1.

0 INTRODUCTION

The roof is one on top building element. Roof function is to protect the building from
rain, heat, and wind. Sometime, the roof serves as a release of sunlight into the building. It
also constructed so that the heat does not seep out too much through it. In addition, it can add
beauty to the roof of the building. Roof often using reinforced concrete beams, truss plane,
wood, and steel.

The proliferation of the construction industry today, various technologies have been
invented and developed. For example, many steel-based construction technologies researched
and developed. Steel is a lightweight material, able to bear the burden off several times of its
own weight. Furthermore, wood production was controlled to prevent the extinction of the
world's forests are a treasure for a long time. Secondly, a variety of alternative materials
created and released for the choice of building materials. Therefore, the use of steel as a
structural roof trusses to be one of the main alternatives proposed in Malaysia.

Before the construction of the roof, the roof beams need to be built. It is because the
beam is a structural component built horizontally and can load loaded of the roof, walls and
slab. He suffered bending moments, shear forces and deflections. Beams are structural
elements that bear the burden of side like slab. Normally it suffered internal shear and
bending deflection when the load is applied.

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2.0 ROOF BEAM

Based on wiseGEEK, a roof beam is generally a length of steel, wood, or aluminum

that holds up a roof meant to keep snow, rain, and other elements out of the house. A newer
type of beam than the more traditional materials, a composite roof beam can be made from
several different materials to make the beam lighter and stronger, and less prone to rotting,
warping, or cracking. The type of roof beam used in a structure depends on the size and shape
of the roof, and how much weight the roof is required to hold.

Most of the larger structures such as skyscrapers use steel for their roof beam
construction. Steel can hold significant amounts of weight, and it can carry a load across a
large area, meaning a roof supported by steel beams can be much wider or longer than other
types of roofs. Structures that use steel roof beam construction usually have flat roofs, but
some smaller structures may have a peaked roof. Steel is cheaper than wood in most cases
and it can handle a load much better, but steel beams must usually be cut off-site and trucked
into a location, whereas wood beams can readily be cut on site.

The wood roof beam has been the material of choice throughout history because wood
has been readily available and easy to cut for centuries. Wood has become more expensive as
time has passed, and other materials now come with a cheaper price tag. It is, however, prone
to warping, rotting, or cracking under load, meaning wood beams will have to be inspected
and repaired more often than metal or composite beams.

On extremely small structures, composite beams may be used for roofing. Composite
beams are made from more than one material, with one of the most common combinations
being wood and plastic. A wood-plastic composite beam will be lightweight and less prone to
rotting, warping, or mold build-up, but such beams are not designed to carry a significant
amount of load. Wood-plastic composites are more commonly used in trim and non-load-
bearing structures, especially outdoors in the yard. They are also commonly used as flooring,
as the material is structurally strong enough to bear weight when supported by stronger beam
materials beneath.

"Roof beam" has become a common term to describe the relatively large wooden
beams that support a roof structure (load-bearing). Some homeowners have noticed this term
gradually worming its way into their lexicon. Typically, their homes are the ones that have
exposed roof beams projecting out to, or beyond, the roof edge framing. Roof beams can also

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be non-load-bearing (ornamental). These decorative beams, though not necessarily easily
distinguishable from load-bearing ones, do not support roof structures and in fact are often
just suspended from them.

More often than not, roof beams are exposed to the weather. The degree of exposure
varies with the building design and construction details. Even beams that are cut flush with
the roof edge are not immune to the effects of wind driven rain and temperature variations.
Roof beams, often the only part of a structure not protected by the roof itself, are particularly
vulnerable to weather related deterioration. The rate of decay, which is affected primarily by
moisture and temperature, will vary between regions.

Figure 2.0 Example of roof beam.

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2.1 Type of Roof Beam

2.1.1 Long span beam

Spans in excess of 20 m can be achieved (for the purposes of the definition of long
span are taken as anything in excess of 12 m). Generally long spans result in flexible,
column-free internal spaces, reduce substructure costs, and reduce steel erection times.

This broad range of benefits means that they are commonly found a wide range of
building types. The particular advantages and disadvantages of each individual solution are
summarized below, so that a designer can assess the benefits offered by a particular solution
in relation to the drivers for a given project, to identify the most appropriate and cost
effective solution.

2.1.1.1 Design of long span beams

The use of long span beams results in a range of benefits, including flexible, column-
free internal spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced steel erection times. Many long
span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services without increasing
the overall floor depth.

The design of long span steel and (steel-concrete) composite beams is generally
carried out in accordance with BS 5950, BS EN 1993 or BS EN 1994. For some types of
beam this codified guidance is complemented by specific design guidance, such as that on the
design of beams with large web openings (see SCI P355 ), or manufacturers' information.
Such specific guidance is normally based on extensive testing of a given product, and often
presented in the form of design software.

