincolns used
fins
large,for maximum
finned aluminum coolingbrake area.
drums For.
years,
You may Buicks
find andsome some
in a Lincolns
wrecking used yard
large,
that can finned aluminum
be adapted to yourbrake car.drums.
Also,
You may find some in
many foreign cars have aluminum a wrecking yard
that canonbetheadapted
drums rear. to your car. Also,
manyOn some foreign carscars
sports have aluminum
equipped with
drums on the rear.
drum brakes, optional aluminum
On some
drums were sports
offeredcarsby equipped
the factory with
or
drum brakes, houses.
from specialty optionalIf you aluminum
have a
drums
car thatwere had Aoffered by theas factory
I-Fin drums an option or
from
and are lucky enough to find some,a
specialty houses. If you have
car
theythat arehad a Al-Fin drumsmodification
worthwhile as an option.
and
Not are onlyluckydo they enough to findcooling,
improve some,
they
they lookare great
a worthwhile
behind wire modification.
wheels!
Not only do Dust
Modifying they improve cooling,
Shields-Disc-
they look great behind wire
brake dust shields block cooling air. If wheels!
aModifying
road car is modifiedDust Shields-Disc-
for racing , the
Aluminum brake drums were used on large Wally Edwards improved braking on his vin- brake dust shields block
Buicks before they changed to disc tage sports car by adapting Buick alumi- dust shields should be cooling
removed air. to
If
brakes.
Aluminum Aluminum drumswere
brake drums are great
used onfor large
cars num drums
Wally Edwardsto early Fordbraking
improved brakes.on
Many old
his vin-
aallow
roadcooling
car is modified for racing,
air to hit the brake rotor. the
requiring drum brakes.
Buicks before they Often, cooling
changed t o prob-
disc streetsports
tage rods car
canby be improved
adapting Buickbyalumi-
this dust isshields
This not a goodshouldmodification
be removed to
if the
lems canAluminum
brakes. be eliminated
drums by
arechanging
great for from
cars modification.
num drums toFinned aluminum
early Ford drums
brakes. Manylook
old allowis cooling
car driven on air to
thehitstreet.
the brake
The rotor.
rotor
iron to aluminum
requiring drums.Often, cooling prob-
drum brakes. good
street behind
rods wire
can wheels on a show
be improved car,
by this This is not from
will suffer a goodroad-dirt
modification if the
and grime
lems can be eliminated by changing from too.
modification. Finned aluminum drums look car is driven on the street.
iron t o aluminum drums. good behind wire wheels on a show car, contamination , and wear rotor
The will
better than a steel wheel. The wheel obtain some. It is not a simple
too. will
increase. The manufacturerand
suffer from road-dirt grime
wouldn 't
conducts heat from the brake and modification , generally because few contamination,
install them if theyand weren'twear necessary.will
better than
wheel hub. aAlthough
steel wheel.
the The
wheelwheel
and obtain
cars offersome.
finned Itdrums
is notas a amodifica-
simple increase.
I'll qualifyThe this :manufacturer wouldn't
conducts heat from the brake
tire will run hotter, the brake runs and modification, generally because
tion or as optional equipment. On fewa install them
If you remove if theytheweren't necessary.
dust shields, re-
wheel hub. Although the wheel and
cooler. cars
ro ad offer finnedwith
car, check drums
yourasdealer
a modifica-
to see I'll qualify
strict use tothis:racing only, unless you live
tireAluminum
will run hotter, the brakewheels
or magnesium runs tion or asdrums
if special optional
are equipment.
offered. On On earlya in Ifanyou remove
area with no thedirt
dustroads
shields,
and re-
no
cooler. are used in racing because of
generally road car, check with your
Corvettes, for example , optionaldealer to see strict use to racing only, unless
snow. Then , if it is a dual-purpose car, you live
Aluminum
their or magnesium
lower weight. However, wheels
im- if special
heavy-duty drums are
brakes offered.
used On early
finned in an
you area to
' ll have with no dirt
make roadsbetween
a choice and no
generally are usedand
proved cooling in racing
betterbecause of
handling Corvettes,
drums. However,for the
example,
entire drumoptional
was snow. Then, if it is a
improved brake cooling and moredual-purpose car,
their lowerracing
result with weight. However,
wheels. im-
The lighter heavy-duty
wider. brakes an used
This required entire finned
brake- you'll
brake have to make afrom
maintenance choice between
st reet use.
proved also
weight cooling and acceleration.
improves better handling drums. However,
assembly change. the entire drum was improved
This brake
depends on thecooling andcarmore
speCific and
result with racing
Changing Brake Drums wheels. The lighter
- Finned wider. This
If you change required
drumsan entire
, use brake-
aluminum brake
the conditions under which ituse.
maintenance from street is
weight
brake also improves
drums improveacceleration.
cooling over assembly change.
drums in place of iron ones, if This
driven. depends
You ' ll on
havethetospecific
test andcarkeep
and
Changing
drums that Brake
don't have Drums-Finned
fins . If your If you . change
possible They drums, use aluminum
are lighter and cool the
records conditions
to make under sure you which
madeit theis
brake drums improve
brake drums are not finned, coolingtryoverto drums in place of
better. Most aluminum drums iron ones,haveif driven. You'll
right choice. have to test and keep
drums that don't have fins. If your possible. They are lighter and cool records to make sure you made the
brake drums are not finned, try to
146
better. Most aluminum drums have right choice.
 ltilt:anl
~----<
J
Backing plate on this car is modified by
drilling holes in low-stress areas. Scoops
are addedplate
Backing to direct cool
on this carairistomodified
interior by
of
brake drum.
drilling holesIf in
racing rules allow
low-stress it, this
areas. is a
Scoops
desirable
are addedmodification
to direct coolfor air
drum to brakes
interiorFor
of
street drum.
brake use, Ifscoops and allow
racing rules drilledit, backing
this is a
plates willmodification
desirable make brakes formore
drumsensitive
brakes For to
Hose
wet-weather
street use, driving.
scoops and drilled backing
plates will make brakes more sensitive to
Ultimate in vented backing plates are wet-weather driving. Tilton water-COOling system includes a
found on this old oval-track racer. Entire reservoir with a small electric pump. Spray
- -

backing
Ultimateplate is cut away
in vented except
backing for small
plates are water into the brake-cooling ducts . nozzles and fittings complete
Tilton water-cooling system kit. System
includes a
tab holding
found on thiswheel cylinder. Onracer.
old oval-track most Entire
cars, The water vaporizes in the duct and is designed
reservoir withtoa small
sprayelectric
coolingpump.
waterSpray
into
however,
backing plate the isbrake shoes
cut away will for
except notsmall
be water
cools into
the the brake-cooling
incoming air. Squirting ducts. brake
nozzlesducts
and to lowercomplete
fittings temperature
kit. of cool-
System
retained
tab andwheel
holding will possibly
cylinder. become
On most misa-
cars, The water vaporizes in
water directly on the rotor has been the duct and ing designed
is air directed at brake.
to spray This
cooling, watersystem
into
ligned sideways.
however, A more
the brake normal
shoes will backing-
not be cools the incoming air. Squirting works ducts
brake best to onlower
hot, temperature
dry days. Drawing
of cool-
plate
retainedmodification is drillingbecome
and will possibly cooling misa-
holes used for years with varying degrees of courtesy Tilton Engineering.
ing air directed at brake. This system
in it or adding
ligned air scoops.
sideways. A more normal backing- water directly
success. The on ideathe with
rotor this has beennew works best on hot, dry days. Drawing
plate modification is drilling cooling holes used forisyears
system not to with varying
squirt water degrees
directly of courtesy Tilton Engineering.
in it or adding air scoops. success. The idea with
on the brake. Steam formed will not this new
Vented Backing Plates- Drum- systemtheis brake
cool not to as squirt water directly
efficiently as air.
brake backing plates should be vented on theit brake.
Also, may cause Steam theformed
rotors to will not
crack. and damp , little extra cooling is done .
Vented
for racing .Backing
This involves Plates-Drum-
cutting a cool the the
Instead, brake as efficiently
water is strictly as an air.air On a hot dry day, water co oling can
brake
hole in the front and rear ofbe
backing plates should thevented
back- Also, it may cause the rotors to crack.
cooler. and
makedamp, little extradifference.
a considerable cooling is done.
for plracing.
ing ate to allowThis airinvolves
to flow in cutting
and outa Instead,
Brake the water is Cooling
Evaporative strictly anis air an On a hot dry day,
Modifying Body Aerodynamics- water cooling can
holethein drum.
of the front and rear ofa the
Sometimes, scoopback- is cooler. water-cooling system availa-
accessory makesubject
The a considerable
of brakedifference.
ducts has been
added to the front hole to direct out
ing plate to allow air to flow in and air bleBrake Evaporative
from Tilton Engineering. Cooling It is is an
simic Modifyingpreviously.
discussed Body Aerodynamics-
If you've done
of
intothethedrum.
drum.Sometimes,
Venting can abescoop a large is accessory water-cooling
lar to a windshield-washer system, system availa- The subject of
all of the modificationsbrake ductspreviously
has been
added
cut-outtoorthe front hole
a number to direct
of drilled air
holes. ble from
with Tilton
a water Engineering.
reservoir and anIt electric
is simi: discussed previously.
mentioned to improve duct perform-If you've d~ne
into
A largethe drum.
cut-out Venting
works can best,be abutlargeis lar
pump.to Water
a windshield-washer
is fed to the spray system,
noz- all
anceofand theyoumodifications
still find thatpreviously
the ducts
cut-out or a number of
structurally weaker. A screen can be drilled holes. withwia th
zles water
smallreservoir
hoses . and an electric mentioned
are to improve the
not accomplishing ductjob, perform-
or air-
A
usedlarge cut-out
to keep rocksworks
out. best,
However,but is if pump. Water the
To operate is fed to the
brake spray noz-
water-cooling ance
flow from the front wheel wells isducts
and you still find that the low ,
structurally
the track is clean, weaker.theA screen
screen willcan notbe zles with small hoses.
system, the driver turns on a switch are not accomplishing
consider changing thethe job, Before
body. or air-
used to keep rocks
be necessary. Before out. disc
However,brakes if To operate
mounted on the theinstrument
brake water-cooling
panel. Be - flow from
you attempt the this
frontpotentially
wheel wellsdifficult
is low,
the track
became is clean,
popular, the screen
for will
ma ximum not system,thethe
cause driver
driver turns
can't on a switch
measure brake consider
job, test thechanging
car withthe wool body.
tuftsBefore
to es-
be necessary.
cooling, stock cars Before ran disc
12 Xbrakes 3-in. mounted
temperature on ,the
he instrument
must run the panel.
systemBe- you
tablishattempt this potentially
a baseline. Take difficult
photos ,
becamebrakes
drum popular,
with bracketsfor in maximum
place of cause the driver can't
throughout the race or just when hemeasure brake job,
movies test orthevideo
car with
tapeswool tuftstufts
of the to es-
so
cooling,
backing plstocka tes. cars ran 1 2 X 3-in. temperature,
thinks he needs he must
it. Inruna the longsystem
race , tablishcan a review
you baseline. whatTake happensphotos, as
drum brakes
When modifying with bracketsbacking in place
plates,of throughout
wate r supplythe may race
be or just , when
critical so plan- he movies orarevideo
changes made. tapesFirst
of the tuftsthe
check so
backing plates.
don't weaken the ba cking-plate thinks he needs it.
ning should be done. Huge amountsIn a long race, you
duct can review for
entrances what turbulent
happens or as
When modifying
structure. Brake shoesbacking mount plates,
to the water
of extrasupplywater mayshouldn
be critical,
' t be socarried
plan- changes are
reverse airflow . made. First check the
don't
backing weaken pl ate , sotheall backing-plate
the braking ning should
unless necessary.be done. Huge amounts duct entrancesrearforbrake
Frequently, turbulent
ducts are or
structure. Brake shoestomount
torque is transmitted to the
the suspen- of Use
extrawaterwater shouldn't
cooling as a lastbe carried
resort. reverse in
located airflow.
turbulent air. Typically, tur-
backing plate, so all
sion through the sh oe anchor points the braking unless necessary.
Water is heavy and the system re- Frequently,
bulence on anrear brake ducts
open-cockpit car areis
torqueconsequently,
and, is transmitted thetobacking
the suspen-
plate. Use water
quires constant cooling as a last resort.
maintenance. First, located
caused by objects , such as tur-
in turbulent air. Typically, the
sion the
Cut through
backing thepl shoe
ate only anchor
in areaspoints
far Water
make sure is heavy
the airandducting the issystem
sized and re- bulence on rollbar,
windscreen, an open-cockpit
or the driver's car is
and, consequently,
from where these thehighly backing plate.
stressed quires correctly,
sealed constant and maintenance.
the inlets are First,
in a caused
head, in byfront objects,
of thesuch duct as the.
intake
Cut the points
anchor backingattachplate. only
If youin areas
are notfar make sure the area.
high-pressure air ducting
Also , be is sized
sure and the windscreen, rollbar, or
Some fairings or resh aping of parts the driver's
from how
sure whereto dothese highly
this, turn stressed
the job over sealed
wheels are vented correctly. If are
correctly, and the inlets in a
all this head, in front
can greatly affectofairflow
the ductover the intake.
car.
anchor
to an engineepointsr or attach. If you race-car
experienced are not high-pressure
is not enough, area. then tryAlso,
water be cooling.
sure the Some
Consider fairings
adding or areshaping
streamlined of ,parts
ta-
sure how
technici an . to do this, turn the job over wheels are vented correctly.
Because the water-cooling system If all thisis can
peredgreatly
fairingaffect
behind airflow over thehead
the driver's car.
to an engineer or experienced
Water Cooling-One of the latest race-car is not enough, then try water
meant to cool the air in the brake- cooling. Consider
to reduce adding turbulence a streamlined,
over the rear ta-
technician.
tricks for cooling brakes is water Because
cooling the the
duct, water-cooling
system only systemworks is pered fairing behind the driver's
body. This will also reduce total drag head
Water Cooling-One
cooling. A device is used of the latest
to spray meant
well on tohot,cooldrythe
days.airIf inthethe air brake-
is cool to reduce
on the bod y.turbulence over the rear
tricks for cooling brakes is water cooling duct, the system only works body. This will also reduce total drag
cooling. A device is used to spray well on hot, dry days. If the air is cool on the body.
147
 Rotor, below, was drilled with a few large
holes. Above rotor is typical; it has many
smaller holes.was
Rotor, below, Most drilled
drilled with rotors have
a few large
more
holes. holes
Aboveinrotor
themis and smaller
typical; ones.
it has many A
3/8-in.-diameter
smaller holes. Most hole is probably
drilled an aver-
rotors have
age
moresize, but in
holes I have
themseen
andthem fromones.
smaller 1/4- in.
A
to 1 /2-in. diameter.
3/8-in.-diameter hole is probably an aver-
age size, but I have seen them from 1 /4-in.
to 1/2-in. diameter.

