Journal of Food Engineering 82 (2007) 261267

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Ultrasound as pre-treatment for drying of fruits: Dehydration of banana

Fabiano A.N. Fernandes a,*, Sueli Rodrigues b,1
a
Universidade Federal do Ceara, Departamento de Engenharia Quimica, Campus do Pici, Bloco 709, 60455-760 Fortaleza CE, Brazil
b
Universidade Federal do Ceara, Departamento de Tecnologia dos Alimentos, Campus do Pici, Bloco 858, Caixa Postal 12168,
60421-970 Fortaleza CE, Brazil

Received 6 November 2006; received in revised form 12 February 2007; accepted 13 February 2007
Available online 22 February 2007

Abstract

Dehydration of fruits is an alternative to reduce post-harvest loss of fruits and also a process to produce dried fruits, which can be
directly consumed or become part of foodstus like cakes, pastries and many others. The eect of ultrasonic pre-treatment prior to air-
drying on dehydration of bananas (Musa ssp.) was investigated. The study allowed estimating the water diusivity in the air-drying pro-
cess for bananas submitted to ultrasound. Results showed that the water diusivity increases after application of ultrasound and that the
overall drying time was reduced by 11%, which represents an economy of energy since air-drying is energy cost intensive. During the
ultrasonic treatment the bananas lost sugar, so the ultrasonic pre-treatment can be an interesting process to produce dried fruits with
low sugar content. The use of ultrasound as a pre-treatment prior to air-drying was compared to the use of osmotic dehydration as a
pre-treatment prior to air-drying. Results showed that the use of ultrasonic pre-treatment is interesting when large amounts of water
needs to be removed from the fruit, case in which the combined processing time (pre-treatment and air-drying) is shorter.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Musa ssp.; Banana; Drying; Ultrasound; Osmotic dehydration; Optimization

1. Introduction Conventional air-drying is energy intensive and conse-

Bananas (Musa ssp.) are largely produced in almost all
tropical countries and are sold both to internal and exter-
nal markets. Some tropical countries such as Brazil and
Costa Rica have large plantations that only aim exporta-
tion of the fruit. Part of the production does not meet
the minimal standard for exportation and is lost after har-
vesting. Excess of production is frequent and the fruit in
excess is also lost after harvesting since bananas are perish-
able and cannot be stored for long periods nor can be
stored frozen. An alternative to preserve the fruit and to
commercialize the excess of production is to dry the bana-
nas that will not be readily consumed (Sousa et al., 2003).
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 85 33669611.
E-mail addresses: fabiano@etech.eng.br (F.A.N. Fernandes), sue-
li@ufc.br (S. Rodrigues).
1
Tel.: +55 85 33669656.
quently cost intensive because it is a simultaneous heat
and mass transfer process accompanied by phase change
(Barbanti, Mastrocola, & Severine, 1994). A pre-treatment
can be used to reduce the initial water content or to modify
the fruit tissue structure in a way that the air-drying time
becomes faster. Ultrasonic waves can cause a rapid series
of alternative compressions and expansions, in a similar
way to a sponge when it is squeezed and released repeatedly
(sponge eect). The forces involved by this mechanical
mechanism can be higher than surface tension which main-
tains the moisture inside the capillaries of the fruit creating
microscopic channels which may ease moisture removal. In
addition, ultrasound produces cavitation which may be
helpful to remove strongly attached moisture. Deformation
of porous solid materials, such as fruits, caused by ultra-
sonic waves is responsible for the creation of microscopic
channels that reduce the diusion boundary layer and
increase the convective mass transfer in the fruit (Fuente-
Blanco, Sarabia, Acosta-Aparicio, Blanco-Blanco, &

0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.02.032
262 F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues / Journal of Food Engineering 82 (2007) 261267
Nomenclature
AFR supercial area of the fruit (m2)
D eective diusivity (m2/h)
H moisture content of the fruit (g water/g)
MS mass of solid (dry basis) (g)
R drying rate at the constant-rate period (g/h m2)
t time (h)
tU time spent under ultrasound (min)
WR water reduction (%)
WL water loss (%)
Gallego-Juarez, 2006; Tarleton, 1992; Tarleton & Wak-
eman, 1998).
