(PHI404EB) Jaina Philosophy

Jaina Literature

Jain literature is classified into two major categories:

Agam Literature (Agam Sutras)

Agam literature consists of many texts, which are the sacred books of the Jain religion. They are written in the Ardha-
magadhi Prakrit language.

Non-agam Literature

Non-agam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature, and independent works, compiled by
ascetics and scholars. They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi,
Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

Agam Literature:

Lord Mahavir's preaching was methodically compiled by his immediate disciples known as Gandharas, and elder
monks known as Srut-kevalis into many texts known as Sutras. These Sutras are collectively known as Agams or
Agam Sutras, the sacred books of the Jain religion. Hence, the Jain religion does not have one sacred book like the
Bible or Koran, but it has many books compiled by several Gandharas and Srut-kevalis.

Agam literature is also divided into two groups:

 Ang-agams or Ang-pravista-agams

 Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang-agams)

Ang-agams or Ang-pravista-agams:

Lord Mahavir's immediate disciples were known as Ganadharas. All Ganadharas possessed perfect knowledge
(keval-jnan) and attained liberation at the end of their human life. They orally compiled the direct preaching of Lord
Mahavir into twelve main texts (sutras). These texts are known as Ang-agams. Hence the Ang-agams are the oldest
religious scriptures and the back bone of Jain literature.

The twelfth Ang-agam is called Drastivad. The Drastivad consists of fourteen Purva texts, also known as Purvas or
Purva-agams. Among Ang-agams, Purvas were the oldest sacred texts. All Jain sects believe that knowledge of the
Purvas (Drastivad) were gradually lost starting about one hundred fifty years after Lord Mahavir's nirvan (death).
However, the subject matter of the Purvas are referenced by other Jain scriptures and literature.

The Digambar Jain sect also believes that the remaining eleven Ang-agams were gradually lost. All Swetambar Jains
believe that the original intent and proper meaning of the eleven Ang-agams survived and were properly documented
by elder monks (Acharyas) during the three conferences that were held by Swetambar ascetics in the past.

Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang-agams):

Monks who had knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas were known as Srut-kevlis. They possessed the total
knowledge of the Ang-agams. The Srut-kevlis wrote many texts (sutras) expanding the subject matter of the Ang-
agams. Collectively these texts are called Ang-bahya-agams meaning outside of Ang-agams.

The different Jain sects accept different numbers of Ang-bahya texts. However the Digambar sect believes that they
were also gradually lost starting about two hundred years after Lord Mahavir's Nirvan.

The Concept Substance:

A reality or an entity is defined to have an existence, which is known as Sat or truth.

Each entity continuously undergoes countless changes. During this process the old form (size, shape etc.) of an
entity is destroyed, the new form is originated. At any given time, the form of a substance is called Paryaya.

In the midst of modification of a substance, its certain qualities remain unchanged (permanence). The unchanged
qualities of a substance are collectively known as Dravya.

Hence, each entity (substance) in the universe has three aspects:

 Origination - Utpada

 Destruction - Vyaya

 Permanence - Dhrauvya

Both Dravya and Paryaya (mode) are inseparable from an entity or a substance.

The same principle can be explained differently as follows:

An entity is permanent (nitya) from the standpoint of its attributes or qualities (Dravya). This is known as Dravyarthik-
naya.

An entity is transient (anitya) from the standpoint of its form or modification (Paryaya). This is known as Paryayarthik-
naya. The modification that an entity undergoes either naturally or artificially is nothing but the transformation of its
various shapes, sizes, and forms.

A natural description of reality takes into consideration these three aspects:

 Permanence in the midst of change

 Identity in the midst of diversity

 Unity in the midst of multiplicity

Examples:

A human being through the process of growth undergoes various changes, such as childhood, youth, and old age.
These changes are the natural modifications.

 Childhood, youth, and old age are transient forms known as Paryaya

 Soul of a living being is permanent and known as Dravya

Clay is molded by a potter into a pot. Gold is crafted by a goldsmith into various ornaments. These changes are
artificial modifications of the nonliving substances.

 Ornaments and pot are transient forms known as paryaya

 Gold and clay are permanent and known as dravya

While undergoing various modifications, either natural or artificial, the basic dravya of a substance remains
unchanged and is permanent, while its form changes and is transient.

