Assignment #01

Mechanics Of Material

Name: Muhammad Farhan Akram

Cell# 03038868266

Lecturers Name: Mam Sana Jamal

Programme (degree): B.Tech Mechanical (04 years)

Year: 2016-2020
 DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE LEARNING EDUCATION
G.C UNIVERSITY, FAISALABAD
Name Muhammad Farhan Akram
Roll no . 168150
Cell # 03038868266

Question No.1
A).What is stress? What are its basic types? Elaborate with the help of diagram.
Answer:-
Stress
Force per unit area is called stress.
Mathematically

Stress=

Three Basic Types of Stresses

Basically, three different types of stresses can be identified. These are related to the nature of
the deforming force applied on the body. That is, whether they are tensile, compressive or
shearing.
1.Tensile Stress
Under tensile stress the bar suffers stretching or
elongation.
Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area A
subjected to an axial tensile force P. The stress at any
section x-x normal to the line of action of the tensile
force P is specifically called tensile stress pt . Since
internal resistance R at x-x is equal to the applied force P,
we have,
pt = (internal resistance at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x)
=R/A
=P/A.
2. Compressive Stress
Under compressive stress the bar suffers
shortening
If the bar is subjected to axial compression
instead of axial tension, the stress
developed at x-x is specifically called
compressive stress pc.
pc =R/A
= P/A.

3. Shear Stress

Consider the section x-x of the rivet

forming joint between two plates
subjected to a tensile force P as shown in
figure.
The stresses set up at the section x-x acts
along the surface of the section, that is,
along a direction tangential to the section.
It is specifically called shear or tangential
stress at the section and is denoted by q.
q =R/A
=P/A.
B).Define strain and its basic types with examples.
Strain
Strain is defined the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension of a body when it is
deformed. It is a dimensionless quantity as it is a ratio between two quantities of same
dimension.
L
Strain= L

1. Linear Strain
Linear strain of a deformed body is
defined as the ratio of the change in
length of the body due to the
deformation to its original length in
the direction of the force. If l is the
original length and dl the change in
length occurred due to the
deformation, the linear strain e
induced is given by e=dl/l.
Linear strain may be a tensile strain, et or a compressive strain ec according as dl refers to an
increase in length or a decrease in length of the body. If we consider one of these as +ve then
the other should be considered as ve, as these are opposite in nature.
2. Lateral Strain
Lateral strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in length (breadth of a
rectangular bar or diameter of a circular bar) of the body due to the deformation to its original
length (breadth of a rectangular bar or diameter of a circular bar) in the direction perpendicular
to the force.
3. Volumetric Strain
Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the
ratio of the change in volume of the body to the
deformation to its original volume. If V is the original
volum and dV the change in volume occurred due to the
deformation, the volumetric strain ev induced is given by
ev =dV/V
Consider a uniform rectangular bar of length l, breadth b
and depth d as shown in figure. Its volume V is given by,
This means that volumetric strain of a deformed body is
the sum of the linear strains in three mutually perpendicular directions.
4. Shear Strain
Shear strain is defined as the strain accompanying a shearing
action. It is the angle in radian measure through which the
body gets distorted when subjected to an external shearing
action. It is denoted by *.

Consider a cube ABCD subjected to equal and opposite forces Q across the top and bottom
forces AB and CD. If the bottom face is taken fixed, the cube gets distorted through angle * to
the shape ABCD. Now strain or deformation per unit length is
Shear strain of cube = CC / CD = CC / BC = * radian

Question No.2
A. Graphically describe elastic versus plastic behavior of materials.
Elastic versus plastic behavior
Elastic
Shape returns to original size after loading
Elastic deformation
Deformation of a material that is recovered when the applied load is removed
Plastic
Shape remains deformed after loading
Plastic deformation
Permanent deformation of a material when a load is applied, then removed
If the strains caused in a test specimen (typically this is with reference to a tensile testing
machine) by the application of a given load disappear when the load is removed, the strain
returns to zero, the shape resumes its original length, and the material behaves elastically. A
material would behave plastically if the opposite occursthe strains in the test specimen do
not disappear when the load is removed.
Visualization

Elastic Plastic
Shape returns to original size after Shape remains deformed after loading.
loading.