The use of ultrasound in the food industry is new and
few studies have addressed the use of ultrasound (Fuente-
Blanco et al., 2006; Gallego-Juarez, Rodrguez-Corral,
Galvez-Moraleda, & Yang, 1999; Mason, Paniwnyk, &
Lorimer, 1996; Zheng & Sun, 2006). Only few studies have
addressed drying of fruits and most have used ultrasound
to assist osmotic dehydration (Carcel, Benedito, Rossello,
& Mulet, 2007; Simal, Benedito, Sanchez, & Rossello,
1998), not as a stand alone process.
The ultrasonic pre-treatment involves the immersion of
the fruit in water or in a hypertonic aqueous solution to
which ultrasound is applied. The advantage of using ultra-
sound is that the process can be carried out at ambient tem-
perature and no heating is required, reducing the
probability of food degradation (Mason, 1998). If distilled
water is used as the liquid medium the ultrasonic treatment
will not incorporate soluble solids into the fruit changing
its natural taste.
This study has investigated the use of ultrasound as a
pre-treatment prior to air-drying. The inuence of time
spent in ultrasound on the fruit water diusivity was exam-
ined. A comparison with the osmotic dehydration pre-
treatment was also carried out. The combined process
(ultrasound and air-drying) was optimized searching for
the operating conditions that minimize total processing
time.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of samples
Bananas (Musa ssp. variety nanica) were bought from
the producer (Fortaleza, Brazil). Bananas samples were
cut to obtain cylinders of same dimensions (0.01 m average
in height and 0.026 m average diameter). Only radial orien-
tation was used. The moisture content was determined by
heating in a drying oven (Marconi model MA-085) at
105 C for 48 h according to AOAC method 931.04
(AOAC, 1990). The initial soluble solids content of the
fruit (Brix) was determined by refractometry.
SG solid gain (%)
Xi initial fruit moisture on wet basis (g water/g)
Xf nal fruit moisture on wet basis (g water/g)
Xsi initial fruit soluble solid content (g solid/g)
Xsf nal fruit soluble solid content (g solid/g)
wi initial fruit mass (g)
wf nal fruit mass (g)
d height of the fruit (m)
2.2. Ultrasound pre-treatment
An experimental set of three banana samples was
immersed in distilled water and submitted to ultrasonic
waves for 10, 20 or 30 min. The experiments with ultra-
sound treatment were carried out in separate 250 mL
Erlenmeyer asks to avoid interference between the sam-
ples and runs. The experiments were carried out under
ambient water temperature (30 C) in an ultrasonic bath
(Marconi model Unique USC 25 kHz) without mechanical
agitation. The ultrasound frequency was 25 kHz and the
intensity was 4870 W/m2. The temperature increase during
the experiments was lower than 2 C after 30 min of ultra-
sound treatment. The water to fruit ratio was maintained
at 4:1 (weight basis), which also was used in the osmotic
dehydration experiments. This ratio was used because pre-
vious works (Fernandes, Rodrigues, Gaspareto, & Oli-
veira, 2006; Oliveira et al., 2006; Teles et al., 2006) have
shown that at this liquid medium to fruit ratio the dilution
of the osmotic solution is negligible and the increase in sol-
uble solids content observed in the ultrasound pre-treat-
ment was also small (less than 2.5 g/L). The experiments
were carried out in triplicate.
At the end of the ultrasound pre-treatment a sample of
the liquid medium was taken to determine its sugar content
using the DNS method (Miller, 1959) and its glucose con-
tent using the enzymatic method (Fleming & Pegler, 1963).
This procedure was carried out to quantify the amount of
sugar that the fruit loses by mass transfer to the liquid
medium.