Six Universal Substances:

As explained above Jainism believes that the universe is made from the combination of the six universal substances.
All of the six substances are indestructible, imperishable, immortal, eternal and continuously go through countless
changes.

 Soul/Consciousness - Jiva (Living being)

 Matter - Pudgala (Nonliving being)

 Medium of motion - Dharma (Nonliving being)

 Medium of rest - Adharma (Nonliving being)

 Space - Akasa (Nonliving being)

 Time - Kaal (Nonliving being)

Soul (Jiva) or Living being:

Soul's essential characteristic is consciousness. This is the only knowing substance. It possesses knowledge, vision,
power, and bliss. It also possesses the property of contraction and expansion like that of light. They are of
innumerable numbers. Living being can not be created or can not be destroyed. The total number of living beings
remains same in the entire universe at all the time. All living beings are classified into two major categories.

1. Liberated or Free (Mukta) Soul

Liberated or Free soul is defined as a pure consciousness, a soul that has completely exhausted all of its karma. It is
also known as Siddha. All Siddhas are defined as Gods in Jainism. All Tirthankaras and other Arihants become
Siddhas at the end of their human life (death).

Liberated soul has the following qualities:

 Infinite or perfect Knowledge

 Infinite or perfect Vision

 Infinite or perfect Power

 Infinite or perfect Bliss

 Does not possess a body

 Lives in Moksha, which is located on the top of Lokakas.

 Never returns again into the cycle of birth, life, and death

 Innumerable in numbers

2. Worldly (Samsari) Soul

Worldly soul is defined as a soul that is covered by the karma particles. Hence it qualities are changed from the
liberated soul as follows:

 Limited Knowledge

 Limited Vision
  Limited Power

 Limited Bliss

 Possesses a body (plants, hellish, animal, human, or angel)

 Wanders into the cycle of life and death

 Suffers from birth, death, pain, and pleasure

 Doer of all kinds of karmas (actions)

 Enjoyer of the fruits of the karmas

 Innumerable number of worldly souls

 Capable of becoming free from worldly life

Worldly souls are divided according to the number of senses they possess. There are total five senses; touch, taste,
smell, sight, and hearing a living being may possess.

One sense (Ekendria) living being:

Possesses one sense only - touch; It cannot move own its own accord

They are subdivided into five categories

 Soul possesses Earth as its body - Prithvikaya

 Soul possesses Water as its body - Apakaya

 Soul possesses Fire as its body - Agnikaya

 Soul possesses Air as its body - Vayukaya

 Soul possesses Vegetable as its body - Vanaspatikaya

The living beings of vegetables are further classified into two groups:

 Pratyek Vanaspatikaya - Individual soul has its own body of vegetable

e.g. Cabbage, Okra, Banana, Tomato

 Sadharan Vanaspatikaya - Many souls share one body of vegetable

e.g. Potato, Onion (root vegetables)

 Two sense (Be-indriya) living being:

Possesses two senses - touch and taste
e.g. worms, leeches.

 Three sense (Tre-indriya) living being:

Possesses three senses - touch, taste, and smell
e.g. ants, lice.
  Four sense (Chau-indriya) living being:
Possesses four senses - touch, taste, smell, and sight
e.g. flies, bees.

 Five sense (Panch-indriya) living being:

Possesses five senses - touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing
e.g. animals, birds, human, heavenly, and hellish beings, etc.

A soul with one to four senses does not a possess mind. A soul with five senses may or may not possess a mind.

Matter (Pudgala)

Matter is a nonliving substance. It is the only substance, which possesses physical body consisting of mass and
volume. Its qualities are as follows:

 Possesses physical body

 Have senses (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing)

 Possesses color

 Does not have consciousness

 Does not have any knowledge

 Are of infinite number

The smallest particle of matter is known Parmanu (atom). A paramanu occupies only one unit of space called
pradesa.

There are four divisions of matter:

 Skandha (whole-matter):
Any object, which has a mass of matter, is called skandha.
e.g. stick, stone, knife, a particle of sand

 Skandha-desa (portion of matter):

Desa means a part, portion, or division. An undetached portion of skandha is called skandha-desa.
When a part of the skandha (skandha-desa) is separated from the whole, it also becomes another skandha.
e.g. A hand of a statue is known as a skandha-desa but when separated from the statue is known as
Skandha.