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2.1.1.2 Long span beam options

The solutions described below are presented in order of increasing spanning ability,
with some overlap between options. The aim is to present a wide range of solutions. By far
the most common types of beam used today are plate girders, and beams with web openings
(be they cellular , fabricated, or rolled sections). Many of them exploit the benefits
of composite construction , which offers considerable strength and stiffness increases over a
bare steel alternative.

2.1.2 Parallel beam approach

The parallel beam approach is effective for spans up to around 14 m. Floor grids
comprise two layers of fully continuous beams running in orthogonal directions. Services
running in either direction can be integrated within these two layers, so that services passing
in any direction can be accommodated within the structural floor depth. A further benefit is
that, being fully continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without incurring
the expense and complexity of rigid, full strength connections .

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2.1.3 Composite beams with web openings

Figure 2.1.3a Service integration with cellular beams

(Image courtesy of FABSEC Ltd.)

Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the
beam. This enables the structural and service zones to occupy the same space, thereby
reducing the effective overall depth of floor construction for a given spanning capability.
Openings may also be formed for aesthetic reasons, for instance with cambered beams used
to support a roof. Composite beams with web openings have been shown to be a cost
effective solution for spans in the range 10 to 16 m.

A particular type of composite beam with web openings is the so-called cellular beam,
which is formed in a specific way and therefore described separately below . The alternative
way of forming the web openings is simply to cut them into the plate used to form the web of
a plate girder, or the web of a rolled section. The most appropriate solution to adopt depends
on the size, shape and regularity of the openings, or more commercial drivers such as the
method used by a preferred supplier. Beams with web openings present no disadvantages in
terms of erection and familiarity as they are much the same as a 'standard' solid web beam.

The design of beams with web openings must recognize the fact that the openings
introduce a number of potential failure modes not found in solid web beams. Around the
openings the beam behaves as a Vierendeel girder, and web post buckling may govern design
(the web post is the section of web found between two adjacent openings, as shown in the
figure below). Large openings may require stiffening to avoid instability (buckling) of the
web posts.

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Figure 2.1.3b Modes of failure at large closely Figure 2.1.3c Composite beam with
spaced openings stiffened web openings
(Image courtesy of FABSEC Ltd.)

The figure above right shows a composite plate girder with stiffened web openings.
Dedicated design guidance (SCI P355) and software from specialist manufacturers is
available, based on extensive test programmes that have included fire testing.

Figure 2.1.3d: Cellular composite beams

2.1.3.1 Cellular beams and services

Cellular beams are a form of beam with multiple regular web openings , formed by
splitting two rolled sections longitudinally, to form two Tee sections. The two Tees, which
may not come from the same donor section (as discussed below) are then welded together to
form an I-section with web openings which have a characteristic shape (normally, but not
necessarily, circular). The process used to form cellular beams enables the bottom half of the
final beam to be formed from a heavier donor section than the top half - in other words the
bottom flange can be significantly bigger than the top flange. This makes sense when, as is

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often the case, the beams are to act compositely and therefore a concrete flange effectively
replaces the upper steel flange in the final state (the upper steel flange only needs to be big
enough to meet construction needs and serve as a platform for the shear studs).

BS EN 1994 provides design rules to cover beams with an asymmetry (area of the
bottom steel flange divided by that of the upper flange) of up to three. The greater the
asymmetry the more onerous the requirements for minimum degree of shear connection ,
which must be observed to prevent excessive slip between the steel and concrete elements.

Although cellular beams have regular openings some of these may be in filled, and/or
stiffening added to accommodate local features such as incoming beams or heavy point loads.
Double (oval) openings may also be included to facilitate the passage of larger service ducts.
Dedicated design guidance (SCI P355 ) and software is available from specialist
manufacturers, based on extensive test programmes that have included fire testing. The figure
below shows a cellular beam, with regular circular web openings, and services sharing a
common floor zone.

2.1.4 Tapered girders

Figure 2.1.4a : Tapered cellular girder

(Image courtesy of FABSEC Ltd.)

Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 10 m to 20 m. They
are another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor zone.
The depth of the girder increases towards mid-span, where applied moments are greatest, and
thereby facilitating hanging services under the shallower regions near the beam supports. It is
also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low shear, towards mid-
span. These provide more options for service integration .

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 Detailed design guidance is available in SCI P059 . Although this is based on design
to BS 5950 the principles are readily transferrable to a Eurocode based approach.