If you have a Chevrolet sedan, you may wish to install 1984 Corvette disc brakes. Problem
with this conversion is finding a way to mount calipers on your suspension, and resulting
caliper clearance
If you have problems.
a Chevrolet sedan,If you
pedal effort
may wishgets too high,
to install 1 9 8 4you could disc
Corvette possibly useProblem
brakes. master
cylinder
with thisand booster from
conversion the Corvette.
is finding a way to Amount
modification
caliperssuch as this
on your can be difficult
suspension, and will
and resulting
take a lot
caliper of planning.
clearance Photo courtesy
problems. If pedal Girlock Ltd. too high, you could possibly use master
effort gets
cylinder and booster from the Corvette. A modification such as this can be difficult and will
take a lot of planning. Photo courtesy Girlock Ltd.
FADE REDUCTION the calipers. A caliper is often a diffi-
Brake fade is usually the direct cult item to place in the wheel and
FADE REDUCTION
result of high temperature, so first the calipers. Before
suspension. A caliper is oftenupa diffi-
throwing your
Brake fade
consider cooling is usually the direct
modifications and cult item to place
hands in despair, study in the wheel
brakes and on
result of high temperature,
harder linings. Other modifications so first
to suspension.
other Before
cars made by throwing up your
the manufacturer
consider
help reduce cooling
fade aremodifications
also possible. and hands
of your incar.despair,
On somestudy brakesthere
road cars, on
harder linings.
Converting fromOtherDrummodifications
Brakes to to otherhigh-performance
are cars made by theversions manufacturerusing
help reduce fade are also
Disc Brakes-There will be a reduc-possible. of your
disc car. on
brakes On the
somerear.road
Forcars, there
example,
Converting
tion in fade by from Drum from
converting Brakesdrum to are high-performance versions
the Thunderbird, Lincoln and Cor- using
Disc Brakes-There will Unless
be a reduc- disc
vettebrakes
used on discthebrakes
rear. Foron example,
the rear,
brakes to disc brakes.
tion inanfade
have old by
carconverting
that uses from
you
drum
four-wheel the Thunderbird, Lincoln
while other models of the same or-
and year
drum brakes, drums will be usedyou
brakes to disc brakes. Unless on vette used disc
used drums. brakestheonwheel-stud
Because the rear, no doubt will be wrong. Refer to
haverear
the an old car only.
wheels that usesOn afour-wheel
road car, while other models of the
pattern is the same, rotor mounting same year Chapter 9 for how to calculate the
drum brakes,problem
the biggest drums withwill be used on
converting used drums.may
problems Because
be the solvedwheel-stud
easily. no doubt
forces in an will be wrong.
all-disc-brake Refer to
system.
the
rear rear
brakeswheels only.isOnretaining
to discs a road car,
the pattern is caliper
However, the same, rotor may
mounting mounting
not. Chapter
I suggest9 for
you how
use atobalance
calculate
barthe
or
the biggest
parking brake.problem with converting problems may be solved
Mounting calipers usually requires easily. forces in an all-disc-brake system.
proportioning valve to balance your
rear brakes disc
Although to discsbrakesis retaining
reduce fade,the However,
a special caliper mounting
bracket, may not.
available from newI suggest
system. youAlso,use a balance
if you bar or
don't change
parking
there is brake.
usually only a small gain to be Mounting calipers
racing-brake usually requires
manufacturers. The proportioning
the valve to
master cylinder, youbalance your
can expect
Although
made disc brakesonly
in converting reduce
the fade,
rear abracket
special bracket,
usually is for available from
drag- or stock- new system.
pedal effort Also,
to ifincrease,
you don't because
change
there
brakes. Because front brakes do to
is usually only a small gain mostbe racing-brakeapplications
car-racing manufacturers.using racing The the master cylinder,
drum-brake servo actionyourequires
can expect
less
made
of in converting
the work, rear-brakeonly fade the reara
is not bracket usually
brakes. is for drag-
This bracket may or work stock-
on pedal effort to increase,
pedal effort. Make sure you can because
live
brakes. Because
serious problem.front brakes do most
Consequently, you car-racing
your applications
car, even though your usingcarracing
may drum-brake servo action
with the increased requires
pedal effort less
before
of the work, rear-brake
should also consider modifying fade is notthea brakes.
use This bracketrotors.
passenger-car may work Contacton pedal effort. Make sure you can
starting this modification. If your car live
seriousbrakes
front problem. Consequently,
with larger you
rotors, high- your car, even though your
racing-brake suppliers for information car may with the has
already increased pedal pedal
excessive effort before
effort,
should also linings,
performance considercooling
modifying- the
improve- useyour
on passenger-car
car. rotors. Contact starting this modification.
changing the master cylinder If your car
or going
front
mentsbrakes
or other with larger rotors, high-
changes. racing-brake
If you have suppliers
a mount for for
information
the rear already
to powerhasbrakes excessive
may pedal
be theeffort,
only
performance
Convertinglinings, cooling
from drums to improve-
discs can on your car.
calipers, the jo b isn't finished yet. Be- changing the master cylinder or going
answer.
ments or other changes.
be difficult. Major problems include If you
cause drumhave a mount
brakes for theaction
have servo rear to power
Rotor brakes
Drilling may be the only
or Grooving-Drilling
Convertingclearances
maintaining from drums andtomounting
discs can calipers, the job isn't finished
and disc brakes don't, brake balance yet. Be- answer.
holes or cutting grooves in rotor sur-
be difficult. Major problems include cause drum brakes have servo action Rotor Drilling or Grooving-Drilling
maintaining clearances and mounting and disc brakes don't, brake balance holes or cutting grooves in rotor sur-
148
 If removing a solid rotor for modification,
you may want to machine a groove in the
edge. This removes
If removing someforweight
a solid rotor from a
modification,
Grooves on this rotor run in same direction solidmay
you rotor, slightly
want increases
to machine its surface
a groove in the
as cooling vents. This rotor turns clockwise area, and
edge. Thisdoes not change
removes some swept
weightarea.
fromDoa
as viewed
Grooves in photo.
on this rotor runNotice
in samehow each
direction not
solidtryrotor,
this slightly
if rotor increases
temperatures are too
its surface
groove lines
as cooling up This
vents. with rotor
metalturns
webclockwise
between high.
area, You
and may
doesneed more rotor
not change weight,
swept area. not
Do
cooling
as viewed vents. This reduces
in photo. Notice chance
how each of less.
not try this if rotor temperatures are too
cracks forming
groove lines at ametal
up with groove.
web Trend
betweenin high. You may need more rotor weight, not
racing-brake
cooling vents. development
This reduces ischancetoward
of This rotor has many cracks due to thermal less.
grooves
cracks and away at
forming froma cross-drilled
groove. Trendholes.in stress. Notice how holes seem to attract
racing-brake development is toward cracks. If you drill the rotor, you can
grooves and away from cross-drilled holes. expect cracking
stress. Notice howto holes
be worse
seemthan if left
t o attract
undrilled. IfThis
cracks. you rotor
drill would have you
the rotor, cracked
can
faces can help reduce fade . Holes or anyway, cracking
expect but cross-drilling makes
t o be worse thanit worse.
if left
Cross-drilling
undrilled. This removes weight,
rotor would have so rotor
cracked
grooves allow gas and dust from the can't absorb
faces help reduce anyway, but as much heat. makes it worse.
cross-drilling
liningscan someplace to fade. Holes or
go instead of Cross-drilling removes weight, so rotor
grooves
wedging between the linings and the
allow gas and dust from the can't absorb as much heat.
linings
rotor someplace to go instead of
surfaces.
wedging
However, between
rotorsthetendlinings and the
to crack at rotor-they should have a diagonal
rotor surfaces.
the holes or grooves because of in- slant to them. Such a design is used
However,
creased rotorsat tend
stress theseto crack
points. at rotor-they
for the rotors should on havemany a diagonal
new
the holes or grooves
Consequently, because inspect
frequently of in- slant to them. Such
motorcycles. The exact dimensionsa design is used
of
creased
drilled or stress
groovedatrotors these points.
for cracks. for the rotors
the grooves aren ' t on many new
critical-O.06-in.
Consequently, frequently
Replace them if they start to fail. Im- inspect motorcycles.
wide by O.03-in. Thedeep exactwilldimensions
work . of
drilled
proved or fade grooved rotors
resistance for cracks.
comes at the theAsgrooves
with cooling aren't holes
critical-0.06-in.
in a vented
Replace them
price of if they start to fail.rotor
more-frequent Im- wide
rotor,by 0.03-in.should
grooves deep will work.
be cut different:
proved fade
replacement. resistance comes at the Iy from one side of the incara vented
As with cooling holes to the
price of more-frequent
Cross-dri lling a brake rotor appears rotor rotor,
other. grooves
According should be cut
to rotor different:
rotation, the
replacement.
to be a simple job. It isn't. The prob- ly from should
grooves one side slopeof away
the carfromtorota-
the
lemCross-drilling
is maintaining a brake
rotorrotor appears
balance. It ' s other.
tion asAccording
they extend to rotor
outward rotation,
from thethe
to be a simple job. It isn't.
almost impossible to come up with The prob-a grooves should slope ID.
rotor friction-surface away Thefrom rota-
purpose
lem
hole ispattern
maintaining rotor balance.
that doesn't It's
affect rotor tion
is theassame
they asextend outward
rotor vents. Gasfrom the
should
almost Drilling holes in a brake drum is tricky.
balance.impossible to come up with a rotor friction-surface
be pumped outward ID. through
The purpose the Never drill through reinforcing lip at edge
hole pattern that
A disc-brake doesn't
rotor is heavyaffect
androtor
ro- is the same
grooves as rotor
to the rotorvents.
OD as Gastheshould
rotor of drum. holes
Drilling Hole location chosen
in a brake drumhereis istricky.
near
balance.
tates at moderately high speed. Rotor be pumped outward through the
rotates. center of lining,
Never drill throughwhere it will do
reinforcing lipthe
at most
edge
A disc-brake
unbalance will rotor is heavy and
be noticeable, ro-
partic- grooves
After todrilling
the rotor OD as
holes or the rotor
milling good.
of drum.Holes
Holeinlocation
drums chosen
should here
be experi-
is near
tates
ularlyatonmoderately
a lightweighthighhigh speed.
-speedRotor
car. rotates. deburr the edges of each cut.
grooves, mented
center ofwith carefully
lining, wheretoit avoid
will dodangerous
the most
unbalance will be wish
noticeable, partic- drum failure.
good. Holes Debur holesshould
in drums after drilling.
be experi-
Therefore, if you to cross-drill A After
sharp edge drilling
acts holes or milling
like a cutting tool mented with carefully t o avoid dangerous
ularly
the rotors, have a machine shop docar.
on a lightweight high-speed it. grooves,
and will wear away the liningseach
deburr the edges of cut.
quickly. drum failure. Debur holes after drilling.
Therefore,
They can layout if you awish to cross-drill
symmetrical hole A sharp edge acts like
Use an abrasive stone or fine file toa cutting tool Drilling a brake drum also has its
the rotors,
pattern on have a machine
a rotary table and shop
drilldothe
it. and will all
smooth wear away
of the the linings
edges. Go over quickly.
them negative side. Drilling weakens a
They can lay outwith
holes concentric a symmetrical
the cente r ofhole the Use an
twice to beabrasive
sure. stone or fine file to Drilling
drum. a brake
A drum drum also tohashigh
is subjected its
pattern
rotor. on a rotary table and drill the smooth
Drilling all of the in
holes edges. Go over
a brake drumthem has negative
tension loads each time the brakes area
side. Drilling weakens
holes
It isconcentric
also possiblewithtothemillcenter of the
grooves in twice to be sure.
more effect on reducing fade than applied,A resulting
drum. drum is fromsubjected to high
the outward
arotor.
rotor to produce the same effect as Drillinga holes
drilling in a brake
disc-brake rotor. drum has
Perhaps tension
pressureloads
of each
the time
braketheshoes.
brakesThe
are
It is also
holes. possibledoesn
Grooving to mill grooves as
' t remove in more effect ondrum
this is because reducing
brakes fade than
fade more applied,expanding
shoes resulting infrom the outward
a drum tend to
amuch
rotorweight,
to produce the same effect
so balance is less of a as drilling
easily than a disc-brake
disc brakes. rotor. Perhaps
Therefore, pressure of the
burst it. Holes at thebrake
inboardshoes.
edge The
of a
holes. Grooving
problem. However, doesn't
to doremovethe job as this is because drum brakes
any improvement is more effective. fade more drum can cause cracks to start. tend to
shoes expanding in a drum
much
properly,weight,
use asomilling
balancemachine.
is less ofIt ' as easily than disc
Few vehicles comebrakes. Therefore,
with drilled brake burst it. Holes
Because at the inboard
correctly drilling edge of a
a brake
problem.
back to theHowever,
machine shop to do the you
, unless job any
drums,improvement is more effective.
so some experimentation is drum can cause cracks to start.
drum involves a knowledge of what
properly, use a milling
can do it in your home workshop. machine. It's Few vehicles come
required . You probably with drilled
won't brake
find theBecause
stressescorrectly
are, it's drilling a brake
very difficult to
back to the machine shop,
Grooves should not run radially on a unless you drums,
anythingso some
to use as anexperimentation
example. is drum involves
determine a knowledge
the proper of what
hole size and
can do it in your home workshop. required. You probably won't find the stresses are, it's very difficult to
Grooves should not run radially on a anything to use as an example. determine the proper hole size and
149
 REDUCING PEDAL EFFORT
If your car has excessi ve pedal
REDUCING
effort during hard PEDAL EFFORT
braking, it must be
reduced. I'm not talking about pedal
If your car has excessive fade
effort
here-fadeduring only hard braking,
occurs when it mustthe be
reduced.
brakes areI'm hot. notIf the talking about isfade
pedal effort ex-
here-fadewhenonly
cessive the occurs
brakes when are cool, the
brakes are hot. If the pedal
other modifications are needed. I dis- effort is ex-
cessive
cuss herewhen how to themake brakes are cool,
modifications
other
to reduce pedal effort.are needed. I dis-
modifications
cuss here how to make modifications
toTo reduce
reduce pedal
pedal effort, use:
effort.
Softer brake-lining material.
To reduce pedal effort,
Smaller-diameter master use:
cylinder.
Softer brake-lining
Power-brake booster. material.
Smaller-diameter
On drum brakes,master cylinder.
larger-diameter
Power-brake
wheel cylinders.booster.
On disc
On drumbrakes, brakes,more larger-diameter
total piston
wheel
area. cylinders.
On disc brakes, more
Smaller-diameter tires. total piston
area.
Larger-diameter brakes.
Disc-brake pads often come with one groove cut in radial direction. Cut second groove for
improved fade resistance. Smaller-diameter
On drum brakes, more tires. servo action.
Disc-brake pads often come with one groove cut in radial direction. Cut second groove for Larger-diameter
Increased pedal ratio. brakes.
improved fade resistance. On drum
Some of brakes,
these more servo action.
modifications are
Increased
easy to figure pedalout ratio.
and do. Others are
pattern. The stress on a brake drum is don't get carried away with the Some ofandthese
expensive require modifications
testing. I listed are
determined by the design of that par- amount of lining you cut. Again, test- easy
them in the order you should are
to figure out and do. Others try
pattern.
ticular drum. The stress
Therefore,on a brake
start by drum is
drill- don't get carried
ing is needed away how
to determine withmuch the expensive
them, withand the require
easiest testing. I listed
and less-costly
determined by the design
ing a few 1/4-in. holes. Drill the holes of that par- amount of lining
grooving is needed. you cut. Again, test- them
methods in first.
the order you should try
ticular
in the drum.
center Therefore,
of the friction start by drill-
surface. ingOnis needed
drum to determine
brakes, cut howthe much
slots them, with
Softer Brake theLinings-As
easiest and less-costly
discussed
ing anot
Do fewdrill1/4-in.
holes holes.
at the Drill the holes
inboard lip. grooving
across theis needed.
shoe. Don't cut through methods first.
in Chapter 4, different friction mate-
in the
The centeredge
inboard of the friction
is the weakest surface.
area theOnlining.
drumA brakes,
small slot cutis the slots
all that's Softerhave
rials Brakedifferent
Linings-As discussed
friction coef-
D oa not
of drUli'.drillAfter
holesdrilling
at the inboard
the drums, lip. across the shoe. Don't cut
needed, or 1/8-in. wide, about half through in Chapter
ficients. To 4,review,
different friction
linings withmate-
the
The inboard edge is the
test to see if the holes help reduce weakest area the lining.
way throughAthe small slotBeiscareful
lining. all that's
not rials
highesthave different
friction coefficient friction coef-
are called
of a dIfr uthere
fade. m After is stilldrilling
a fadetheproblem,
drums, needed,
to cut theorlining
1/8-in.
so it wide, about
will come offhalf
if it ficients.
soft linings. You canlinings
To review, reduce withpedal
the
test to see if the holes
drill more holes. Run another test. help reduceBy way through
cracks through thea lining.
groove.BeLeavecareful not
a pat- highestmerely
effort frictionby coefficient
changing to area called
softer
fade. If there is still
doing a number of identical back- a fade problem, to cut the lining so it will come
tern of at least four rivets in each off if it soft linings.
lining. You can reduce
It is inexpensive and simple pedal to
drill
to-backmore holes.
tests, Runbeanother
you'll able totest. By
deter- cracks through a For
uncut segment. groove. Leavelinings,
bonded a pat- effort merely by changing
make the change. If it doesn't work to a softer
doing how
mine a numbermany holes of identical back-
are required. tern
there of at least
should be no four
lessrivets
than 2inin.each
be- lining.
becauseIt of is inexpensive
fade, excessive and simple
wear or to
to-back
Don't drill tests,
more you'll
than be able to deter-
necessary. uncut segment.
tween grooves. For bonded linings, make the you
whatever, change. If it doesn't
can easily change work back
mine how many
Use drilled brake drums holes are required.
only for there should be no less than 2 in. be- because
to the originalof fade,linings.excessive wear or
Don't drill
racing. morethem
Inspect than necessary.
for cracks after tween grooves. whatever, you can
Of course, the problems easily change back
with going
Userace. drilled WARNING
each If youbrake drumsstarting
find cracks only for at When cutting linings, wear a respira-
to
to the
softoriginal
liningslinings.
are that fade usually
racing.
the edge of the holes, replace after
Inspect them for cracks the WARNING Of course,
occurs at lower t h etemperature
problems with andgoing
wear
tor to avoid inhaling potentially
each race.
drum. TheIfreplacement
you find cracks drum starting
should at When cuttingasbestos
dangerous linings, wear a respira-
dust. Also, to soft linings are
increases. So, if you already havethat fade usually
fade
the
have edge of thedrilled
the holes holes,in replace
a differentthe tor togetavoid
don't the dustinhaling
on yourpotentially
clothing occurs
problems, at lower
don'ttemperature
use softer linings. and wear In
drum.
pattern Tunlessh e replacement
the other drum drum lasted
shoulda dangerous
or asbestos
hands. Finally, clean dust.
up the Also,
dust increases.
fact, you So, mayif you havealreadyto use have fade
harder
have the holes drilled
long time before cracking. Find areas in a different don't get
when the dust
finished. on your
If you have clothing
a shop problems,
linings, which don't use will softer linings.
increase pedalIn
pattern
of unlesstothe
low stress drillother drum Experi-
the holes. lasted a or hands.use
vacuum, Finally, cleancutting.
it while up the Then
dust fact, you may have
effort. The same goes for wear. If to use harder
long time before
mentation is the cracking.
only wayFind areas
to deter- when finished.
you won't have Ifmuch
you ofhave a shop
a mess to linings,
wear is high which already,will don'tincrease pedal
use softer
of low stress to drill the holes. Experi- vacuum, use later.
contend with it while cutting. Then effort.
mine this.
you won't have much of a mess to linings. The same goes
However, if it'sfor wear. If
acceptable,
mentationLinings-Grooved
Grooved is the only way to linings deter- wear
try theis softer
high already,
linings, don'tbut check use softer
wear.
mine this. contend with later.
have the same purpose as drilled On disc-brake pads, most linings al- linings. However, if
There's no way to predict wear with- it's acceptable,
Grooved
rotors Linings-Grooved
or drums. Gas and dustlinings from ready have a groove running across try the
out tryingsofter linings,inbut
the linings check
actual use.wear.
have the same
the linings will enter purpose as drilled
the grooves in- theOn disc-brake
center of the pads,
pad inmost linings
a radial al-
direc- There's
Although n o way
softer to linings
predictmay weargivewith-
re-
rotorsoforbuilding
stead drums.up Gas and dust from
a lubricating layer ready have a groove running
tion relative to the rotor. If yours areacross out trying the linings in
duced pedal effort, it will be difficultactual use.
the linings
between thewill entersurfaces.
friction the grooves in- the centercut
grooved, of the pad in
another a radial
groove 90direc-
to it to Although
predict the softer linings The
change. may give re-
friction
stead
Grooving linings has no affectlayer
of building up a lubricating on tion relative to the rotor.
through the center of each pad. If yours are duced pedaloften
coefficient effort,depends
it will beondifficult
temp-
between
balancing.theAlso, friction it issurfaces.
easier than cut- grooved,
However, cut another
if your pads don't90"
groove haveto ita to predictAnd,
erature. the you change.
can't The friction
predict the
tingGrooving
an iron liningsdrum orhas no affect can
rotor-you on throughgroove,
radial the center
put oneof in.eachTest pad.
the coefficient often depends
temperature. Softer linings will on temp-in-
balancing. Also, it
do it with a hand saw grinder. is easier than cut- However, if your pads
pads before cutting the seconddon't have a erature.temperature
crease And, you because can't predict the
the front
tingA an iron drum of
disadvantage or grooved
rotor-youlinings can radial groove,
groove. If there'sputenough
one in. fade Test the
reduc- temperature.
brakes will doSofter even linings
more work will andin-
do
is itthat
withthey a handwear saw grinder.
faster. Reduced pads before
tion with cutting
a radial groove, thedon't
second
cut crease
the reartemperature
brakes less. because the front
A disadvantage
lining surface area of groovedwear.
increases linings
So groove. If there's enough fade reduc-
another groove. brakes
If high willpedal
do eveneffort more work and
was preventing
is that they wear faster. Reduced tion with a radial groove, don't cut the rear brakes less.
lining
150
surface area increases wear. So another groove. If high pedal effort was preventing
you from stopping at maximum 300 --
deceleration, softer linings will in-
deceleration. On a race car, this
crease deceleration.
means higher friction-surface temp-
erature. The temperature at the fric- 250 --
tion surface determines the fade char-
acteristics and friction coefficient of
the lining. If If your brakes were bal-
anced properly before you changed to
higher-friction pads, you may have to 200 --
rebalance your brakes. Pedal
To repeat what I said in Chapter 4, Effort
(lb)
(Ib)
people talk about hard and soft linings
without knowing the designations to 150 --
150
describe how hard or how soft a lining
is. Only brake-lining manufacturers
and, perhaps, race-car engineers
numbers-and they won't
know these numbers-and won't ~ 1OO-Ib Pedal Effort
100 - -
100 Using a 1-in.-Diameter
I-in.-Diameter
tell. It would be ideal to have curves
Master Cylinder
showing coefficient of friction versus
temperature for the various lining
materials. If you could measure the
temperature of your brakes, you 50 - -
could then predict what pedal effort
would be. Because you don't have this
information, you must test to see how
the linings perform.
Soft linings are a practical modifica-
0 -
O~-------+--------~-------+--------~-------+
0.50
0.50 0.75
0.75
I
I I
1.OO
1.00
I
1.25
1.25 1 .50
1.50 1.75
1.75
tion for street use. However, on a race Master-Cylinder Diameter (in.)
car, softer linings usually result in
wear. If soft linings
fade or excessive wear. has a 100-lb pedal
If your car has pedal effort using
using a 1.0-in.-diameter
1 .O-in.-diameter master
master cylinder,
cylinder, this curve
curve
don't solve your high pedal-effort shows how master-cylinder diameter can
shows can change
change pedal
pedal effort. Plot a curve like this using
using
formula in
formula in text relating
relating pedal
pedal effort to master-cylinder diameter.
diameter. This curve is
is handy
handy for
problems, let's look further.
further. picking a new single
picking single master-cylinder or tandem
tandem master-cylinder size. Remember,
Remember, as pedal
pedal
Changing a Single or a Tandem effort is reduced,
reduced, pedal
pedal travel
travel increases.
increases.
Master Cylinder-
Cylinder- This modification
is usually inexpensive and easy. Also, At the same deceleration,
deceleration, pedal system. Displacement is not af-
brake system. af-
the results can be calculated quickly.
quickly. effort dropped from 100 100 lb to 56 lb.
lb. fected by changing
fected changing the master
Pedal effort is reduced if you use a This would be true for any car chang- cylinder. If 0.5
cylinder. 0.5 cu in.
in. of fluid
fluid is dis-
smaller-diameter master cylinder, and 1.00-in. master cylinder to
ing from a 1.00-in. placed to take up all the clearances,
balance will not be changed.
changed. Use the a 0.75-in.
0.75-in. master cylinder.
cylinder. It does not 0.5 cu in.
0.5 in. of fluid will have to be dis-
following formula to calculate new depend on any other factors. factors. This placed with either the old master
pedal effort:
effort: formula does not work for a brake one.
cylinder or the new one.
New pedal
pedal effort
P
P
= -inEO
=

D 22
2N in pounds
pounds
system with dual master cylinders
unless you are making the same
Because the volume of fluid fluid dis-
equals the piston area times its
placed equals
dis-
Do
Do2 cylinders.
modification to both master cylinders. stroke, there will be a larger stroke
stroke,
P,, EO == Old
Old pedal
pedal effort in
in pounds Before changing master-cylinder with a smaller-diameter master
D, =
ON = New master-cylinder diameter in in diameter,
diameter, find out if a smaller one cylinder. The new movement can be
cylinder.
inches
inches interchangeable. Some
exists that is interchangeable. calculated asas follows
follows for
for a single
Do =
Do = Old
Old master-cylinder
master-cylinder diameter in
in companies manufacture different- master cylinder or tandem master
inches
inches pistons:
cylinder with equal-diameter pistons:
diameter master cylinders that have
As anan example, assume
assume you areare the same mounting-bolt patterns. patterns.
1.00-in.-diameter master
changing a 1.00-in.-diameter
cylinder to a 0.75-in.-diameter
0.75-in.-diameter
Reread what to look for for when buying
a new master cylinder beginning on New piston
New Mo- Do2
piston movement == Mo--%-
ON
2
cylinder.
cylinder. Assume the old pedal effort 46. Make sure
page 46. sure you get a master DN2
1.00-in. master cylinder was
with the 1.00-in. was features,
cylinder with the correct features, in inches
in inches
100
100 lb
lb at maximum deceleration.
deceleration. Put-
Put- as with or without a residual pres-
such as pres- M o == Old
Mo Old piston
piston movement inin inches
inches
ting these
these numbers into the formula sure valve.
valve. Do == Old
Do Old master-CYlinder
master-cylinder diameter in
in
gives:
gives: When master-cylinder diameter is inches
inches
increases. The
reduced, pedal stroke increases. The D, == New
ON New master-cylinder diameter in in
lb)(-~~:6g :~:l~
(0.75 inJ2
New pedal
New pedal effort
effort == (100
(1 00 Ib) amount of fluid inches
inches
fluid displaced to apply the
brakes-move
brakes-move friction material in
friction If you measure movement at at the
New
New pedal
pedal effort
effort == 56
56 Ib
Ib contact with rubbing
rubbing sur-
sur- master-cylinder pushrod, the answer
faces-depends on clearances in the
faces-depends the movement at
will be movement at the
the pushrod.
pushrod.

151
 you are are changing
changing one master cylinder
1-in.-Dia. Master Cylinders
::linders - 7/8-in.-Dia. New
New Cylinder to
to reduce
reduce pedal effort, effort, andand brake bal- bal-
300Ib(382-psiPressure)
ance is is correct,
correct, follow
follow these steps:steps:
300 ~b(382-psi Pressure)
Find the the balance-bar setting. setting. Refer
Right
Right I--~,-o" ~ r 2 in.
in.
to the formulas
formulas on on page
page 75.75.
Cylinder '--"4---1
Cylinder 500l Ib on
500 Ib on 2.52 in. Find approximate pedal ratio. ratio.
. t Balance
Balance 3971b Find the diameter of each each present
Left
Left /-<:,..-I---j I-----l~ ~ Bar 2.48 in.
Cylinder
Cylinder L master cylinder.
master cylinder.
r----l_'=_'
200lb
200 Ib '3 3 in.
in.
G
200 lb --r- Estimate pedal effort
Estimate effort before
before chang-
chang-
(255-psi
(255-psi Pressure)
Pressure) (255 psi)
ing the
ing the master
master cylinder.
cylinder.
1-in. Dia.
Calculate new
Calculate new pedal effort effort byby begin-
begin-
ning with the
ning the following
following steps:
steps:
Calculate present force
Calculate force on on balance
balance
"--100-lb 79-lb
New
bar: MUltiply
bar: Multiply pedal pedal effort
effort by by pedal
Pedal
Effort Pedal
Pedal ratio.
ratio.
Effort
Effort Calculate force
Calculate force on on eacheach master
master
500-lb
500- lb cylinder from
cylinder from the the formulas
formulas on on page 75.
page 75.
Force
Force
On Balance O ~pedal
Pedal With
With
Calculate area
Calculate area of of each each master
master
Pedal
Pedal Ratio
Ratio of
of 5.0
5.0 397 Ib --- 0
Bar
Bar cylinder.
cylinder.
o Calculate pressure in
Calculate in each
each master
master
cylinder: Divide
cylinder: Divide force
force on on each
each master
master
Old
Old System
System New
New System
System cylinder by its
cylinder its area.
area.
Choose a new
Choose new diameter
diameter for for the
the
Drawing
Drawing shows
shows example
example problem
problem described
described in
in text.
text. Changing
Changing right-hand
right-hand master
master cylinder
cylinder master cylinder.
master cylinder.
from
from 1-in.
1 -in. to
to 77/8-in.
IS-in. diameter
diameter reduced
reduced pedal
pedal effort
effort from
from 100
100 to
to 79
7 9 lb.
Ib. In
In addition,
addition, balance
balance
bar
bar is
is nearly
nearlycentered
centered in
in its
its adjustment
adjustment with
with new
new master
master cylinder.
cylinder.
Calculate piston
Calculate piston area area of of the
the newnew
cylinder. Pressure
master cylinder. Pressure in in newnew
Make sure
Make sure thethe new master master cylinder eter:
eter: Fluid pressure is is higher with a master cylinder
master cylinder will will not change if
not change
can supply
can supply the required fluid displace- displace- smaller
smaller cylinder.
cylinder. Usually,
Usually, brake-
brake- brakes were
brakes were properly balanced balanced before before
without bottoming.
ment without bottoming. system components have a maximum
system maximum modification.
modification.
First, be
First, be sure
sure that
that the the pedal
pedal will will safe
safe operating
operating pressure
pressure ofl 000 -1500
of 1000- 1500 Calculate force
Calculate force on on thethe new
new master
master
fully stroke
fully stroke the the master
master cylinder
cylinder with-with- psi.
psi. If
If the
the safe
safe operating
operating pressure
pressure isis cylinder by
cylinder by multiplying
multiplying pressurepressure by by
out bottoming on
out on the
the floor.
floor. Do Do this
this exceeded,
exceeded, the the system
system cancan bebe danger-
danger- piston
piston area.
area. Because
Because the area changed
the area changed
before you connect
before connect the the lines.
lines. If If the
the ous
ous and unreliable. The
and unreliable. The maximum
maximum and not
and not pressure, only only the the forceforce
bottoms, increase
pedal bottoms, increase pushrod pushrod operating
operating pressure
pressure isis troublesome,
troublesome, changes.
changes.
length until
length until thethe master
master cylinder
cylinder bot-bot- particularly
particularly on on special
special cars
cars with
with light-
light- Add new
Add new cylinder
cylinder forceforce to to force
force onon
toms the
toms the same
same timetime as as thethe pedal.
pedal. Be Be weight
weight calipers.
calipers. Some
Some racing
racing calipers
calipers the other
the other master
master cylinder.
cylinder. TotalTotal force
force
sure to
sure to adjust
adjust the the return
return stop stop so so the
the cannot
cannot take
take as as high
high aa pressure
pressure asas road-
road- isis the
the newnew force
force on on thethe balance
balance bar. bar.
cylinder will
master cylinder will return
return fully.
fully. car calipers. If
car calipers. If calculated
calculated operating
operating Notice that
Notice that the
the balance
balance bar must be
bar must be ad-
ad-
After the
After the lines
lines are
are connected
connected and and pressure isis too
pressure too high,
high, dodo notnot reduce
reduce justed to
justed to give
give the
the correct
correct forces.
forces.
the system
the system isis bled,
bled, drive
drive the the car.
car. Heat
Heat master-cylinder
master-cylinder diameter. diameter. Instead,
Instead, Calculate new
Calculate new pedal
pedal effort:
effort: Divide
Divide
the brakes
the brakes by by making
making aa few few hardhard use
use other
other methods
methods to to reduce
reduce pedal
pedal the new
the new force
force on on thethe balance
balance bar bar by
by
stops, then
stops, then trytry toto lock
lock the the brakes.
brakes. If If effort,
effort, such
such as as larger
larger caliper-piston
caliper-piston pedal ratio.
pedal ratio.
the pedal
the pedal bottomsbottoms before before wheel wheel diameters.
diameters. Calculate position
Calculate position of of thethe balance
balance
lockup, the
lockup, the new
new cylinder
cylinder doesn't
doesn't havehave Changing
Changing Dual Dual MasterMaster Cylin-Cylin- bar for
bar for new
new forces
forces using
using the the formulas.
formulas.
enough travel.
enough travel. If If this
this isis done,
done, the the ders - There are
ders-There are twotwo reasons
reasons for for To illustrate,
To illustrate, let'slet's runrun through
through aa
pedal may may be be outout of of position when when changing
changing master-cylinder diameter on
master-cylinder diameter on typical
typical problem.
problem. Assume Assume the the brake
brake
retracted, requiring
retracted, requiring pedal, pedal, pedal pedal aa car
car equipped
equipped with with dual
dual cylinders:
cylinders: toto system isis as
system as shown
shown in in the
the accompany-
accompany-
bracket and and cylinder
cylinder modification.
modification. change
change pedal
pedal effort
effort oror brake
brake balance.
balance. ing drawing.
ing drawing. Original
Original master
master cylinders
cylinders
If
If pedal
pedal movement
movement is is already
already exces-
exces- Changing
Changing one one master
master cylinder
cylinder affects
affects are 1.00-in.
are 1.00-in.diameter.
diameter.
sive or
sive or the
the pedal
pedal isis too
too high,
high, reducing
reducing both
both simultaneously.
simultaneously. With
With original
original pedal effort of
pedal effort of 100
100 lb,
Ib,
the master-cylinder
the master-cylinder diameter diameter is is not
not aa Calculating
Calculating new new pedal
pedal effort
effort re-
re- I'll try
I'll try aa 0.875-in.
0.875-in. mastermaster cylinder
cylinder to to
good idea.
good idea. However,
However, if if pedal
pedal travel
travel isis sulting from
sulting from changing
changing one one master
master reduce this
reduce this effort.
effort. Assuming
Assuming that that the
the
excessive because
excessive because there's
there's too too much
much cylinder
cylinder in in aa dual
dual system
system isis more
more com-
com- brakes were
brakes were balanced
balanced before before the the
deflection in
deflection in thethe brake
brake system,system, that that plex
plex thanthan with with aa single-cylinder
single-cylinder modification, adjustment
modification, adjustment to to thethe bal-
bal-
can be
can be corrected.
corrected. If If you
you are are troubled
troubled system. You
system. You must
must alsoalso consider
consider thethe ance bar
ance bar will
will be be made
made after after thethe
with both
with both longlong pedal
pedal travel
travel and and high
high brake-balance
brake-balance change change that that occurs
occurs modification. Pedal
modification. Pedal ratio
ratio isis 5.0.
5.0. Using
Using
pedal effort,
pedal effort, first
first try
try modifying
modifying the the when
when onlyonly one cylinder isis changed.
one cylinder changed. If If this information:
this information:
system to
system to eliminate
eliminate excessive excessive your brakes
your brakes were were balanced
balanced before
before the
the
deflection. Then,
deflection. Then, you you may may find find that
that change,
change, you you mustmust change
change the the brake
brake Forceon
Force on balance
balancebar bar == RpPE
R,P,
reducing master-cylinder
reducing master-cylinder diameter diameter balance afterward
balance afterward to to obtain
obtain maximum
maximum Rp Pedalratio
R, == Pedal ratio
will
will now
now work.
work. braking.
braking. PP,E == Pedal
Pedaleffort
effort in
in pounds
pounds
There's another
There's another thing thing to to consider
consider Use
Use thethe formulas
formulas in in Chapters
Chapters 66 andand Force on balance bar == (5.0)(100
Force on balance bar (5.0)(100Ib)
Ib)
when reducing
when reducing master-cylinder
master-cylinder diam- diam- 99 to
to calculate
calculate the the new
new pedal effort. If
pedal effort. If Forceon
Force on balance
balancebar bar == 500lb
500 Ib

152
 From formulas, the force on each
master cylinder is:
From formulas, the force on each
master cylinder is:
(500Ib)
FL = (2 in.) = 200 Ib
(5 in.)
(500 I b)
F, = (2 in.)- = 200 Ib
(5 in.)
(500Ib)
FR = (3 in.) ( . ) = 300 Ib
5 In.
(500 I b)
F, = (3in.) -= 300 1 b
FL = Force on in.)master cylinder in
(5left
pounds
F, =
FR = Force
Force on
on left
rightmaster
mastercylinder
cylinderinir
pounds
pounds
F, Notice
= Forceon right master cylinder ir
that the sum of master-
pounds
cylinder forces must equal total force
onNotice
balancethat the sum
bar. That of master-
is a check on the