 Skandha-pradesa (smallest particle of matter):

The smallest undetached portion of skandha, which cannot be further divided, is called skandha-pradesa.

 Paramanu or Anu (atom):

When the smallest portion of the matter is separated from its skandha, it is called paramanu or anu.
Parmanu matter can not be further sub-divided, cut, or pierced.

Karma or Karmic Matter (Karma Pudgala):

Karma is one of the categories of matter. It is known as karmic matter (karma pudgala). Karma particles are of very
fine matter not perceptible to the senses. The entire universe is filled with such karmic matter.
Every living being is covered by karmic matter from the beginning of time. It is the karmic matter that keeps the soul
away from realization of its true nature. It is due to karma one feels pleasure and pain, reincarnates in the different
form of life, acquires certain types of physical body, and the duration of life.

Medium of Motion (Dharma)

Jainism considers the Medium of Motion, a nonliving substance. Its primary function is to help in the movement of
soul and matter. It possesses the following qualities:

 Helps in the movement of soul and matter

 Does not possess senses, color, or body

 Does not have a consciousness or knowledge

 Exists in the entire universe (Lokakas)

 e.g. - water provides medium for fish to move

Medium of Rest (Adharma)

Jainism considers the Medium of Rest, a nonliving substance. Its primary function is to help to rest the movement of
soul and matter. It possesses the following qualities:

 Helps to rest soul and matter

 Does not possess senses, color, or body

 Does not have consciousness or knowledge

 Exists in the entire universe (Lokakas)

 e.g. - People rest in the shade of a tree

Space (Akasa)

Space provides room to all other substances of the universe. Its qualities are as follows:

 Provides room to soul, matter, medium of motion, and medium of rest

 Pervades everywhere (infinite)

 Supports everything and thus it is self supported

 Have no form, color, taste, smell, and touch

 Does not perform any active action (inactive)

 Provides accommodation to soul and matter of their actions

 Is one and whole

Space is divided into two parts:

 Lokakas - Where medium of motion and rest substances exist

  Alokakas - The remaining space, which is empty and void

The dimension of Lokakas is fourteen rajlok or rajju, however Alokakas is infinite.

Time (Kaal)

The changes in living being and non-living being substances (from one paryay to another paryay of a substance) are
measured in the units of time. However time is not the cause of such changes.

There are two views exist in Jainism with regards to time.

1. Time is an imaginary thing; it has no real existence.

2. Time has a real existence consisting of innumerable time atoms.

The smallest indivisible portion of time is called Samaya. Combination of samayas are called moment, second,
minute, hour, day, month, year, etc.

Nine fundamental principals of Jainism

The nine tattvas, or principles, are the single most important subject of Jain philosophy. It deals with the karma theory
of Jainism, which provides the basis for the path of liberation. Without the proper knowledge of this subject, a person
can not progress spiritually. The proper understanding of this subject brings about right faith (samyak-darshana), right
knowledge (samyak-jnana), and right conduct in an individual.

Nine Tattvas (Principles):

1. Jiva - soul or living being (Consciousness)

2. Ajiva - non-living substances

3. Asrava - cause of the influx of karma

4. Bandha - bondage of karma

5. Punya* - virtue

6. Papa* - sin

7. Samvara - arrest of the influx of karma

8. Nirjara - exhaustion of the accumulated karma

9. Moksha - total liberation from karma

* Punya and Papa are the diverse results of Asrava and Bandh. Some exponents of Jains do not treat them as
separate tattvas. According to them, there are only seven principles instead of nine.

1. Jiva (soul) Substance:

Jiva or Soul is the only substance, which in pure state possesses infinite knowledge, vision, power, and bliss. The
pure soul is a liberated soul. The worldly soul is covered by karma particles. The karma subdues the natural qualities
of the soul. The qualities of the impure soul are as follows:

 Limited Knowledge, Vision, Power, and Bliss

 Possesses a body (plants, hellish, animal, human, or angel)

 Wanders into the cycle of life and death

 Suffers from birth, death, pain, and pleasure

The ultimate goal of human life is to remove all karma particles, which are attached to the soul. Then the soul will
become pure and liberated.