2.3. Osmotic dehydration
Each experimental group consisting of three banana cyl-
inders was immersed in the osmotic solution for 0.5, 1, 2 or
3 h. The osmotic solution used in each experiment was pre-
pared mixing food grade sucrose with distilled water to give
a concentration of 50 and 70 Brix. The osmotic solution to
fruit ratio was maintained at 4:1 (weight basis). Previous
studies have shown that the osmotic dehydration process
should run under an osmotic solution to fruit ratio of at
least 4:1 to maintain the operating conditions constant
 F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues / Journal of Food Engineering 82 (2007) 261267
and to avoid excessive dilution of the osmotic solution
(Fernandes et al., 2006; Oliveira et al., 2006). Experiments
were performed with same constant magnetic agitation.
The temperature was monitored by the thermocouple and
heating plate of the rotary shaker (Tecnal model TE-420)
and was set at 50 and 70 C.
After removal from the solution, the dehydrated sam-
ples from each group were drained, blotted with absorbent
paper to remove the excess solution. Weight and moisture
content were measured individually. The concentration of
the solution was monitored during the runs determining
the osmotic solution soluble solids content (Brix) using a
refractometer. The full report and results obtained with
the osmotic dehydration experiments can be found in Fer-
nandes et al. (2006) and only the data needed to compare
the osmotic pre-treatment with the ultrasound pre-treat-
ment will be reported herein.
Weight and moisture content of the samples were used
to calculate the response variables of the experimental
planning: weight reduction (WR), water loss (WL) and
solid gain (SG), according to the following equations:
wi  wf
WR%  100 1
wi
wi  X i  wf  X f
WL%  100 2
wi
wf  X sf  wi  X si
SG%  100 3 the moisture content of the fruit. Dierent from the osmo-
wi
2.4. Air-drying
After removal from the osmotic solution, the dehy-
drated samples were drained, blotted with absorbent paper
to remove the excess solution and transferred to a forced
circulating air-drying oven (Marconi model MA-085) set
at 60 C. The air moisture content was 16% and was deter-
mined by psychrometry (dry and wet bulb temperature).
The mathematical model of the air-drying process fol-
lows the traditional equations for drying. Only the fall-
ing-rate period was considered because during the
experiments the constant-rate period was not observed.
The equation for the falling-rate period is a simplication
of Ficks second law considering long processing period
(Perry & Green, 1999).
Table 1
Sugar content and water gain of bananas submitted to dierent pre-treatments and to dierent pre-treatment times, and water diusivity of bananas in air-
drying process after application of pre-treatment
Operating condition
No pre-treatment (air-drying only)
After 10 min of ultrasound treatment
After 20 min of ultrasound treatment
After 30 min of ultrasound treatment
After 60 min of osmotic dehydrationa
After 120 min of osmotic dehydrationa
a
Conditions: osmotic solution = 70 Brix; osmotic solution to fruit ratio = 4:1; temperature = 50 C (Fernandes et al., 2006).
263
dH 2p
 2  D  H  H eq 4
dt d
Experimental data were used to estimate the eective
diusion coecient of the air-drying process. The parame-
ter was adjusted using Eq. (4) with a parameter estimation
procedure based on the minimization of the error sum of
squares. The model equation was solved by numerical inte-
gration using the RungeKutta method (Hull, Enright, &
Jackson, 1976). The F-test was used as a criterion to vali-
date the model. The level of signicance of the model
was established comparing the listed F-values and the cal-
culated F-values for each operating condition. After valida-
tion, the model was used to optimize the total processing
time to dry the fruit by ultrasound followed by air-drying.
The optimization was done using the method of Leven-
bergMarquardt (Marquardt, 1963), setting as objective
function the minimization of the total processing time.
The computer programs were written in FORTRAN
language.
3. Results and discussion
The eect of the ultrasonic pre-treatment on drying is
mainly observed during the air-drying stage where a signif-
icant increase in water diusivity was found. At the end of
the ultrasonic pre-treatment little change was observed in
tic dehydration where an expressive water loss from the
fruit is found, when the ultrasonic pre-treatment was
applied the bananas gain water during the treatment. For
ultrasound treatments lasting 20 min, water gain was
11.1%. This value decreased to 7.2% when the fruit was
submitted to ultrasound for 30 min (Table 1).