6
cylinder forces
previous calculation.must equal total force
onUsing
balance bar. That
piston is a check
diameter, on the
old master-
previousarea
cylinder calculation.
is:
Using piston diameter, old master-
Area = 0.78540 M 2
cylinder area is:
OM = Master-cylinder diameter in
. *ib
Area
inches= 0.7854DM2
D M = =Master-cylinder
Area (0.7854)(1.00 in.)2diameter in
inches
Area = 0.785 sq in.
Conventional power booster will not fit this Triumph Spitfire. There is not enough room
Area = (0.7854)(1.OO in.I2 around the master cylinder. For this application, ATE makes a booster that can be mounted
Instead
Area of calculating area, you
= 0.785 sq in.
in any location. It uses hydraulic pressure from the existing master cylinder to operate the
could use the table on page 101 to find booster
around rather
Conventional
the thancylinder.
master
power using force
boosterFor directly
will
this
not fit from
application,pedal
ATE linkage.
this Triumph makes aThis
Spitfire. remote
booster
There thatbooster
is not
can is called
enough
be mounted
room
Instead of calculating
master-cylinder area. area, you the ATE
in any T -50 series.
location. Bendix
I t uses makes
hydraulic as similar
pressure unit
from called
the the Hydro-
existing masterVac.
cylinder to operate the
could use the table on page 101 to find booster rather than using force directly from pedal linkage. This remote booster is called
Hydraulic pressure
master-cylinder area. in each master the ATE T-50 series. Bendix makes as similar unit called the Hydro-Vac.
cylinder is : New force on balance bar is found made the balance change in the
Hydraulic pressure in each master by adding left-cylinder force to right- desired direction. If we had changed
Pressure = Force/Area in pou nds per
cylinder is:
square inch New force
cylinder force.onLeft-cylinder
balance bar isforce
found
is made
the leftthe balancebalance-bar
cylinder, change in the
adjust-
Pressure = Force/Area in pounds per by adding left-cylinder force to
the same as before-we didn't changeright- desired
ment would direction. If weinhad
have gone changed
the opposite
square 200lb
inch cylinder force. Left-cylinder force is the left cylinder, balance-bar adjust-
P = = 255 psi it. direction - way off center.
L 0 .785sqin
200 1 b . the same as before- we didn't change ment would have gone in cylinder
the opposite
Force on balance bar = F L + FRin Also , if the left master had
P, = = 255 psi it.
pounds where:
direction-way off center.
been changed instead of the right one,
0.785 sq in. Force on balance bar = F, + F, in Also,effort
if thewouldn't
left master cylinder
300lb
FL = Force on left master cylinder in
pedal have been hadre-
P = = 382 psi been changed instead
R 0.785 pounds where: duced as much. Why? of themore
It's righteffec-
one,
300 sq
1 b in . pounds pedal
tive toeffort changewouldn't have been
the master re-
cylinder
P, = = 382 psi F, =
FR Force on
= Force on right
left master
mastercylinder
cylinderinin
PL = 0.785 sq in.
Pressure in left master cylinder pounds
pounds
duced as much. Why? It's
with the highest force when doing it more effec-
PR = Pressure in right master cylinder F, = Force on right master cylinder in tive to change
to reduce the master cylinder
pedal effort.
Force on balance bar = 200 Ib + 230 with the highest force when doing
P, = Pressure in left master cylinder pounds On a dual master-cylinder system,it
P, Now , change the right cylinder to
= Pressure in right master cylinder
Ib to reduce pedal effort.
0.87S-in. diameter. I selected the Force on
Force on balance
balance bar 200 Ib + 230
bar == 430 it's relatively easy to find master cylin-
Now, On with
a dualdifferent
master-cylinder system,
right onechange the right
to change becausecylinder to
the bal- Ib
New onpedal effort
ders diameters that
0.875-in.
ance bar isdiameter. I selected
already adjusted the
for more Force balance bar = can
430 Ibnow be it's
haverelatively
the same easybolt
to find master
pattern cylin-
. Racing-
right calculated : ders with different catalogs diameters that
force one
on theto change becauseWith
right cylinder. the bal-
the New pedal effort can now be brake-manufacturer
have the same bolt pattern.
usually
Racing-
ance
new sm aller cylinder, less forcemore
bar is already adjusted for will calculated: F
supply all the necessary information.
force on thetoright brake-manufacturer catalogs
that usually
be required give cylinder.
the same With the
pressure. Pedal effort = _B
Rp
Finally, remember
supply all theincreases
necessary wheninformation.
piston
new smaller
Thus, cylinder,
the balance lessbeforce
bar will will
adjusted F6 movement master-
be required
away from the to new
give cylinder.
the same pressure. Pedal
FB effort on
= Force -
= balance bar in pounds Finally,diameter
cylinder remember that piston
is reduced. Make
Thus, the balance bar willnew
be adjusted Rp = Pedal ratioRP movement increases when
sure the new master cylinder provides master-
Find the area of the master F, Force on balance bar in pounds
= cylinder diameterfluidis reduced. Make
away from
cylinder thethe
from newtable
cylinder.
or as follows: = ~~O Ib
the required displacement
Find the area of the new master
New
R, Pedaleffort
= pedal ratio sure
before thebottoming.
new master cylinder provides
Area = 0.78540 M 2 in square inches theAlso,required fluid not displacement
cylinder from the table or as follows: New pedal effort = 430 1b
New pedal effort = 86 Ib before
if you could
bottoming.
lock the
Area = (0.7854)(0.875 in.)2 wheels before the modification, the
Area = 0.7854DM2in square inches
Also, formulas
if you could
Area = 0.601 sq in.
NewWith an effort
pedal original pedal
= 86 Ib effort of 100 previous won't notworklock the
because
Area = (0.7854)(0.875in.I2
Remember that pressure in the new Ib, pedal effort is reduced by 14 lb. wheels before that
it was assumed the operating
modification, the
pressure
Area = 0.601 sq in. Withbalance
an original previous formulas won't work because
master cylinder remains the same. Brake must pedal
now beeffort of 100
readjusted is maintained with the new master
Remember
However, the that
forcepressure
changes.inThe
the new
new Ib,
using the new force on the 14
pedal effort is reduced by Ib.
right it was assumed
cylinder. that operating
Instead, go through pressure
the
force on the right master cylindersame.
master cylinder remains the is: Brake
masterbalance
cylinder.must now be
Because thereadjusted
right and is maintained calculations
brake-system with the new master
in Chapter
However, the force changes. The new using the are
left forces new force
close on equal,
to being the right
the cylinder.
9. Most cars Instead,
are not goat thethrough the
force limit,
Force = (Pressure)(Area) in pounds
force on the right master cylinder is:
FR = (382 psi)(0.601 sq in .) master cylinder. Because the
balance bar can be adjusted close righttoand
its brake-system calculations
so the previous formulas should in Chapter
Force = (~ressure)(Area)
FR = 230 Ib in pounds left forces
center. are close the
Changing to being
rightequal, the
cylinder 9. MostBut
apply. cars are not forget
don't at the force
the limit,
usual
F, = (382 psi)(0.601 sq in.) balance bar can be adjusted close to its so the previous formulas should
F, = 230 Ib center. Changing the right cylinder apply. But don't forget the usual
153
 T50 / 14 Boosier
1600
T50/14 Booster
1600 --
1400
T50/12 Booster
1400 --

1200

1200 -- T50 Booster

1000 You may be able to measure pedal effort

-?!
5
V)
a directly with a small fish scale. If there is a
-- way may
You to measure
be able to fluid pressure
measure pedalat effort
same
1000 time, you
directly cana small
with determine effectIf there
fish scale. of power
is a
3
ul booster. Measure pedal effort and at hydrau-
V) way to measure fluid pressure same
800

o-
::J No Boost lic pressure
time, you canwith boostereffect
determine working. Then,
of power
Bi
L
::J try it again
booster. with vacuum
Measure line to and
pedal effort the hydrau-
booster
P-
3

zb
Qj
-;;; 600
disconnected.
lic pressure with
pressures
try it againat
The booster
a given
with
difference
vacuum pedal
between
working.
lineeffort
two
Then,
to theisbooster
effect
o of booster.
disconnected. The difference between two
o
rnul
& pressures at a given pedal effort is effect
0 of booster.
0 mounting a booster in the convention-
m 400 al location. Bendix makes a similar
mounting
unit called athe booster
Hy dro- inVac.
the convention-
al Most
location. race Bendix
cars don't makesuse a similar
power
unit
brakescalled
because:the Hydro- Vac.
200 Most race
Power assist cars
is notdon'trequired useonpowerlight
brakes because:
race cars . If pedal effort is too high on
Power
a car assist isunder
weighing not required
2500 Ib, on light
there 's
race cars.aIfbrake-design
probably pedal effort problem is too high . on
200 400 600 800 a car weighing under 2500 Ib, there's
Booster I nput Pressure (psil Power-brake equipment adds
200 400 600 800
probably
weight and complexity. problem.
a brake-design
ATE T -50 series remote boosters have performance
Booster curves
Input Pressure (psi) as shown here. There are three Power-brake
Driver feel is notequipment as precise as adds with
different models offered, each with a different boost. For most racing applications, only the weight
unboosted and brakes.
complexity.
T -50T-50
ATE unit series
would remote
be used. More-powerful
boosters boosters curves
have performance would as
be shown
useful here.
on heavy
Thereroad cars
are three Driver
A heavy feelraceis not
car as precise
with disc as with
brakes
where more
different boostoffered,
models is required.
each with a different boost. For most racing applications, only the unboosted brakes.
1-50 unit would be used. More-powerful boosters would be useful on heavy road cars may require power brakes. For
1000
where-1500-psi maximum
more boost is required. safe picture before buying parts. A heavyonrace
example, a stockcar car,
withthere
disc maybrakes be
operating pressure. If operating pres- If power brakes weren't offered, may
no other requiresolution power
if hardbrakes.
linings For are
1000-gets
sure 1500-psi maximum
too high , you safe
cannot reduce picturemay
you before buying
have parts. fitting a
trouble example, on a stock car,
used . Fortunately, mostthere stockmaycars be
operating pressure.
master-cylinder If operating pres-
diameter. If power
booster. If brakes
the masterweren't offered,
cylinder is no other solution if
have enough room under the hood to hard linings are
sure
Adding gets too
a high,
PoweryouBooster-Con-
cannot reduce you
mounted under the floor or close toa
may have trouble fitting used.
mount Fortunately,
a power.. brake mostbooster.
stock This cars
master-cylinder diameter.
verting to power brakes is a good way booster.
the engine,If itthe
maymaster cylinderto fit
be impossible is havebeenough
can a simple roomchangeunder the hood
if stock pedals to
Adding a Power
to reduce pedal Booster-Con-
effort. This method is mounted under the floor
a conventional vacuum brake booster.or close to mount a p o w e ~
and master cylinder are used .b r a k e booster. This
verting
used bytomost powercarbrakes is a good way
manufacturers for the engine,
You might be it may
able be
to impossible to fit
install a smaller canWhen
be a simple
adding change a powerif stockbooster,pedals try
to
roadreduce
cars.pedal
Eveneffort.
light This
cars method
with disc is ahydraulic
conventional
brakevacuum
booster,brake
but abooster.
power- and
to usemasterthe cylinder are used. that goes
master cylinder
used by most car manufacturers
brakes now come equipped with a for You might
steering be able
pump musttobe install a smaller
plumbed into When
with the adding
booster.a Ifpower you don'tbooster,
, youtry ' ll
road
powercars. Even With
booster. light power
cars with disc,
brakes or installed . This requires aa power-
hydraulic brake booster, but lot of to use the master cylinder
have to check the stroke of the booster that goes
brakes
you now
don't havecome equipped
to fight with a
the problems steering pump must be plumbed into
work. with master
and the booster. cylinder If you to bedon't,
sureyou'llthey
power
of booster.pedal
excessive Witheffort
poweror brakes,
travel. or Some
installed.
brakeThis requires
boosters a lot of
are designed have compatible.
are to check the stroke of the booster
If master-cylinder
Instead, you can have thethe
you don't have to fight bestproblems
of both work.
as an accessory for existing brake and
strokemaster
is more cylinder
than the to bebooster,
sure they the
of excessive
worlds pedal assist:
with power effort low
or travel.
pedal Some brake
systems. One boosters
such booster are designed
is the are compatible. If
booster will not bottom the cylinder. master-cylinder
Instead,
travel andyoulowcan have
pedal the best of both
effort. Tas-50,
an accessory
made by forATE existing
in brake
West stroke is more
However, than the booster,
if master-cylinder strokethe is
worlds with power
The easiest car to assist:
convertlow pedal
to power systems.
Germany. One This such
unit booster
is designed is the
to booster
less, there'swill no notproblem.
bottom the cylinder.
travel and low pedal effort.
brakes is a road car that could be T-50,
mount made remotelyby from ATE thein master West However,
You must if master-cylinder
investigate the strokeinner is
The easiest
purchased withcarpower
to convert
brakes to power
as an Germany. rather
cylinder, This unit
than isin designed
tandem. to It less, there's no problem.
workings of both the master cylinder
brakes is
option. Youa may
road becarable thatto could
purchase be mount
uses remotely
input pressurefromfrom the master
the existing andYouboostermust investigate
to determine the inner their
purchased
all with power
the necessary partsbrakes
from asyour an cylinder,cylinder
master rather andthanraises
in tandem.
this pres- It workingsSee
strokes. of the
bothfactory
the master cylinder
shop manuals
option.
dealer, orYoua may be able
salvage yard.toAskpurchase
your uses input pressure from
sure with a vacuum-operated piston the existing and
for this.booster to determine their
all the necessary parts
dealership parts man what's necessaryfrom your master
to boost,cylinder and extra
or supply raisesforce.
this pres-
ATE strokes.
Like any Seeotherthe factory
mastershop manuals
cylinder, one
dealer,
to convertor toa salvage yard. Ask
power brakes. This your
may sure
provideswithdata
a vacuum-operated
on this unit. Inputpiston pres- for this.
from a power-brake system must have
dealership
require partsvacuum
extra man what's linesnecessary
and a to boost,
sure versusor output
supply pressure
extra force. ATE
is shown Like anydisplacement.
sufficient other master So, cylinder,
if you'reone
to convertpedal
different to power
, masterbrakes. This may
cylinder and provides data on this unit. Input
by the nearby curve. This booster may pres- from a power-brake system
using the brakes from one car and a must have
require
pedal-support bracket. Get the and
extra vacuum lines entirea sure versus output
be desirable if youpressure is shown
have difficulty sufficient
master cylinder displacement.
from another, So, if you're
check
different pedal, master cylinder and by the nearby curve. This booster may using the brakes from one car and a
pedal-support
154
bracket. Get the entire be desirable if you have difficulty master cylinder from another, check
 car and the one the power booster master cylinder.
cylinder. Both situations re- re-
came from.
from. If your car's pedal ratio is quire more fluid displacement, so
higher, fluid pressure on your car will check for adequate master-cylinder
be higher and vice versa.
versa. displacement as already discussed.
discussed.
Let's run through a sample calcula-
calcula- The trouble with changing wheel
tion to correct for pedal ratio.
ratio. Assume cylinders is finding ones that will fit.fit.
the pedal ratio is 8.0
8.0 on your car and Often,
Often, the mounting is different, the
5.0 on the car the brake booster came bleeder is in the wrong place, or other
from. Let's also
from. also assume that you physical differences make the job
Part No. Bore
Bore Size.
Size. (in.)
(in.)
3/4
tested the car with the brake booster impractical. If you decide to try chang-
impractical.
3188
3/8-24 and got 500-psi
500-psi fluid pressure for ing wheel cylinders, first check wheel
3149 13/16 effort. With the pedal ratio
20-lb pedal effort. from a car by the same
cylinders from
3/8-24 of 5.0,
5.0, the force on the booster-input manufacturer as yours.
yours. For example,
example,
*3555 7/8 is:
rod is: if you have a Chevrolet,
Chevrolet, first consider
3/8-24
3353 15/16 Force onon booster == R,P, E
pP fails, look
Chevrolet cylinders. If that fails,
3/8-24 R, == Pedal
Rp Pedal ratio
ratio at cylinders from other GM divisions.
divisions.
P,E == Pedal
Pedal effort in
in pounds
pounds If you can't find a suitable cylinder,
cylinder,
* Part Illustrated Force
Force on
on booster =
= (5.0)(20
(5.0)(20Ib)
Ib) try other American cars using a similar
=
= 100
1001bIb drum-brake design.
Drawing was taken from Bendix
Drawing Bendix Brake
Brake Calculate the effect on pedal effort
Reference and
Reference and Identification Catalog. It Fluid pressure from the boosted of changing wheel-cylinder diameters
shows a wheel cylinder which
shows which comes in in cylinder is 500 psi with a 100-lb
100-lb force
four different diameters. Many wheel cylin- as follows.
as follows. This assumes the car has
ders are illustrated. This will show you
on the booster. If you put this booster drum brakes all around, all use the
what other size wheel cylinders may be be and cylinder on your car with its pedal same-size wheel cylinders, and all
car. Go to an
available for your car. an auto-parts 8.0, pedal effort will be lower
ratio of 8.0, cylinders are changed.
changed.
Bendix parts.
store that sells Bendix parts. Drawing for the same hydraulic pressure,
Bendix Corp.
courtesy Bendix Corp. providing vacuum or hydraulic 0D2wo
2
same.
pressure to the booster is the same. pedal effort
New pedal =
= P ---f!2--
,, EO D ,
displacement. If it
master-cylinder displacement. 500-psi
Your car's pedal effort at 500-psi o WN
WN

bottoms, the brakes won'twon't work. Dis- hydraulic pressure will be:
be:
PEO
,, == Old
P Old pedal
pedal effort in
in pounds
placement of the new master cylinder ,0wo
D
, = Old
= Old wheel-cylinder
wheel-cylinder diameter in
in
should be equal to or greater than the FB
F,
Pedal
Pedal effort == -- inches
inches
system.
one designed for the brake system. Rp DwN== New wheel-cylinder
OWN wheel-cylinder diameter in
in
RP
The big problem in adapting a brake inches
inches
special car is getting the
booster to a special F,
FB on booster
= Force on
= in pounds
in pounds Notice that the cylinder diameter is
effort. If the booster sup-
correct pedal effort. sup- R,
Rp = Pedal ratio
= Pedal ratio squared, so a small change in diameter
plies excessive boost, the brakes will has a major effect on pedal effort.
100lb
be too sensitive. Too much boost can Pedal effort =
Pedal s:o--
= loo - 12.5 lb.
Ib = Ib. The previous formula only works if if
dangerous. It's too easy to lock the
be dangerous. all the brakes use the same size wheel
wheels ifpedal
wheels if pedal effort is low.
low. This compares to the 20-lb effort on cylinders and all brakes are modified
Pedal effort with power brakes is 5.0.
the car with a pedal ratio of 5.0. the same way.
way. On most cars, this will
determined by the design of the Larger Wheel Cylinders
Cylinders-If- If you not be true. Instead, a wheel-cylinder
brakes and booster, pedal ratio, and have drum brakes on all four wheels, modification would usually fall into
power-steering-fluid pres-
vacuum or power-steering-fluid pedal effort can be reduced by replac- one of two categories:
sure supplied to the booster. Calculat- ing the wheel cylinders with larger Disc brakes are used on the front
ing pedal force is complex. And, it is ones. The effect of increa8ing
ones. increasing wheel- and drums on the rear. Only the
difficult to get all the required cylinder diameter is the same as wheel cylinders on the rear brakes are
information. size. Wheel-
reducing master-cylinder size. modified.
To get this information, start by cylinder changes
changes typically are more Four-wheel drum brakes are used,
testing to determine brake-fluid difficult than changing master- but only one pair of brakes has the
pressure. Find a car with the power cylinder diameter because wheel wheel cylinders modified.
booster you plan to use. Install a fluid-
fluid- cylinders are more trouble to adapt. In either case, the wheel-cylinder
gage in the line to the front
pressure gage And, you're
you're working with more of affects both pedal effort
modification affects
brakes. With the engine running, them. However, the advantage of and brake balance. Make sure you can
apply the brakes and record pedal changing wheel cylinders is that fluid changes at once before
deal with two changes
fluid pressure. You can use
effort and fluid pressure is not affected.
affected. modifying the wheel cylinders on only
small scale
a small scale to measure pedal force.
force. Input pressure from the master car.
one end of the car.
Try various forces and plot a graph of cylinder is unchanged for a given To see what a wheel-cylinder
pedal effort versus hydraulic pressure. pedal force.
force. If the hydraulic system change does, it's easiest to determine
If you know the hydraulic pressure operates at high pressure, changing the effect changing wheel-cylinder
for a given pedal effort, you can use
for wheel cylinders is better than going
going to size has on brake torque at a given hy-
formulas in Chapter 9 to design
the formulas a smaller master cylinder.
cylinder. Regardless draulic pressure. Then, by using the
system. Correct for any dif-
your brake system. dif- of pressure, larger wheel cylinders formulas in Chapter 9, calculate the
ference in pedal ratio between your have the same effect as a smaller effect on pedal effort.
effort. This formula as-
as-

