The Musculoskeletal

System

Components of the MS System

Com ponent Engineering Concept
C O N N E C T IV E T IS S U E :
B o n e s , lig am e nts , te n do n s , fa s c ia, M e c h a nic a l S y s tem
c a rtila g e
S K E L E TA L M U S C L E :
M us c le fib e rs , c o n n ec tiv e tis s u e s , Force Generators
n er v e e x c itatio n
JOINTS:
M e c h a nic a l S y s tem
U n io ns w ith D O F
NERVES:
Control System
A ffe re n t, e ffe r e nt
BRAIN:
Control System
CNS, P NS

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 Biomechanical Basis for
Understanding Anatomy

ANATOMY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

PERFORMANCE FAILURE LIMITS

Model for Injury Pathogenesis

- mechanical loads - primary - health promoting
- simple categories: - mechanical strain - training
force, distance, time - acute physiological - well being
- complex categories: changes - coping
e.g. intensity, power,
work, duration, - secondary - detrimental
frequency, variability - local in cells and - injuries
tissues - atrophy
- mental loads
- information

EXPOSURE RESPONSE EFFECT

INDIVIDUAL
FACTORS:
- inherited
- trainable
- modified
by response
and effect

-From Sejersted and Vllestad (1993) Progress in Fibromyalgia and Myofascial Pain

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 Connective Tissue and Bones:
Functions

1. Force transmission and movement

2. Posture support
3. Metabolism (blood cell manufacture)
4. Protection
5. Storage/Buffer (calcium and
phosphorus)

Connective Tissues:
Composed of
various mixtures of
two fiber types:
Collagen
Elastin
Mechanical
properties of CT
are determined by
the proportions of
these fiber types
and their
geometric
organization From: Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ

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 Ligaments and Tendons

Ligaments:
connect bones to bones
e.g.: lateral collateral in knee
Tendons:
connect muscles to bones
- e.g.: rotator cuff, multiple tendons within
carpal tunnel

Mechanical Properties of
Materials
Mechanical properties of interest correspond to the
change in the shape of the material (strain) for different
applied loads (stress).
Mechanical properties depend upon:
The physical structure or arrangement of the material being
loaded.
Characteristics of the force acting on the materials, including:
Magnitude
Direction
Velocity and higher derivatives of force.

Due to these sources of variability, and differences

between individuals, it is very hard to accurately
characterize mechanical properties.

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Stress Strain Curves
z Measurements
z Stress Force / Initial cross-sectional area (N/cm2)
z Strain Change in length / Original length (L/Lo)
z Elastic Range - range over which material can be stressed without
permanent deformation.
z Hooke's Law (E = Young's modulus of elasticity):

Stress = E * Strain

z Plastic Range - range over which removal of the stress results in

'permanent' deformation of the material (residual strain).
z Yield Point - point (ultimate strength) at which the material breaks or
becomes non-elastic.

Stress-Strain Curves

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 Stress-Strain Curves for Fiber Types

ultimate

yield

tic
l as
re
ea
lin

plastic
toe-in region

Large E modulus, gradual failure

Large strain with abrupt failure
transmission of force
residual strain; plastic deformation abundant in arteries; 5% in ligaments
and tendons; 5-10% in skin
major component of ligaments & tendons
From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991) Occupational Biomechanics , Figs 2.2, 2.3

Bones You
Need to
Know

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Mechanical Properties of Bone
Structure follows function
Wolffs Law: bone is deposited where
needed and reabsorbed where not
needed, based on the mechanical
stresses on it
Stress-strain behavior varies with
orientation
Older bones are less dense, weaker,
and more brittle

Bone: Stress-Strain vs.

Orientation
Long bone:
greatest
strength in axial
tension (L)

Whole bone fails

most easily in
shear loading

From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991) Occupational Biomechanics, Fig 2.9

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Bone: Age Changes, contd.
YOUNG OLD

Older bones
Decreased mineral
content
Thinner
Weaker and more brittle
Osteoporosis

The Joints

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 Joints
Interface between two bones
Provides motion and pulleys for
tendons
Synovial Joint
most common type
no tissue; synovial fluid forms interface
Examples: wrist, elbow, knee, shoulder
Cartilaginous
some motion but high load bearing
Example: spine

Example Synovial Joint

FEMUR

Synovial
Joint
Membrane
Capsule
Articular
Meniscus Cartilage

TIBIA

From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991)