The fruit submitted to ultrasonic pre-treatment lost sol-
uble solids to the liquid medium. The amount of sugars lost
during the process was 21.3% of the reducing sugars of the
fruit after 30 min in ultrasonic bath. The amount of glucose
lost was 11.0% after 30 min in ultrasonic bath. Fig. 1 shows
the sugar loss as a function of the time spent in ultrasonic
bath. The loss of sugars occurs because of the dierent
sugar concentration (osmotic pressure) between the fruit
and the liquid medium, which favors a mass transfer of
sugar from the fruit to the liquid medium and a mass trans-
fer of water from the liquid medium to the fruit. The reduc-
Sugar increase Water gain Water diusivity (m2/h)
4.61  106 (R2 = 0.98)
11.0% 2.2 +4.1% 0.9 3.90  106 (R2 = 0.99)
12.1% 0.2 +11.1% 0.5 5.28  106 (R2 = 0.99)
21.3% 1.2 +7.2% 0.9 5.08  106 (R2 = 0.97)
+19.4% 0.3 9.6% 0.8 4.93  106 (R2 = 0.99)
+29.3% 0.3 20.3% 0.7 4.93  106 (R2 = 0.98)
264 F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues / Journal of Food Engineering 82 (2007) 261267
Fig. 1. Reducing sugars and glucose loss as a function of time in
ultrasound bath. Error bars represent the standard deviation.
tion observed in water gain after 20 min compared to the
results found for water gain after 10 min is explained by
the higher sugar loss from the fruit to the liquid medium
found after 20 min, which diminished the solid concentra-
tion gradient between the fruit and the liquid medium
and as a consequence less water enters the fruit to compen-
sate for the osmotic pressure gradient. As a consequence of
the water gain and the loss of soluble solids, the moisture
content of the fruit after the ultrasonic bath increased
(5.5% in 30 min) (Fig. 2).
When osmotic dehydration is applied the fruit gain up
to 160% of sugar after 120 min in the osmotic solution
(under 70 C and 70 Brix Fernandes et al., 2006). As
such the ultrasonic treatment may be an interesting process
to produce low sugar dried fruits. The taste of the dried
Fig. 2. Moisture content of the fruit as a function of time in ultrasound
bath. Error bars represent the standard deviation.
fruit with the use of ultrasonic pre-treatment was more
alike to the natural taste of the fruit, whereas the use of
osmotic dehydration pre-treatment incorporates a consid-
erable amount of sugar producing a sweeter dried fruit
(Table 1). The sensory characteristics of bananas submitted
to air-drying and osmotic dehydration followed by air-dry-
ing was reported by Ehabe, Eyabi Eyabi, and Numfor
(2006) and showed that consumers had a slight preference
for osmo-dehydrated bananas than for air-dried bananas.
In view of Ehabe et al. (2006) results the osmotic dehydra-
tion pre-treatment may be preferred when the product is to
be sold directly to the nal consumer.
The ultrasound pre-treatment increased the water diu-
sivity of the fruit during the air-drying process by 14.4%
(Table 1). As a consequence the fruit submitted to 20 min
of ultrasound pre-treatment will dry faster during the air-
drying stage if compared to the fresh fruit with no pre-
treatment (Fig. 3). This result conrms the observations
of Fuente-Blanco et al. (2006) that the ultrasonic pre-treat-
ment aects the fruit tissue making easier for water to dif-
fuse during air-drying, most probably due to the formation
of microscopic channels in the fruit.
Water diusivity during the air-drying process was
found to be higher when the bananas where pre-treated
for 20 min under ultrasonic waves (5.28  106 m2 h1).
Pre-treating the bananas using osmotic dehydration
resulted in a water diusivity of 4.93 m2 h1. Both diusiv-
ities were higher than the diusivity obtained for the fresh
fruit (4.61 m2 h1) during air-drying (Fernandes et al.,
2006). Table 1 showed that the water diusivity of bananas
decreased in the rst 10 min and then increased afterwards.