155
 - ~"""--~17""-.....,---

This double-piston caliper is manufactured

by JFZ Engineered Products. If you want
to double
This brake torque
double-piston or is
caliper cutmanufactured
pedal effort
in half,
by install double-piston
JFZ Engineered Products. Ifcalipers
you wantin
place
to of single-piston
double brake torquecalipers. Of course,
or cut pedal effort
this alsoinstall
in half, doubles pedal travel.
double-piston Photo
calipers in
courtesy JFZ.
place of single-piston calipers. Of course,
this also doubles pedal travel. Photo
JFZ. balance is not changed
courtesybrake
sumes
after the modification. Readjusting
sumes brake balance
brake balance usuallyis not changed
reduces the
after the modification. Readjusting
effect of a wheel-cylinder change.
brake balance usually reduces the
effect of a wheel-cylinder
D2change.
WN
Newbraketorque=T o 2
D wo
New brake torque
in inch-pounds = To
D2WN Installing two calipers per rotor and a slightly larger-diameter master cylinder can cut pedal
D wo effort and Significantly improve lining life. This Formula 1 Grand Prix car uses two AP
in inch-pounds Racing calipers
Installing on each
two calipers perfront
rotorrotor.
and aOn a track
slightly that requires little
larger-diameter master braking, one
cylinder caliper
can can
cut pedal
To = Old brake torque in inch-pounds be removed to save weight. Notice temperature-indicating paint on rotor
effort and significantly improve lining life. This Formula 1 Grand Prix car under nearest
uses two AP
DWN = New wheel-cylinder diameter in caliper. Photo courtesy
Racing calipers on eachAP Racing.
front rotor. On a track that requires little braking, one caliper can
To = Old brake torque in inch-pounds
inches be removed to save weight. Notice temperature-indicating paint on rotor under nearest
DwN=
Dwo = New wheel-cylinder diameter
Old wheel-cylinder diameterinin each caliper.
caliper. As long
Photo courtesy AP as total piston
Racing. one piston set. Depending on the
inches
inches area is increased, this has the same number of pistons used, calipers are
Dwo = Old wheel-cylinder diameter in each
Changing only the rear-wheel cylin-
inches effect caliper.
as goingAstolong biggeras drum-brake
total piston one piston
called set. Depending
single-piston, ontriple-
dual-piston or the
ders only has less effect on pedal area iscylinders.
wheel increased, this has the same number
piston of pistons used, calipers are
calipers.
Changing
effort than ifonly onlythe rear-wheel
the front ones cylin-
are effect as goingcaliper-piston
Increasing to bigger drum-brake
area is a called
You single-piston,
may have dual-piston or iriple-
trouble mounting
changed . This is because the pedal
ders only has less effect on front wheel cylinders.
good modification on a system with piston ca Iipers.
new multiple-piston calipers even if
effort
brakesthan
do most if only thework.
of the front ones are Increasing
high operatingcaliper-piston area is isa
pressure. Pressure youYoufindmay onehave that trouble
fits your mounting
rotors.
changed.
With disc This is because
brakes only on the front
the front, good
reduced modification
afterwards as onisathesystem with
deflection new multiple-piston
Check with one orcalipers more even of theif
brakes
changing do most of the work.cylinders to
the rear-wheel highbrake
of operating hosespressure.
and other Pressure
parts.is you find onemanufacturers
brake-caliper that fits yourlisted rotors.
in
With pedal
reduce disc brakes
effort only
is noton worth
the front,
the reduced afterwards as is the
However, increased piston area also deflection Check with one or more
the Suppliers Index for calipers and of the
changing the rear-wheel
trouble. If the brakes were balancedcylinders to of brake brake-pedal
increases hoses and travel.other There-
parts. brake-caliper
mounting kitsmanufacturers
to fit particular listed in
cars.
reduce
before pedal effort is not, worth
the modification the new the However,
fore, you may increased pistontoarea
also have go to alsoa the Suppliers
You may also Indexhave for tocalipers
purchaseand
trouble. If cylinders
rear-wheel the brakeswouldwere cause
balanced
the increases brake-pedal
longer-stroke master cylinder. travel. There- mounting kits tohardware.
caliper-mounting fit particular cars.
rear wheels to lock up first. There new
before the modification, the also fore,
Theyou may with
problem also installing
have to go to a
calipers You may also have
If you change to multiple to purchase
-piston
rear-wheel
would be acylinders would cause
small reduction the
in pedal longer-stroke master cylinder.pistons is
that have larger-diameter caliper-mounting
calipers , there's hardware.
an added benefit
rear wheels
effort. If to youlockuseup first.
an There also
adjustable The
that problem
calipers with installing
usually have the calipers
largest If youreduced
besides changepedal to effort.
multiple-piston
The cali-
would be a small
proportioning valvereduction
to balancein pedal
the that
pistons possible. If you findpistons
have larger-diameter a caliper is calipers, there's
pers must be larger and an added benefit
heavier to
effort. If you use an
brakes, rear-brake torque is reduced. adjustable that calipers usually have
with larger pistons, it probably has the largest besides reduced pedal effort.
contain multiple pistons. As a result, The cali-
proportioning valve
Consequently, to balance
reducing rear-brakethe pistons possible.
larger pads. If you find
The problem a caliper
here is that pers must bewilllarger
the calipers and heavier
run cooler than the to
brakes,
torque rear-brake
tends to torque cancel is Ollt
reduced.
the with
larger larger pistons, a itlarger-diameter
pads require probably has contain
smaller multiple
calipers pistons. As a result,
they replaced. Fade
Consequently,
reduction in pedal reducing
effort rear-brake
gailled by larger pads.
rotor. The problem
Therefore, findinghere is that
a caliper the
will calipers
be less will run with
likely coolerthethanlarger
the
torque tends
changing wheel to cancel Alloiit
cylinders. the
you've larger pads require a larger-diameter
with larger pistons not requmng a smaller calipers they replaced.
calipers. In addition, larger pads will Fade
reduction
done is spent in time
pedalandeffort
money gaii~ed
withoutby rotor. rotor
larger Therefore, finding
generally is nota usually
caliper will longer.
last be lessEven likely
thoughwith bigger
the larger
cali-
changing wheel
significantly cylinders.
reducing pedal All you've
effort. with larger pistons not requiring a
possible. calipers. In addition,you
pers are expensive, larger pads will
get value for
done
Youis should
spent time onlyand moneytowithout
change larger larger rotor generally
Multiple-Piston is not usually
Calipers-The usu- last additional
the longer. Even cost. though bigger cali-
rear-brake wheel cylinderseffort.
significantly reducing pedal if some- possible.
al modification for disc brakes is in- pers
Thearenewexpensive,
pedal effortyou get forvalue for
calipers
Youisshould
thing done toonly change
increase to larger
front-brake Multiple-Piston
stalling calipers with Calipers-The
multiple sets usu-
of the additional
with cost.
larger-diameter pistons can be
rear-brake wheel
torque at the same time. cylinders if some- al modification
pistons. If your for disc have
calipers brakesa single
is in- The new pedal
calculated using effort the forfollowing
calipers
thing is done to increase
Larger Piston-Area Calipers-If you front-brake stalling
piston oncalipers
each sidewithofmultiple
the rotors,setsyou
of with larger-diameter
formula. Note: This assumes thatpistons can allbe
torque
have discat the same time.
brakes, pedal effort can be pistons. If your calipers have
may be able to replace them with two- a single calculated using the
four brakes have the same-size cali- following
Larger
reducedPiston-Area
by installing Calipers-If
calipers withyou piston
or on each side
three-piston sets.of Racing
the rotors, you
calipers formula.
pers andNote: are Thischangedassumes the thatsameall
have
bigger pistons or with more pistons be
disc brakes, pedal effort can in may be able to replace them
are sometimes made with more than with two- four
amount:brakes have the same-size cali-
reduced by installing calipers with or three-piston sets. Racing calipers pers and are changed the same
bigger pistons or with more pistons in are sometimes made with more than amount:
156
 Unfortunately, there are no simple
formulas to predict exactly what hap-
Unfortunately,
pens to pedal effort there
when areyou no modify
simple
formulas
only one pair of brakes. However, hap-
to predict exactly what you
pens make
can to pedal some effort whenestimates.
rough you modify If
only one
you modify pair of onlybrakes.
the However,
front brakes, you
can make
you'll realize some aboutrough estimates.
two-thirds of the If
you modify only the
change in pedal effort that the formu- front brakes,
you'll
las forrealize changing about two-thirds
all four brakes of the
change
predict. in Forpedal effort let's
example, that theuse formu-
one of
las for changing
the simple formulasallto four predict brakes
the
predict. For example,
new pedal effort for a modification let's use one ofto
the simple
only the frontformulasbrakes. to predict the
new pedalsayeffort
Let's the for a modification
formula predicts toa
only
change thefromfront abrakes.
90-lb pedal effort to a
newLet's
pedal sayeffort
the offormula
30 lb. The predicts
changea
change
in pedal effort is 60 lb. Because to
from a 90-lb pedal effort thea
new pedal effort of 30
rear brakes were not modified, the lb. The change
in pedalchange
actual effort isis about
60 lb. two-thirds
Because the of
rear brakes
this change.were Thus not the modified,
estimatedthe
actual change
change in pedaliseffort aboutis two-thirds
(2/3) X 60 of lb
Using low-profile tires will lower pedal effort slightly. If you put wider wheels and tires on a this change.
= 40 lb. The estimated new Thus the estimated
pedal
car, use lowest profile tire possible to end up with minimum pedal effort. This Fiat owner changeafter
effort in pedal effort is (213)
the modification X 60
is 90 Ib -lb
was
Usingable to lower the CG
low-profile.tires willand put pedal
lower a lot ofeffort
rubber on the Ifroad
slightly. youwith low-profile
put wider wheels tires.
and tires on a = 40 lb. The estimated new pedal
car, use lowest profile tire possible to end up with minimum pedal effort. This Fiat owner 40 lb = 50 Ib:
was able to lower the CG and put a lot of rubber on the road with low-profile tires.
effort afterfront
If both the modification
and rear brakes is 90arelbthe
-
brakes to twin calipers. This 40 lb = 50 Ib:
same size, but are not modified
02 If both front
New pedal effort = P EO /0 in pounds modification has the same effect as identically, theand rear brakes
simple formulas are can
the
oD CN brakes to
changing the brakes from singleThis
twin calipers. to same
again be size,usedbut are not new
to estimate modified
pedal
New pedal effort = pE0+in pounds modification
double-piston calipers. same
has the It mayeffectactually as identically,
effort. Use the the simple
formulaformulas twice-once can
PEO = D pounds
Old pedal effort in CN changing
cost less. In theaddition,
brakes from you can single
always to again be used to estimate
for the front-brake modification and new pedal
DEO = Old caliper-piston diameter in double-piston calipers. It may actually effort. Use
P,, = Old pedal effort in pounds remove one set of calipers if you run again for thethe formula modification.
rear-brake twice-once
inches cost
on aless. trackIn addition,
that is easy you on can brakes.
always for
Addthe thefront-brake
two answers modification
and average and
DEo = Old
DCN = Newcaliper-piston
caliper-pistondiameter
diameterinin remove one set of calipers if you run
inches Remember that doubling caliper- again for the rear-brake
them to get a rough estimate of the modification.
inches on a track
D
,, = New caliper-piston diameter in piston areathatwill is easy on brakes.
double fluid Add
new pedalthe effort.
two answers and average
When changing to multiple-piston
inches Remember thatso doubling
displacement, caliper-
master-cylinder them
To get to get an a accurate
rough estimateanswer offorthea
calipers with the same diameter as the stroke or area may have tofluid
piston area will double be new pedal effort.
modification, you must use the
oldWhen changing
pistons, use the to multiple-piston
following formula displacement,
increased to compensate. so master-cylinder To get inan Chapter
formulas accurate9.answer This means for a
calipers with the same diameter as the stroke
to find the new pedal effort.
old pistons, use
Again, it If you or area master-cylinder
increase may have to area be modification, you
performing a number of calculations must use the
is assumed thatthe
allfollowing formula
four brakes are increased to compensate.
by a lesser percentage than caliper- formulas
for both intheChapter old and 9. Thisnew meansbrake
to findchanged
being the newidentically.
pedal effort. Again, it If youarea,
increase master-cylinder area performing a number of 'calculations
is assumed that all four brakes are piston you'II get a pedal-effort systems.
by a lesser percentage
reduction. Also, the doubled lining than caliper- for both Tire
Reducing the .Diameter-If
old and newyou brake
in-
being changed identically. NpO pistonwill area, you'll getincrease
a pedal-effort systems.
area significantly lining stall tires with a smaller outside
New pedal effort = PEO - - in pounds
NpN reduction.
life. Therefore, Also,you themay doubled
run soft lining
lin- Reducing
diameter or Tire,Diameter -
roll-out, pedal effort If you willin-
New pedal effort = P,,- NpO in pounds area will significantly increase
ings with twin calipers and hard linings lining stall tires with a smaller
be reduced. This is an easy change to outside
PEO = Old pedal effort inNPN
pounds life.
with Therefore,
singles. Softer youlinings
may run willsoft lin-
further diameter
make, butoronly roll-out,
a small pedal effort will
reduction in
Npo = Number of pistons in old caliper ings
reduce with twineffort.
pedal calipers and hard linings be reduced.
pedal This is an
effort results. Youeasywillchange
not want to
PEo = Old
NpN = pedalofeffort
Number in pounds
pistons in new caliper with singles.
If you are Softer
thinking linings
this iswilltoofurther
good make,
to spend butmoney
only aforsmall new reduction
tires only to in
N,, = Number of pistons in old caliper reduce pedal effort. pedal effort results. You will not want
NpNFor floating calipers, multiply the
= Number of pistons in new caliper to be true, you're right. Adding a change brake-pedal effort. The
number of pistons by two . Each piston If you caliper
second are thinking
on a this rotoris too good
restricts to spendofmoney
amount changefor new be
won't tires
worthonlytheto
in For floating
a floating calipers,
caliper does themultiply the
job of two to be true,
cooling. Becauseyou'remore right.
of the Adding
rotor isa change
cost. However, brake-pedal
changingeffort. tires canThe be
number of pistons by
pistons in a fixed caliper.two. Each piston second caliper
covered, airflow on a rotor
through the restricts
rotor is amount offor
desirable change otherwon'treasonsbe worth
, such the as
in When
a floating caliper both
changing does piston
the jobdiame-
of two cooling.
restricted. Consequently, the
Because more of therotor
rotor is cost. However, changing
lowering the car for improved tires can be
pistons in a fixed caliper.
ter and the number of pistons , use covered, airflow
doesn't cool as well. through the rotor is desirable for other reasons, such as
handling.
When
both changing
formulas both piston
. First, correctdiame-
pedal restricted.
The previous Consequently,
formulas inthe thisrotor
sec- lowering
Usually, the putting car smaller-diameter
for improved
ter and for
effort the the
number of pistons,
change use
in piston doesn't
tion apply coolonly
as well.
to a car that has the handling.on a car won't work. The
wheels
both formulas. First, correct
diameter. Then, put that pedal effort pedal The previous
same-size brakesformulas
on all fourin this sec-
wheels Usually,
brakes putting designed
are usually smaller-diameter
to be as
effort
into the for the forchange
formula numberin piston
of pistons and to the same modification to the
tion apply only to a car that has all wheels
big as possible and still fitwork.
on a car won't inside Thethe
diameter.
and calculateThen,
finalput that
pedal pedal effort
effort. same-size
four brakesbrakes at theonsame all fourtime.wheels
This brakes are
wheels. usually designed
Therefore, if you change to betireas
into
Twinthe formula
Calipers - for number
If you have of pistons
a race car and
makes to the
the formulas
same modification
simple, buttothey all big as possible
diameter, you should and still do itfitwith
inside the
lower-
and calculate final pedal effort.
with one caliper on each r'o tor it may four brakes at the same
may not apply in your situation. Most time. This wheels.
profile tires.Therefore, if you change
Tire designations refertire
to
Twin Calipers-If
be possible to mount you two
havecalipers
a race car
on makes
cars arethe formulas
modified simple, front
differently but theyand the ratio of height to width.lower-
diameter, you should do it with For
with one
each caliper
rotor. Thisonwill
eachreduce
rbtor itpedal
may may not
rear, or apply
don'tin have
your situation.
the same-size Most profile tires.
example, Tire designations
a 50-series tire has a refersectionto
be possible
effort by halfto if
mount two calipers
you change on
all four cars
brakes arefront
modified
and rear.differently front and the ratio
height that of is 50%heightof itsto width.
width.A For 50-
each rotor. This will reduce pedal rear, or don't have the same-size example, a 50-series tire has a section
effort by half if you change all four brakes front and rear. height that is 50% of its width. A 50-
157
 120 Disc Brake

100

:c
100 -
~pedal
Bracket
80
:2
--b
Li:i
4-

Cii
"0
i5
60
Leading-and-Trailing-
Shoe Brake
Leading-and-Trailing-
Ball of Foot

m Two Leading- Foot

u 60 - ShoeBrake
Shoe Brake

40
Duo-Servo
\
\
\
,
Brake L'~\
Longer
20 Pedal
(Too Low)
20 -
o~----~----~----~----~--~---
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Lining Coefficient of Friction
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Graph shows how pedalLining effortCoefficient of Friction
would change if you change servo Most race-car brake pedals are designed to fit the driver's foot. If
action of your brakes. Converting to drum brakes from disc brakes you changed pedal ratio by making the pedal arm longer, the pad
has the biggest effect, but I don't know why anyone would do such would be in the
Most race-car wrong
brake place.
pedals Changingtothe
are designed pedal
fit the bracket
driver's foot. or
If
a thing.ofThis
action yourgraph assumes
brakes. that all
Converting tobrakes are the
drum biakes same
from d i seffective
i brakes master-cylinder
you changed pedallocation is making
ratio by nearly impossible on most
the pedal arm longer,cars, be-
the pad
radius
has theand haveeffect,
biggest typicalbut
cylinder
Idon'tdiameters. Purposewould
know why anyone of thisdograph
such cause mounting
would be in thepoints
wrongareplace.
an integral part of
Changing thethepedal
framebracket
structure.or
is thing.
a to compare various
This graph types that
assumes of drum brakes,
all brakes arebecause
the samedisc-brake
effective Don't try changing
master-cylinder pedal ratio
location unlessimpossible
is nearly your car ison
well suited
most to this
cars, be-
pedal
radiuseffort can typical
and have be varied greatly
cylinder with caliper
diameters. design.
Purpose of This curve
this graph modification.
cause mounting points are an integral part of the frame structure.
should be usedvarious
is to compare only as types
a roughof guide, becausebecause
drum brakes, actual numbers
disc-brakewill Don't try changing pedal ratio unless your car is well suited to this
vary
pedalgreatly
effort from onevaried
can be car to greatly
another.with caliper design. This curve modification.
should be used only as a rough guide, because actual numbers will
vary greatly from one car to another. rolling radius of the tire is used. As The critical dimension of a brake is
discussed on page 94, it's the distance its effective radius, as described in
rolling
betweenradius of the oftire
the center theiswheel
used. and
As T h e critical
Chapter 9. Thisdimension
is the insideof aradius
brake ofis
discussed
the ground. on page 94, it's the distance its eflective radius, as described
a drum, or the rotor radius measured in
between the centertires,
When changing of the wheel both
measure and. Chapter 9. This
to the center is the
of the pad.inside radiusef-
Increasing of
the
tires.ground.
Measuring rolling radius is a drum,radius
fective or thewill
rotor radius
reduce measured
pedal effort.
When on
covered changing
page 94.tires, measure both to The
the center of the
new pedal pad.isIncreasing
effort calculatedef-
as
tires. Measuring
Once you have the rolling
rollingradius is
radius of fective
follows: radius will reduce pedal effort.
covered on page 94.
both tires, calculate the new pedal The new pedal effort is calculated as
rEO
Once you have the rolling radius of
effort: follows:
New pedal effort = P EO - in pounds
both tires, calculate rthe new pedal r EN
'EO
effort:
New pedal effort = P EO"::: in pounds New pedal effort = -P,, in pounds
ro P EO = Old pedal effort inTENpounds
New pedal effort: = , ,P in pounds rEO = Old brake effective radius in
,P, = Old pedal effort in pounds
inches
PEQ = Old pedal effort in0pounds
rN = New-tire rolling radius in inches rE0
r EN = Old brake
= New brakeeffective
effectiveradius
radiusin
in
This slalom racer uses VW drum brakes in inches
P,, = =Old-tire
ro Old pedal effort
rolling in pounds
radius in inches
a 15-in. wheel. On this car, it is possible to ,,r = New brake effective radius in
increase effective radius of drum
brake.brakes
Usually,
= New-tire
r, As you can rolling radius in
see, smaller inches
tire rolling Because effective radius is limited
This slalom racer uses VW in inches
the
a brake
15411, on a On
wheel. race
thiscar fits
car, close
i t is to the
possible to , = Old-tire
rradius rolling radius in inches
reduces pedal effort. By install- by existing wheel diameter, it can't be
wheel rim.effective
increase If larger-diameter Porsche
radius of brake. drum
Usually, ingAslow-profile
you can see,
tiressmaller
on your tirecar,
rolling
you Because much.
increased effectiveTherefore,
radius is limited
it will
brakes
the brakewereon ainstalled,
race car the
fits pedal effort
close to the radius improve
can reduces pedal
botheffort. By install-
braking and by existing wheel diameter,
give only small benefitsit can't and be is
would be
wheel rim.reduced by a noticeable
If larger-diameter amount.
Porsche drum ing low-profile tires on your car, you
brakes were installed, the pedal effort handling. increased much.
expensive. However, Therefore, it will
the benefits will
would be reduced by a noticeable amount. Larger-Diameter
Can improve both Drumsbraking
or Rotors-and give
be greatonlyif small
you can benefits
make and
a largeis
series tire is lower than a 60-series tire handling.
If there is room in the wheels, chang- expensive. However, the
change in effective radius. benefits will
of the same section width. Because Larger-Diameter
ing to brakes with Drums or Rotors-
larger-diameter beTogreat if you can make
find larger-diameter a large
brakes for a
series tire isare
tire sizes lower than a 60-series
confusing tire
and tread If there or
drums is room
rotorsin will
the wheels,
reduce chang-
pedal change
road ca~ in effective
check the radius.
brakes used on
of the same section width.
widths vary, the best way to choose Because ing to This
effort. brakes with larger-diameter
modification will result in To similar
cars find larger-diameter brakesbrakes
to yours. Locate for a
tire sizes isare
new tires confusing
to measure themandor com-
tread drumsimprovements,
other or rotors willtoo:reduce pedal
The brakes road car, check the brakes used
that will mount easily on your car. on
widths
pare their vary, the best
published way to choose
specifications. effort.
will runThis modification
cooler and pads or will result
shoes mayin cars similar to yours. Locate
Often, larger-diameter brakes from brakes
newTiretiresdiameter
is to measure themused
is not or com-in other atimprovements,
wear too: Tbrakes
a lower rate. Bigger h e brakes
are that
one will
modelmount
will easily on your
fit another. car.
Check
pare their published specifications.
brake-system calculation . Instead, will runmodification
a good cooler and pads or shoes may
if possible. Often, larger-diameter brakes from
brakes from a station wagon or truck.
Tire diameter is not used in wear at a lower rate. Bigger brakes are one model will fit another. Check
brake-system calculation. Instead, a good modification if possible. brakes from a station wagon or truck.
158
They may fit a sedan suspension and
be larger. Some manufacturers
They
changemay brakefit asizes
sedan suspension
during a redesign, and
be larger. the
but retain Some originalmanufacturers
mounting
change
points. brake See sizesyour during a redesign,
car dealer for
but retain
information. the original mounting
points. See Servo
Increasing your car Action dealer
- D rufor m
information.
brakes are designed with varying
Increasing
amounts of servoServo action Action-Drum
. As you may
brakes from
recall are Chapter
designed 2, with varying
the amount
amounts of servo action.
depends on the geometry of the inter- As you may
recall from Chapter
nal parts of the brake. Leading-shoe2, the amount
depends
brakes on have the geometry
high servo of theaction;
inter-
nal parts of the
trailing-shoe drum brake.
brakes Leading-shoe
do not. If
brakes
you put ahave high servo brake
dual-leading-shoe action; in
trailing-shoe
place of a single-leading-shoe not.
drum brakes do brake, If
you put a dual-leading-shoe
this usually increases servo action brakeand in
place
reduces of apedalsingle-leading-shoe
effort. A duo-servo brake,
this usually increases
brake has the most servo action. servo action and
reduces pedal effort.
Replacing single-leading-shoe brakes A duo-servo
brake has the brakes
with duo-servo most servo would action.
cause
Replacing single-leading-shoe
the greatest reduction in pedal effort. brakes
with duo-servo
Changing servo brakes
actionwould cause
is difficult
the greatest reduction in
and expensive. Also, it is difficult to pedal effort. This Mercury requires adjustable brake balance for two reasons. Switching from street
Changing servo action is difficult driving to racing increases weight transfer and requires more braking effort on the front
predict the resulting pedal effort. You wheels.
This RaCingrequires
Mercury in the rain reducesbrake
adjustable weightbalance
transfer
forand requires
two less
reasons. braking on
Switching thestreet
from front
and
mustexpensive.
know the Also, it is difficult
coefficient of friction to wheels to
driving compared to racing inweight
racing increases the dry. Photo by
transfer Steven
and Schnabel.
requires more braking effort on the front
predict the resulting pedal
and the exact geometry of the brake effort. You wheels. Racing in the rain reduces weight transfer and requires less braking on the front
must
to know thecalculate
accurately coefficient servo of friction
action. wheels compared to racing in the dry. Photo by Steven Schnabel.
and the
The graph exact geometry
at left gives you of the brake
a rough R
to accurately
idea of what will calculate
happen.servo The action.
curves age on the master cylinder. The pedal New pedal effort = PEO~ in pounds
The
in thisgraphgraph at left
applygives you a of
to brakes rough
the ratio is determined from the methods RpN
idea of what will happen.
same diameter, but with different The curves age on theinmaster
discussed Chapter cylinder.
6. The pedal New pedal effort = PE0-RPOin pounds
ratio is determined Old pedal effort inRPN
pounds
in this graph applyaction.
to brakes of the ratio is from hard the to methods
PEO =
amounts of servo These are Pedal change. Rpo = Old pedal ratio
same diameter, but 1101with
rough estimates-do different
use them for discussed
Normally, insimply Chapter 6.
extending the pedal P
,, =
RpN = Old
Newpedal
pedaleffort
ratio in pounds
amounts
exact of servo action. These are
calculations. won'tPedalwork ratio is hard
because to change.
the pedals are de- Rpo = oldpedal ratio
rough
If youestimates-do
want a big not changeuse themin pedal for Normally,
signed to fit the driver's foot the
simply extending whilepedal
the You
R~~ can see that a larger pedal ratio
= New pedal ratio
exact
effort calculations.
and are willing to change the won't work
driver is in because the pedalsposition.
his normal are de- results in a lower pedal effort.
If you want You can see that a larger pedal ratio
complete brake aassembly,
big changetryintopedal find signed to fit athelonger
Therefore, driver'spedal
foot arm
whilemaythe
effort and are willing
brakes with a differen t servo to changeaction.the It driver is in his normal
make the pedal pad too high or low for position. REDUCING
results LINING
in a lower WEAR
pedal effort.
complete
may be difficultbrake asseibly,
to find a try brake ro find
that Therefore,
comfort. And, a longer
there'spedal aim may
a danger that Reducing lining wear is important
brakes REDUCING
for both streetLINING
drivingWEAR
and rac ing.
will boltwith onto a different
your car. servo As with action.
many It make the pedal pad
the extended too high
pedal will or bottom
low for
may be difficult to find a brake that comfort. And, there'shanging
a dangerpedalsthat Unfortunately, . making ischanges
Reducing lining wear importantto
other modifications discussed, start
will
other
bolt onto
the search by your
on cars modifications
theThesearch
looking
by looking
car. atAsbrakes
with many
discussed, start
by the same manufacturer.
at brakes servo
used
used
against the
the
against
extended
of the clutch
are used-and
floor-if
the floor-if
pedal
are used-and not match the position
not match
will bottom
hanging pedals.
and accelerator pedals
the position
for both
reduce
street

Before lining
- driving
wear these
I discuss often has
and racing.
reduce lining wear often has undesira-
Unfortunately,
ble effects on making changes to
brake performance.
undesira-
effects, let's
problem with increasing The only solution is to remove the ble effects on brake performance.
on cars by the same manufacturer.
action is that the tendency to fade of
pedal the mechanism
clutch and accelerator
and redesign pedals.
the look at common ways of increasing
The problem withifincreasing servo The Before I discuss
brake-lining life: these effects, let's
increases . However, your car has no wholeonly solution
thing, includingis torelocating
remove the the look at common
action is that the increasing
fade problems, tendency to servo fade pedal mechanism
master cylinder. Becauseand redesign
the master the Increase cooling ways of increasing
airflow.
increases. brake-lining
Use harderlife:
action mayHowever, work. But, if your
if you car already
has no whole
cylinderthing, including
generally relocatingonthea
is mounted lining material.
Increase lining
coolingarea.
airflow.
fade
experience fade, stay away servo
problems, increasing from master cylinder. Because
reinforced part of the chassis theormaster
body, Increase
action Use harder lining material.
brakes may with work.
high servoBut, action.
if you Anoth-
already cylinder generally
it is difficult to move. is mounted on a Followinglining
Increase is a area.
brief review of these
experience
er disadvantage fade, ofstay away servo
increased from reinforced
The bestpart timeoftothe chassis
modify or body,
pedal ratio modifications that are covered in this
brakes on
action withfronthighdrumservobrakes
action.isAnoth-
that it itis iswhen
difficult
the to
carmove.
is being designed. As Following is a brief review of these
chapter.
er
can disadvantage
cause the brakeofto increased pull. servo forThe an best timecar
existing to with
modify pedalinratio
pedals the modifications that are covered
Cooling modifications in this
are impor-
action on front drum
To summarize, modifying servo brakes is that it is when the car is being
correct position, don't try to modify designed. As chapter.
tant to all phases of brake per-
can cause
action is the brake to pull.
expensive, somewha t un- for
pedal an ratio.
existingIt's car
toowith pedalsInstead,
difficult. in the Cooling so
formance, modifications are impor-
they are top priority. On
To summarize,
predictable , and maymodifying cause fadeservo and correct position, don't trymaster
try a smaller-diameter to modifycyl- atant
roadtocar,allcooling
phasesimprovements
of brake per- can
action
pull problems. It is notsomewhat
is expensive, a good choice un- pedal ratio. It's too
inder. The effect on the brakes difficult. Instead,
is the formance, so they lining
cause increased are topwear
priority. On
if not
predictable, and
for lowering ped al effort.may cause fade and try a assmaller-diameter
same a higher pedal ratio master cyl-
- more adone
roadcorrectly.
car, cooling improvements
For example, remov- can
pull problems.
Increasing PedalI t isRatio-An
not a goodobvious choice inder. The effect and
pedal movement on lower
the brakes
effort.is the cause increased
ing splash shieldslining
from wear if not
disc brakes
for lowering pedal effort.
way to reduce pedal effort is to in- same as adohigher
If you manage pedal to ratio-more
change the done correctly.
can cause For example,
increased lining wearremov-
from
Increasing
crease Pedal ratio
the pedal Ratio- . This An means
obviousa pedal ratio, calculate the effort.
pedal movement and lower effect on ing splash dirt
increased shieldscontamination
from disc brakes and
different brake pedal with more to
way to reduce pedal effort is in-
lever- pedal If you
effort:do manage to change the can cause increased lining wear from
corrosion.
crease the pedal ratio. This means a pedal ratio, calculate the effect on increased dirt contamination and
different brake pedal with more lever- pedal effort: corrosion. 159
Racing a road car on racing tires requires adjustable brake balance. Street tires on this car
are being changed to racing slicks for a slalom. Car will decelerate faster with slicks, and
-

brake
Racingbalance will on
a road car have to be
racing adjusted
tires more
requires towards brake
adjustable the front.
b a l An
a nadjustable proportioning
a t r e e t tires on this car Typical balance bar used in a race car. If
valve
are couldchanged
being make balancing
t o racingbrakes
slicks fast
for aand easy. Car will decelerate faster with slicks, and
slalom. your car does not have a brake-balancing
brake balance will have to be adjusted more towards the front. An adjustable proportioning feature, balance
Typical balance bar
bar used
couldinbe adapted.
a race car. It
If
valve could make balancing brakes fast and easy. means
your carchanging
does notpedals,
have alinkage, and con-
brake-balancing
verting tobalance
feature, dual master cylinders.
bar could Fitting an
be adapted. It
adjustable proportioning
means changing valve and
pedals, linkage, is much
con-
easier and
verting cheaper.
to dual master cylinders. Fitting an
adjustable proportioning valve is much
easier and cheaper.

If you change CG height of a car, you need to change brake balance. A tall car has a greater
weight transfer than one with a low CG. I hope the owner of this truck never has to stor;
fast
If from
you high CG
change speed-or hasa to
height of doyou
car, anything else
need to at high
change speed.
brake balance. A tall car has a greater
weight transfer than one with a low CG. I hope the owner of this truck never has t o stop
fast from high speed-or has to do anything else at high speed.