Occupational Biomechanics, Fig 2.32

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 The Synovial Joint
Bones are covered by articular cartilage
Cartilage surfaces are separated by a synovial cavity
that is bounded by a synovial membrane
Synovial membrane produces synovial fluid
Joint is surrounded by a capsule (dense fibrous
fascia)
Some joints contain menisci to protect articular
cartilage and distribute loads (e.g., the knee)
Some tendons (e.g. wrist) are surrounded by
synovial membranes to allow for low-friction sliding

Cartilage: Different Types

Hyaline Cartilage
synovial joints, articular surfaces
Fibrocartilage
cartilaginous joints; intervertebral discs
Elastic Cartilage
Ear and nose
Anterior rib cage
Cartilage is often injured following
acute or chronic loading

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 Synovium
Provides fluid for low friction joint contact
and tendon sliding
COF () = SHEAR Force / NORMAL Force
FS

FN

VERY LOW friction ( ~ 0.002)

Ice on ice ~ 0.03
Steel on steel ~ 0.05
Reduced friction during pully-type actions of
tendons (e.g. wrist, knee, shoulder)

Intervertebral Discs
Nucleus
Pulposus
Annulus
Fibrosus

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 X

Spinal (intervertebral) Discs

Composed of:
Nucleus Pulposus (gel-like material)
Annulus Fibrosus (layers of connective tissue)
Disc height depends on water content: spine shrinks
during the day
Theory: Prolonged static loading -> decreased
disc height -> misalignment of facet joints ->
pain?
Extreme compressive forces may cause:
failure of endplate, bone scarring, weakened annulus,
narrowed disc, facet pain, arthritis
MANY potential causes of back pain

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Spine Pathology (Disc Degeneration) X

From Videman, T. et al. (1990) Lumbar spinal pathology in cadaveric material in relation
to history of back pain, occupation, and physical loading. Spine. 15(8): 728-740.

Surgical Repair X

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 Spinal Cord: Nerves X

Spine Compressive Strength:

Age and Gender
Males > Females
8-9 kN versus 6-7 kN in 20-53 yr age groups
Compressive strength decreases substantially
with age
strength (kN) = 8.6 - [0.728][age(decade)]
Males = 10.53 - 0.975 x age
Females = 7.03 - 0.591 x age

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 The Muscles

Muscles: General Information

Type Control
Smooth Autonomic (involuntary)
Skeletal Somatic (voluntary)
Cardiac Autonomic/Somatic

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 Muscles: contd.
Muscle Functions:
skeletal motion
skeletal stability
force production
Muscle mass = 30-50% of total body mass
(untrained)
Muscle Composition:
75% water
20% proteins
5% other (carbohydrates, fats, enzymes, salts, )

Skeletal Muscle: Topics

Muscle structure and function
Activation, control, and
organization
Energy production
Mechanisms of contraction
Local muscle fatigue

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 Muscle Structure: Hierarchy

Muscle Contraction
Muscle contraction is
fundamentally caused by the
binding/unbinding of two protein
molecules: actin and myosin
Membrane depolarization causes
release of Ca2+
Ca2+ reacts with protein on actin
molecule to expose binding sites
Myosin binds to actin and
ratchets up (sliding) From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991) Occupational Biomechanics , Fig 2.13

Each event yields ~50-100

displacement
Energy required for unbinding

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 The Motor Unit
A motor unit consists of
a motor neuron and
multiple muscle cells
Variable ratio
(nerve:muscle cells:
1:5 (precise control, e.g.
eye, finger) Dorsal (sensory) root

1:1000 (gross control, e.g.

thigh and back muscles)
motoneuron

Each muscle may contain

100-1000 motor units
From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991) Occupational Biomechanics, Fig 2.17

Nervous System Organization

Central Nervous
System Brain and
Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous
System Motor and
Sensory Nerves
Somatic Nervous
System Serves
voluntary effectors
Autonomic Nervous
System Serves
involuntary effectors

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Muscle Innervation
(L, L)

(gain)

(response)

Spindle
output

From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ Muscle length

(1999) Occupational Biomechanics, Fig 2.28

Muscle Activation
A Nerve Action Potential (NAP) originates in nerve cell
of spinal cord following excitation of the cell body
Neuron depolarizes, sending wave potential (70-
100m/s) along axon to muscle fibers
At motor endplate (synapse or neuromuscular
junction), a transmitter substance is released
Post-synaptic membrane (of muscle) is depolarized by
transmitter substance
A Motor (muscle) Action Potential (MAP) is created
and travels throughout motor unit
MAP causes release of stored Ca2+
The released Ca2+ allows for binding/unbinding of
actin and myosin proteins, leading to muscle
contraction

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Muscle Activation, contd.