1. unloade
d

2. loading

3. load
removed

Details
If a material has a well-defined yield point, the elastic limit, proportional limit, and yield point
are essentially equal. So, the material behaves elastically and linearly as long as the stress
remains less than the yield point stress. If the yield point is reached, yield takes place and when
the load is removed the stress and strain decrease together in a linear fashion. This can be
represented in the following figure along the line parallel to the elastic portion of the loading
curve. The fact that the strain does not return to zero after removal of the load indicates that a
permanent set or plastic deformation has occurred. For most materials, the plastic deformation
depends not only upon the maximum value reached by the stress, but also upon the time
elapsed before the load is removed. The stress-dependent part of the plastic deformation is
referred to as slip, and the time-dependent partwhich is also influenced by the
temperatureas creep.

When a material does not possess a well-defined yield point, the elastic limit cannot be
determined with precision. However, assuming the elastic limit equal to the yield strength as
defined by the offset method results in only a small error. Referring to the following figure, it
can be noted that the straight line used to determine point Y also represents the unloading
curve after a maximum stress Y has been reached. While the material does not behave truly
elastically, the resulting plastic strain is as small as the selected offset.

Loading, Unloading, and Loading Again, Both Tensile

A case will now be examined where the specimen is loaded, unloaded, then loaded again, using
the same load and in the same direction. If, after being loaded and unloaded, the test specimen
is loaded again, the new loading curve will closely follow the earlier unloading curve until it
almost reaches point C; it will then bend to the right and connect with the curved portion of the
original stress-strain diagram. We note that the straight-line portion of the new loading curve is
longer than the corresponding portion of the initial one. Thus, the proportional limit and the
elastic limit have increased as a result of the strain-hardening that occurred during the earlier
loading of the specimen. However, since the point of rupture R remains unchanged, the
ductility of the specimen, which should now be measured from point D, has decreased.

Loading, Unloading, and Loading Again, One Tensile and One Compressive
A case will now be examined where the specimen is again loaded, unloaded, and loaded again,
with the same force both times except that the first load will be a tensile load and the second
load will be a compressive load (in opposite direction to the first load). Assume a material of
mild steel, for which the yield strength is the same in tension and in compression. The initial
load is tensile and is applied until point C has been reached on the stress-strain diagram. After
unloading, a compressive load is applied, causing the material to reach point H, where the
stress is equal to -Y. Note that the portion DH of the stress-strain diagram is curved and does
not show any clearly defined yield point. This is referred to as the Bauschinger effect. As the
compressive load is maintained, the material yields along line HJ.
If the load is removed after point J has been reached, the stress returns to zero along line JK,
and the slope of JK is equal to the modulus of elasticity. The resulting permanent set AK may be
positive, negative, or zero, depending on the lengths of the segments BC and HJ. If a tensile
load is applied again to the test specimen, the portion of the stress-strain diagram beginning at
K (dashed line) will curve up and to the right until the yield stress has been reached. s
If the initial loading is large enough to cause strain-hardening of the material (point C'), unloading takes
place along line C'D'. As the reverse load is applied, the stress becomes compressive, reaching its
maximum value at H' and maintaining it as the material yields along line H'J'. Note that while the
maximum value of the compressive stress is less than the yield stress, the total change in stress
between C' and H' is still equal to 2Y.
If point K or K' coincides with the origin A of the diagram, the permanent set is equal to zero,
and the specimen may appear to have returned to its original condition. However, internal
changes will have taken place and, while the same loading sequence may be repeated, the
specimen will rupture without any warning after relatively few repetitions. This indicates that
the excessive plastic deformations to which the specimen was subjected have caused a radical
change in the characteristics of the material. Reverse loadings into the plastic range, therefore,
are seldom allowed, and only under carefully controlled conditions. Such situations occur in the
strengthening of damaged material and in the final alignment of a structure or machine.

B).What is Poissons ratio? How you can calculate it?