This phenomenon may happen due to the process of for-
mation of micro-channels during the application of ultra-
sound (Fernandes et al., 2006), but further studies still
are needed to understand how the micro-channels are
Fig. 3. Development of the moisture content during air-drying as a
function of processing time for fresh bananas (no pre-treatment) and for
bananas submitted to 30 min of ultrasound pre-treatment.
 F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues / Journal of Food Engineering 82 (2007) 261267
formed and how the cell membrane and fruit cell structure
change during the process. Water diusivity of bananas can
be correlated by Eq. (5) giving the water diusivity as func-
tion of time spent in ultrasound.
D 7:69  0:0085  tU 0:0073  t2U  0:000205  t3U  108
Table 2 shows that when ultrasonic pre-treatment was
used the total processing time (air-drying + ultrasound)
was lower than when the fresh fruit was air-dried without
any pre-treatment. When ultrasound was applied during
20 min the total processing time reduced by 86 min (a
10.3% reduction) for bananas dehydrated to a nal mois-
ture content of 0.05 g water/g dry solids. When the fruit
was immersed during 120 min in an osmotic solution
(70 Brix and 50 C) prior to air-drying the total processing
time reduced by 189 min (a 22.5% reduction).
Considering 100 g of fresh fruit as basis for calculation,
the initial fruit (fresh) has 73 g of water and 27 g of solids.
After ultrasonic treatment (20 min) this 100 g of fresh fruit
turns into 81 g of water and 23 g of solids due to loss of sol-
uble solids and gain of water, while after osmotic dehydra-
tion (120 min at 70 Brix and 50 C) the same 100 g of fresh
fruit reduces to 55 g of water and 35 g of solids due to loss
of water and gain of solids. To achieve the target moisture
content of 0.05 g water/g dry solids the fruit undergone
ultrasound treatment reduces to 1 g of water and 23 g of
solids losing a total of 80 g of water during the process,
whereas the osmo-dehydrated fruit reduces to 2 g of water
and 35 g of solids losing a total of 71 g of water during the
process. This dierence of 9 g may seem insignicant but
removing 9 g of water from a fruit with moisture content
near 0.05 g water/g dry solids takes several minutes. As
shown the amount of water removed during the drying
process will be greater in the fruit treated with ultrasound
than in the osmo-dehydrated fruit, which explains why
the osmotic dehydration provides faster drying than when
ultrasound treatment is used. The two pre-treatments also
result in two dierent dry solids content with the ultra-
sound pre-treated fruit having higher non-soluble to solu-
ble dry solids content ratio than the osmo-dehydrated fruit.
Table 2 shows the total processing time to remove the
same amount of water from the fresh fruit, reducing 95%
Table 2
Total processing time (pre-treatment + air-drying) to achieve a moisture content of 0.05 g of water per gram of dry solids
No pre-treatment
After 10 min of ultrasound treatment
After 20 min of ultrasound treatment
After 30 min of ultrasound treatment
After 60 min of osmotic dehydrationa
After 120 min of osmotic dehydrationa
a
Conditions: osmotic solution = 70 Brix; osmotic solution to fruit ratio = 4:1; temperature = 50 C (Fernandes et al., 2006).
265
of the initial water content. Drying in this case was faster
with the application of ultrasonic pre-treatment, because
most of the drying process is carried out in an air-dryer
and the inuence of the microscopic channels produced
by the ultrasonic waves was more signicant than the faster
initial water removal provided by the osmotic dehydration
5 treatment. When the ultrasonic pre-treatment is applied
during 20 min the total processing time reduced 88 min,
while a reduction of 63 min in total processing time was
achieved using osmotic dehydration as pre-treatment (at
70 Brix and 50 C).
The drying process of fruits considered herein compre-
hends the pre-treatment process followed by air-drying.