Harder lining material is a good BRAKE-BALANCE Tilton adjustable proportioning valve is

way to reduce wear. Unfortunately, MODIFICATIONS used on this stock car instead of a balance
Harder
pedal effortlining material
increases is aharder
with good BRAKE-BALANCE
On most road cars, there's no way bar. A tandem
Tilton master
adjustable cylinder is valve
proportioning used for
is
way to reduce wear. Unfortunately,
linings . Be sure you can operate the MODIFICATIONS
to adjust brake balance. Balance ad- safety.
used onThethisproportioning valveofisamounted
stock car instead balance
pedal effort
brakes at maximumincreases with harder
deceleration after On mostisroad
justment cars, there's
usually no way
a reasonable on drive-shaft
bar. A tandem mastertunnel cylinder
where is driver
usedcan
for
linings. Beto sure youlinings.
can operate the to adjust brake easily reach
safety. lever. Valvevalve
The proportioning is installed
is mountedin
changing harder Hard lin- compromise, as balance.
designed.Balance
However, ad-
brake
on line to reartunnel
drive-shaft brakes.where driver can
brakes at maximum deceleration
ings combined with other modifica- after justment
there may be is reasons
usuallywhy a modifying
reasonablea easily reach lever. Valve is installed in
changing to harder
tions to reduce pedallinings.
effortHard
may lin-
be compromise,
car to allow as designed.
balance However,
adjustment is tire-grip
brake linechanges. But a more precise
to rear brakes.
ings
the combined
best overall with compromise
other modifica- for there may
desirable. be reasons why modifying a baljmce adjustment may be needed
tions to lining
reducing reducewear.
pedal effort may be carIf to
youallow
drive balance
your caradjustment
on the street is tire-grip
for racing.changes. But a more precise
theIncrease
best overall
lining areacompromise for
by installing desirable.
and occasionally race it, a balance ad- balance
If you adjustment
drive on icemay and be needed
snow, you
reducing lining wear.
wider drums or multiple-piston cali- If you drive
justment may your car on theRacing
be necessary. street for racing.
may wish to change brake balance for
Increase
pers to increaselining arealife.
lining by Tempera-
installing and occasionally race it,
tires have much higher grip than a balance ad- If you
this drive on
condition. Theice same
and snow,
goes youfor
wider drums oralso
ture reduction multiple-piston cali-
results . The com- justment
street tiresmay be necessary.theRacing
. Consequently, addi- may wish
driving to change
off-road or onbrake balance
unpaved for
roads.
pers to increase lining life.
bination of larger lining area and re-Tempera- tires have
tional weightmuch higher
transfer with grip
race than
tires this condition. The same
With reduced grip, the rear brakes do goes for
ture reduction
duced temperature also will
results.
haveThe com-
a major street
requires more braking at the the
tires. Consequently, frontaddi-
and adriving off-road
greater share orof on
theunpaved
work. If roads.
you
binationonof larger
effect wear. lining
On disc area and re-
brakes, tionalat weight
less the rear.transfer with raceis tires
The opposite true With
changereduced
brake grip, the, rear
balance yourbrakes
car may do
duced temperature
multiple-piston will have
calipers also areduce
major requires
on more Ifbraking
the street. at the frontvalve
a proportioning and ahave
greater
bettershare of the
braking on work.
snow , Ificeyou
or
effect on wear. On disc brakes,
pedal effort. less at the rear. The opposite
is used, it partially compensates for is true change
dirt. brake balance, your car may
multiple-piston calipers also reduce on the street. If a proportioning valve have better braking on snow, ice or
pedal
160
effort. is used, it partially compensates for dirt.
This handy adjustable proportioning valve
is manufactured by Kelsey-Hayes. Adjust-
ment handy
This is made by turning
adjustable knob. Valve
proportioning is
valve
available from aftermarket-parts Triumph Spitfire was modified to add bal- Adjusting balance bar in hanging pedal.
is manufactured by Kelsey -Hayes.suppliers
Adjust-
such
ment as
is Performance Worldknob.
made by turning in San Diego,
Valve is ance bar and dual master cylinders. Pedal This mechanic highly recommends remote
CA and from
available fromaftermarket-parts
many U.S.-car suppliers
dealers was modified
Triumph to was
Spitfire install balance
modified bar, bal-
to add and adjusters!
Adjusting balance bar in hanging pedal.
through their
such as Performarice high-performance-parts
World in San Diego, master-cylinder
ance bar and dualbracket was changed.
master cylinders. Pedal This mechanic highly recommends remote
catalogs.
CA and from many US.-car dealers This
was is an easy to
modified road car tobalance
install modify, because
bar, and If your car has a proportioning
adjusters!
through their high-performance-parts master cylinders bracket
master-cylinder are easilywas accessible
changed. in valve and you have excessive rear
catalogs.
There are several ways to modify a engine compartment.
This is an easy road carNotice that because
to modify, flexible If yourunder
braking car all
hasconditions,
a proportioning
install
car to allow brake-balance adjust-
hoses
master are used on
cylinders areeach
easilymaster cylinder,
accessible in valve and youvalve
an adjustable haveinexcessive rear
line between
resultingcompartment.
engine in extra pedal Notice
motion.that
Avoid using
flexible braking
ThereHere
ments. are areseveral ways toways
the easiest modify
: a flexible
hoses arehoses
used onwhere
each movement isn't
master cylinder, the stockunder
valve all
andconditions, install
the rear brakes.
car to allow
Install brake-balance
an adjustable adjust-
proportioning required.
resulting in extra pedal motion. Avoid using
an adjustable
Afterward, valve's intooline
if there muchbetween
front
ments. Here are the easiest ways:
valve. flexible hoses where movement isn't the stock valve and the
braking under some conditions rear brakes.
and
Install
Install ana dualadjustable proportioning
master-cylinder and required.
from Alston Performance Brakes and Afterward, if there's
too much rear brakingtoo muchothers,
under front
valve.
balance-bar system. Direct Connection. See your dealer or braking the
remove under
stocksome
valve conditions
or gut it. and
Install a dualValve-On
Proportioning master-cylinder
a road and car, from
contact Alston
one Performance Brakes and
of the brake-equipment too much rear braking under others,
balance-bar system.
the adjustable proportioning valve is Direct Connection. See
suppliers listed in the Suppliers your dealer
Index or remove the stock valve or gut it.
Proportioning contact one of the brake-equipment DIAGONALLY SPLIT
best. It' s muchValve-On easier and a road car,
cheaper for this type of valve.
the suppliers listedreview
in the Suppliers
what wasIndex BRAKE SYSTEMS
thanadjustable
changing proportioning
the pedals, valve master is To briefly dis- DIAGONALLY SPLIT
Brake-balance-adjustment devices
best. It'sand
cylinder much easier
linkage. and cheaper
A proportioning for
cussedthis type of valve.5, adjustable pro-
in Chapter
than To briefly review what was dis- BRAKE
can be SYSTEMS
added only if the front
valve changing
is the pedals,
virtually a master
bolt-on portioning valves change the pressure- Brake-balance-adjustment
brakes are actuated by one hydrau- devices
cylinder and linkage. A proportioning
component. For a race car, use a bal- cussed in Chapter 5, adjustable
rise-reduction rate to the rear brakes pro- can be and
lic line added the only if the by
rear brakes fronta
valve
ance bar -isit gi ves virtually
a firmer apedal. bolt-on portioning
after fluid valvespressure change
reachesthe pressure-
a certain brakes areline.
separate actuated by onesplit
Diagonally hydrau-
sys-
component.
There are For twoa types
race car, use a bal-
of adjustable rise-reduction
value. Changing ratetheto the
pointrear at brakes
which lic line
tems andwork
won't the with
rear abrakes
balancebybar a
ance bar-it gives
proportioning a firmer pedal.
valves-one can be ad- the valve starts to operatea certain
aft& fluid pressure reaches is the separate
ora line. Diagonally
single proportioning splitvalve.
sys-
There are two
justed from the cockpit types and
of adjustable
the other value.
adjustment.Changing Above the point at which
the actuating tems
Such won't
a systemworkis with a balance
designed to havebara
proportioning
can't. valves-one
A proportioning valvecanthatbe can
ad- the valvethere
pressure, startsis atosmaller
operate is the
increase in or a single
diagonal pair proportioning
of brakes operate valve.
justed from the
be adjusted in thecockpit and is,
cockpit thebyother
far, adjustment. Above the
pressure to the rear brakes than there actuating Such a system
separately fromisthe designed
opposite to have
diago-a
can't. A proportioning diagonal pair means
nal pair. This of brakes operate
the left-front
the most convenient. It valve has thethat can
advan- pressure,
would be there without is athesmaller
valve.increase
This ef- in
separately from
be adjusted in the cockpit is, by far, pressure to the rear brakes than there brake is tied to the
theopposite
right-rear, diago-
and
tage of allowing the driver to know fectively distributes more braking to nal pair.
vice versa.This means the left-front
the mostwhere
exactly convenient. It has the advan-
the adjustment is. On would
the be brakes
front withoutand theless
valve. Thisrear.
to the ef- brake is tieda to the right-rear, and
To modify diagonally split brake
tagetype
the of allowing
that adjusts thewith
driver to know
a screw, you fectively distributes
However, its operation more
doesbraking
not affect to vice versa.for balance adjustment,
system
exactly where the adjustment
can't judge easily where the valve is. On is the front brakes and
pressure to the front brakes. less to the rear. To modify
either install afwo
diagonally split brake
adjustablepropor-
the type
set that adjusts
without counting withthe
a screw,
turns you or However, its operation
A proportioning valvedoes not affect
is installed in system valves
tioning for .balance
or change adjustment,
the hydrau-
can't
takingjudge
a precise easily where the valve is
measurement. Dressure
the to the front
line between thebrakes.
master cylinder either installplumbing
lic system tho adjustable
in a major propor-
way.
setThe
without counting
in-cockpit adjustable the turns propor- or and proportioning
A rear brakes . Its valveuse is isindependent
installed in tioning
The valves
major changeor change the hydrau-
may require a dif-
taking a precise measurement.
tioning valve that I like is the Tilton the line between the
of the type of master cylinder. master cylinder
One lic system
ferent plumbing in a major
master-cylinder size way.
and
The in-cockpit
Engineering adjustable
CP 2611-3. Thispropor-
lever- and rear brakes. Its use
can be used in brake systems using is independent The
othermajor change
changes to themay requireSuch
system. a dif-a
tioning ferent master-cylinder
modification is too complexsize and
for most
operatedvalvevalvethathas Ifive
likesettings
is the Tilton
and is of the single,
either type oftandem masterorcylinder.
dual masterOne
other changes to the
Engineering 261 1-3. road-car owners. If system. Such a
two adjustable
designed for CP racing. The This
driverlever-
can can be
cylinders. used in brake systems using
modification isvalves
proportioning too complex for most
are 'Used, they
make changes from the cockpit and
operated valve has five settings whileis either
If you single,
wish tandem
to race youror dual car, master
a pro- road-car owners. If twosoadjustable
must be synchronized they give
designed
at speed. For for street
racing.use,Theyoudriver
may wish can cylinders.
portioning valve will work well. proportioning
the same olJtput valves are used,
pressure they
at each
make
to mountchangesthe from
valve the cockpit
where the while
lever If you wish
However, if youtowa race your rear-wheel
nt more car, a pro- must pressure.
input be synchronized s o they give
at speed. For street
can' t be moved accidentally.use, you may wishThis portioning valve will
braking, you ' ll first have to modify work well. the same output pressure at each
to mount
valve and the thevalveAlstonwhere the lever
Performance However, if you want more
the brake system, then reduce it with rear-wheel input pressure.
can't
Brakes ,be Direct
moved accidentally.
Connection This and abraking, you'll first
proportioning valve.haveThis to modify
should Balance Bar-For an all-out race car,
valve and the screw-type
Kelsey-Hayes Alston Performance
adjustable the brake
not be done system, then reduce
by installing harderit with
lin- a balance bar is the best way to adjust
Brakes, Direct Connection
valve are discussed in more detailand in aingsproportioning valve.
on the front brakes only, which This should Balance Bar-For Asan aall-out
brake balance. race car,
modification,
Kelsey-Hayes
Chapter 5. screw-type adjustable not be done
results by installing
in balance changesharder with
lin- aadding
balance
a balance bar is difficult.adjust
bar is the best way to You
valve are discussed
Screw-type in more
adjustable detailare
valves in ings on the front brakes
temperature. Instead, install larger only, which brakehave
may balance.
to designAs and
a modification,
fabricate the
available5. from several car makers.
Chapter results . in
wheel cylinders balance changes
or calipers with
with more adding a balance
pedal and linkage.barOr,
is difficult.
you mayYou be
Screw-type
Porsche, Ford and adjustable
Chevrolet valves
installedare temperature. Instead, install
piston area at the rear, or change to a larger able to adapt a completefabricate
may have to design and the
new pedal,
available from several
adjustable proportioning valves on car makers. wheel cylinders
smaller-bore or calipers
master cylinder withformore
the pedal
bracketandandlinkage. Or, you assembly
balance-bar may be
Porsche,
some Ford and
models. TheyChevrolet installed
are also available piston area
rear brakes only. at the rear, or change to a able to Neal
from adapt aProducts
complete new pedal,
or Tilton
adjustable proportioning valves on smaller-bore master cylinder for the bracket and balance-bar assembly
some models. They are also available rear brakes only. from Neal Products or Tilton
161
 Bending of pedal or linkage .
Compression of gas in the brake
Bending
fluid, or theofbrake
pedalfluidor linkage.
itself.
Compression
Modifications can of gas bein the madebrake to
fluid, or the brake fluid
reduce each of these deflections. Theyitself.
canModifications
never be reduced can be made to
to zero-only
reduce smaller.
made each of these Everydeflections. They
object deflects
can never be reduced
under load . It is only a matter of howto zero-only
made itsmaller.
much deflects.Every object deflects
under load. ItExpansion-
Brake-Hose is only a matter The of how
rubber
much
hoses ituseddeflects.
on most road cars where
Brake-Hose
flexing Expansion
is necessary expand,-The orrubber
swell,
under pressure. Additional cars
hoses used on most road fluidwhere
is re-
flexing to
quired is necessary
fill an expanded expand,hose or .swell,
This
under pressure.
swelling may add Additional
up to fluid is re-
noticeable
quired to fill an expanded hose. This
pedal movement.
swelling
The answermay toaddhose up deflection
to noticeable is to
Steel-braided, high-pressure hoses are used to reduce deflections in brake system. They pedal movement.
are stiffer than reinforced original-equipment rubber hoses, and are less likely to be install stiffer hoses. Use steel-braided
damaged. Usually,
Steel-braided, adapter fittings
high-pressure hoses are available
are used from companies
to reduce deflections that sell system.
in brake hoses. Photo
They
The answer ones.
Teflon-lined to hose Theydeflection is to
are stiffer
courtesy
are stifferC & D Engineering
than reinforced Supply Ltd.
original-equipment rubber hoses, and are less likely to be install stiffer hoses. Use
than fabric-reinforced rubber hoses, steel-braided
damaged. Usually, adapter fittings are available from companies that sell hoses. Photo Teflon-lined
so they deflect ones. less They
underare stiffer
pressure.
courtesy C & D Engineering Supply Ltd. than , fabric-reinforced
Also steel-braided hoses rubber hoses,
are usually
so they than
smaller deflectrubber less hoses.
under The pressure.
smal-
Also,
ler diameter further reducesusually
steel-braided hoses are hose
smaller
swelling.than rubber hoses. The smal-
lerSteel-braided
diameter further hoses are reduces
available hosein
swelling.
kits from brake-product outlets such
as Steel-braided
C & D Engineering, hoses are Earlavailable
' s Perform- in
kits from
ance Products,brake-product
or WREP Industries.outlets such
C & D Engineering,
as Longer brake hosesEarl's Perform-
deflect more
ance Products, or WREP
than shorter ones; one that's twice as Industries.
Longer
long deflects brake twice hosesas much,deflectand more so
thanOn
on. shorter
some ones; one hoses
cars, flex that's are
twice usedas
Reverse-mounted, hanging-pedal setup is
easy to service. long deflects
where flexingtwice is not as much, and so
required-say
AP Racing caliper offers a stiff bridge to on. OnaT-fitting
some cars,to flex
minimize deflection. This caliper is made
Reverse-mounted, hanging-pedal setup is from eachhoses brakeare onusedthe
AP aRacing
for 12-in.caliper
-diameter rotor,
offers from bridge
a stiff 1.10- to
easy to service.
REDUCE DEFECTIONS where flexing is not
rear axle . In some cases, a complete required-say
1.375-in.
minimize thick. If you This
deflection. can fit that size
caliper rotor
is made Many brake systems have excessive from
brake asystem
T-fitting maytohave eachbeen brakeplumbed
on the
to your
for racer, you probably
a 12-in.-diameter won't1 . find
rotor, from a
I 0 - to REDUCE
deflections.DEFECTIONS
This causes increased rear
with axle. In some
flex hoses. cases, unnecessary
Replace a complete
stiffer caliper.
1.375-in. thick.Photo courtesy
If you AP Racing.
can fit that size rotor Many
pedal brakeand
travel systems
a spongyhavefeel
excessive
to the ' brakehoses
flex system with may have
steel been toplumbed
tubing reduce
to your racer, you probably won't find a deflections.
pedal. If you This install causes increased
a small-diameter with flex hoses. Replace
deflection in a brake system unnecessary
. Don't
stiffer caliper. Photo courtesy AP Racing. pedal
mastertravel and(s),
cylinder a spongy
considerfeel to the
reducing flex
cheathosesby with steel tubing
excessively to reduce
reducing the
Engineering. For a road car, an adjust- pedal. If you install a small-diameter
brake-system deflections at the same deflection
length of the in hoses
a brake to thesystem.
wheels. Don'tIf a
able proportioning valve gives good master
time. The cylinder (s) , consider
small master reducing
cylinder cheat by excessively
hose doesn't have sufficient reducingslack,the it
Engineering.
results. On aFor roada road
car car, an adjust-
modified for brake-system
increases required deflections
pedal atmovement.
the same length of the hoses to
will likely fail with extreme wheel the wheels. If a
able proportioning
racing , converting valve gives good
to a balance bar time.
If The small
deflections master cylinder
can be reduced, you can hose doesn't have sufficient slack, it
movement.
results. On a roaddue
may be impractical cartomodified
the cost and for increases required pedal
regain some of this extra movement. movement. will likelyFlexing
Caliper fail with- A extreme wheel
disc- brake-cali-
racing, converting to a balance
effort involved. An adjustable propor- bar If deflections
Deflections can in be reduced,
a brake you can
system are movement.
per body will deflect away from the
may be valve
tioning impractical duework
will also to theforcost and
racing, regain some of
cumulative. this extra
Each one ismovement.
small. You Caliper of
surfaces Flexing -
a rotor Awhen disc-brake-cali-
the fluid is
effort
but involved.
pedal travel isAn adjustable propor-
increased. Deflections
couldn't in a deflections
see most brake system are
if you per body willThis
pressurized. deflect away from
deflection is from the
tioning
Whenvalve will also
changing from work for racing,
a tandem or cumulative. Each one
were looking at them as they occur.is small. You surfaces of a rotor when
bending of the bridge between the in- the fluid is
but pedal travel is increased.
single master cylinder to a dual ar- couldn't
But, becausesee they
most are deflections
cumulative if you
and pressurized. This deflection
board and outboard sections of the is from
When changing
rangement from abar,
with a balance tandem
remem- or were looking
magnified at them
by the pedal as theythey
ratio, occur.
can bending of the bridge between the in-
caliper.
single master cylinder
ber to recalculate to a dual
pedal effort. Because ar- But, because they
be significant. Forareinstance,
cumulative if and
the board
Caliperanddeflection
outboard can sections of the
be measured
rangement
the balancewith a balance
bar divides thebar,
pedalremem-
force magnified
pedal by the
ratio is pedal
8.0, ratio, they can
a deflection caliper.
with a dial indicator. If it deflects,
ber to recalculate pedal effort.
into approximately two equal halves, Because be significant.
requiring 1/8 in.For instance, ifat the
of movement the Caliper deflection
additional piston movement can be measured
and fluid
the
the balance
pressurebar divides
in each the system
brake pedal force
will pedal cylinder
master ratio iswill8.0, give aan deflection
additional with isa dial
flow indicator.
necessary If it deflects,
to maintain brake
into
be cutapproximately
roughly in half. two equal
This willhalves,
re- requiring
1 in. at the 118 in,pad.
pedal of movement at the additional
pressure. The pistondrivermovement
senses this andasfluidin-
the pressure
quire double inthe each brake
pedal system
effort for will
the master cylinder
Some of the causes will give of an deflection
additional flow
creasedis pedal
necessarystroketoand maintain
a spongybrake feel.
be cutdeceleration
same roughly in half. This will re-
if master-cylinder 1 in. at the pedal pad.
that can be corrected are : pressure.
The best The waydriver
to cure senses thisflex
caliper as in- is
quire double
diameter is thethe pedalForeffort
same. for the
this reason, Some
Brake-hoseof the causes . of deflection
expansion creased
to install pedal stroke andcalipers
more-rigid a spongy feel.
. They
same deceleration if master-cylinder
dual master cylinders are about three- that can be corrected
Caliper flexing . are: canThebe best way to
bigger, widercureorcaliper flex is
of another
diameterthe
fourths is the same.of
di ameter For this reason,
a tandem or a Brake-hose expansion.
Bending of master-cylinder mount- to install more-rigid
material. Cast-iron calipers are aboutcalipers. They
dual master cylinders
single master cylinder. are about three- @ Caliper flexing.
ing structure. can be bigger, wider
twice the stiffness of aluminum cali- or of another
fourths the diameter of a tandem or a Bending of master-cylinder mount- material. Cast-iron calipers are about
single master cylinder. ing structure. twice the stiffness of aluminum cali-
162
pers of the same size and design. Iron
calipers aren't used on race cars due
pers of the weight,
to higher same size butand design.
they Iron
certainly
calipers aren't used on race
are stiffer. On a road car, iron caliperscars due
to higher
are better. weight, but they certainly
areRacing-caliper
stiffer. On a road car, ironsuch
suppliers calipers as
are better.
Hurst, JFZ or Tilton can help you
Racing-caliper
select suppliers
a stiffer caliper for a such
race car. as
Hurst,
Although JFZexpensive,
or Tilton can betterhelp you
brakes
selectresult.
will a stiffer caliper for
Remember thata arace car.
caliper
Although may
change expensive,
also betterrequire brakesa
will result. Remember
mounting-bracket change. that a caliper
Master-Cylinder-Mount require
change may also Deflec-a
mounting-bracket change.
tions- The master cylinder may
Master-Cylinder-Mount
"see" a force exceeding 1000 Deflec- lb
tions-The
during master Ifcylinder
hard braking. the mount may is
"see" a additional
flexible, force exceeding 1000 lb
pedal movement
during
will hard braking. If the mount is
be noticeable.
flexible,
Check additional pedal movement
for master-cylinder deflec-
will be
tion bynoticeable.
remotely mounting a dial in-
Check
dicator andfor master-cylinder
setting the indicator deflec-
plung-
er against the master cylindera near
tion by remotely mounting dial in-
its If master cylinders are mounted to a sheet-metal fire wall, they may flex too much when
dicator
end. The andindicator
setting the indicator
base shouldn'tplung-be driver pushes hard on pedal. To prevent front end of master cylinders from flexing upward,
er against the designer
If master of this stock
cylinders arecar added atotab
mounted to each frame
a sheet-metal tube.
fire With
wall, theya bolt
maypassing
flex toothrough both
much when
mounted on master
or near cylinder near its
the master- masterpushes
driver cylinders, flexing
hard is greatly
on pedal. reduced.
To prevent The
front driver
end feels this
of master as a firmer
cylinders from pedal.
flexing upward,
end. The indicator base
cylinder mount. Have someone step shouldn't be designer of this stock car added a tab to each frame tube. With a bolt passing through both
mounted on or near the
on the pedal while you observe the in- master- master cylinders, flexing is greatly reduced. The driver feels this as a firmer pedal.
cylinder
dicator dial.mount.
Check Have
for someone
deflectionsstep in additional mounting holes at both Pedal or Linkage Bending-Brake
on the pedal
different while youOften
directions. observe an the in-
entire ends of the fluid reservoir for mount- pedals are usually quite stiff because
dicator
fire wall dial. Check for deflections in
will flex. additional
ing struts.mounting
Thicker holes
sheet at metal
both Pedalareordesigned
they LinkagewithBending-Brake
a large safety
different
The answer is Often
directions. to stiffenan entirethe ends of the fluid reservoir for
doesn't do much. Beware of thin mount- factor. However, a pedal stiff
pedals are usually quite armbecause
that is
fire wall will
structure. flex.best method is a strut
The ing struts.
sheet Thickerin bending.
metal loaded sheet metal
The they areordesigned
curved withside
bent to the a large
maysafety
twist
or The
severalanswer
struts is to stiffen
attached to or near the doesn't do much.
brake-pedal pivot andBeware
the ofmaster
thin factor.
and causeHowever, a pedal
excessive arm that
deflection at theis
structure. The best method
the master-cylinder mount. Airheart is a strut sheet metal loaded in bending.
cylinder should be attached to a The curved or bent to the side may
pad. If you have such a pedal arm, add twist
or
andseveral
Alstonstruts attached
master to or have
cylinders near brake-pedal
common pivot
bracket and the master
if possible. and
metalcause
to theexcessive
pedal armdeflection
to make it at into
the
the master-cylinder mount. Airheart cylinder should be attached to a pad. If you have such a pedal arm, add
and Alston master cylinders have common bracket if possible. metal to the pedal arm to make it into

Master-cylinder bracket on this car needs some modifications to stiffen the pedal. An angle bracket will deflect in bending-this can be
eliminated with two 45 gussets. Bracket is mounted in center of thin sheet-metal panel. Tubular cross member is needed to minimize bend-
ing of floor panel.bracket
Master-cylinder Cross member
on this should be firmly
car needs someattached to each
modifications t oframe side
stiffen themember.
pedal. An angle bracket will deflect in bending-this can be
eliminated with two 45" gussets. Bracket is mounted in center of thin sheet-metal panel. Tubular cross member is needed t o minimize bend-
ing of floor panel. Cross member should be firmly attached to each frame side member.
163
 Original Pedal Arm

