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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE
Effect of Circuit Parameters and Environment on
Shock Waves Generated by Underwater
Electrical Wire Explosion
Ben Liu, Deguo Wang, and Yanbao Guo
Abstract The electrical explosion of wire (EEW), which can
generate a convenient, stable, and controllable shock wave (SW),
is gradually acted as a physical and environmentally friendly
enhanced oil recovery technology in petroleum industry. In order
to establish the relationship between the SWs and EEW, the
process and mechanism of underwater EEW were investigated
and discussed as a function of recipe current, voltage, and
pressure in the test conditions. This work describes the effect of
wire diameter, capacitance, energy deposition, water conductivity,
and temperature on the pressure of SWs. It was found that
the amplitude of SWs has a close relationship to the energy
deposition in vaporization process. Under the same stored energy
of different capacitors, the energy deposition in vaporization stage
is more efficient with high charging voltage and low capacitance
in a stable explosion, because of the high magnetic pressure
and short discharge time. While, the water conductivity and
temperature have a significant effect on current and voltage in
vaporization stage. The shunt effect of saline water and high
thermal conductivity of high-temperature water effect the energy
deposition in this stage, which made the amplitude of SWs are
falling.
Index Terms Electric explosion, energy deposition, enhanced
oil recovery (EOR), shock waves (SWs).
I. I NTRODUCTION
T HE phenomenon of electric explosion of wires (EEWs)
describes an interesting physical phenomenon about the
high-density current pulse (104106 A/mm2 ) passing through a
wire [1]. The solid wire went through a phase transformation
process because of the joule heat. As a result, the material
boils up in a burst, a mixture of superheated vapor, boiling
droplets of the exploding wire material, and a shockwave
scatter to the ambient medium. Applications of the exploding
Manuscript received October 11, 2016; revised May 10, 2017 and
June 24, 2017; accepted August 7, 2017. This work was supported in part
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 51675534,
in part by the Tribology Science Fund of State Key Laboratory of Tribology
under Grant SKLTKF14A08, and in part by the Science Foundation of China
University of Petroleum, Beijing, under Grant 2462017BJB06 and Grant
C201602. The review of this paper was arranged by Senior Editor W. Jiang.
(Corresponding author: Yanbao Guo.)
B. Liu is with the College of Mechanical and Transportation Engi-
neering, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China (e-mail:
liubenblue1201@sina.com).
D. Wang and Y. Guo are with the College of Mechanical and Transportation
Engineering, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China, and also
with the Beijing Key Laboratory of Process Fluid Filtration and Separation,
Beijing 102249, China (e-mail: wdg@cup.edu.cn; gyb@cup.edu.cn).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPS.2017.2739757
0093-3813 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
1
wire technology are usually interested in Z-pinch plasmas
[2][4], preparation of nanometer powders [5][7], spray
coating [8][10], etc., which make it attractive for various
scientific and technological explorations. Nowadays, a new
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technology in petroleum industry
is based on EEW. The shock wave (SW) generated by EEW
is convenient, stable, and controllable comparing with the
method of explosives, and it is a physical and environmentally
friendly technology. The SWs act on the rock and fluid
in stratum periodically through the perforations and without
using chemical or biological agents that are harmful to the
environment.
As an EOR technology, the characteristic of SWs is an
important issue. The circuit inductance as a key parameter of
the discharge circuit affecting on SWs was discussed [11]. The
results showed that the peak pressure of SWs decreased with
the increase in circuit inductance. The propagation of SWs
had also been tested in water, and it was subject to exponen-
tial decay along with the propagation distance.The efficiency
transferred from the stored electrical energy to the generated
water flow is 10% [12], 15% [13], and 18%24% [14] as
reported, and they have a close relationship with the para-
meters of discharge circuit. The influence of the solution
conductivity media on SWs had been tested. They found
that the amplitude of SWs dependence on water conductivity
with a nonlinear relationship [15], but they did not put a
wire in the experimental setup. These SWs were generated
by the hydroelectric effect. Lee and Ford [16] found that
a linear relationship existed between the peak voltage and
underwater SW pressure. The optimum wire length and cross
section is also studied, and the equation to calculate these
optimum value help to evaluate the efficiency explosion [17].
However, the coefficients in their equation, which depend
on the wire and medium material. This is still needed to
investigate under different test environments. In recent years,
the electrical explosion of a single wire is replaced by the wire
array with different structures, including zigzag wires [13],