2. Ajiva (Non-living) Substances:

Except soul, everything else in the entire universe is non-living substance. The non-living substances are classified
into five categories.

 Matter - Pudgal

 Space - Aakas

 Medium of motion - Dharmastikay

 Medium of rest - Adharmastikay

 Time - Kaal or Samay

Out of five categories, only matter substance possesses body, color, and senses. Karma is one of the categories of
matter. It is known as karmic matter (karma pudgala). Karma particles are of very fine matter not perceptible to the
senses. The entire universe is filled with such karmic matter.

Every living being is covered by karmic matter from the beginning of time. It is the karmic matter that keeps the soul
away from realization of its true nature. It is due to karma one feels pleasure and pain, reincarnates in the different
form of life, acquires certain types of physical body, and the duration of life.

3. Asrava (Cause of the influx of karma):

Asrava is the cause, which leads to the influx of good and evil karma which lead to the bondage of the soul.

Asrava may be described as attraction in the soul toward sense objects. The following are causes of Asrava or influx
of good and evil karma:

 Mithyatva - ignorance

 Avirati - lack of self restraint

 Pramada* - unawareness or unmindfulness

 Kasaya - passions like anger, conceit, deceit, and lust

 Yoga - activities of mind, speech, and body

* Some Jain literatures mention only four causes of Asrava. They include Pramad in the category of Kasaya.
4. Bandha (Bondage of karma):

Bandha is the attachment of karmic matter (karma pudgala) to the soul. The soul has had this karmic matter bondage
from eternity because of its own ignorance. This karmic body is known as the karmana body or causal body or karma.

Karmic matter is a particular type of matter which is attracted to the soul because of soul's ignorance, lack of self
restraint, passions, unmindfulness, activities of body, mind, and speech.

The soul, which is covered by karmic matter, continues acquiring new karma from the universe and exhausting old
karma into the universe through the above mentioned actions at every moment.

Because of this continual process of acquiring and exhausting karma particles, the soul has to pass through the
cycles of births and deaths, and experiencing pleasure and pain. So under normal circumstances the soul can not
attain freedom from karma, and hence liberation.

When karma attaches to the soul, its bondage to the soul is explained in the following four forms:

 Prakriti bandha - Type of karma

 Sthiti bandha - Duration of attachment of karma

 Anubhava bandha - Intensity of attachment of karma

 Pradesa bandha - Quantity of karma

Prakriti Bandha:

When karmic matter attaches to the soul, it will obscure soul's essential nature of; perfect knowledge, perfect vision,
bliss, perfect power, eternal existence, non-corporeal, and equanimity. The different types of karma obscures
different quality or attributes of soul. This is known as Prakriti bandha.

Prakriti bandha is classified into eight categories, according to the particular attribute of the soul that it obscures.

1. Mohniya karma
It generates delusion in the soul in regard to its own true nature. The soul identifies itself with other external
substances and relationships.

2. Jnana-varaniya karma
It covers the soul's power of perfect knowledge.

3. Darasna-varaniya karma
It covers the soul's power of perfect visions.

4. Antaraya karma
It obstructs the natural quality or energy of the soul such as charity and will power. This prevents the soul
from attaining liberation. It also prevents a living being from doing something good and enjoyable.

5. Vedniya karma
It obscures the blissful nature of the soul, and thereby produces pleasure and pain.

6. Nama karma
It obscures the non-corporeal existence of the soul, and produces the body with its limitations, qualities,
faculties, etc.

7. Gotra karma
It obscures the soul's characteristics of equanimity, and determines the caste, family, social standing, and
personality.
 8. Ayu karma
It determines the span of life in one birth, thus obscuring soul's nature of eternal existence.

Ghati karma and Aghati karmas:

The above eight karmas are also categorized into two groups, known as ghati karma which subdues the qualities of
the soul, and aghati karma which relates to physical body of the living beings.

Ghati Karmas

Jnana-varaniya, Darasna-varaniya, Mohaniya, and Antaraya karmas are called ghati karmas (dangerous karmas)
because they obscure the true nature of the soul, which is, perfect knowledge, power, vision and bliss.