I Original Pedal Arm

I
Side Plates

Drawing shows section cut through pedal Pads normally wear on a taper because
arm. Original pedal arm is shaped like an trailing edge of pad runs hotter than leading
I-beam
Drawingcross
showssection. To through
section cut keep it pedal
from edge. Becausewear
Pads normally wear
on aincreases
taper becausewith
twisting, a side
arm. Original plate
pedal armis iswelded
shapedonlike
each
an temperature,
trailing edge oftrailing
pad runsedge
hotterwears faster.
than leading
side of the
I-beam I-beam
cross to make
section. Toit akeep
box-section.
it from Tapered Because
edge. pads makewearpedal increases
feel spongy with
be-
Resistence
twisting, to twisting
a side plate is is much on
welded greater
each cause caliper trailing
temperature, or bracket
edgehas to flex
wears to
faster.
with of
side this modification.
the I-beam to make it a box-section. bring
Tapered pads
padsin make
contact with
pedal feelrotor.
spongy Some
be- Bleeder on this race-car rear brake is
Resistence t o twisting is much greater pads wear
cause leading
caliper or edges faster
bracket has due to cali-
t o flex to below brake hose! Backing plates were
with this modification. per design.
bring pads in contact with rotor. Some mounted
Bleeder upside
on thisdown on axle.
race-car By unbolting
rear brake is
pads wear leading edges faster due to cali- and
belowrepositioning
brake hose!backingBackingplates,
platesspongy
were
per design. pedal wasupside
mounted cureddownforever. Bleeders
on axle. must be
By unbolting
at highest
and spot in cylinder
repositioning backing to be effective
plates, spongy
in removing
pedal all air.forever. Bleeders must be
was cured
at highest spot in cylinder to be effective
in removing all air.
If a master cylinder is not mounted
level, it can trap air. With this
If a master
condition, trycylinder
tilting is thenotcarmounted
with a
level,when
jack it can
bleeding trap the air.brakes
With sothis no
condition, try tilting
air can be trapped at the theclosed
car with
end of a
jack when bleeding
the master cylinder. Check thethe brakes so no
air can beoftrapped
position at the closed
the cylinder with aend of
level
the master
while the car sits cylinder.
on a levelChecksurface. the
position of the lines
If the brake cylinderhavewith a level
a fitting at
while the car sits on a level
any high spot, there may be bubbles surface.
If the inside
trapped brake lines have a Examine
the fitting. fitting at
any high spot,
the details there
of the may to
fitting be be
bubbles
sure.
trapped inside the fitting.
Perhaps you can reroute the line to Examine
the detailsthe
eliminate of the
highfitting
spot to or, be sure.,
maybe
Perhaps
you can you
use can
anotherreroute typethe of line to
fitting
eliminate
that will not thetrap.
high air. spot
But, or,
firstmaybe,
, avoid
you can use
high spots in theanother
hydraulic typesystem.
of fitting
that will not trap,air.
A spongy pedal can be caused But, first, avoidby
high spots in the
compression of thehydraulic system.
brake fluid . Brake
Checking brake-fluid level periodically is an important maintenance job on every car. If fluid
reservoirs are hard to reach, consider a modification. These race-car reservoir caps are
A spongy
fluid normallypedal can be
has little caused by
compression,
fitted withbrake-fluid
Checking plastic breather
level tubes, whichiscould
periodically -..- as
ar. be used ...-....-..-..-- ,---..
feed lines from -.-. , .. ..-.-I
a remote-mounted compression of the brake
but some fluids are better than others fluid. Brake
reservoir. Be
reservoirs aresure
hardreservoir-breather
t o reach, considertubes breath from These
a modification. a clean, dry place
race-car such ascaps
reservoir inside a
are fluid normally has little
in this respect. For instance, at highcompression,
roll cage.
fitted with plastic breather tubes, which could be used as feed lines from a remote-mounted but some fluidssilicone
temperatures, are better thanhave
fluids othersa
reservoir. Be sure reservoir-breather tubes breath from a clean, dry place such as inside a in this respect. For instance,
tube. A closed- boxed-tubular
aroll cage. Compression of Air in Brake lower compression stiffnessat high
than
structure, round or square, has much Fluid-If a brake system always acts temperatures, fluids
glycol-based silicone. But, fluids athavelowa
a tube.torsional
greater A closed-boxed-tubular
strength than a flat Compression
as if it needs to be of bled,
Airmaybe
i n itBrake
does. lower compression
temperatures, stiffness com-
silicone-fluid than
structure,
plate, channelroundor or square,
I-beam. Thehasaccom-
much Fluid-If
Ai r tends to a brake systeminalways
get trapped acts
high spots glycol-based fluids.notBut,
pressibility is usually at low
a problem .
greater torsional strength
panying drawing shows one method than a flat as if i t needs to be bled, maybe
and corners of a hydraulic system. it does. temperatures,
If you have a race silicone-fluid
car with a spongy com-
plate, channel
of how to do this. or I-beam. The accom- Air tends that
Check to get trapped
the in high spots
bleeders are pressibility
pedal, perhaps is usually thenotfluida problem.
is the
panying
Linkages drawing showsdon't
usually one method
deflect and corners
positioned of the
so all a hydraulic
air can getsystem.
out. A problem . If you are using asilicone
If you have a race car with spongy
of how to do However,
noticeably. this. if the system Check
bleeder shouldthat be theat high
bleeders
spots inare a pedal, tryperhaps
fluid, the fluid
a glycol-based is the
fluid such as
hasLinkages
a bell crankusually don't subjected
or anything deflect positioned s o all the air
hydraulic system. Some special can get out. A
cars problem.
AP Lockheed If you
racingare using silicone
fluid.
noticeably. However, if the
to bending or twisting, it may be a system bleeder
may haveshould be at high
the calipers spotsatinana
mounted fluid, try a glycol-based
Deflections Due to Tapered fluidPads
such- asA
has a bell Acrank
problem. or anything
linkage must be subjected
as stiff as hydraulic
angle that system.
trap a smallSome specialofcars
amount air. AP Lockheed racing fluid.
worn disc- brake pad usually is
to bendingCurved
possible. or twisting,
or bentit may be a
pushrods may
If you havehave
the calipers
such a mounted
car, remountat an Deflections
tapered. TheDue to Tapered
lining Pads-
thickness of Aa
problem. A linkage must be
should be strengthened or replaced as stiff as angle thator trap
calipers a small
remove amount
them from oftheir
air. worn
used paddisc-brake pad usually
is usually thicker at the lead-is
possible. Curved or bent pushrods
with straight ones. ~his applies even if If you have such a car,
mounts and position the bleeder high remount ing edge than at the trailing edge. Thisa
tapered. The lining thickness of
should
it meansbe strengthened
a major or replaced
design change . calipers
for bleeding.or remove them from
Then remount their
calipers. used padfrom
results is usually thickeredge
the trailing at theoflead-
the
with straight ones. This applies even if mounts and position the bleeder high ing edge than at the trailing edge. This
it means a major design change. for bleeding. Then remount calipers. results from the trailing edge of the
164
 Friction Material

-
o
Friction Material

Leading
Rotor Motion Edge
Trailing~ . Leading
Edge ........... Rotor Motion Edge

Lining Cut Away

From This Area
Lining Cut Away This caliper bracket is cut from a flat plate.
From This Area It adapts a disc brake to a spindle from a
By removing some friction material on slow-wearing, leading edge of pad, taper wear can car with drum brakes.isThis flat plate
This caliper bracket cut from a flatbrack-
plate.
be reduced. If pad wears evenly, pedal travel will not increase as much as pad wear. Make et should abe 1/2- in. thick, if possible,
I t adapts disc brake to a spindle fromtoa
sure both sides
By removing of the
some car are
friction modified
material onthe same so braking
slow-wearing, will edge
leading be even.
of pad, taper wear can resist twisting.
car with drum brakes. This flat plate brack-
be reduced. If pad wears evenly, pedal travel will not increase as much as pad wear. Make et should be 1/2-in. thick, if possible, to
sure both sides of the car are modified the same so braking will be even. resist twisting.
pad running hotter than the leading ness is impossible, use the thickest
edge, thus wearing more. Some caliper possible steel plate.
pad running
designs hotterthethan
also cause the edge
leading leading to ness
Withis impossible, use the unequal
sliding calipers, thickest
edge, thus
wear more. wearing more. Some caliper possible steel plate.
inner-to-outer lining wear can be
designs
Once also padscauseare thewornleading edgethe
tapered, to With bysliding
caused calipers,
high slide friction.unequal
Clean
wear more.
caliper assembly must deflect for the inner-to-outer lining
the slides and lubricate wearthemcanwith
be
padOnce pads are
to contact worn fully.
the rotor tapered,
This the in- caused by high slide
high-temperature friction.
grease between Clean
the
creases pedal travel and effort. for
caliper assembly must deflect the
It can the slides
inner and caliper
and outer lubricate them with
sections.
pad to
also contactthethe
damage rotor by
caliper fully. This the
cocking in- high-temperature grease between the
creases
pistons pedal
in thetravel bores.andAlthough
effort. It thiscan inner and outer STABILITY
IMPROVING caliper sections.
also damage
can be minimized the caliper by by cocking the
changing the DURING BRAKING Bolted pad retaining plate increases
pistons in the bores.
pads before they are worn much, Although this IMPROVING
Stability refers STABILITY
to how straight the caliper-bridge strength. Studs with quick-
can be modification
another minimized by canchanging
help, too. the DURING BRAKING
car travels during braking. When the release
Bolted clips
pad are used inplate
retaining placeincreases
of bolts
pads beforematerial
Remove they are fromworn much,
the sides of Stability
brakes are refers
appliedtohard,how an straight the
unstable
when quick padstrength.
caliper-bridge changes are required.
Studs with quick-
another modification can help, too. car travels during pullbraking. When release clips are used in place of bolts
the pad at its leading end to reduce car may swerve, to the side, the
or when quick pad changes are required.
padRemove
area material
and increase from the wearsidesrateof brakes
even spin areout.
applied
Therehard, an unstable
are many things
the pad
locally. at its
See leading
the end to reduce
accompanying car
that may
affectswerve,
stability,pullbuttothethefollowing
side, or Widening the track by installing
pad area This
drawing. and increase
helps balance wear rate the even
items spin out.
are the There
most are many things
likely. wheels with increased offset increases
locally. See the
unequal wear rates . The amount of accompanying that affectbraking
Stable stability, but the
depends on following
balanced Widening
scrub radiustheby track the same by installing
amount.
drawing.
material toThis remove helps balance
is found the
by trial items
braking areattheboth
mostsides
likely.of the car. If wheels with increased
Cars should not have offset a scrubincreases
radius
unequal wear rates.
and error. Start by removing aboutThe amount of Stableisbraking
braking depends
different on balanced
from right to left, scrub radius
greater than aboutby the 2 same amount.
in., although
material
25% of theto width
remove is found
at the by trial
slow-wearing braking
the car will be unstable.the
at both sides of car. by
Start If Cars
many should
road andnot have
race carsahavescrub radius
been de-
and error.
edge and see Startwhat by removing
happens. Make about braking is different
checking from right tolining
brake diameters, left, greater thanmore.
signed with about 2 in., although
25% of the width at the slow-wearing
sure all pads and both sides of the car the car will
condition, andbemechanical
unstable. condition
Start by many road andproblems
If stability race cars arehavecaused
been de-by
edgemodified
are and seeequally what to happens.
preventMake pull- checking
of the brakes to be sure they are lining
brake diameters, equal signed with more.
rear-wheel lockup, that can be elim-
sure
ing toall
thepads
sideandduringbothbraking.
sides of the car condition,
on both sides. and Also
mechanical
check tire condition
rolling If stability
inated problemsthearebrakes.
by balancing causedSee by
areTapered
modified padsequally
can also to prevent
be caused pull-by of the brakes
radius to be sureto bethis
sureis they
equalare onequal
each rear-wheel lockup,
the earlier part thatchapter
of this can bedealing
elim-
ing to the side during braking.
flimsy caliper-mounting brackets. If on both sides. Also check
side. Measure with a tape wrapped tire rolling inated modifications
with by balancing the for brakes. See
balancing
theTapered
bracketpads twists,canthis
alsococks
be caused
the cali- by radius to the
around be sure this is equal of
circumference on each
each the earlier part of this chapter
brakes. Adding an adjustable propor- dealing
flimsy
per andcaliper-mounting
makes the pads brackets. taper. This If side.
tire-itMeasure with a tape
is more accurate than wrapped
measur- with
tioning modifications
valve can be for balancing
the answer to
the
taperbracket
wear twists,
due tothis cocks the
twisting willcali-be around
ing radius.the circumference of each brakes.
rear-wheelAdding
lockup. an adjustable propor-
per and on
unequal makes the padsandtaper.
the inboard This
outboard tire-it is more
The car's accurate than
suspension must measur-
work tioning
Drum valvebrakes can with
be thehigh answer to
servo
taper wear due to twisting
pads. One will show more wear on the will be ing radius.
well for stability. It's essential that the rear-wheel lockup.
action, such as duo-servo brakes, are
unequal
trailing edgeon thethan inboard and outboard
the other one on The car's
wheels don't suspension
steer or change must toe-in
work Drum brakes
notorious for causingwith high pulls servo
and
pads. One will
the leading show
edge. If more
one pad weartapers
on thea well
whenfor thestability.
brakes It's
are essential
applied. For that tips
the action, suchIf as
instability. thisduo-servo
is a problem, brakes, are
be sure
trailing edge than the
lot compared to the other, caliper other one on wheels don't steer or change
on setting up a chassis, read my HP toe-in notorious for causing
the drums, linings and wheel pulls and
the
twist and higher trailing-edge tem-a
leading edge. If one pad tapers when
Book, the
Howbrakes
to Make areYour
applied. For tips
Car Hand/e. instability.are
cylinders If this is a problem,
in good condition.beIfsure
this
lot compared
perature to the other, caliper
are involved. onExcessive
setting up fronta chassis,
scrubread radiusmy can
HP the drums,
doesn't help, trylinings and or
harder linings wheel
disc
twist
Reduceand caliper
higher twisttrailing-edge
by using atem- stif- cause How
Book, to Make Your
instability during Car Handle.
braking. cylinders are in good condition.
brakes. Instability with duo-servoIf this
perature are involved.
fer caliper-mounting bracket. I suggest Excessive
Scrub radius is front scrub radius
the distance from canthe doesn't help, try harder
drum brakes is a major reason why linings or disc
Reduce
using caliper
at least a flattwist by using asteel
1I2-in.-thick stif- cause instability during
point the kingpin axis intersects braking.
the brakes. Instability with
modern American cars use front disc duo-servo
fer caliper-mounting
plate for a caliper bracket. bracket. I suggest
If that thick- Scrub radius
ground to the iscenter
the distance
of the tire from the
patch. drum
brakes brakes is a major reason why
exclusively.
using at least a flat 112-in.-thick steel point the kingpin axis intersects the modern American cars use front disc
plate for a caliper bracket. If that thick- ground to the center of the tire patch. brakes exclusively.
165
.......ubleShooling Guide
Rouble-Shooting
Trouble-shooting brakes
brakes is too big of a subject forfor complete
complete coverage
coverage in this
subject of maintenance and testing would
book. However, the subject wou Id not be complete
complete with-
out aa trouble-shooting
out trouble-shooting guide.
guide. Briefly listed below are
are some
some possible
possible causes ofof
trouble. Cures
brake trouble. Cures are covered
covered in this book, the factory manual,
manual, and
and in
in other pub-
lications on
lications on brake
brake repair and maintenance.
maintenance.
trouble-shooting may help you with a quick
This reference guide to trouble-shooting quick solution at
the test track:
Problems Possible
Possible Cause
pedal-will pump up
Low pedal-will Rotor Runout
Loose wheel bearings
Air in hydraulic system
Drum brakes out of adjustment
pedal-won't pump up
Low pedal-won't Bad seals in caliper
Badly worn pads
Rotor runout
Leak in
in hydraulic system
Loose wheel bearings
Excessive free-play in brake Iin kage
linkage
Balance bar too far off-center
Changing brake-pedal travel Slop in
in wheel bearing or suspension
Balance-bar failure
Balance bar too far off center
Spongy pedal
pedal in hydraulic system
Air in
Deflection of caliper or mount
Deflection
hoses
Deflection of hoses
Brake fluid
fluid too hot
Badly worn linings or pads
Concave or convex lining wear
Deflection of master-cylinder mount
Deflection
small
Master cylinder too small
Pedal ratio
Pedal ratio too high
high
Drum-brake-shoe arc incorrect
brake shoes or backing
Distorted brake backing plate
plate
Old brake
Old brake fluid
fluid
Cracked brake
Cracked brake drum
drum
Brake
Brake pedal
pedal not returning
returning reservoir not
Master-cylinder reservoir not vented
vented
No clearance in
No in brake
brake pushrod
pushrod
Binding in
Binding in pedal
pedal pivots
pivots or
or pushrod
pushrod
Front
Front or
or rear
rear brakes
brakes locking
locking Too much
Too much front- or rear-brake
rear-brake balance
balance
Failure in
Failure in opposite brake
brake system
system
One
One brake
brake locking
locking Caliper piston
Caliper piston seizing
seizing in in cylinder
cylinder
Wheel cylinder
Wheel cylinder seizing
seizing
Bad brake-shoe
Bad brake-shoe return return spring
spring
Loose or
Loose or distorted
distorted backing
backing plate
plate
Oil or
Oil or fluid
fluid leak
leak into
into brake
brake
Loose caliper
Loose caliper mount
mount
Excessive weight
Excessive weight on on other
other wheel
wheel
Twist in
Twist in car
car chassis
chassis or or suspension
suspension
Mismatched rotors,
Mismatched rotors, linings
linings or
or drums
drums
Pedaleffort
Pedal effort too
too low
low Master cylinder
Master cylinder tootoo small
small
Pedal ratio
Pedal ratio too
too high
high
Too much
Too much servo
servo action
action onon drum
drum brakes
brakes
Liningstoo
Linings too soft
soft
Too much
Too much power
power assist
assist
Defective booster
Defective booster
Pedaleffort
Pedal effort too
too high
high Master cylinder
Master cylinder too
too large
large
Pedalratio
Pedal ratiotoo
too low
low
Linings too
Linings too hard
hard
Racing linings
Racing linings too
too cold
cold
Power-assist failure
Power-assist failure

166
 Brakes
Brakes wetwet
Glazed
Glazed linings
linings
Oil
Oil or
or fluid
fluid on
on linings
linings
Drum-brake-shoe
Drum-brake-shoe arc arc incorrect
incorrect
Brakes
Brakes tootoo hot
hot
Vibrating
Vibrating pedal
pedal Excessive
Excessive rotor
rotor runout
runout or or th ickness variation
thickness variation
Damaged
Damaged wheelwheel bearings
bearings
Cracked
Cracked drumdrum or or rotor
rotor
Bent
Bent axle
axle
Drum
Drum warped
warped or or eccentric
eccentric
Brakes
Brakes not not releasing
releasing
Vented-rotor fins
Vented-rotor fins rusted
rusted out
out soso side
side plates
plates
deflect
deflect under
under pressure
pressure
Swerving under
Swerving under hard
hard braking
braking Front
Front suspension
suspension bottoming
bottoming
Toe-in adjustment
Toe-in adjustment wrong
wrong
Bump-steer
Bump-steer problems
problems
Shock-absorber
Shock-absorber failure
failure
Shock-absorber
Shock-absorber adjustment
adjustment dissimilar
dissimilar
Brake
Brake balance
balance way
way off
off
Caster
Caster or
or camber
camber uneven
uneven
Chassis
Chassis oror suspension
suspension twisted
twisted
Worn
Worn steering
steeringor
or suspension
suspension pivots
pivots
Tire
Tiresizes
sizes dissimilar
dissimilar
Excess
Excess front-wheel
front-wheel scrub
scrub radius
radius
Pedal
Pedalgoes
goes to
to floor
floor Air
Air in
in hydraulic
hydraulic system
system
Leaking
Leakingseal seal in master cylinder
in master cylinder
Leak
Leak in in hose
hoseor or tube
tube
Leak
Leak in in caliper
caliper oror wheel
wheel cylinder
cylinder
Tapered
Tapered pad pad wear
wear
Drum
Drum brake
brake not
not adjusting
adjusting
Electric
Electric current
current passing
passing through
through fluid
fluid
Brakes
Brakes grab
grab or
or lock
lock Drum-brake-shoe
Drum-brake-shoe arc arc incorrect
incorrect
Loose
Looseoror distorted
distorted backing
backingplate
plate
Contaminated
Contaminated linings
linings
Brakes
Brakeswet
wet
Racinglinings
Racing liningstoo
too cold
cold
Failed
Failed brake-shoe
brake-shoereturn
returnspring
spring
Drum-brake
Drum-brake linings
linings burned
burned upup
Brakes
Brakes not
notreleasing
releasing Blocked
Blockedmaster-cylinder
master-cylinder port
port
Binding
Bindingpedal
pedalpivots
pivots
No
Nofree
free play
play in
inpushrod
pushrod
Seized
Seizedcaliper
caliper or
or wheel
wheel cylinder
cylinder
Aged
Aged or
or overheated
overheated caliper
caliper seals
seals
Swollen
Swollenseals-incorrect
seals-incorrect fluid
fluid
Caliper
Caliper slides
slides corroded
corrodedand
andstuck
stuck
Heel
Heeldrag
dragon oncup-type
cup-type seals
seals
Parking
Parkingbrake
brakeon onor
or maladjusted
maladjusted
Power
Power booster
booster faulty
faulty
Distortedshoes
Distorted shoesoror backing
backingplate
plate
Brakes
Brakessqueal
squeal Wear
Wear ininbrake
brakeshoes
shoesoror attachments
attachments
Worn pads
Worn pads
Cold
Cold linings
linings
Need
Neednewnewbrake-pad
brake-padanti-squeal
anti-squeal shims
shims
Need
Needanti-squeal
anti-squeal compound
compoundbehindbehindpads
pads
Needto
Need tochamfer
chamferends
endsofof linings
linings
Brakes
Brakeswetwet
Rapid
Rapidlining
liningwear
wear Wrongsurface
Wrong surfacefinish
finishon
onrotor
rotoror
ordrum
drum
Liningtoo
Lining toosoft
soft
Cracks
Cracksinindrum
drumor orrotor
rotor
Adjustment too
Adjustment tootight
tight
Brakes
Brakesnot
notreleasing
releasing
Inadequatebrake
Inadequate brakecooling
cooling

167
Trouble-Shooting
ooting
This road-car hydraulic-brake-system
hydraulic-brake-system diagnostic procedure may help you solve
some perplexing brake-system problems:
PRELIMINARY ACTION
1.
1. Clean master-cylinder cap.
2. Fill
Fill master-cylinder reservoir.
reservoir.
3.
3. Turn ignition switch to start to prove out instrument-panel brake light.
light.
PEDAL
PEDAL-FEEL FEEL CONDITIONS & APPROPRIATE
APPROPRIATE ACTIONS
1.
1. Pedal to the floor quickly-light
quickly-light on:
on:
Perform action
Perform action A.
A.
If pedal holds,
holds, perform
perform Action B.B.
If pedal does not hold,
hold, perform
perform Action C.
2. Pedal to the floor slowly (creeps)-light
(creeps)-light on:
Perform Action C.
Perform C.
3.
3. Pedal
Pedal firm-long
firm-long stroke-no
stroke-no light:
light:
Perform
Perform Action A. A.
If pedal pumps up-perform
up-perform Action B. B.
If pedal does not pump up-perform
up-perform Action D.
D.
4. Pedal spongy-no
spongy-no light:
Perform Action A.
Perform
If pedal pumps up-perform
up-perform Action B. B.
If pedal
pedal does not pump up-perform
up-perform Action G.
G.
5.
5. Pedal Normal-Goes
Normal-Goes to floor at times:
If disc brakes-perform
brakes-perform Action E. E.
Perform Action F.
Perform F.

ACTIONS
A. Pump pedal as fast as possible
possible 30
30 times and hold
hold pedal
pedal down on last stroke.
stroke.
B.
B. Have
Have an assistant remove master-cylinder cap and observe reservoir-fluid
levels as the pedal
pedal is released
released as quickly as possible.
possible. A spout in
in either chamber
indicates
indicates the possibility of air in the system.
system. Bleed
Bleed the brakes.
brakes. If problems
remain, adjust the brakes.
remain, brakes.
C. Have an assistant observe master-cylinder-fluid
master-cylinder-fluid levels as the brake pedal is
slowly depressed. A level that rises 1/161/16 in.
in. on pedal application and drops to
original level on release-not
release-not including the spout on apply- indicates an internal
apply-indicates internal
bypass leak in in a tandem-type master cylinder.
cylinder. A reservoir that overflows after
long use while the other reservoir drops also indicates an internal bypass. bypass.
Rebuild or replace master cylinder. A reservoir that drops progressively with
Rebuild
each pedal stroke indicates an external pressure
pressure leak. Check all lines and fit-
tings of the affected system-front
system-front or rear-and
rear-and repair as required.
D.
D. Adjust brakes.
brakes. Check for loose wheel bearings and adjust to specifications if
required.
required.
E.
E. Check for loose wheel bearings and adjust to specification if required.
required.
F.
F. If condition
condition occurs only after long periods of idleness, replace the hydraulic
stoplight switch and flush front-system
front-system brake fluid. A shorted
shorted switch can pass
current through the brake fluid.
fluid. Fluid subjected
subjected to electric current for a long
period of time will bubble.
bubble.
G. Check caliper slides,
slides, pins and pistons for sticking. Check disc-brake linings for
tapered wear. Check drum brakes for bent shoes or backing plates.plates.