Figure 2.1.4b : Tapered girder supporting steel decking

2.1.5 Stub girders

Figure 2.1.5a : Composite stub girders

Stub girders are a Vierendeel form of truss, a rather exotic hybrid that can be thought
of as lying somewhere between a solid web I-section and a truss. The bottom chord is
typically formed from a shallow open section (UKC), on which sit short lengths (stubs) of
deeper I-sections (UKB). The top chord, at least in the final state, is formed by the composite
slab, and therein lies one of the disadvantages of this option - until composite action with the
hardened concrete is achieved the beams may need temporary support/restraint. An inverted
Tee section may be used to fulfil the functions of a top chord during erection. Composite
interaction is achieved by welding shear studs to the top of the UKB stubs. The number of

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elements/surfaces associated with a stub girder may increase the cost of fire
protection compared with simpler solutions.

A big advantage of this option is that spans in excess of 20 m can be economically

achieved. Services and/or secondary beams can pass through the gaps between the beam
stubs, reducing overall construction depth. The figure on the right shows a composite stub
girder supporting a secondary beam, which is in turn supporting a composite slab.

2.1.6 Haunched composite beams

Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide moment

continuity. The stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of the span can be
shallower (the bending moment diagram is 'lifted' and the effective stiffness of the beam
substantially increased), and services passed under it. In buildings where the services are
likely to need frequent replacement (for example in hospitals ), hanging the services under
the beams rather than passing them through holes in the webs, or through a truss, can be
advantageous. Spans in excess of 20 m can readily be achieved.

Detailed design guidance is available in SCI P060. Although this is based on design to
BS 5950, the principles are readily transferrable to a Eurocode based approach.

2.1.7 Ridge roof beam

Primary Examiner-John E. Murtagh Attorney, Agent, or FirmKolisch, Hartwell &

Dickinson. A ridge roof beam for a modular housing unit. The beam includes an elongated
plywood web and a pair of elongated wood flanges extending adjacent and parallel to
opposite edge margins of the web and secured in face-to-face relation to one face of the web.
The web and flanges are each constructed of elongated wood sections bonded together in
end-to-end relation. Finger grooves extending along adjacent end edges of the sections
interlock to form a secure joint there between.

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2.1.8 Hanging beams

A 'hanging beam' is generally a deep timber beam located perpendicular (at right
angles or 90) to ceiling joists and directly above them. The function of a hanging beam is to
reduce the span of the ceiling joists. This allows for a more economic joist size and consistent
section. Hanging beams must only support ceiling joists and the attached ceiling materials.

The hanging beam has to be adequately supported on its ends over load bearing walls.
This is done using blocking pieces of the same timber as the ceiling joists. The ceiling joists
are fixed to the hanging beam with:

hoop iron straps

timber battens or
purpose made metal joist hanger brackets.

Hanging beams are held in a vertical position at both ends. They can be nailed or bolted
to an available rafter, gable end strut or held by means of angle strutting from internal walls.

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2.1.9 Roof System

They have many types of roof systems. Traditional roofs can be divided into three main
types of structure:

Figure 2.1.9.a

Single roofs.
Rafters of single roofs do not require any intermediate support. This type of roof has
a number of limitations. It can only be used for small spans. If greater spans are
required, larger roof sections would be needed. If the feet of the rafters are not tied
together by means of a binder or roof joist, then this type of roof will have a tendency,
underweight, to push the supporting walls outwards at the top causing structural
failure of the walls. Single roofs can be categorised as follows:

Couple roof These can be used for building with a clear span of not greater than 3m
and pitches less than 40.
Collar roof These can be used for buildings with a clear span not exceeding 4mm.
Close couple roof These can be used for buildings with a clear span not exceeding
5.5mm and with pitches less than 25.

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 Double roofs.
This type of roof structure is very limited in its use. The roof consists of common
rafters fixed at the ridge and at the wall plate. When subjected to any type of load or
force acting vertically downwards the rafters will move outwards at their feet thus
exerting thrust to the walls forcing them outwards and causing possible failure of the
wall structure. A double roof is a roof whose rafters are of such a length that they
require an intermediate support. This support is usually a beam which is secured
under the rafters at a point half way between the ridge and the wall plate.

Trussed roofs.
This type of roof structure is very famous use in construction. This type use new
technology to build the roof. To further increase the strength of this structure, a binder
is fixed to each ceiling joist and hanger. This binder runs parallel with the main wall
and at right angles to the ceiling joist. This type of structure ensures that this type of
roof can be used for great spans without the fear of the roof spreading under loads.

2.10.1 Pitches, Spans and Rises

When setting out a roof, there are certain essential factors that must be considered.

These are:

Roof span This is the distance across the roof and measured to the outer edges of the
wall plates.
Roof height or rise This is the vertical height of the roof at its highest point and is
measured from the top of the wall plates to the intersection of the rafters at the top of
the roof. When measuring rafters, the length is taken as a straight line running through
the centre of the rafter.
Roof pitch This is the angle or slope of the roof and can be expressed in degrees or
as a fraction or ratio found by dividing the rise by the span.