planar wire arrays [14], cylindrical wire arrays [18], ring-
shape wires [19], and spherical wire arrays [20], to generate
a converging strong SW.
Although many research on EEW have been studied out,
finding a good set of design parameters of EEW used in
petroleum industry are still far from being achieved. What
is more, due to the special structure of downhole tools and
working conditions, the exploding wire must be a single wire.
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2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE
Fig. 1. Schematic of the wire explosion system.
TABLE I
W IRE PARAMETERS
The circuit parameters of EEW, which contains a capacitor
with large capacitance and low charging voltage, are different
from the traditional applications. In this paper, we use the
discharge and pressure waveforms collected by the sensors
to discuss the effect of capacitance, wire diameter, solution
conductivity, and solution temperature on the SW pressure in
a certain distance.
II. E XPERIMENTAL S ETUPS
The schematic of wire explosion system is shown in Fig. 1,
which we used to generate the SWs. This system is a simple
RLC discharge circuit. The two capacitors used in these tests
are high-voltage compound dielectric capacitors. A polyester
film and capacitor paper as the solid insulating materials,
which are placed in a sealed metal housing filled with mineral
oil, are used in the capacity. The capacitance and rated voltage
of these capacitors are 30 F and 6 kV. The inductance of
capacitor is no more than 0.1 H. When the circuit capacitance
C is 30 F, the circuit stray inductance L = 5.34H, circuit
resistance except for that of wire load R = 90.4 m with
the period T = 79.52s. When the circuit capacitance C is
60 F, L = 5.46H, R = 90.3m, and T = 113.71s. The
discharge load is placed in an exploding container filled with
water. In these experiments, a high-voltage and high-current
pulse was applied to a wire made of copper with the length of
25 mm and different diameters. The parameters of copper wire
are shown in Table I, which are getting from the NIST-JANAF
tables [21]. These wires were placed between two electrodes.
The discharge waveforms of current I (t) and voltage U (t)
were measured by a 101 type current monitors produced by
Pearson Inc., and two high-voltage dividers which is 50 kV
of maximum voltage class, and 600 m of the impedance.
is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
These data were acquired by a Keysight DSO-X 2014A
4-channel digital oscilloscope.
The amount of energy stored in a capacitor is calculated
by E stored = 0.5CU 2 , where C is the capacitance and U is
the charging voltage. The voltage dropped on the exploding
wire U (t) can be calculated by U (t) = U1 (t)-U2 (t), Where
U1 (t) and U2 (t) are the measured voltage of high-voltage and
grounded ends of the Cu wire, respectively (see Fig. 1). U (t)
can also be expressed as the following form:
d I (t) d L(t)
U (t) = U R (t) + U L (t) = IR + L +I (1)
dt dt
where U R (t) = IR is the resistive voltage, U L (t) is the
inductive voltages, I is the current, L is the inductance
between the two measurement points of voltage probes, and
so is the resistance R. They include two parts, which can be
calculated by
L = Le + Lw (2)
R = Re + Rw (3)
where L e and Re are the inductance and resistance of the
electrodes and L w and Rw are the inductance and resistance
of the metal wire. The initial value of L w is equal to the
self-inductance of straight wire [22], [23]. Then, (1) can be
written as
U (t) = [U Rw (t) + U Re (t)] + [U L w (t) + U L e (t)]. (4)
However, our purposes is to obtain the value of wire
resistance voltage U Rw (t). Through the short-circuit tests, the
measured L e and Re are 0.066 H and 18 m, respectively.
Then, the value of U Re (t) and U L e (t) are obtained. In this
paper, the diameter of wire range is from 0.10.3 mm, and
length 25 mm, the maximum L w = 0.031H. Hence, the
inductance of thin wire L w is comparable to the inductance of
electrodes L e and must be taken into account for calculation of
the resistive voltage. Because of the wire phase transformation,
the wire inductance is variable, and the wire inductance
voltage is also changing. We use a simple dynamic model of
the inductance method [22] to calculate the wire inductance
during discharge process, then, the wire inductance voltage
U L w (t) is obtained. At last, U Rw (t) can be calculated by (4),
and the voltages shown in each figures is U Rw (t).
Through the above process, the evolution of input energy
E  (t) is estimated on the basic of wire resistance voltage and
current using
 t
E  (t) = U Rw (t) I (t)dt . (5)
0
The gauge used in measuring SW is a PCB-109C11 type
pressure gauge which is widely used in blast tests [12], [20].
The pressure gauge with flash installation is placed at
about 100 mm away from the wire core. Typical wave-
forms of the discharge current I (t), voltage U (t), and
SWs correspond to them are presented in Fig. 2. Because
of the strong electromagnetic interference, the signal of
pressure gauge is not real during the discharge process.
In order to make the measured data more accurate, the gauge
cannot be placed too close to the copper wire. The distance
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LIU et al.: EFFECT OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS AND ENVIRONMENT ON SWs 3

