2.

006 Final Exam Equation Sheet (Fall 2017)

Vector Operators

Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)

= i+ j + k
x y z
A A A
A= x + y + z
x y z
2 2 2
2 = + +
x2 y2 z2

! A Ay Ax Az Ay Ax
A = z - i + - j + - k
y z z x x y
Dy y !
= + v y
Dt t

Cylindrical Coordinates (r, , z)

y 1 y y
y = r + j + z
r r j z
1 (rAr ) 1 Aj Az
A = + +
r r r j z
1 y 1 2y 2y
2y = r + +
r r r r 2 j 2 z 2
! 1 Az Af Ar Az 1 (rAf ) Ar
A = - r + - f + - z
r f z z r r r f

Spherical Coordinates (r, q , f )

y 1 y 1 y
y = r + q+ f
r r q r sin q f
1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 (sin q Aq ) 1 Af
A = 2 + +
r r r sin q q r sin q f
1 2 y 1 y 1 2y
2y = r + sin q +
r 2 r r r 2 sin q q q r 2 sin 2 q f 2

1
Mach number: Ma = velocity / ( speed of sound)

Constitutive relationships(for specific variables, i.e. per unit mass)

Model Specific energy Specific enthalpy (h=u+Pv) Specific entropy

Incompr. 1 T
u2 - u1 = c(T2 - T1 ) h2 - h1 = c(T2 - T1 ) + ( P2 - P1 ) s2 - s1 = c ln 2
liquid r T1
T v
s2 - s1 = cv ln 2 + R ln 2
T1 v1
Ideal T P
u2 - u1 = cv (T2 - T1 ) h2 - h1 = c p (T2 - T1 ) s 2 - s1 = c p ln 2 - R ln 2
Gas T1 P1
P v
s2 - s1 = cv ln 2 + c p ln 2
P1 v1
T
Solid u2 - u1 = c(T2 - T1 ) s2 - s1 = c ln 2
T1

Ideal Gas law: PV = mRT or P =RT, Ideal gas specific heats: cp = cv + R

Ideal gas ratio of specific heats: g = cp/cv
%& ()*$)/)
Isentropic ideal gas process: " = $
%'

Cycles
W! TL
1. Efficiency of Heat Engine in general: h = = (if reversible) 1 -
Q! H TH
Q H TH
2. Coefficient of Performance for Heat Pump: COP = = (if reversible)
W TH - TL
Q L TL
3. Coefficient of Performance for Refrigerator: COP = = (if reversible)
W TH - TL

Efficiency and Related Definitions

W! actual
Positive work machine h+ =
W! reversible
W!
Negative work machine h - = reversible
W! actual

Diffuser
(
hD = 2
vin2 - vout2
)reversible (At same pressures)
(vin - vout2 )actual
Nozzle hN =
(v 2
out - vin2 )
actual
(At same pressures)
(v 2
out -v 2
)
in reversible

2
 W! net
Heat engine h=
Q! in
TC
Ideal Carnot engine h Carnot = 1 -
TH
Q! desired
COP
W! net
W! net
NWR
W! gross - positive

Dimensionless numbers

rUL
Reynolds number: Re L =

c p
Prandtl number: Pr =
k
gb (DT ) L3
Rayleigh number: Ra =
na
gb (DT ) L3
Grashof number: Gr =
n2
V
Froude number: Fr =
gL
F
Wave drag coefficient: CD , w =
1
rU 2 A
2
hL
NuL =
k
Nusselt number:
t
Coefficient of friction: Cf =
1
rU 2
2

Conservation Relations for Closed Systems

First law, closed systems: DE = Q - W
dQ
Second law, closed systems: DS = + S gen
T

Conservation Relations for Open Systems (using J for velocity)