Since the rise is half the span, the angle of the roof would be 45.

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2.11.1 Rafter Length and Bevels

The roof section can be set out full size or to scale. Once the section has been set out the
length of the common rafter can be determined by drawing the rise and the span as a right
angle joined together by the hypotenuse which will determine the slope of the roof. The rafter
is seated upon the wall plate by means of a notch or birdsmouth joint which is cut one third
into the rafter. The angle at which the notch is cut is called the seat cut. The top angle or
bevel is called the plumb cut. When determining the length of the rafter, an allowance is
made for the thickness of the ridge and the length of the overhang at the eaves.

Figure 2.11.a Raffer

2.12. EAVES AND FASCIAS

There are various ways of constructing the eaves of a gable roof. Below are two examples:

Flush eaves.
Boxed or closed eaves.
Roof Ventilation

2.12.1 Flush eaves

In this method of finishing off the lowest edge of the roof, the rafter feet are
cut plumb, and project 25mm from the face of the outer brickwork. This will allow a
ventilation gap to be formed so that a continuous flow of air can circulate throughout the roof

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space. The fascia board is nailed directly to the rafter feet to form a face trim. It is to this
fascia board that the guttering is fixed.

2.12.2 Closed or boxed eaves.

This is a more complex method of finishing the lowest edge of the roof. The rafter
feet are allowed to overhang the face of the outer brickwork. The overhang can vary in size
but usually the distance is stipulated on the working drawings, or is at a distance that can
accommodate a proprietary ventilation soffit. The soffit is supported by a cradling bracket or,
in some cases, a piece of plywood cut to shape. The roof space can be ventilated by using a
proprietary vermin proof ventilation strip or the soffit can be drilled with a series of holes into
which plastic ventilators are fixed.

2.12.3Roof ventilation

Roof ventilation is essential to reduce the likelihood of condensation within the roof
space as required by the Building Regs 1985. The regulations state that all roofs must be
cross-ventilated at eaves level by permanent vents and these must have an equivalent area
equal to a continuous gap along both sides of the roof of 10mm, or 25mm where the pitch of
the roof is less than 15.

This ventilation requirement can be achieved by:

Leaving a gap between the outer wall and the soffit.

Using a proprietary ventilation strip.
Using circular plastic ventilators set into the soffit board.

There are many types and designs of proprietary ventilators available all of which
have been designed to give sufficient ventilation to the roof space if used and incorporated
into the structure correctly.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Roof shapes differ greatly from region to region. The main factors which influence
the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer
covering. Roof terminology is also not rigidly defined and usages vary slightly from region to
region, or from one builder or architect to another.

Roof shapes vary from almost flat to steeply pitch. They can be arched or domed; a
single flat sheet or a complex arrangement of slopes, gables and hips; or truncated (terraced,
cut) to minimize the overall height.

5.0 SUMMARY

A roof of a building envelope, both the covering on the uppermost part of a building
or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain, but also heat,
wind and sunlight; and the framing or structure which supports the covering.

The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that it
covers, the available roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and wider
concepts of architectural design and practice and may also be governed by local or national
legislation. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain. A veranda may be roofed
with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a
garden conservatory, protects plants from cold, wind and rain but admits light. A roof may
also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden.

The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the
underneath space is bridged and whether or not the roof is pitched. The pitch is the angle at
which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point. Most US domestic architecture, except
in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction
elements such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of
tradition and aesthetics. So the pitch is partly dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to
do with practicalities. The durability of a roof is a matter of concern because the roof is often
the least accessible part of a building for purposes of repair and renewal, while its damage or
destruction can have serious effects.

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6.0 REFERENCES

Vandermeulen, Valerie; Verspecht, A., Vermeire, B., Van Huylenbroeck, G.,

Gellynck, X. (November 30, 2011). "The use of economic valuation to create public
support for green infrastructure investments in urban areas". Landscape and Urban
Planning 103 (2): 198206. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.07.010. Retrieved 28
February 2014.
Volder, Astrid; Dvorak (February 2014). "Event size, substrate water content and
vegetation affect storm water retention efficiency of an un-irrigated extensive green
roof system in Central Texas". Sustainable Cities and Society 10: 5964. doi:
10.1016/j.scs.2013.05.005. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
Vegetated Complex Partition research presentation on Aurlien P. JEAN research
website.
California (magazine of the University of California Alumni Association), Sept/Oct
2008, cover and pp. 5253
University of Toronto News@UofT Green roofs in winter: Hot design for a cold
climate". 17 November 2005. Archived from the original on 11 April 2008. Retrieved
10 June 2008.

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7.0 APPENDIX

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