168
Suppliers List
Suppliers
Suppliers are are listed
listed two
two different
different 11..
11 Deist
Deist Safety,
Safety, Ltd.
Ltd. 26. Henry'sEngineering
Henry's EngineeringCo. Co.
ways.
ways. First,
First, they
they are are listed
listed by by company
company 641
641 Sonora
Sonora Ave.
Ave. P.O. Box
P.O. Box 629
629
name
name in in alphabetical
alphabetical order-then
order-then the the Glendale,
Glendale, CA CA 91201
91 201 Prince Frederick,
Prince Frederick, MD MD 20678
20678
products
products are are listed
listed alphabetically.
alphabetically. IfIf 12. Delco
12. Delco Moraine
MoraineDiv. Div. 27. Huffaker Engineering,
Huffaker Engineering, Inc. Inc.
you
you are
are looking
looking for for aa particular
particular General
General Motors
Motors Corp.
Corp. 22 Mark
22 Mark Dr.Dr.
product,
product, look look first
first inin the
the product
product list.list. 1420
1420Wisconsin
Wisconsin Blvd.
Blvd. San Rafael,
San Rafael, CA CA 94903
94903
The
The number
number behindbehind each each itemitem refers
refers toto Dayton,
Dayton, OHOH 45401
45401 28. Hurst Performance,
Hurst Performance,Inc. Inc.
the
the number
number of of the
the company(ies)
company(ies) shown shown 13. Dick
13. Dick Guldstrand
GuldstrandEnterprises
Enterprises Airheart Brakes
Airheart Brakes
in
inthe
the alphabetical
alphabetical suppliersupplier list.list. 11924 W.
11924 W. Jefferson
Jefferson Blvd.
Blvd. 50West
50 West Street
Street Road
Road
Every
Every year
year newnew companies
companies are are Culver
Culver City,
City, CA
CA 90230
90230 Warminster, PA
Warminster, PA 18974
18974
formed
formed andand some
some go go out
out of
of business.
business. 13A. DillonEnterprises
13A. Dillon Enterprises 29. JFZ Engineered
JFZ EngineeredProducts
Products
Thus,
Thus, you
you should
should not not consider
consider this this list
list 66820SR
66820 SR 23 23 9761 Variel
9761 Variel Ave.
Ave.
to
to be
bethe
the last
last word.
word. IfIf you
you want
want aa North
North Liberty,
Liberty, IN
IN 46554
46554 Chatsworth, CA
Chatsworth, CA 91311
91 31 1
complete
corr~plete and
and current
current listlist of
of companies
companies 14. Dow
14. Dow Corning
CorningCorp.
Corp. 29A. Ja-Mar Off-Road
Ja-Mar Off-Road Products
Products
supplying
supplying aa particular
particular brake-related
brake-related Box
Box 0994
0994 29300 3rd
29300 3rd St.
St.
product,
product, referrefer toto ads
ads inin the
the latest
latest trade
trade Midland, M148640-0994
Midland, MI 48640-0994 San Rafael,
San Rafael, CA CA 94903
94903
and
and racing
racing publications.
publications. The The following
following 15. Dwyer
15. Dwyer Instruments,
Instruments,Inc. Inc. 30. Kano Laboratories
Kano Laboratories
supplier
supplier listlist is
is merely
merely aa guide
guide to to get
get P.
P.O.
0 . Box
Box 373
373 1000S.
1000 S. Thompson
Thompson Ln. Ln.
you
you started
started on on your
your shopping
shopping task. task. Michigan City,
Michigan City, IN
IN 46360
46360 Nashville, TN
Nashville, TN 37211
3721 1
15A. EIS
15A. EISAutomotive
AutomotiveCorp.Corp. 31. Kelsey-Hayes Co.,
Kelsey-Hayes Co., Inc.
Inc.
129Worthington
129 Worthington Ridge
Ridge Kelsey Axle
Kelsey Axle && Brake
Brake Division
Division
ALPHABETICALLIST
ALPHABETICAL LIST OFOFSUPPLIERS
SUPPLIERS P.O.
P.O. Box
Box 1315
1315 5800
5800W.W. Donges
Donges Bay Bay Road
Road
11.. Aeroquip
Aeroquip Corp.Corp. Berlin, CT
Berlin, CT06037
06037 Mequon,WI
Mequon, WI 53092
53092
300
300 S.S. East
EastAve.
Ave. Earl'sPerformance
16. Earl's
16. PerformanceProducts
Products 32. Kelsey-HayesCo.,
Kelsey-Hayes Co., Inc.
Inc.
Jackson,
Jackson, MI MI49203
49203 825 E.
825 E.Sepulveda
Sepulveda Kelsey Products
Kelsey Products Division
Division
2.
2. Alfred
Alfred Teves
TevesTechnologies,
Technologies,Inc. Inc. Carson,
Carson, CACA 90745
90745 38481 Huron
38481 HuronRiver River Dr.
Dr.
(ATE
(ATEBrakes)
Brakes) 17. Edco
17. EdcoSpecialty
Specialty Products
Products Romulus, MI48174
Romulus, MI 481 74
2718
271 8 Industrial
Industrial Row
Row 3411
341 1W.W. MacArthur
MacArthur Blvd.
Blvd. 33. LakewoodEnterprises
Lakewood Enterprises
Troy,
Troy, MI48084
MI 48084 Santa
Santa Ana,
Ana, CA
CA 92703
92703 4566 Spring
4566 Spring Rd. Rd.
2A. Alston
2A. Alston Industries
Industries 7 A. Ford
117A. FordMotorsport
Motorsport Cleveland,OH
Cleveland, OH 44131
441 31
6291
6291 Warehouse
Warehouse Way Way Ford
FordMotor
Motor Co.-SVO
Co.-SVO 34. LambComponents
Lamb Components
Sacramento,
Sacramento,CA CA95826
95826 17000
17000Southfield
Southfield Rd.Rd. 150W.
150 W.College
College Way Way
3.
3. AMMCO
AMMCO Tools, Tools,Inc.
Inc. Allen
Allen Park,
Park,MIMI48101
48101 LaVerne,
La Verne,CA CA91750
91 750
Wacker
Wacker ParkPark 18. Friction
18. FrictionProducts
ProductsCo. Co. 35. LeeManufacturing
Lee ManufacturingCo. Co.
North
NorthChicago,
Chicago, ILIL60064
60064 920Lake
920 LakeRoad
Road Divisionof
Division of Rolero
Rolero
4.
4. AP
AP Racing
Racing Medina,
Medina, OH OH44256
44256 P.O.Box
P.O. Box7187
7187
Leamington
LeamingtonSpa Spa 19. ELSCOlnc.
19. ELSCO Inc. Cleveland,OH
Cleveland, OH 44128
441 28
Warwickshire,
Warwickshire, England
EnglandCV31CV31 1843
1843E. E.Adams
AdamsSt. St. 37. LucasIndustries,
Lucas Industries,Inc. Inc.
3ER
3E R Jacksonville,
Jacksonville, FL FL Girlock
Girlock
5.
5. Automotive
AutomotiveProducts
ProductsUSA, USA,Inc.
Inc. 20. Frankland
20. FranklandRacing
RacingEquipment
Equipment Girling
Girling Brake Hydraulic Sys-
Brake && Hydraulic Sys-
1864
1864Northwood
NorthwoodDr. Dr. P.O. Box
P.O. Box278
278 tems Group
tems Group
Northwood
NorthwoodIndustrial
IndustrialPark
Park Ruskin, FL
Ruskin, FL33570
33570 5500 New
5500 NewKingKingSt. St.
Troy,
Troy,MI48084
MI 48084 21. Girling
21. GirlingLtd.
Ltd. Troy, MI48098
Troy, MI 48098
6.
6. Bendix
BendixAutomotive
AutomotiveAftermarket
Aftermarket 200
200Manchester
ManchesterAve. Ave. 38. MarshInstrument
Marsh InstrumentCo. Co.
1904
1904Bendix
BendixDr.Dr. Detroit,MI
Detroit, MI 3501W.
3501 W.Howard
HowardSt. St.
Jackson,TN
Jackson, TN38301
38301 Girlock
22. Girlock
22. Skokie,IL
Skokie, IL60076
60076
7.7. CC&81DDEngineering
EngineeringSupply
SupplyLtd.
Ltd. c/o
C/OTilton
Tilton Engineering
Engineering 39. McLeodIndustries
McLeod Industries
Rt.
Rt.2,
2, Box
BOX47-1
47-1 McMurray
McMurrayRd. Rd.&& Easy
EasySt.
St. 1125 N.
1125 N.Armando
Armando
Fort
FortValley,
Valley,CA
CA 31030
31030 Buellton,
Buellton,CACA93427
93427 Anaheim,CA
Anaheim, CA92806
92806
7A. Chrysler
7A. ChryslerCorporation
Corporation GirlockLtd.
23. Girlock
23. Ltd. 40. MidwestRace
Midwest RaceEngineering
Engineering
Direct
DirectConnection
Connection 36-40
36-40 Harp.
Harp.St.
St. 503S.
503 S.7th
7thSt.St.
P.O. Box1718
P.O.Box 1718 Belmore,
Belmore,N.S.w.
N.S.W.219221 92 Boonville,IN
Boonville, IN47601
47601
Detroit,
Detroit,MI MI48288
48288 Sydney,
Sydney, Australia
Australia 41. MICO,Inc.
MICO, Inc.
8.
8. Columbia
ColumbiaMotorMotorCorp.
Corp. 24. Grey
24. GreyRock
RockDiv.Div. 191 1Lee
1911 LeeBlvd.
Blvd.
140
140West
West 2121st
stSt.
St. Raybestos
RaybestosManhattan
ManhattanCorp.
Corp. NorthMankato,
North Mankato,MI MI56001
56001
New
NewYork,
York,NY NY10011
1001 1 P.O. Box9140
P.O.Box 9140 42. MorakBrakes,
Morak Brakes,Inc. Inc.
9.9. Contemporary
ContemporaryChassisChassisDesign
Design Bridgeport,
Bridgeport,CT CT06603
06603 9902Ave.
9902 Ave.DD
15506
15506Vermont
VermontSt.St. Performance Sales,
Harwood Performance
25. Harwood
25. Sales, Brooklyn,NY
Brooklyn, NY 11236
11236
Paramount,
Paramount,CA CA90723
90723 Inc.
Inc. 43. MuellerFabricators
Mueller Fabricators
10. CRC
10. CRCChemicals
Chemicals 11501
1 1501Hillguard
HillguardRd.Rd. 10872Stanford
10872 StanfordAve. Ave.
885
885Louis
LouisDr.Dr. Dallas,
Dallas,TXTX 75243
75243 Lynwood,CA
Lynwood, CA90262
90262
Warminster,
Warminster,PA PA18974
18974

169
Suppliers List
44.
44. Nationwide Electronic
Nationwide Electronic Systems,
Systems, 52.
52. Servex
Servex 57. Troutman,
Troutman, Ltd. Ltd.
Inc.
Inc. 1520
1520 10th
10th Ave.
Ave. 31 98 'L'
3198 'L' Airport
Airport Loop
Loop Dr.
Dr.
1536 Brandy Parkway Seattle, Washington
Seattle, 98122
Washington 981 22 Costa
Costa Mesa,
Mesa, CA CA 92626
92626
Streamwood, IL 601
Streamwood, 03
601 03 53. Simpson Safety
53. Simpson Safety Equipment,
Equipment, Inc.
Inc. 58. Velvetouch
Velvetouch Div. Div.
45.
45. Neal Products, Inc. 22630
22630 S.
S. Normandie
Normandie Ave.
Ave. S.K. Wellman
S.K. Wellman Corp. Corp.
7170
71 Rd.
70 Ronson Rd. Torrance, CA
Torrance, 90502
CA 90502 200
200 Egbert Rd. Rd.
San Diego, CA 921
San 92111
11 54. Speedway Engineering
54. Bedford,
Bedford, OH 441 46
44146
46.
46. Engineering, Inc.
Omega Engineering, Bradley Ave.
13040 Bradley Ave. 59. Weevil Ltd.Ltd.
4047, Springdale Station
Box 4047, 91342
Sylmar, CA 91 342 206
206 Queens
Queens Court Court
06907
Stamford, CT 06907 54A. Speedway Motors
54A. Ramsey,
Ramsey, Isle of of Man
Man
47.
47. Performance World P.O. Box
P.O. Box81906
81 906 British
British Isles
3550 University Ave. 68501
Lincoln, NE 68501 60. White Post Restorations
San Diego, CA 55. Stainless Steel Brakes Corp. White Post,
Post, V VAA 22663
22663
48. Technology Inc.
Plasma Technology 11470
11 Rd.
470 Main Rd. 61. Wilwood Engineering
1754 Crenshaw Blvd. 14031
Clarence, NY 14031 4580 Calle Alto
90501
Torrance, CA 90501 55A. Stop & Go Products Camarillo, CA 91 360
91360
49. Professional Racers Emporium 1835 Whittier, Suite A5 61 A. Winters Performance Products
E. 223rd St.
1463 E. Costa Mesa, CA 62627 281
28199 Carlisle Rd.
Carson, CA 90745 55B. Tempil Division
558. York, PA 17404
50. R.A.C.E. Pads
R.A.C.E. Big Three Industries, Inc. 62. WREP Industries, Ltd.
8 S. 582 John St. 2901 Hamilton Boulevard
2901 140-C Shepard
605111
Big Rock, IL 6051 South Plainfield, NJ 07080 Wheeling, 1 11. 60090
III.
51. Ron Minor's Racing Specialties
Ron 56. Tilton Engineering, Inc. 63. Yankee Silicones,
Silicones, Inc.
65111 N.
651 Ave.
N. 27th Ave. McMurray Rd.Rd. 8
& Easy St. P.O. Box 1089
Phoenix,
Phoenix, AZ 8501
85017 7 P.O. Box 1787
P.O. Schenectady, NY 12301 12301
Buellton, CA 93427

PRODUCT INDEX
Numbers
Numbers refer to those shown in in Hand-Operated
Hand-Operated Brake 29A, 29A, 45 Racing Brakes 2A,
Racing 2A, 4, 13A,
13A, 28,
28, 29, 51,
29,51,
alphabetical suppliers list. list. Hats 2A,
2A, 4, 28,29,56,
28, 29,56,61 61 A 54A, 55A, 56,61 A
54A,55A,56,61A
Adjustable Proportioning Valve Hoses 1,4,5,6,7,
1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 16,62
16, 62 Rebuilding Kits 4,5,6, 15A,
15A, 28, 29,45,
Valve 2A,
2A, 7 A,
7A,
17A,
17A, 32,
32, 47,
47, 56,
56, 61
61 Lining
Lining Material 4, 5, 6,
4,5, 6, 8,
8, 13A, 24, 50,
13A, 24,50, 55,56,62
Adjusters 5,5 ,6 51, 54A, 55A
51,54A, Remote Balance-Bar Adjuster 13A,
Remote 13A, 45,
Anti-Noise Compound 10 10 54A, 56,61 A
54A,56,61A
Master Cylinders 2A, 4,
4, 5,
5, 6,
6, 12,
12, 13A,
13A, Reservoirs 5,45,51,
Reservoirs 5, 45,51, 55A, 56
Balance
Balance Bars
Bars 29A,
29A, 45, 56, 61 A
45,56,61 28,29A, 37,45,51,54A, 55A, 56,61,
28,29A,37,45,51,54A,55A,56,61, 45,51,55A,
Reservoir Extensions 45, 51, 55A, 56
Bleeder Screws
Screws 5, 5 , 66 61A,62
61A, 62 28,45
Residual-Pressure Valves 28, 45
Brake Fluid 4,
Brake Fluid 4, 5, 6, 7, 15A,
5,6,7, 15A, 45,
45, 47,
47, 51,
51, Metric Adapter Fittings
Fittings 6,
6, 7, 45, 62
7,45, 62 Return Springs 5,
Return 5 ,6
54A,55A,56,61,62
54A, 55A, 56,61,62 Rotors 2A,
2A, 4,
4, 5,
5,6, 12, 13A,
13A, 15A,
15A, 28,
28, 29,
29,
Moisture
Moisture Barriers
Barriers 45,
45, 56
56 Rotors 6,12,
Brake-Locking
Brake-Locking Valves 29A, 29A, 37
37 29A, 32,51,52,54A, 55A, 61A
Pads 2A, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 29A,32,51,52,54A,55A,61A
Brake
Brake Tubing 6, 6, 45
45 Pads2A,4,5,6,7, 12, 13A,
13A, 15A,
15A, 18,
18,
28,29,29A,32,50,51,54A,55A,
28,29, 29A, 32,50,51,54A, 55A, 5,6,
Shoes 5, 15A, 18,
6, 15A, 18,32,52,55
32, 52, 55
Calipers
Calipers 2,2, 2A,
2A, 4, 5, 6,
4,5, 6, 12, 13A, 28,
12,13A, 28, 29,
29, 61A Fluid 15A,
15A, 47,
47, 51,55,62,63
51, 55,62, 63
61 A Silicone Fluid
29A,32,51,54A,55,56,60,61,61A
29A, 32, 51,54A, 55,56,60,61,61 A Parachutes 11,53
11,53 Brakes 28,
Sprint-Car Brakes 29,54A,
28, 29, 55A,
54A, 55A,
Caliper Brackets
Brackets 28, 28,56 56 56,61
Pedals
Pedals 2A,
2A, 13A,
13A, 29A,
29A, 45, 51,51, 54A,
45,51,51,54A, 56,61
Cleaning
Cleaning Fluids
Fluids 10,51
10, 51 56,61,61
56,61,61A A Hoses 1,4,7,
Steel-Braided Hoses 1,4, 7, 16,52,62
16,52, 62
Cutting
Cutting Brakes
Brakes 29A,
29A, 45 45 Pedal
Pedal Brackets
Brackets 2A,
2A, 13A,
13A, 29A,
29A, 45, 54A,
45,54A, Brakes 13A,
Stock-Car Brakes l3A, 28,
28,29, 54A,
29, 54A,
Cylinder Restoring
Restoring 55, 55, 6060 55A, 56,
56,61,61
56,61
56.61A A 55A, 61,61 A
Decelerometers
Decelerometers 33 Penetrating
penetrating Oil30
Oil 30 Switches
Switches 6
Dragster Brakes
Dragster Brakes 2A, 2A, 28, 29, 31,61
28,29,31,61 Power
Power Boosters
Boosters 2, 2, 5,
5, 66 Indicators 4,46,51,
Temperature Indicators 4, 46, 51,558,
55B,
Drums
Drums 5, 15A, 29
5,15A, 29 Pressure Bleeders
Pressure Bleeders 6, 6,15A
15A 56,59
56,59
Fast-Fill
Fast-Fill Master
Master Cylinders
Cylinders 41 41 Pressure
Pressure Gages,
Gages, AirAir 15
15 Tools 3,
Tools 3, 66
Finned
Finned Drums
Drums 55 Pressure
Pressure Gages,
Gages, Hydraulic
Hydraulic 28, 38, 41
28,38,41
Pressure
PressureSwitches
Switches 41 41 Water-Cooling System
Water-Cooling System 56
56
Fittings
Fittings 1,4,5,6,7,
1,4,5, 6, 7, 16,45,51,52,56,
16,45,51, 52, 56, Wheel Cylinders
Cylinders 5,6
5, 6
Proportioning
Proportioning Valves
Valves 2A,2A, 7A,
7A, 17A,
17A, 31,
31, Wheel
62
62
Flaring 47,56
47,56
Flaring Tools
Tools 66
Pushrods
Pushrods 5656
Gage Protectors 41
Gage Protectors 41 Pyrometers/Thermometers 4,
Pyrometers/Thermometers 4,44,46,
44, 46,
51,56
51,56

170
 METRIC. CUSTOMARY-UNIT EQUIVALENTS
.

Multiply: METRIC
by: to get: I
CUSTOMARY-UNIT
I Multiply: EQUIVALENTS
by: to get:
LINEAR
Multiply: by: to get: 1 Multiply: by: to get:
inches
LINEAR X 25.4 millimeters(mm) X 0 .03937 inches
feet X 0.3048 meters (m) X 3.281 feet
inches
yards X
X 25.4
0.9144 millimeters(mm)
= meters (m) X
X 0.03937
1.0936 = inches
yards
feet
miles X
X 0.3048
1.6093 meters (m) (km)
= kilometers X
X 03.281
.6214 = feet
miles
yards
inches X
X 0.9144
2.54 = meters (m)
centimeters (cm) X
X 01.0936
.3937 = yards
inches
miles
microinches X
X 1.6093
0.0254 = kilometers (km)
micrometers (M m) X
X 0.6214
39.37 = miles
microinches
inches X 2.54 = centimeters (cm) X 0.3937 inches =
AREA
rnicroinches X 0.0254 = micrometers(Mrn) X 39.37 rnicroinches
=
inches
2
X 645.16 2 2
AREA 2 millimeters (mm2j X 0.00155 inches
inches X 6.452 centi meters 2(cm 2j X 0.155 inches 2
inches2
feee X
X 645.16
0.0929 = millirneters2(mrn2)
meters2(m2j X 0.00155 2
inches2
= feet
X 10.764
inches2
yards
2 X
X 6.452
0.8361 = centimeters2(crn2)
meters 2(m2j X
X 0.155
1.196 = inches2
yards
2
feet2
acres X
X 0.0929
0.4047 = rneters2(m2) 4 m2j (ha)
hectacres(10 X
X 10.764
2.471 = feet2
acres
yards2
miles
2 X
X 0.8361
2.590 = meters2(m2)
kilometers 2(km 2j X
X 1.196
0.3861 = yards2
miles 2
acres X 0.4047 = hectacres(104m2)(ha) X 2.471 - acres
VOLUME
miles2 X 2.590 = kilometers2(km2) X 0.3861 = miles2
3
inches
VOLUME X 16387 millimeters 3(mm~ X 0.000061 inches
3

inches
3
X 16.387 3
centimeters (cm 3) X 0.06102 3
inches
inches3
inches
3 X
X 16387
0.01639 millimeters3(mm3)
= liters
X 61 .024 inches3 3
(I) inches
inches3
quarts X
X 016.387
.94635 = centimeters3(crn3)
liters (I) X 1.0567 inches3
quarts
inches3
gallons X
X 0.01639
3.7854 liters (I)
= liters (1) X 0.2642 inches3
gallons
3
quarts X 0.94635 = Iliters (1) quarts
3
feet X 28.317 iters (I) X 0.03531 feet
gallons X 3.7854 meters 3 (m 3)
= liters (1) 3
gallons
3
feet X 0.02832 X 35.315 feet
feet3
fluid oz X
X 28.31 7
29.57 = liters (1)
milliliters (mil X 0.03381 feet3oz
fluid
feet3
yards
3 X
X 0.02832
0.7646 = meters 3(m 3)
meters3(m3) feet3 3
X 1.3080 yards
fluid oz
teaspoons X
X 429.57
.929 = milliliters(ml)
milliliters (mil X 0.2029 fluid oz
teaspoons
yards3
cups X
X 0.7646
0.2366 = meters3(m3)
liters (I) X 4.227 yards3
cups
teaspoons X 4.929 = milliliters (ml) teaspoons
MASS
cups X 0.2366 = liters (1) cups
ounces
MASS (av) X 28.35 grams (g) X 0.03527 ounces (av)
pounds (av) X 0.4536 kilograms (kg) X 2.2046 pounds (av)
ounces
tons (2000 (av)Ib) X
X 28.35
907.18 = grams
kilograms(g) (kg) X
X 0.03527 = ounces
'0.001102 tons (2000 (av)Ib)
pounds
tons (2000 (av)Ib) X
X 0.4536
0.90718 = kilograms
metric tons(kg)(t) X
X 2.2046
1.1023 = pounds
tons (2000 (av)Ib)
tons (2000 Ib) X 907.1 8 = kilograms (kg) X '0.001 102 = tons (2000 1b)
FORCE
tons (2000 Ib) X 0.9071 8 = metric tons (t) X 1.I 023 = tons (2000 Ib)
ounces-t(av)
FORCE X 0.278 newtons (N) X 3.597 ounces-f(av)
pounds-t(av) X 4.448 newtons (N) X 0.2248 pound's-f(av)
ounces-f(av)
kilograms-f X
X 0.278
9 .807 = newtons
newtons (N) (N) X
X 3.597
0.10197 = ounces-f(av)
kilograms-f
pounds-f(av) X 4.448 = newtons (N) X 0.2248 = pound's-f(av)
TEMPERATURE
kilograms-f X 9.807 = newtons (N) X 0.10197 = kilograms-f

TEMPERATURE
-40 98.6 212

O F -40
o
I I 32
80 II
I I 98.6
I
120
I I I I I
I, 00
21I 2I
240
I I I
280
I I "F
I
I

I
I 0
I
' 40
I l l
I 80I I 120I 160
i

I I I I I l I I l , l I I I I I I I
I 00 240I
l I I
I
I

I
280
I I l I I
320
-40 -20 o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 C

"C -40Celsius
Degrees -20 (C) = 0
0.556 (F20
- 32) 40 60 80 100 Farenheit
Degree 120 140
(F) = (1160
.8C) +OC
32

Degrees Celsius (C) = 0.556 (F - 32) Degree Farenheit (F) = (1.8C) + 32

ACCELERATION
2
feetlsec 2
2
feetlsec
ACCELERATION X 0.3048 meters/sec (m/s2j X 3.281
2 2
inches/sec X 0.0254 metersl sec 2(ml s 2j X 39.37 inches/sec

171
171
 Multiply: by: to get: I I Multiply: by: to get:

Multiply: by: to get: Multiply: by: to get:

ENERGY OR WORK (Watt-second=joule=newton-meter)
foot- pounds
ENERGY OR WORK X (Watt-second=joule=
1.3558 joules (J)newton-meter) X 0.7376 foot-pounds
calories X 4.187 joules (J) X 0 .2388 calories
foot-pounds
Btu XX 1.3558
1055 = joules
joules (J)
(J) X
X 0.7376
0.000948 = foot-pounds
Btu
calories
watt-hours XX 4.187
3600 = joules
joules (J)
(J) X
X 0.2388
0.0002778 =
= calories
watt-hours
Btu
kilowatt-hrs XX 1055
3.600 = joules (J) (MJ)
megajoules X
X 0.000948
0 .2778 = Btu
kilowatt-hrs
watt-hours X 3600 = joules (J) X 0.0002778 = watt-hours
FUEL ECONOMY X
kilowatt-hrs & FUEL CONSUMPTION
3.600 = megajoules (MJ) X 0.2778 = kilowatt-hrs
miles/ ECONOMY
FUEL gal &X FUEL
0.42514 = kilometers/ liter(km / I)
CONSUMPTION X 2.3522 miles/ gal
Note :
rniles/gal X 0.4251
235.2/ (mi / gal) = liters/ 1 OOkm 4 = kilorneters/liter(km/I)
Note:
235.2/ (liters/ 1OOkm) = mi / gal
235.2/(rni/gal) =liters/l OOkm
PRESSURE OROOkm)
235.2/(liters/l STRESS= rni/gal
inches Hg (60F) X 3.377 kilopascals (kPa) X 0.2961 inches Hg
PRESSURE OR STRESS
pounds/sq in. X 6.895 kilopascals (kPa) X 0.145 pounds/sq in
inches Hg (60F) X X 3.377 = kilopascals
kilopascals (kPa) X 0.2961 inches
inchesHzO(60F) 0.2488 (kPa) X 4.0193 =
inches Hg
H2O
pounds/sq
bars in. X
X 6.895
100 = kilopascals
kilopascals (kPa)
(kPa) XX 0.145
0.01 = pounds/sq
bars in
inchesH20(60F)
pounds/ sq ft X 0.2488
X 47.88 = kilopascals
pascals (Pa)(kPa) XX 4.0193
0.02088 =
pounds/Hsq
inches 2 0ft
bars X 100 = kilopascals (kPa) X 0.01 = bars
POWER
pounds/sq ft X 47.88 = pascals (Pa) X 0.02088 = pounds/sq ft
horsepower
POWER X 0.746 kilowatts (kW) X 1.34 horsepower
ft-Ibflmin X 0 .0226 watts (W) X 44.25 ft-Ibflmin
horsepower X 0.746 = kilowatts (kW) X 1.34 = horsepower
TORQUE
ft-lbf/min X 0.0226 = watts (W) X 44.25 = ft-lbf/min
pound-inches
TORQUE X 0.11298 newton-meters (N-m) X 8.851 pound-inches
pound-feet X 1.3558 newton-meters (N-m) X 0 .7376 pound-feet
pound-inches
pound-inches X
X 0.1 1298 = newton-meters
0.0115 kilogram-meters(N-m)(Kg-M) X
X 8.851
87 = pound-inches
pound-feet
pound-feet
pound-feet X 1.3558 = kilogram-meters
X 0.138 newton-meters (N-m) (Kg-M) X
X 0.7376
7.25 = pound-feet
pound-feet
pound-inches X 0.01 15 = kilogram-meters (Kg-M) X 87 = pound-feet
VELOCITY
pound-feet X 0.138 = kilogram-meters (Kg-M) X 7.25 = pound-feet
miles/ hour
VELOCITY X 1.6093 kilometers/ hour(km / h) X 0 .6214 miles/ hour
feet/sec X 0 .3048 meters/ sec (m/ s) X 3 .281 feet/sec
miles/hour
kilometers/ hr X 1.6093 = kilometers/hour(km/h)
X 0.27778 meters/ sec (m/ s) XX 0.6214
3.600 = miledhour
kilometers/h r
feet/sec
miles/ hour X 0.3048
X 0.4470 = rneters/sec
meters/ sec (m/s)
(m/ s) X
X 3.281
2.237 = feet/sec
miles/hour
kilorneterdhr X 0.27778 = rneters/sec (m/s) X 3.600 = kilorneters/hr
COMMON
miles/hour METRIC PREFIXES
X 0.4470 = meters/sec (rn/s) X 2.237 = miledhour .
mega (M)
COMMON METRIC 1,000,000
PREFIXES or 10 6 centi (c) 0.01 or 10- 2
kilo (k) 1,000 or 10 3 milli (m) 0.001 or 10-3
mega (h)
hecto (M) = 100 1,000,000 or
or l o 26 centi
10 (c) =
micro (ttl
0.01
0 .000,001
or
or 10-6
kilo (k) = 1,000 or 1 o3 milli (m) = 0.001 or '
hecto (h) = 100 or 10' micro = 0.000,001 or
Convers ion chart courtesy Ford Motor Company.