MAP causes release

of Ca ++ stored in the
sarcolemma
The sarcolemma
sends transverse
tubules to the
sarcoplasmic
reticulum which
interposes with
myofibrils

Muscle Organization and

Function
Based on some early
reflex work, muscle
control was thought
to be controlled by
reciprocal inhibition
(antagonistic muscles
are inhibited)
Recent experiments
have demonstrated
muscle co-activation
Muscles typically
work together to
achieve effort and
motion From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991)
Occupational Biomechanics, Fig 2.28

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Biochemical Pathways

creatine phosphate ADP + P

transphosphorylation
(CP kinase) myosin ATPase CONTRACTION

creatine ATP
H 2O, CO 2
glycogen
O2
OXYDATIVE
glucose GLYCOLYSIS protein
PHOSPHORYLATION
fatty acids

lactic acid

Energy for Contraction

z Stored ATP: small supply; ~2 sec.
z Stored Creatinephosphate (CP): small supply; 15 - 20 sec.
z Stored Glycogen (sugar): large supply
z Oxidation of Substrates (Aerobic): potentially unlimited
z Glycolyis (Anaerobic): limited by lactic acid accumulation
Potentially unlimited
with sufficient circulation

Substrates
Glucose, Fat, ...
GLYCOGEN
ATP Oxygen
CP (GLUCOSE

ANOXIDATIVE (Anaerobic) OXIDATIVE (Aerobic)

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 Muscle Testing Methods
Isometric (Static)
Fix length and stimulus level, measure tension

Dynamic
Shortening (concentric) or lengthening
(eccentric)
Set weight and stimulus levels, measure velocity
and tension
Isotonic:
Isokinetic:
Isoinertial: Fixed load (weight), measure
acceleration, velocity, and tension

Length-Tension Relationship
Max
Force
Sliding Filament (%)

Theory: efficiency
depends on the
overlap of the
acting and myosin 100

chains
Just right at resting
length
ROM
Too short ->
interference
~rest length
Too long -> not
enough overlap Muscle length
(contractile element)
From: Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991) Occupational Biomechanics, Fig 2.23

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 Length-Tension: Contraction
Level
Force output depends on stimulation level and muscle length

= maximum
stimulation

F P = Passive Tension

Velocity-Tension
Capacity for force production depends on velocity:
Maximum
Force

lengthen 0 shorten Velocity

(static)

Capacity for work depends on tension level and velocity:

Work =
TxV

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 Velocity-Tension: Contraction
Level
Force output depends on stimulation level and muscle velocity

Static

Local Muscle Fatigue

Endurance
Time (min)

z The Rohmert
curve for static
endurance time
z 15-20% too high
for sustained Endurance Training

contractions
z 4-8% max for 8 Strength Training

hrs (with rest

breaks!)
Exertion Level (%max)

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 Muscle Fiber Composition
Muscles are composed of both fast and slow twitch
fibers
These fibers differ in terms of:
maximum tension
fatigue resistance
oxydative (aerobic) and glycolytic (anaerobic)
capacities
use in different tasks
Deltoid (Type II) vs. Trapezius (Type I)
Thus, different muscles (or muscle groups) differ in their
capacity

SUMMARY (1)
Various types of connective tissues,
components, and mechanical properties
Similar to other mechanical systems, the
stress-strain properties of the materials are
important. These properties are determined
by the alignment and proportions of fibers and
their material properties
Bone behavior and strength depends on how
and where it is loaded.
Ageing leads to reduced bone strength and
increased brittleness

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 SUMMARY (2)
Joints form the interface between loaded
support structures (bones).

Joints don't last forever: arthritic degeneration,

intervertebral disc herniation, etc.

Substantial age and gender differences in the

compressive strength of the spinal vertebrae.

SUMMARY (3)
Nerve cells serve many functions in the nervous system
including sensing, processing, and communicating.
Muscles are composed of long fibers of contractile
elements.
Muscle cells are very similar to nerve cells, and muscle
contraction results from an action potential moving along
the cell membrane of the muscle cells.
Muscle contraction requires energy in the form of ATP to
be present in the cell. Most of this energy is supplied
using the anaerobic and/or the aerobic metabolism.

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 SUMMARY (4)
Muscle contraction is the result of protein
interactions (binding/unbinding).
The efficiency of muscles changes as a function
of the length of the muscle and the velocity of
contraction.
Muscle capacity for force generation varies with
time (fatigue), muscle geometry, and fiber
composition.

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