Poissons ratio
When a material is loaded within elastic limit then, the ratio of lateral strain to leaner strain
remains constant
is called as Poisson ration
Poisson ration is denoted by or 1/ml
Mathematically
lateral strain
=
linear strain

=

Its values ranges from 0.Lateral strain will be less then linear strain

Denoted by (nu) and named after Simeon Poisson, is the signed ratio of transverse strain to
axial strain. is the amount of universal expansion divided by the amount of axial
compression, for small values of these changes.
Poissons ratio is a measure of the Poisson effect, the phenomenon is which a material tends to
expand in directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. Conversely, if the material
is stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contact in the directions transverse to
the direction of stretching. It is a common observation when a rubber band is stretched, it
becomes noticeably thinner. Again, the Poissons ratio will be the ratio of relative contraction to
the relative expansion and will have the same values as above.
Most materials have Poissons ratio values ranging between 0.0 and 0.5
Calculation
Poisson's Ratio from Un-axial Tension

A rod-like specimen subjected to un-axial tension will exhibit some shrinkage in the lateral
direction for most materials. The ratio of lateral strain and axial strain is defined as
Poisson's ratio n,
= /

The Poisson ratio for most metals falls between 0.25 to 0.35. Rubber has a Poisson ratio close
to 0.5 and is therefore almost incompressible. Theoretical materials with a Poisson ratio of
exactly 0.5 are truly incompressible, since the sum of all their strains leads to a zero volume
change. Cork, on the other hand, has a Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes cork function
well as a bottle stopper, since an axially-loaded cork will not swell laterally to resist bottle
insertion.
The Poisson's ratio is bounded by two theoretical limits: it must be greater than -1, and less
than or equal to 0.5,
1
1 <
2

The proof for this stems from the fact that E, G, and K are all positive and mutually dependent.
However, it is rare to encounter engineering materials with negative Poisson ratios. Most
materials will fall in the range,

1
02
Question No.3
Define the following terms with formula.
Hookes law
Factor of safety
Youngs modulus
Centroid
Polar moment of inertia
Hookes law
Robert Hooke, who in 1676 stated,
The power (sic.) of any springy body is in the same proportion with the extension.
Announced the birth of elasticity. Hooke's statement expressed mathematically is,

= .
Where F is the applied force (and not the power, as Hooke mistakenly suggested), u is the
deformation of the elastic body subjected to the force F, and k is the spring constant (i.e. the
ratio of previous two parameters).
Factor of safety
It is define as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically
Factor of safety = (Maximum stress)/(Working or design stress)
In case of ductile material e.g. mild steel,
where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress.
In such case Factor of safety =(Yield point stress)/(Working or design stress)
In case of brittle material e.g. cast iron,
the yield point is not well defined as for ductile materials.
Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress. Factor of safety =
(Ultimate stress)/(Working or design stress) The relation may also use for ductile materials.
Youngs modulus
Youngs modulus is the elastic modulus we use for deformation which takes place when a force
which is parallel to the axis of the object is applied to one face while the opposite face is held
fixed by another equal force.
When a rod or wire of length L and cross section A is under tension produced by a force F it will
experience a change in length L. The tensile stress is defined as the magnitude of the force per
unit cross-sectional area (F/A). The tensile strain is defined as the fractional change in length
(L/L).
Youngs modulus Y is defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain.

= = = (units are Pascal)

The bigger Youngs modulus is the stiffer is the material since for the same fractional change in
length (strain) you will need a bigger force (stress).
Note that in the diagram, since the wire is not moving, there is a downward force F on the
bottom face which is not shown.
Centroid: -
It is a single point about which entire
area is acting for a lamina or plane figure
irrespective for the position of the plane
figure.
It is applicable to plane figures having
area but no volume
Example: - Rectangle, square, circle, semi-circle, triangle, Quarter circle, etc.
Polar moment of inertia
The polar moment of inertia is related to an axis which is basically perpendicular to the plane of
an area. If all of the area is assumed to comprise infinitely small areas da then the polar
moment of inertia is the sum of all of these areas x r2.