Conversion chart courtesy Ford Motor Company.

172
 BOLT TORQUE BY GRADE
SAE Grade Number 1 or 2 5
BOLT TORQUE BY GRADE 8 Special Alloy*
Manufacturer's marks may

~
SAE Grade Number

~
1 or2

~
5 8

~
Special Alloy*
vary. Bolt grades up through

e
/,
Manufacturer's marks may
grade 8 are shown

Capscrew(psi)
Strength
at right.
vary. Bolt grades up through
grade 8 are shown at right.
Capscrew Diameter (inch)
and Minimum Tensile
Diameter (inch)
and Minimum Tensile
To 1/2-69,000
To 3/4-64,000
To 1/2-69,000
To 1-60,000
To 3/4-64,000
I I
To 3/4-120,000
3/4 to 1-115,000
To 3/4- 120,000
3/4 to 1 - 1 15,000
9 I

To 1 -150,000
To 1 - 150,000
To 1 -185,000
To 1 - 185,000

Strength & thread pitch

Bolt size (psi) Torque
To (foot-pounds) for plated bolts with clean, dry threads.
1-60,000
1/4-20
Bolt size & thread pitch 6
Torque (foot-pounds)10 12
for plated bolts with clean, dry threads. 14
-28 7 12 15 17
1/4-20
5/16-18 136 10
20 12
24 14
29
-28
-24 147 12
22 15
27 17
35
5/16-18
3/8-16 13
23 20
36 24
44 29
58
-24
-24 14
26 22
40 27
48 35
69
3/8-16
7/16-14 23
37 36
52 44
63 58
98
-24
-20 2
416 40
57 48
70 69
110
7/16-14
1/2-13 37
57 52
80 63
98 98
145
-20
-20 41
64 57
90 70
110 110
160
1/2-13
9/16-12 57
82 80
120 98
145 145
200
-20
-18 64
91 90
135 110
165 160
220
9/16-12
5/8-11 82
111 120
165 145
210 200
280
-1
-188 91
128 135
200 1 65
245 220
310
5/8-11
3/4-10 111
200 165
285 21 0
335 280
490
-1
-168 128
223 200
315 245
370 31
5300
3/4-10
7/8-9 200
315 285
430 335
500 490
760
-1
-146 223
340 31 5
470 370
550 530
800
7/8-9
1-8 31 5
400 430
650 500
760 7 60
1130
-1
-144 340
460 470
710 550
835 800
1210
1-8 400 650 760 1130
For lubricated-1 4
threads, reduce torque 71 0
460 values by the following amount: 45% when835 using anti-seize1210
compound; 40%
with grease or heavy oil; 30% with graphite; or 25% with white lead. "Torque Values shown are for high nickle-
chrome alloy Bowmalloy cap screws. Other high-alloy cap screws maY .not have the same values. Always use
with grease or heavy
manufacturer's oil; 30% ifwith
specifications theygraphite; or 25%
do not agree withwith white
values lead.
listed *Torque
in this chart.Values shown are for high nickle-
chrome alloy Bowmalloy cap screws. Other high-alloy cap screws m a y n o t have the same values. Always use
manufacturer's specifications if they do not agree with values listed in this chart.

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS
0.0156-1/64 0.2656-17/64
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS 0.5156~33/64 0.7656-49/64
0.0312 1/32 0.2812 9/32 0.5312 ' , 17/32 0 .7812 25/32
00.01 56- 1 /64
.0469-3/64 0.2656- 17/64 0.5156-33/64 0.7656-49/64
0.031-
1/16-0.0625 2 1 /32 5/16- 0.281 -
0.2969-19/64
2
0 .3125 9/32 9/16- 0.531 -
0.5469-35/64
0.56252'
0.7969-51/64
17/32 13/16- 0.781
0.8125-2 25/32
00.0469-3/64
.0781-5/64 0.2969- 1
0.3281-21/649/64 0.5469-35/64
0.5781-37/64 0.7969-51 /64
0 .8281 -53/64
1 /I 6- 0.0937
0.0625 3/32 5/16-0.3125
0 .3437 11/32 9/16-0.5937
0.5625 19/32 13/16- 00. 8125
.8437 27/32
0.0781 -5/64
0.1094-7/54 0.3281 -21
0.3594-23/64 /64 0.5781 -37/64
0.6094-39/64 0.8281 -53/64
0.8594-55/64
2/16- 0 .0937-
0.1250 3/32 6/16- 0.3437
0.3750 - 1 1 /32 1'0/16- 0.6250
0.5937- 19/32 14/16- 0.8750
0.8437- 27/32
0.1094-7/54
0.1406-9/64 0.3594-23/64
0.3906~25/64
0.6094-39/64
0.6406-41/64 0.8594-55/64
0.8906-57/64
2/16-0.1250
0.1562 5/32 6/16-0.4062
0.3750 13/32 ?0/16-0.6562
0.6250 21/32 14/16- 00.8750
.9062 29/32
0.1406-9/64 0.3906- 25/64 0.6406-41/64 00.8906 -57/64
0.1719-11/64
0.1562-
3/16-0.1875
0.1719-1 1/64
0.4219-27/64
5/327/16-0.4375
0.4062-
0.421 9-27/64
13/32 11/16- 0.6876 -
0.6719-43/64
0.6562
0.671 9-43/64
.9219-59/64
21 /32 15/16- 00.9062-
.9375
0.921 9-59/64
29/32
0.2031-13/64 0.4531 -29/64 0.7031-45/64 0.9531-61/64 '
3/16-0.1875
0.2187 7/32 7/16-0.4375
0.4687 15/32 1 1 /16- 0.6875
0 .7187 23/32 15/16-0.9375
0.9687 31/32
0.2031-1 3/64
0.2344-15/64 0.4531-29/64
0.4844~31 /64 0.7031-45/64
0.7344-47/64 0.9531-61 /64
0.9844-63/64
0.2187-
4/16-0.2500 7/328/16-0.5000
0.4687- 15/32 12/16- 0 .7187-
0.7500 23/32 16/16-10. 9687-
.000 31 /32
0.2344- 1 5/64 0.4844-31 /64 0.7344-47/64 0.9844-63/64
4/16-0.2500 811 6-0.5000 12/16- 0.7500 16/16- 1 .OOO
Chart courtesy Acme Rivet & Machine Corp.

Chart courtesy Acme Rivet & Machine Corp.

173
Index
A
A brake fluid
fluid 42, 63
63 D
D
AP Racing
AP Racing 26,
26, 28,
28, 30
30 brake history 6 -- 77 deceleration 11 11
actuating
actuating system
system 5,5, 85
85 brake
brake hose,
hose, Aeroquip
Aeroquip 61 61 deceleration test
deceleration test 112,
112, 116
116
adjusters,
adjusters, automatic
automatic 22,22, 121
121 line, Bendix 61
brake line, 61 decelerometer,
deceleronieter, AMMCOAMMCO Tools Tools Inc. 1 12
Inc. 112
aerodynamic
aerodynamic braking 82 82 brake
brake lining
lining 5,
5, 15,
15, 21,
2 1, 34
34 deflection
deflection reduction
reduclion 162-165
162-165
aerodynamic
aerodynamic drag
aerodynamic
drag 9,
9, 82
aerodynamic modifications
82
modifications 147147
brake
brake pads 5,22,32
brake pedal
5, 22, 32
pedal 5,66-76
5, 66-76
Department
Department of
design criteria
design
of Transportation
criteria 88
Transportation (DOT)
90
88 -- 90
(DOT) 64 64 I
air brake, see
air see pneumatic brakes
brakes brake
brake shoe,
shoe, aluminum
aluminum 20 20 disc
disc brake
brake 4,4, 5,
5, 23-33
23-33
air
air ducts
ducts 139
139 brake shoes
shoes 4,
4, 15,21
15, 21 mechanical 66
mechanical
air-pressure
air-pressure gage
gage 113,
1 13, 142
142 brake
brake testing
testing 104
104 disc-brake rotor
disc-brake rotor 5, 5, 23,
23, 25,
25, 96,132
96, 132
Airheart, Frank 31 31 brake
brake torque
torque 55,
55, 9393 diameter 134
discard diameter
discard 134
Alfa Romeo
Romeo 20,20, 22
22 brake
brake warning-light
warning-light switch
switch 59
59 discard thickness
discard thickness 132 132
Alston Industries 31
Alston 31 brakes
brakes displacement
displacement fluidfluid 4444
anti-skid control
control 58
58 -- 59
59 diagonally
diagonally split
split system
system 45,
45, 48,
48, 56,
56, 161
161 dog drive
dog drive 25
25
ATE
ATE 58,59
58, 59 hydraulic
hydraulic 66 drag 9,
drag 9, 82
82
Bosch 58,59
58,59 inboard
inboard 9898 drag coefficient
drag coefficient 83 83
Chrysler 58
Chrysler 58 mechanical
mechanical 6, 6, 87
87 drilling drums
drilling drums 149149
Delco
1)elco 58
58 British
British Thermal
Thermal Units
Units (BTU)
(BTU) 88 drilling rotors
drilling rotors 26,
26, 148148
Ford 58
Ford 58 r7
C
drum brake
drum brake 4, 15 -- 22,
4, 15 22,40
40
L
G M 58
GM 58 duo-servo 16
duo-servo 16 -17
-17
C && D
C D Engineering SupplySupply Ltd.
Ltd. 63
63
Honda 58
Honda 58 CR C Disc external 55
external
CRC Disc Brake
Brake Quiet 136 136
Kelsey-Hayes 58
Kelsey-Hayes 58 caliper shoe 4,
shoe 4, 15,21
15,21
caliper 5,28,52,97,
5, 28, 52, 97, 156 156
Mercedes
Mercedes 58 58 AP
Duesenberg 6, 6, 77
AP Racing
Racing 161161
Mitsubishi 58
Mitsubishi 58 dust shield,
dust shield, modifying
modifying 146 146
Bendix 52
Bendix 52
Porsche 58
Porsche 58 Instruments 113
Dwyer Instruments 113
bridge 30,
bridge 30, 162
162
Auto
Auto Union 20 20 Corvette dynamometer 104
dynamometer 104 -- 105
105
Corvette 95 95
arcing21,41,134
arcing 21,41, 134 fixed E
E
fixed 28
28
asbestos
asbestos 36,41,
36,41, 134,
134, 150
150 flexing Eagle Indy
Eagle lndy Car
Car 73
73
flexing 30,
30, 106,
106, 162
162
B floating
floating 2828 Edwards, Wally
Edwards, Wally 146146
backing plate
backing plate 15,20
15, 20 hinged 29
hinged 29 effective piston
effective piston area
area 99
99
backing-plate modifications
backing-plate modifications 147 147 Hurst/ Airheart 100,
I4urstlAirheart 100, 145
145 effective piston
effective piston diameter 99
diameter 99
balance bar
balance bar 6,
6, 50,
50, 74,
74, 100,
100, I114,
14, 160-
160-162
I 62 JFZ Engineered
JFZ Engineered Products
Products 156156 effective radius
effective radius 99,158
99, 158
adjustable 74,100,161
adjustable 74, 100, 16 1 mounting
mounting 32 32 energy 77 -- 11
energy 11
Neal Products
Neal Products 75 75 piston
piston 30,
30, 52
52 kinetic 8,
kinetic 8, 96,
96, 105
105
Tilton
Tilton Engineering
Engineering 75 75 Lockheed
Lockheed 53 53 potential 99
potential
Winter Performance
Winter Performance 75 75 Camaro
Camaro 83 83 FF
bedding in
bedding in 40
40 Can-Am McLaren 140
Can-Am McLaren 140 Sactor of
factor of safety
safety 68,91
68, 91
bellmouthing 19
bellmouthing 19 Can-Am Porsche
Can-Am Porsche 139 139 fade 14,
fade 14, 25,148
25, 148
Bendix 15,
Bendix 15, 79
79 center
center of
of gravity
gravity (CG)
(CG) 8,13,92
8, 13, 92 fatique 27
fatique 27
Bignotti,
Bignotti, George
George 104 104 center of
center of pressure
pressure 93 93 tittings 62-63
fittings 62-63
bleeder
bleeder screw
screw 49,49, 52,123,127,164
52, 123, 127, 164 changeover
changeover pressure
pressure 54, 74
54,74 flare 62
flare 62
bleeding
bleeding 123
123 Chaparral
Chaparral 84, 84, 85
85 fluid 42,
fluid 42, 63-65
63-65
bonded
bonded lining
lining 3737 charts
charts boiling 63
boiling 63
booster
booster 77,
77, 135,
135, 154
154 Brake
Brake Test
Test Data
Data Sheet
Sheet 109109 glycol-based 63,
glycol-based 63, 129
129
ATE T-50
ATE T-50 153,154
153, 154 CG location
CG location 9393 silicone 63,
silicone 63, 65,
65, 129
129
air-suspended 79
air-suspended 79 Chrysler Imperial
Chrysler Imperial 2424 fluid-inlet port
fluid-inlet porl46 46
Bendix Hydro-Boost
Bendix Hydro-Boost 81 81 Chrysler
Chrysler hemi
hemi 19 19 fluid-level indicator
fluid-level indicator 60 60
Girlock
Girlock LSC
LSC 5077
50 77 combination valve
combination valve 6060 Ford Motorsport
Ford Motorsport 56 56
hydraulic 80
hydraulic 80 compensating
compensating port port 46
46 Formula II car
Formula car 156
156
Master-Vac 79
Master-Vac 79 composite drum
composite drum 19 19 Formula Ford
Formula Ford 138 138
tandem 79
tandem 79 composite
composite rotor
rotor 27
27 -- 28
28 friction 4,
friction 4, 77 -- 8,
8, 34
34
Brabham 28
Brabham 28 control valve
control valve 7979 friction 35
friction 35
brake adjustment
brake adjustment 22, 121
22, 121 cooling improvements
cooling improvements 139-147 139-147 friction coefficient
friction coefficient 8,8, II, 1 1, 34
34
brake balance
brake balance 14,14, 54,
54, 74,
74, 114,
114, 152,
152, 160
160 Corvair 145
Corvair 145 friction force
friction force 34 34
brake components,
brake components, AP AP Racing
Racing 137137 Corvette 29,
Corvette 29, 33,
33, 36,
36, 146,
146, 148
148 friction material
friction material 4, 4, 34-41
34-41
brake design
brake design 88-103
88- 103 Corvette GTP
Corvette G T P 44 Bendix EDF
Bendix E D F 40 40
brake drum
brake drum 4, 4, 18,
18, 146
146 Crosley
Crosley 77 Ferodo DS l l 39,40,41
Ferodo DSll 39,40,41
Al-Fin 19,
AI-Fin 19, 146
146 cup expander
cup expander 47,51
47, 51 Hardie-Ferodo 110339
Hardie-Ferodo 1103 39
bi-metallic 18
bi-metallic 18 cup-type
cup-type seal
seal 46
46 I4ardie-Ferodo Premium
Hardie-Ferodo Premium 40 40
Buick 146
Buick 146 cutting brake
cutting brake 8787 Hardie-Ferodo DP11
Hardie-Ferodo DPI I
brake effectiveness
brake effectiveness 118 1 18 cutting brake,
cutting brake, Ja-Mar
Ja-Mar 87 87 Raybestos
Ray bestos M M19 1939,
j 9 , 4400
brake fade
brake fade 14,
14. 25
25

174
 Raybestos 5191
5 191 40
4.0 I 66,99,
pedal 66, 135, 163
99,135,163
Raybestos 5262 40 IMSA road racer 95 95 arm 66
frontal area 83
frontal 83 39,50,95, 144
Indy Car 39,50,95,144 102, 163
bracket 72, 102, 163
G 12
inertia 12 design 66, 91, 99, 163
design66,91,99,163
51
Girling 51 12, 91
inertia force 12, 91 17, 68, 101, 150
effort 17,68,101,150
input piston 45 floor-mounted 73 73
21
Girlock 21
hanging 66, 7373
41
glaze 41 JJ
102, 135
99, 102,135
linkage 5, 66, 99,
Goodyear 53 53 7, 25, 2.9, 33, 163
JFZ 7,25,2.9,33, 163 pad 67
graphs Jaguar 7
pivot 69
Aerodynamic Drag vs. Speed 84 K 68, 101, 159
ratio 68,101,159
vs. Aerodynamic
Deceleration vs. kinetic energy 8, 96 stop 76
Downforce 116116
L pedal-and-bracket assembly
Drum Brake Servo Action 158 158
Lancia Monte Carlo GP G P 5 Turbo 28 Tilton Engineering 72
Fluid Pressure vs. Proportioning
leading shoe 16,
16, 52 Neal Products 72
Valve Settings 57
116
Lee, Geoff 116 pedal bracket, Neal 102 102
vs. Pedal Effort
Fluid Pressure vs.
LeMans 7 perpendicular force 34
with Booster 8181
Lincoln Mark VII 58, 58, 59 Peugeot 6
Fluid Pressure with AP Racing
15, 2 1, 34
lining 5, 15,21,34 Phoenix International Raceway 23, 96
Proportioning Valve 55
metallic 35 pneumatic brakes 6, 6, 85
85
Fluid Pressure with Kelsey-Hayes
molded 36 potential energy 9
proportioning valve 56
organic 35 power assist 77 -- 81
81
Fluid Pressure with AP Racing
replacement 13113 1 power booster 77
proportioning valve 55
semimetallic 37 power chamber 78
vs. Rear Pressure with Pressure
Front vs.
Long Beach 37 pressure 42, 78, 99
Limiting Valve 57
pressure bleeding 124124
63
Glycol Brake Fluid Boiling Point 63 M
M
Ideal Front vs. Rear Fluid Pressure 56
pressure-limiting valve 57
MG 5
MG5 primary piston 48
Pedal Effort vs.
vs. Lining Friction 23, 141
March Indy Car 23,141 primary shoe 16
16
Coefficient 17 master cylinder 6, 6, 46, 10
101, 128, 151
I, 128, 151
Pedal Effort vs. Master-Cylinder
proportioning valve 54,54, 100, 161
100, 161
Airheart 50 55
AP Racing 55
151
Diameter 151 fast fill 49, 50 74, 100, 161
adjustable 55, 74,100,161
EffortIATE Boosters 154
Pedal Effort/ATE 154 Girling 46
Rear Fluid Pressure for Maximum
Alston Performance Brakes 161 161
Howe 65 65 Chevrolet 161
161
Deceleration 54 HurstIAirheart
Hurst! Airheart 47 Chrysler 56
Rear Fluid Pressure with Proportioning tandem 48 Corvette 56
Valve 54 master-cylinder
master-cy linder bail 48
11, 91
gravity force (g's) 11,91
Direct Connection 161 161
master-cylinder ports 46 56, 161
Ford 56,161
green fade 40 mechanical advantage 69
grip 35, 92
Kelsey-Hayes 161161
mechanical brake 6 161
Porsche 56, 161
148
grooving rotors 148 Mercedes 300SLR 82, 84
150
groving linings 150
Tilton Engineering 160 160
Mercury 159 159 puck 5
H
H metering valve 53-54 pushrod,
push rod, adjustable 8181
HPBooks 86 minimum-wear thickness 132 132 pyrometer 105,
105, 110
110
hand-operated brakes 87 Monroe, Tom 86 106
AP Racing 106
hard lining 37 Monza 86 Nationwide Electronic Systems III 1 11
hat 25, 97
hat25,97 multi-disc brake 22, 86 Omega Engineering 106, 106, 110
110
heat 8 N Tilton Engineering 106,106, 110
110
129
heel drag, 129 115, 140, 141, 142
NACA duct 115,140,141,142 R
I31
Honda 131 3 1, 99
noncircular piston 31, regenerative braking 9
Honda Civic 57 normal force 34 reservoir 50
129
hone 129
60, 122,
hoses 60, 122, 162
162 o0 residual-pressure valve 47
53
O-ring seal 53 2 1, 76
return spring 21,
How 10
to Make Your
Yolir Car Handle 165
Cbr tlat~dle
165
Omega Engineering, Inc.Inc. 106,
106, 110, 11 1
110, III Riverside Raceway 34
Howe 50
Omega Label 1101 10 riveted lining 37
hydraulic brake 6
operating pressure, 99 Road
Road & Track magazine 28
hydraulic system 42-65
output piston, 45 rollback 50
61-62, 123
hydraulic tubing 61-62,123
p rolling drag 82
hydroscopic 64 P rolling radius 94, 158
158
163
Hurst 163 pad backing plate 32 rotor surfacing 132
132
HurstIAirheart
Hurst/ Airheart 32 pad, brake 5, 22, 32
rotor
30, 122,
parking brake 30, 122, 135
135 composite 27 -- 28

175
 discard thickness
discard thickness 132,
132, 133
133 stock-car brake
stock-car brake 4040 Tempilabel
Ternpilabel 110 110
IIHurst 96
urst 96 switch59
stoplightswitch
stoplight 59 test
test track
track 106,
106, 113
1 13
graphite 27
graphite 27 stress, thermal
stress, thermal 27 27 thermal
thermal stress
stress27
27
JFZ96
JFZ 96 swept area
swept area 18, 26,96
18,26, 96 thermocouple
thermocouple lOS, 105, III
111
Sphericone 26
Sphericone 26 StainlessBrakes
Stainless BrakesCorporation 13 1
Corporation 131 Tilton
Tilton Engineering
Engineering 55, 55, 56,
56, 163
163
Tilton 96
Tilton 96 Super Vee
Super Vee 3939 tire
tire friction
friction 35,54,92
35, 54, 92
Wilwood 96
Wilwood 96 supplierslist
suppliers list 169 170
169-- 170 toppling
toppling blocks
blocks 113,
1 13, 117
1 17
runout point
runout point 81
81 trailing
tralling shoe
shoe 1616
TT trouble-shooting
trouble-shooting 135, 135, 166
166
SS tables
tables Trouble-Shooting
Trouble-Shooting Guide Guide 166166-- 168
168
Safety Braker
Safety Braker 59 59 Bolt Torque
Bolt Torque
safety factor
safety factor 68,
68, 91
91 Brake-Fluid Boiling
Brake-Fluid Boiling Point
Point 64
64 u
U
San Angelo,
San Angelo, Texas
Texas 5353 Decimal Equivalents
Decimal Equivalents 173173 unbalanced
unbalanced force
force II
I1
scoops 39
scoops 39
secondary piston
piston 4848
Master-Cylinder Size
Master-Cylinder
10 1
Size vs.
vs. Piston
Piston Area
Area v
V
secondary 101 VW
VW Rabbit
Rabbit 90
90
secondary shoe
secondary shoe 16 16 Melting Temperature
Melting Temperature 99 vacuum
vacuum bleeding
bleeding 125
125
servo action
servo action 16,16, 159
159 Metric Equivalents
Metric Equivalents 171
171 -- 172
172 vacuum
vacuum suspended
suspended booster
booster 79
79
shear 27
shear 27 Pedal Effort
Pedal Effort vs.
vs. Brake
Brake Type
Type and
and Friction
Friction vented rotor
rotor 26,
26, 97,
97, 144
144
Simpson Safety
Simpson Safety Equipment
Equipment Co.
Co. 85
85 Coefficient 17
Coefficient 17 vented
vented wheel
wheel 144
144
sintering 37
sintering 37 Performance Specifications
Performance Specifications 9090
sliding caliper
caliper 2929 Power to
Power to Brakes
Brakes 105
105 W
sliding
sliding friction
friction 35,54
35, 54 Total Caliper Piston Area 99 99 water-cooling
water-cooling 147
147
sliding
Sneva, Tom
Tom 104 104 Typical Swept
Typical Swept Areas
Areas per
per Ton of
of Vehicle
Vehicle wear reduction
reduction 159
I59
Sneva,
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) (SAE) Weight 2828 wear test 119
l I9
Society
63, 64
64 Talbot 18
Talbot 18 weight transfer 13
I3
63,
soft lining
lining 37,
37, ISO
150 1 19, 164
taper wear 119, 164 wheel 144
144
soft
Iieat 88
specific heat temperature indicator
temperature Indicator wheel cylinder 15,22,51,129
15, 22, 5 I, 129
specific
splash shield
shield 3232 AP Racing III 111 wool-tuft testing
testing 140
140
splash
spot brake
brake 2424 Omega Engineering 110 110 WREP Industries 63 63
spot
squeal 136
136 Tempil 1 10
TempilllO White
Whlte Post Restorations 129129
squeal
stability 165
stability 165 temperature rise 10,10, 95
95
static friction
static 35, 54
friction 35,54 105, 110
temperature tests 105, 110

176
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I
,r
 Mark Selix bleeds brakes on Protofab-constructed
Trans-Am Capri, page 123. Photo by Tom Monroe.
Mark SeCix bleeds brakes on Protofab-constructed ,
Trans-Am Capri, page 123.Photo by Tom Monroe.

-
3 ?all
-4

I
I

Corvette disc-brake pads being tested to destruction on Girlock dynamometer, page 105. Photo Paul Miller braking hard for kink in 944 Turbo Porsche at
courtesy Girlock Ltd. Firebird Lake Trans-Am race. Photo by Tom Monroe.
Corvette disc-brake pads being tested to destruction on Gir 105. Photo Paul Miller braking hardfor kink in 944 Turbo Porsche at
courtesy Girlock Ltd. Firebird Lake Trans-Am race. Photo bv Tom Monroe.

BRAKE HANDBOOK
I

I
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BRAKE HANDBOOK
How to bleed your street-car brakes or design a complete race-car brake

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system. Drum and disc brakes are covered in detail. Why the designers did what
How
they to bleed your street-car brakes or design a complete race-car brake
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system.
DetailsDrum andmaterial-organic,
friction disc brakes are covered in detail.
semimetaliic andWhy the designers
metallic, and harddid
andwhat
they
soft. did.
How each affects pedal effort, stopping force and wear. How to test to
Details friction
determine material-organic,
which is best for street or semimetallic
track. and metallic, and hard and
soft.
Covers pedal and hydraulic-system design. Howand
How each affects pedal effort, stopping force wear. How
to modify yourto test to
existing
determine which is best for street or track.
brakes or design the latest racing-brake system .
Covers pedal and hydraulic-system
and usefuldesign.
book onHow to modify youranywhere
existing at

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The most comprehensive brakes available TAG McLaren twin-caliper setup gets maximum
brakes
any or design
price! thebra'
Includes latest racing-brake
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' by TomMcLaren
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ISBN 68272
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