Mass conservation
d
(integral form): ( )
dV + r .n dA = 0
dt CV CS

3
 dM CV
(summation form): = m in m out
dt in out

D
(differential form): + . + (. ) = 0 or + = 0
t Dt

Energy conservation (First Law)

d ! 2 $ ! 2 $
(integral form): # u + + gz &dV = Q Wshaft # h + ( )
+ gz & r .n dA
dt CV " 2 % CS " 2 %
dECV " 2 % " 2 %
(summation form): = Q Wshaft + m in $ h + + gz ' m out $ h + + gz '
dt in # 2 &in out # 2 &out

Second Law
d " Q %
(integral form) s dV = $ ' s r .n dA + Sgen
( )
dt CV i # T &i CS

dSCV !Q$
(summation form): = # & + ms ( ) ms( )
+ Sgen
dt i " T %i in
in
out
out

Linear momentum conservation

In an inertial frame:
d
(integral form): Fext = CS Pn dA + CS dA + CV g dV = CV dV + CS ( r .n) dA
dt

dP
(summation form): CV = min in mout out + Fext
dt
d
In a non-inertial frame: F
CV rf
a dV = dV + CS ( r .n) dA

dt CV

Angular momentum conservation

d
(integral form): T = dt CV (r ) dV + CS (r )( r .n) dA

dLCV


(summation form): = min ( r )in mout ( r )out + Text
dt

4
Bernoulli Equation (using J for velocity)
J P2 - P1 J22 - J12
2

1 t ds +
r
+
2
+ g ( z2 - z1 ) = 0

Viscous Flow (incompressible, constant-viscosity fluid) (using J for velocity)

Cartesian co-ordinates:
Jx Jy Jz
Mass conservation (continuity equation): + + =0
x y z
Navier-Stokes equations:
Jx Jx Jx Jx P 2Jx 2Jx 2Jx
r + Jx + Jy + Jz =- + r gx + 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z x x y z

Jy Jy Jy Jy P 2Jy 2Jy 2Jy

r + Jx + Jy + Jz =- + r gy + 2 + 2 + 2
x
t x y z y y z

Jz J J J P 2J 2J 2J
r + Jx z + Jy z + Jz z = - + r g z + 2z + 2z + 2z
t x y z z x y z

Newtonian viscous shear stresses:

J J J J Jy Jz
t xy = t yx = x + y t xz = t zx = x + z t yz = t zy = +
y x z x z y

5
Cylindrical co-ordinates
Mass conservation: 1 1
( rJr ) + (Jq ) + (Jz ) = 0
r r r q z

Navier-Stokes equations:

Jr J J Jr Jq2 J P 1 1 2J 2 J 2J
r + Jr r + q - + Jz r = - + r gr + ( rJr ) + 2 2r - 2 q + 2r
t r r q r z r r r r r q r q z
Jq Jq Jq Jq JqJr Jq 1 P 1 1 Jq 2 Jr Jq
2 2
r + Jr + + + Jz =- + r gq + ( rJq ) + 2 2 + 2 + 2
t r r q r z r q r r r r q r q z
Jz J J Jz J P 1 Jz 1 2Jz 2Jz
r + Jr z + q + Jz z = - + r gz + r + 2 + 2
t r r q z z r r r r q
2
z

Newtonian viscous shear stresses:

J 1 Jr J 1 Jz J J
t rq = t q r = r q + t zq = t q z = q + t rz = t zr = r + z
r r r q z r q z r

Viscous flow in Pipes(using J for velocity)

P J2 P J2 L J2 J2
Total Head Loss: +a + z - +a + z = f + K - h pump + hturbine
rg 2g in r g 2g out D 2g 2g
where = 2 for laminar flow, 1.06 for turbulent flow, or 1 for uniform flow

Friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in circular pipes: f = 64 / Red
-2
6.9 e / d 1.11
f = 1.8log10 +
Red 3.7
Friction factor for fully developed turbulent flow:

rJave D J D
Reynolds Number for pipe flow: Re = or Re = ave
v
L rJave 2
Darcys Law for a single pipe flow: DP = f
D 2
Velocity profile for laminar flow: (
v / vmax = 1 - (r / R )
2
)
Velocity profile for turbulent flow: v / v max = (1 - r / R) 1/ n
6< n <10

Pipe Entrance Lengths:

Le
Laminar: 0.05 Re D
Di
Le
Turbulent (smooth walls): 4.4 Re D1/6
Di

6
Boundary Layers

Boundary layers on a smooth flat plate:

Laminar (103<Rex<106) Turbulent (106<Rex)

Laminar, Laminar, exact Turbulent
von Karman (Blasius 1/7th power law
(quadratic profile) similarity
solution)
BL thickness d 5.5 d 5 d 0.16
= = @
x Re x x Re x x Re1/7
x

Displacement d* 1.83 d* 1.72 d * 0.020

thickness = = @
x Re x x Re x x Re1/7
x

Momentum 2 q 0.664 q 0.016

thickness q= d = @
15 x Re x x Re1/7
x

Local skin 0.73 0.664 0.027

friction C f ,x = C f ,x = C f ,x @
Re x Re x Re1/7
x
coefficient
Drag 1.46 1.328 0.031
coefficient CD , x = CD , x = CD , x @
Re x Re x Re1/7
x

CD ,L = 2 C f ,L CD ,L = 2 C f ,L 7
CD , L = C f ,L
6

Blasius Velocity Profile:

7
For general flat plate boundary layer flow (laminar or turbulent):
dq
Wall shear stress: t w = rU 02
dx
d d
u u u
Momentum thickness: q = (1 - ) dy Displacement thickness: d * = (1 - ) dy
0
U0 U0 0
U0
tw
Friction coefficient: C f =
rU 02 / 2

u 1 y u*
Law of the Wall: = ln +B where u * = t w r , k = 0.41 and B = 5
u* k n

8
Heat Transfer

Conduction: Fouriers law: q = k T
Conduction resistance of a slab: Rcond = L / (kA)
ln(rout / rin )
Resistance (to radial heat transfer) of a cylindrical pipe: Rcyl =
2p kL
Resistance (to radial heat transfer) of a spherical shell:
1 1 1
Rsphere = -
4p k rin rout
Convection: Newtons law of cooling: Q = hAs (Ts T )
Convection resistance: Rconv = 1/ (hc A)

Radiation: heat flux from a small grey object (1) to a large isothermal environment (2):
Q12 / A = 1 (T14 T24 ) where s =5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) and e1 the emissivity of (1)
Radiation resistance: Rrad = 1/ hr A where hr = 4e1s Tm 3 when T1 T2

T q
Heat diffusion equation: = 2T + gen
t c
where a = k / r c and qgen is the heat generation rate by dissipation per unit mass

DTsol Rsol
Biot number: Bi = = sometimes can be estimated as (hLc ) / k with Lc = V / As
DT fl R fl

Lumped Parameter Model (for Bi<<1)

Solution: T = T + (Ti - T ) exp(-t / t ) where t = C Rext ,
Rext is resistance for all external heat fluxes. For convection only: t = ( rVc) / (hAs )

1D Slab (general case, valid for Bi1, but also for Bi >>1):
Temperature at any point x from the center of a slab of thickness 2L, at uniform initial temperature
Ti, at a time t after surface of the slab is exposed to a fluid with temperature Ts and heat transfer
coefficient h:
at
T - T - ln2 2 x
q= = cn e L cos(ln )
Ti - T n =1 L
4sin ln
Where ln tan ln = Bi = hL / k and cn =
2ln + sin 2ln
at
Fourier number: Fo =
L2
Semi-Infinite Solids:
Temperature at a point at a distance x from the surface of a semi-infinite solid (at uniform initial
temperature Ti) at a time t, after surface temperature is raised to Ts at t = 0:
T - Ti x
q= = erfc
Ts - Ti 4a t

9
 z
2
e dt and Complementary Error Function erfc(z) = 1 erf (z)
2
-t
Error Function erf ( z ) =
p 0

k(Ts Ti )
Heat flux at the surface of the semi-infinite solid: q =
t
Fin equations
d 2q
General equation: 2
- m2q ( x) = 0 General solution: q ( x) = Ae- mx + Bemx
dx

