GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION

However, there are several restrictions on the use of Bernoullis equation, as you learned in
Section 6.8:

1. It is valid only for incompressible fluid.

2. There can be no mechanical devices such as pumps, fluid motors, or turbines between
the two sections of interest.
3. There can be no energy lost due to fraction or to the turbulence created by valves and
fittings in the flow system.
4. There can be no heat transferred into or out of the fluid.

In reality no system satisfies all these restrictions.

Refer now to Fig. 7.1, which shows a portion of an industrial fluid distribution system. The
fluid enters from the lower left, where the suction line draws fluid from a storage tank. The
inline pump adds energy to the fluid and causes it to flow into the discharge line and the
through the rest of the piping system.

Figure 7.1: Typical pipeline installation, showing a pump, valves, tees, and other fittings

Note the gradual reducer between the suction pipe and the pump inlet. Similarly, note the
gradual enlargement between the pump outlet and the discharge pipe. These are required
because the pipes are of slightly different sizes than the connections provided by the pump
manufacturer, a common occurrence. The fluid then passes straight through the run of a tee,
where a valve in the branch line can be opened to draw some fluid off to another destination
point. After leaving the tee, the fluid passes through a valve that can be used to shut off the
discharge line. Just downstream from the valve is another tee where now the fluid takes the
branch path, passes around a elbow, and passes through another valve. The discharge pipe
is insulated as the travels through the long, straight line to its ultimate destination.

Each valve, tee, elbow, reducer, and enlargement causes energy to be lost from the fluid. In
addition, as the fluid flow through straight lengths of pipe, energy is lost due to friction. Your
task might be to design the system, specify the sizes of the pipes and the kinds of valves and
fitting, analyze the pressure at various points within the system, determine the demands
placed on the pump, and specify a suitable pump for the system. The information in Chapters
7-13 gives you the tools to be able to accomplish these tasks. In chapter you will learn how to
analyze the changes in energy that occur throughout the system, the corresponding changes in
pressure, the power delivered by a pump to the fluid, and the efficiency of the pump.

You will also learn how to determine the power removed from a fluid by a fluid motor or
turbine and to compute its efficiency.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the conditions under which energy losses occur in fluid flow systems.
2. Identify the means by which energy can be added to a fluid flow system.
3. Identify the means by which energy can be removed from a fluid flow system.
4. Expand Bernoullis equation to form the general energy equation by considering
energy losses, energy additions, and energy removals.
5. Apply the general energy equation to a variety of practical problems.
6. Compute the power added to a fluid by pumps.
7. Define the efficiency of pumps.
8. Compute the power required to drive pumps.
9. Compute the power delivered by a fluid to a fluid motor.
10. Define the efficiency of fluid motors.
11. Compute the power output from a fluid motor.

ENERG Y LOSSES AND ADDITIONS

The objective of this section is to describe, in general terms, the various types of devices and
components of fluid flow system. They occur in most fluid flow systems and they either add
energy to the fluid, remove energy from the fluid, or cause undesirable losses of energy from
the fluid.

At this time we are only describing these devices in conceptual terms. We discuss pumps,
fluid motors, friction losses as fluid flows in pipes and tubes, energy losses from changes in
the size of the flow path, and energy losses from valves and fittings.
In later chapters you will learn more details about how to compute the amount of energy
losses in pipes and specific types of valves and fittings. You will learn the method of using
performance curves for pumps to apply them properly.

PUMPS
A pump is a common example of a mechanical device that adds energy to a fluid. An electric
motor or some other prime power device drives a rotating shaft in the pump. The pump then
takes this kinetic energy and delivers it to the fluid, resulting in fluid flow and increased fluid
pressure.

Figure 7.2: Gear Pump

Many configurations are used in pump designs. The system pictured in Fig. 7.1 contains a
centrifugal pump mounted in line with the process piping. Figure 7.2 and 7.3 show two types
of fluid power pumps capable of producing very high pressures in the range from
. Chapter 13 gives an extensive discussion of these and several other styles of
pumps along with their selection and application.

FLUID MOTORS
Fluid motors, turbines, rotary actuators, and linear actuators are examples of devices that take
energy from a fluid and deliver it in the form of work, causing the rotation of a shaft or the
linear movement of a piston.

Many fluid motors have the same basic configurations as the pumps shown in Figs. 7.2 and
7.3. The major difference between a pump and a fluid motor is that, when acting as a motor,
the fluid drives the rotating elements of the device. The reverse is true for pumps. For some
designs, such as the gear-on-gear type in Fig. 7.2, a pump could act as a motor by forcing a
flow of fluid through the device. In other types, a change in the valve arrangement or in the
configuration of the rotating elements would be required.
 Figure 7.3: Piston pump

Figure 7.4: Hydraulic motor

The hydraulic motor shown in Fig. 7.4 is often used as driver for the wheels of construction
equipment and trucks and for rotating components of material transfer systems, conveyors,
agricultural equipment, special machines, and automation equipment. The design incorporates
a stationary internal gear with a special shape. The rotating component is like an exter nal
gear, sometimes called a gerotor, that has one fewer teeth than the internal gear. The external
gear rotates in a circular orbit around the center of the internal gear. High-pressure fluid
entering the cavity between the two gears acts on the rotor and develops a torque that rotates
the output shaft. The magnitude of the output torque depends on the pressure difference
between the input and output sides of the rotating gear. The speed of rotation is a function of
the displacement of the motor (volume per revolution) and the volume flow rate of fluid
through the motor.