Fig. 2. Discharge and pressure waveforms (U = 3 kV, C = 30 F,

D = 0.2 mm). (a) Discharge current and voltage. (b) Pressure.

between wire and gauge is 100 mm and its fit for these tests.
The discharge of capacitor causes the wire explosion [see
the dashed green line as shown in Fig. 2(a), which represent
the explosion time] and generates of the first peak pressure.
Further, due to the reflection, the pressure waveform sustained
oscillation.

III. R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSION

A. Discharge Waveforms Under Different Capacitances
The wire explosion mechanism is related to the metal phase
transformation. Copper wire is melted by resistive heating
when a high-current pulse is applied to it. When testing
in water, the exterior pressure and cooling effect on wire
made droplets form inside the wire. Therefore, discharges
between the droplets cause the wire to vaporize, then an SW
is generated by the expansion of wire [24], [25]. Fig. 3 shows
the typical voltage and current oscillograms discharged by
different capacitances and wire diameters. The voltage and
current variation were analyzed to evaluate the effect of para-
meters such as capacitance, stored energy, water temperature,
and conductivity. The tliq , tvap , and tcore are the end times of
solid wire transformed to liquid, vaporization, and wire core
discharge stage[22], [26]. The total discharge time ttot is not
represent in these pictures, because it is too long. In order
to guarantee to have the same stored energy, the charging
voltage was different at each capacitor. This made the current
rise rates was different. At the beginning of discharge, the
current and voltage increased. After a certain time, a sudden Fig. 3. Typical voltage and current oscillograms as a function of time.
drop in current and a sharp rise in voltage occurred. This (a) Stored energy 86.4 J (0.1 mm, 2.4 kV, and 1.7 kV). (b) Stored energy
135 J (0.2 mm, 3 kV, and 2.125 kV). (c) Stored energy 345.6 J (0.3 mm,
phenomenon stemmed from an increase in resistivity of wire 4.8 kV, and 3.395 kV).
because of vaporization. The calculated resistances are also
shown in Fig. 3. The resistance is increased several magnitude will continue to discharge, and the resistance during this time
during the vaporization process, and the current was nearly seemed to have little change.
interrupted at the end of vaporization as shown in Fig. 3(a).
However, there are some differences in Fig. 3(b) and (c), once B. Relationship Between Energy Deposition and Shock Waves
explosion occurred, the wire core radii are sustain expansion, As shown in Fig. 3, the influence of capacitance on wire
[24] shows the shadow images for exploding copper wires discharge is significant. Comparative tests are carried out in
with different diameters of 0.1 and 0.2 mm. The expansion of conditions that guarantee the same stored energy; the charging
0.2-mm-diameter wire core is last longer. In other words, it voltage of capacitor with 30-F capacitance is higher than that
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4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE

Fig. 4. Energy deposition during the discharge process (corresponding to

the discharge in Fig. 3).