The polar moment of inertia is given by

= 2

Where,
r = the radius of small area, da from the perpendicular axis - for a plane area the perpendicular
axis is a point

The polar moment of inertia is the sum of any two moments of inertia about axes at right
angles to each other, e.g.,
= + . (a)

Where
Gives the moment of Inertia in x-axis
Gives the moment of inertia in y-axis

Or
The polar moment of inertia J of an element about an axis perpendicular to its plane is the
product of the area of the element and the square of its distance from the axis. This can also be
thought of as the moment of inertia about the Z-axis.

The polar moment of inertia is,

= 2
= ( 2 + 2 )
= +

The moment of inertia is that property of a body which makes it reluctant to speed up or slow
down in a rotational number.

Question No.4
Give geometrical properties of area like.
Regular area
Composite area
Parallel axis theorem
Perpendicular axis theorem
Geometrical properties of areas
Regular Area
A "Regular Polygon" has:

All sides equal and

All angles equal.
Otherwise it is irregular.
Properties
Exterior Angle
The Exterior Angle is the angle between any sides of a
shape,
And a line extended from the one side.
All the Exterior Angles of a polygon add up to 360, so:
Each exterior angle must be 360/n
(Where n is the number of sides)
Example:
What is the exterior angle of a regular octagon?
An octagon has 8 sides, so:
Exterior angle = 360/n = 360/8 = 45

Moments of Inertia of Composite Areas

The moment of inertia of a composite area A obtained by adding the moments of inertia of A1,
A2, A3, ... , with respect to the same axis.

Perpendicular Axis Theorem

For a planar object, the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane is the sum
of the moments of inertia of two perpendicular axes through the same point in the plane of the
object. The utility of this theorem goes beyond that of calculating moments of strictly planar
objects. It is a valuable tool in the building up of the moments of inertia of three dimensional
objects such as cylinders by breaking them up into planar disks and summing the moments of
inertia of the composite disks.
The perpendicular axis theorem for planar objects can be demonstrated by looking at the
contribution to the three axis moments of inertia from an arbitrary mass element. From the
point mass moment, the contributions to each of the axis moments of inertia are

Parallel axis theorem

= + 2
= + 2

The moment of inertia of an area with respect to

any given axis is equal to the moment of inertia
with respect to the centroidal axis plus the product
of the area and the square of the distance between the 2 axes.
The parallel axis theorem is used to determine the moment of inertia of composite sections
Example:

Question No.5
A).What is torsion? Write its formula and its applications.
Torsion: -
Consider a shaft rigidly clamped at one end & twisted at the other end by torque T=F.d applied
in a plane perpendicular to the axis of bar such as shaft is said to be in Torsion

Effect of torsion: -
The effect of tornsional load applied to a bar is;
a) To impart an angular displacement of one end cross-section with respect to other.
b) To set-up shear stresses on any cross-section of bar perpendicular to its axis.
Torsion theory or formula: -
.
= =

1st term refers to applied loading which is polar second moment of inertia.
2nd term refers to stress, and the stress increases as the distance from the axis increases.
3rd term, it refers to deformation & contain the term modulus of elasticity & combined term q/l
which is equivalent to strain for the purpose of designing circular shafts.
Assumption of torsion
1) The materials is homogeneous i.e. uniform elastic properties exists.
2) The material is elastic following hooks law.
3) The stress does not exceed elastic limit.
4) The circular section remains circular.
5) Cross-section remains plane.
6) Cross-section rotates as if rigid i.e. every diameter rotates through the some angle.

B).What is beams and its basic types? Why we study stresses in beams?
Beam
Structural member who is long when compared with its lateral dimensions subjected to
transverse force to induce bending is called Beam.
Types of beam
1. Simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller
support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending. It
is the one of the simplest structural elements in existence.
The following image illustrates a simply supported beam.

2. Cantilever beam: -
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end. It can be seen in the image below.
3. Overhanging beam:
An overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its
supports. It may have any number of supports. If viewed in a different perspective, it appears as
if it is has the features of simply supported beam and cantilever beam.

4. Continuous beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length. It can be
understood well from the image below.
5. Fixed beam:
As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Stresses in Beams
Forces and couples acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses) and shearing stresses
on any cross section of the beam and deflection perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam and no forces act on it, the bending is said
to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the bending is called ordinary bending.