Total processing time can be optimized to reduce air-dry-
ing to a minimum, reducing costs and increasing overall
productivity. Previous studies (Fernandes et al., 2006; Oli-
veira et al., 2006; Teles et al., 2006) have shown that in a
process consisting of osmotic dehydration followed by
air-drying, the optimum processing time is obtained when
the osmotic dehydration is used while the water loss rate
of the fruit is higher than the rate that would be obtained
by the air-drying process. When the water loss rate in the
osmotic dehydration becomes lower than the rate that
would be obtained in the air-drying process, then the fruit
is transferred from the osmotic dehydration to the air-dry-
ing equipment, where the fruit stays till drying is
completed.
The optimization of the process consisting of ultrasonic
treatment and air-drying is dierent. The ultrasonic treat-
ment should be carried out while the increase in water dif-
fusivity it provokes leads to a continuous reduction of total
processing time (Fig. 4). Table 3 shows that the best oper-
ating condition is found when ultrasound is submitted for
22 min, reducing total processing time to 748 min to
remove 95% of the water content of the fresh fruit. To
achieve the same dried fruit specication, the osmotic dehy-
dration has to be carried out during 46 min, condition
which reduces the total processing time to 776 min.
Considering the energetic cost of the pre-treatments, to
process 1 kg of banana the ultrasonic process consumes
30 kJ/min and the osmotic process consumes 36 kJ/min
(Calculation based on the equipments power consumptions
and processing capacity). Calculating the total energetic
Time required to achieve Time required to remove 95% of the
a moisture content of initial water content
0.05 gwater/gdry solids (min) of the fruit (min)
839 839
803 803
753 751
791 789
692 776
650 788
266 F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues / Journal of Food Engineering 82 (2007) 261267
Fig. 4. Illustrative scheme of the development of water diusivity of the
fruit and total processing time as a function of time submitted to
ultrasound. The arrow indicates the optimum period that the bananas
should be submitted to ultrasonic bath prior to air-drying to minimize the
total processing time.
Table 3
Optimum times to remove 95% of the initial water content of the fresh
fruit
Ultrasound pre-treatment followed by air-drying
Total processing time 748 min
Time in ultrasound 22 min
Time in air-drying 724 min
Osmotic sehydration with sucrose followed by air-drying
Total processing time 776 min
Time in osmotic dehydration 46 min
Time in air-drying 730 min
cost at the best operation conditions shown in Table 3, the
combined process (pre-treatment + air-drying) would con-
sume 44100 kJ to dry 1 kg of fruit using the ultrasonic pro-
cess and 45456 kJ using the osmotic process. If the cost of
energy is assumed to be US$ 0.253/kWh (cost of electrical
power in Brazil in December of 2006) the cost of the ultra-
sonic process would stand at US$ 3.10/kg and the cost of
the osmotic process would stand at US$ 3.19/kg. The cost
of using the air-drying process without pre-treatment of the
fruit would cost US$ 3.54/kg. The results show that both
pre-treatment may reduce the cost of drying. It is impor-
tant to notice that these calculations were based on the
energetic requirements of small scale equipment and the
prices for large scale production may be lower.
4. Conclusion
The use of ultrasound in processing is an interesting
methodology which is complementary to classical air-dry-
ing. The use of ultrasound pre-treatment increases the
water diusivity of the fruit leading to shorter air-drying
periods. The water diusivity increased 14.4% after submit-
ting the fruit to 20 min of ultrasound. This phenomenon
may happen due to the process of formation of micro-
channels during the application of ultrasound, phenome-
non that has to be further studied to understand how the
micro-channels are formed and how the cell membrane
and fruit cell structure change during the process. The
use of ultrasound in the conditions applied herein caused
loss of sugars from the fruit to the liquid medium produc-
ing a dried fruit with low sugar content.
The results showed that the ultrasonic pre-treatment is
interesting when high amounts of water needs to be
removed from the fruit, condition which the total process-
ing time of the combined process is shorter than the time
required when the osmotic dehydration is used prior to
air-drying. On the other hand, if low amounts of water
needs to be removed than the osmotic dehydration pre-
treatment prior to air-drying is recommended because the
total processing time in this case will be shorter.
The use of ultrasound as a pre-treatment can be interest-
ing to the food industry because requires simple equipment
(a vessel with a vibrating plate) that can be operated in con-
tinuous mode at ambient conditions.
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