of 60-F capacitance. Therefore, the higher voltage made the

discharge faster. What is more, the peak current and voltage are
also declined in a certain degree under the large capacitance.
In order to compare these two kinds of discharge form, a
group of tests was taken. The energies deposited in wire are
calculated by time integration using the resistance voltage and
current according to (5), and the Evap and Ecore are the energy
deposition in vaporization (tliq tvap ) and wire discharge
process (0 tcore ). The energy corresponded to Fig. 3 is shown
in Fig. 4, and the integration time is also clarified. The energy
deposition rate is faster in high charging voltage. When the
capacitance is 30 F, the energy efficiency of explosion wire
(Ecore /Estored ) with diameter 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm are nearly
13%, 60%, and 58%, respectively. Fig. 5. Energy deposition as a function of stored energy. (a) Energy
deposition in wire core. (b) Energy deposition in vaporization process.
Fig. 5(a) shows the energy depositions in wire core dis-
charge stage by different capacitors. The energy deposition is
nearly a linear relationship with the stored energy in different
wire diameter, but the slope of these lines are not the same. The
capacitance effects the amplitude of energy deposition, and the
wire diameter affects the rate of energy deposition. The dashed
black line in Fig. 5(a) represents the deposited energy equaled
to the atomization enthalpy of copper wire. When the wire
diameter is 0.2 or 0.3 mm, the stored energy is only around
two times of the sublimation heat, and it can make the energy
deposition reach up to the atomization enthalpy. However, this
is difficult for the wire with 0.1-mm diameter. Fig. 5(a) shows
that the energy deposition in wire core under the capacitance
of 30 F are larger than that of 60 F when the wire diameter
range from 0.1 to 0.2 mm, it is probably because of the high
magnetic pressure [22] which made more energy deposited
into wire before explosion. What is more, the short discharge
time also reduce the energy loss in high charging voltage. Fig. 6. Peak pressure of each test as a function of stored energy.
However, it was reversed when the wire diameter is 0.3 mm.
Through the analysis of energy deposition in each stage, the deposition in this process is that their change trends consistent
significant difference of these two discharge circuits focus on with the trend of peak pressure as shown in Fig. 6. This results
the time during tvap and tcore , i.e., during voltage collapse. that the vaporization process is a main factor to generate the
As the wire diameter increased, the rate of energy deposition SWs. Main trends of energy deposition in vaporization process
in this stage is gradually increased. are the same as the energy deposition in wire core except the
Fig. 5(b) shows the energy deposition in vaporization wire diameter of 0.3 mm. As the stored energy increased, the
process [28], [29]. The main reason for presenting the energy energy deposition under the capacitance of 30 F is gradually
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LIU et al.: EFFECT OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS AND ENVIRONMENT ON SWs
Fig. 7. Process map relating capacitance and diameter of the wire.
approach and ultimately beyond that of 60 F. This result
represents that the energy deposition in large diameter wire
is more complicated. When the energy ratio Ecore /Eatom > 1,
the energy deposition in vaporization stage is more efficient
with high charging voltage and low capacitance. When the
energy ratio Ecore /Eatom < 1, low charging voltage and high
capacitance would be better. It is worth mentioning that the
energy deposition during voltage collapse may not enhance
the SWs, although the energy deposition in this stage is also
high when exploding 0.3-mm wire.
C. Explosion Energy Conditions
The energy stored in capacitors is used to explode the wire.
The circuit parameters were selected based on the efficient use
of these energies. The energy deposition in wire is an impor-
tant parameter affecting the SWs when the wire explodes.
Fig. 7 shows the effect of wire diameter and capacitance on
energy deposition. The points in Fig. 7 represent the stored
energy in capacitors of each tests above, and the lines divided
the region into stable (right area) and unstable (left area)
explosion region. The energy consumed by explosion exceeds
the stored energy in unstable region, and these energies can be
seen from Fig. 5(a) and (b), which are under the ratio line of
1. The energies stored in capacitors are insufficient, and they
do not reach the sublimation energy. The large capacitance
seems to have more advantage to explosion the wire with
large diameter. For the SWs generated by the 0.3-mm wire,
there is a large gap of peak pressure between the two different
capacitances in unstable explosion. The pressure is too small
under the stored energy of 160 J when the capacitance is
30 F, and the sensor can hardly monitor, which are not
shown in Fig. 6. When the wire diameter is 0.1 mm, the result
is reversed. The low capacitance would be more efficient.
In order to maximize the energy efficiency in a stable explo-
sion region, the choice of capacitance is closely linked with
the wire diameter under the same stored energy. The energy
deposition in vaporization stage is more efficient with high
charging voltage and low capacitance when exploding different
diameter wires in a stable explosion.
is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
5
Fig. 8. Comparing of the voltage and current oscillograms under dif-
ferent water conductivities. Stored energy 135 J (0.2 mm, 3 kV30 F,
and 2.125 kV60 F).
D. Effect of Water Conductivity on Shock Waves
One of the main parameters of EEW is the amplitude of
SWs, which is the most important means to simulate the
layer. Underground environment must be more complicated
than the test water. This may have an impact on discharge,
thus affecting the generation of SWs. Taking into account
the complex working conditions, the underground water will
be more conductive than the test water. The conductivity of
underground water is not only effect by a number of mineral
but also effect by the project of water injection and hydraulic
fracturing.
The compressibility of water is influenced by conductivity,
thus, influence the propagation of SWs. In order to evaluate
the equation of state of water depending on conductivity, the
Tumlirz equation, which is the modified Tait equation, is used
to calculate the specific volume of water [30], [31]. In the
range of pressure generated by wire explosion, the change of
specific volume is nearly the same under different conduc-
tivities (range from 0.5 to 10 mS/cm). Therefore, the direct
comparison of pressure in different test water is acceptable.
Fig. 8 shows the typical voltage and current waveforms
influenced by water conductivities of 0.5 and 10 mS/cm, and
Fig. 9 shows the comparing of discharge parameters. These
tests are all taken under the same parameters shown in Fig. 3
except the water conductivity. The conductive of original test
water is 0.5 mS/cm, and the saline water is prepared by NaCl
and original test water. The influence of saline water on voltage
and current is significant in vaporization process as shown in
Fig. 8. The changes of peak current, voltage, and resistance
are shown in Fig. 9(a) and (b), which can be seen a significant
decline of peak voltage and a modest increase of peak current
in high conductivity water.
The change of resistance can be used to explain the reason
of these phenomenon. As shown in Fig. 3, the first peak
resistance is related to the peak voltage. They reach the
peak nearly at the same time because of the end of vapor-
ization process. Thus, the decline of the peak resistance in
Fig. 9(a) and (b) represent that the wire resistance in high
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6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE

Fig. 10. Comparing of the voltage and current oscillograms under

Fig. 9. Effect of conductivity on discharge parameters. (a) and (c) Capaci- different temperatures. Stored energy 135 J (0.2 mm, 3 kV30 F,
tance: 30 F. (b) and (d) Capacitance: 60 F. and 2.125 kV60 F).

conductivity water is less than that in original test water at the

end of vaporization process. In the process of vaporization,
the resistance is gradually increased as the superheated liquid
copper wire transformed into a vaporization state. When the
resistance up to a certain value, the shunt effect of high
conductive test water cannot be ignored. At this time, the
current is not totally through the wire, in other words, the
stored energy will not be totally deposited into the wire but
consumed in the surrounding saline water. This will reduce
the rate of vaporization. What is more, these changes can
also be different under the different wire diameters. When the
wire diameter is 0.1 mm, the resistance is significant high
at the time of voltage breakdown [see Fig. 3(a)], and the
excess energy in capacitor is papered for restrike [12], [32].
However, this must be different in high conductivity water
because of the excess energy are consumed through saline
Fig. 11. Effect of temperature on discharge parameters. (a) and (c) Capaci-
water, and there is no restrike. When the wire diameter rise, tance: 30 F. (b) and (d) Capacitance: 60 F.
the resistance between the electrodes is relatively low at the
time of voltage breakdown [see Fig. 3(b) and (c)]. They are
gradually reduced as shown in Fig. 9(a) and (b). Although It is significantly higher than that of room temperature. The
some of the stored energy consumed in the surrounding water compressibility of water influenced by temperature (range
cannot be prevent, there are more stored energy deposited in from 25 C to 75 C) is also acceptable [30], [31].
the wire with lower resistance during the discharge process. Fig. 10 shows the typical voltage and current waveforms
The shunt currents consumed by the conductive water are influenced by temperature of 25 C and 75 C, and Fig. 11
reduced. These can conclude that the wire with large diameter shows the comparing of discharge parameters [33]. The tem-
must be more efficient when tests in a conductive water. perature of original test water is 25 C, and we use the
Fig. 9(c) and (d) shows the peak pressure and the energy constant-temperature heating platform to keep the high tem-
deposition during the vaporization process. The energy deposi- perature of test water. The influence of water temperature on
tions are declined, and so are the peak pressures. The decline voltage and current is also significant in vaporization process
of peak pressure also illustrates the energy loss during the as shown in Fig. 10. Comparison tests are taken under the
vaporization process in high conductive test water, because parameters shown in Fig. 3. Unlike the tests in saline water,
these parameters have the same change tendency. The capaci- the peak voltage has a significant increase and the current
tor with different capacitance had no significant impact on the has a modest decrease in high temperature water. However,
discharge process when tests in a conductive water. this is also different under different diameter wires. When
the wire diameter is 0.1 mm, the peak voltage, current, and
E. Effect of Water Temperature on Shock Waves energy deposition during the vaporization process have a
The other important issue is the temperature of under- small change. The peak resistances between the electrodes are
ground water which is thousands of meters underground. extremely high and they are not shown in Fig. 11(a) and (b).
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LIU et al.: EFFECT OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS AND ENVIRONMENT ON SWs
Thus, the change of water conductivity in high temperature
seems have no main effect on the discharge process. As the
wire diameter increased, the change of parameters seems to
be more complicated. When the wire diameter is 0.2 mm, the
peak voltage is relatively high than that which is tested under
the water temperature of 25 C, and the peak resistance is
also rise. More energy consumed in vaporization process, but
without an increase of peak pressure. Considering the changes
of water physical properties in high temperature, the thermal
conductivity of water rise, and more stored energy transfer
to the surrounding water during the discharge process. From
Fig. 11(c) and (d), we can find that the energy deposition are
large enough to total vaporize the copper wire. When the wire
diameter is 0.3 mm, the discharge system with a capacitor of
30 F is more effective. The peak pressure is nearly the same
as that in room temperature water. For the test with a capacitor
of 60 F, there is more energy loss because of the relative long
discharge time. This result the peak pressure decline is even
more apparent. Even so, the mechanism of discharge process
influenced by water temperature should be further researched.
IV. C ONCLUSION
In this paper, the relationship between the energy deposition
and SWs of underwater wire explosion was investigated.
Under the same stored energy of different capacitors, it is
found that the energy deposition in vaporization stage is more
efficient with high charging voltage and low capacitance in a
stable explosion, perhaps because of the high magnetic pres-
sure made more energy deposited into wire before explosion,
and the short discharge time also reduce the energy loss in
high charging voltage. The amplitude of SWs has a close rela-
tionship with the energy deposition in vaporization process.
When the water conductivity up to 10 mS/cm, the shunt
effect of high conductive test water has a significant effect
on energy deposition in vaporization stage, thus, reducing the
amplitude of SWs. When the water temperature up to 75 C,
the amplitude of SWs is also decreased because the water
thermal conductivity rises with the temperature increasing,
which makes more energy loss. However, the effect of water
conductivity and temperature on wire discharge is not very
sensitive to the change of capacitance.
According to the result of analysis, the combination of low
capacitance and high charging voltage under the same stored
energy is recommended to generate an efficient SWs. However,
the energy deposition in wire core should be larger than its
heat enthalpy.
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8 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE

[27] A. Sayapin, A. Grinenko, S. Efimov, and Y. E. Krasik, Comparison Deguo Wang received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.
of different methods of measurement of pressure of underwater shock degrees in mechanical engineering from the China
waves generated by electrical discharge, Shock Waves, vol. 15, no. 2, University of Petroleum, Beijing, China, in 1985,
pp. 7380, 2006. 1991, and 1994, respectively.
[28] Q. Zhou et al., Effect of current rate on energy deposition of electrical He is currently a Professor of mechatronics
wire explosion in air, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 42, no. 11, engineering with the College of Mechanical and
pp. 36393643, Nov. 2014. Transportation Engineering, China University of
[29] Q. Zhou et al., Effect of subatmospheric pressure on deposited energy Petroleum, where he is also with the Key Laboratory
for electrical wire explosion in air, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 42, of Process Fluid Filtration and Separation.
no. 10, pp. 34053410, Oct. 2014.
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Effect of ambient gas species on the formation of Cu nanoparti-
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Yaha501 well in talimu, (in Chinese), J. Southwest Petroleum Inst.,
vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 5053, 2001.

Yanbao Guo received the Ph.D. degree in mechani-

Ben Liu was born in Hubei, China, in 1988. cal engineering from the China University of Petro-
He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in mechani- leum, Beijing, China, in 2011.
cal engineering from Yangtze University, Jingzhou, He is currently an Associate Professor of
China, in 2010 and 2013, respectively. He is cur- mechatronics engineering with the College of
rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in mechatron- Mechanical and Transportation Engineering, China
ics engineering with the College of Mechanical University of Petroleum, where he is also with the
and Transportation Engineering, China University of Key Laboratory of Process Fluid Filtration and Sep-
Petroleum, Beijing, China. aration. His current research interests include basic
His current research interests include basic and and applied research of mechatronics, and tribology
applied research of electrical wire explosion down- and surface engineering for oil/gas exploration and
hole tool for enhancing oil recovery. transportation.