Figure 7.5 is a photograph of a cutaway model of a fluid power cylinder or linear actuator.

Figure 7.5: Fluid power cylinder

FLUID FRICTION
A fluid in motion offers frictional resistance to flow. Part of the energy in the system is
converted into thermal energy (heat), which is dissipated through the walls of the pipe in
which the fluid is flowing. The magnitude of the energy loss is dependent on the properties of
the fluid, the flow velocity, the pipe size, the smoothness of the pipe wall, and the length of
the pipe. We will develop methods of calculating this frictional energy loss in later chapters.

VALVES AND FITTINGS

Elements that control the direction or flow rate of a fluid in a system typically set up local
turbulence in the fluid, causing energy to be dissipated as heat. Whenever there is a
restriction, a change in flow velocity, or a change in the direction of flow, these energy losses
occur. In a large system the magnitude of losses due to valves and fittings is usually small
compared with frictional losses in the pipes. Therefore, such losses are referred to as minor
losses.

NOMENCLATURE OF ENERG Y LOSSES AND ADDITIONS

We will account for energy losses and additions in a system in terms of energy per unit weight
of fluid flowing in the system. This is also known as head, as described in Chapter 6. As an
abbreviation for head we will use the symbol for energy losses and additions. Specifically,
we use the following terms throughout the next several chapters:
 Energy added to the fluid with a mechanical device such as a pump, this is often
referred to as the total head on the pump
Energy removed from the fluid by a mechanical device such as a fluid motor
Energy losses from the system due to friction in pipes or minor losses due to
valves and fittings.

We will not consider the effects of heat transferred into or out the fluid at this time because
they are negligible in the types of problems with which we are dealing. Courses in
thermodynamics cover heat energy.

The magnitude of energy losses produced by fluid friction, valves, and fittings is directly
proportional to the velocity head of the fluid. This can be expressed mathematically as

The term is the resistance coefficient. You will learn how to determine the value of for
fluid friction in Chapter 8 using the Darcy equation. In Chapter 10, you will see methods of
finding for many kinds of valves, fittings, and changes in flow cross section and direction.
Most of these are found from experimental data.

GENERAL ENERG Y EQUATION

The general energy equation as used in this text is an expansion of Bernoullis equation,
which makes it possible to solve problems in which energy losses and additions occur.

Figure 7.6: Fluid flow system illustrating the general energy equation

The logical interpretation of the energy equation can be seen in Fig.7.6, which represents a
flow system. The terms denote the energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight at
sections , respectively. The respective energy additions, removals, and losses
 are shown. For such a system the expression of the principle of conservation of
energy is:

The energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight is:

Equation then becomes:

This is the form of the energy equation that we will use most often in this book. As with
Bernoullis equation, each term in equation represents a quantity of energy per unit weight of
fluid flowing in the system. Typical SI units are , or meters.

It is essential that the general energy equation be written in the direction of flow, that is, from
the reference point on the left side of the equation to that on the right side. Algebraic signs are
critical because the left side of equation states that an element of fluid having a certain
amount of energy per unit weight at section 1 may have energy added , energy removed
or energy lost from it before it reaches section . There it contains a different
amount of energy per unit weight, as indicated by the terms on the right side of the equation.

For example, in Fig.7.6, reference points are shown to be points with the pressure
head, elevation head, and velocity head indicated at each point. After the fluid leaves point
it enters the pump, where energy is added. A prime mover such as an electric motor drives the
pump, and the impeller of the pump transfers the energy to the fluid . Then the fluid
flows through a piping system composed of a valve, elbows, and the lengths of pipe, in which
energy is dissipated from the fluid and is lost . Before reaching point , the fluid flows
through a fluid motor, which removes some of the energy to drive an external device .
The general energy equation accounts for all of these energies.

In a particular problem, it is possible that not all of the terms in the general energy equation
will be required. For example, if there is no mechanical device between the sections of
interest, the terms will be zero and can be left out of the equation. If energy losses
are so small that they can be neglected, the term can be left out. If both of these conditions
exist, it can be seen that the equation reduces to Bernoullis equation.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.2

The volume flow rate through the pump shown in Fig. 7.8 is . The fluid being
pumped is oil with a specific gravity of . Calculate the energy delivered by the pump to
the oil per unit weight of oil flowing in the system. Energy losses in the system are caused by
the check valve and friction losses as the fluid flows through the piping. The magnitude of
such losses has been determined to be .

Figure 7.8: Pump system for Example Problem 7.2

POWER REQUIRED BY PUMPS

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In fluid mechanics we can modify this statement
and consider that power is the rate at which energy is being transferred.

We first develop the basic concept of power in SI units. The units for power in the SI system
is the watt , which is equivalent to .

In Example Problem 7.2 we found that the pump was delivering of energy to each
newton of oil as it flowed through the pump. To calculate the power delivered to the oil, we
must determine how many newtons of oil are flowing through the pump in a given amount of
time. This is called the weight flow rate , which we defined in Chapter 6, and is expressed
in units of . Power is calculated by multiplying the energy transferred per newton of fluid
by the weight flow rate. This is
Because , we can also write

where denotes power added to the fluid, is the specific weight of the fluid flowing
through the pump, and is the volume flow rate of the fluid.