Fin heat transfer rate

Tip condition(x=L) Temperature distribution q / qb
Qf
Convection heat h h
transfer: cosh ( m ( L - x ) ) + sinh ( m ( L - x ) ) sinh mL +
cosh mL
mk M mk
dq h h
hq ( L) = -k cosh mL + sinh mL cosh mL + sinh mL
dx x = L mk mk
Adiabatic:
dq cosh ( m ( L - x ) )
=0 M tanh mL
dx x = L cosh mL
Prescribed qL qL
temperature: sinh mx + sinh ( m ( L - x ) ) cosh mL -
qb qb
q ( L) = q L M
sinh mL sinh mL
Infinite fin ( L )
e - mx M
: q ( L) = 0
q T - T ; qb = q (0) = Tb - T ; m 2 = hP / kAc ; M = qb hPkAc

Hyperbolic operators

d
Function : f(x) Definition Derivative: [ f ( x) ]
dx

sinh( x)
e x - e- x cosh( x)
2

cosh( x) e x + e- x sinh( x)
2

e x - e- x
tanh( x) 1 - tanh 2 ( x)
e x + e- x

10
Thermal Entrance Lengths in Pipe Flows

L
Laminar, Twall constant: e,th = 0.0334 Re Pr
Di
L
Laminar, q! constant: e,th = 0.043 Re Pr
Di
Le,th
Turbulent = 1.359 Re1 / 4
Di

Bulk Temperature in Internal Pipe Flows:

Aq!
Constant heat flux: Tb,out = Tb,in +
m! c p
T - Tb,out UA
Constant surface temperature: = exp -
T - Tb,in m! c
p

Heat Exchangers

Log Mean Temperature Difference:

Parallel Flow: Counter Flow
DT2 - DT1 DT1 = Th,in - Tc ,in DT1 = Th,in - Tc ,out
Q! b = UADTLM DTLM =
DT DT2 = Th,out - Tc ,out DT2 = Th,out - Tc ,in
ln 2
DT1
Effectiveness-NTU Method:
C = m! c P
Q! C H (Th ,in - Th ,out ) C C (Tc ,out - Tc ,in ) UA
C min e= = = NTU =
C = Q! max C min (Th ,in - Tc ,in ) C min (Th ,in - Tc ,in )
*
C min
C max

(complete -NTU correlations are in property data tables)

11
Thermodynamics
mg
Pure Substance In a saturated state, quality: x =
m f + mg
h - hf
x= , h = h f + xh fg
h fg
These relationships can be applied to specific volume, specific internal energy, specific
enthalpy and specific entropy

Boiling Heat Transfer

Nucleate Boiling

1/2
" %
2s
At the onset of nucleate boiling Psurf - Psat = Characteristic Length: Lc = $ '
Rsite (
$# g f g ) '&

g ( r f - rg ) c p , f (Tsurface - Tsat )
1/2 3

Heat Flux: q = f h fg
s Csf h fg Pr fn

Critical Heat Flux (see table 13.4 for K)

L R
qcrit = Kh fg s g r g2 ( r f - r g )
1/4
L* = R* =
Lc Lc

Minimum Heat Flux

Film Boiling
g ( rl - rv ) h ' fg D3
1/4
h D
NuD = conv = C
kv vv kv (Ts - Tsat )
C = 0.62 for horizontal cylinders and C = 0.67 for spheres
h ' fg = h fg + 0.8c p,v (Ts - Tsat )
Total heat transfer coefficient of film boiling: h = hconv + 3 hrad
4

And hrad =
4
(
es Ts - Tsat 4
)
Ts - Tsat

Natural Convection

gb (DT ) L3
Ra =
na
Nu correlations in data booklet.
(properties evaluated at Tfilm, b=1/Tfilm, a=k/(rc))

12
Boiling Parameter Tables

13
Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate:

$ D/F
$
=. > =. =? "# @A H $$
!
"# = "# + 0.68+,,. (0123 01 ) 789 = 0.943 G = $
B. C. 0123 01 "#

14
15