Aghati Karmas

Ayu, Nama, Gotra, and Vedniya karmas are called aghati karmas. They do not obscure the original nature of the soul.
However, they associate with the physical body of the soul.

When a person destroys all of his ghati karmas, he attains keval-jnana. At that time he is known as Arihant or
Tirthankar. However, he continues to live his human life until all his aghati karmas are destroyed. He attains liberation
only after his death, at which time all of his aghati karmas are destroyed.

Some Arihants establishes the religious four fold order of Monks, Nuns, Sravaka, (male layperson), and Sravika
(female layperson). These Arihants are called Tirthankaras. Other Arihantas who do not establish religious order but
remain as a part of the existing order are known as ordinary Kevali. After nirvana (death) Arihantas become Siddhas.

All Siddhas are unique individuals, but they all possess perfect knowledge, vision, power, and bliss. Hence from the
qualities and attributes point of view all Siddhas are same.

Sthiti Bandha

When karmic matter attaches to the soul it remains attached to the soul for a certain duration before it produces the
result. The duration of the attachment is determined according to the intensity or dullness of the soul's passions or
actions when the karma is being attached to the soul. After producing the result, karma will separate from the soul.

Anubhava Bandha or Rasa Bandha

What fruits the karmic matter will produce are determined at the time of attachment by varying degrees of soul's
passions.

Pradesa Bandha

The intensity or dullness of the soul's action determines the quantum of karmic matter that is drawn towards the soul
for attachment.

5. Punya (Virtue)

The influx of karmic matter due to good activities of the mind, body, and speech with the potential of producing
pleasant sensations is called punya or virtue. Activities such as offering food, drink, shelter, purifying thought,
physical and mental happiness result in producing punya karma.

6. Pap (Sin)

The influx of karmic matter due to evil activities of the mind, body, and speech with the potential of producing
unpleasant sensations is called papa or sin. Activities such as violence, untruth, theft, unchastity, attachment to
objects, anger, conceit, deceit, lust result in producing papa karma.
7. Samvara - Arrest of Karma

The method that stops fresh karma from attaching into the soul is called samvara. This process is a reverse process
of asrava. It can be accomplished by constant practice of:

 Right belief

 Observance of vows

 Awareness

 Passionlessness

 Peacefulness of vibratory activities

Jain literature explains 57 practical ways, a person can stop the influx of karma.

 5 Samitis Carefulness

 3 Guptis Preservation

 10 Yati Dharma Religious Virtues

 12 Bhavna Reflections or Thoughts

 22 Parishaha Subduing of Suffering

 5 Charitra Conduct

57 Total

Five Samitis (Carefulness):

 Samitis purify the actions

o Irya Samiti Proper care in walking

o Bhasha Samiti Proper care in speaking

o Eshna Samiti Proper care in begging

o Adana Nikshepa Samiti Proper care in taking and keeping

 Utsarga Samiti Proper care in disposing waste

 Three Guptis (Preservations)

 Guptis prohibits sinful activities

o Mano Gupti Proper control over Mind

o Vachan Gupti Proper control over Speech

o Kaya Gupti Proper control over Body

Ten Religious Virtues

  Kshama Forbearance, Forgiveness

 Mardava Modesty, Humility

 Aarjava Straightforwardness, Candor

 Saucha Contentment

 Satya Truthfulness

 Samyam Self-restraint, Control of Senses

 Tapa Austerity, Penance

 Tyaga Renunciation

 Akinchanya Non-attachment

 Brahmacharya Celibacy, Chastity

Twelve Reflections (Thoughts, Bhavna, or Anupreksa):

 Anitya Bhavna: Impermanence of the world

 Asarana Bhavna: No one provides protection

 Samsara Bhavna: No permanent relationships in the universe

 Ekatva Bhavna: Solitude of the soul

 Anyatva Bhavna: Separateness

 Asuci Bhavna: Impurity of the body

 Asrava Bhavna: Influx of karma

 Samvara Bhavna: Stoppage of influx of karma

 Nirjara Bhavna: Shedding of karma

 Loka Bhavna: Transitoriness of the universe

 Bodhi-durlabha Bhavna: Unattainability of the right faith, knowledge, and conduct

 Dharma Bhavna: Unattainability of true preceptor, scriptures, and religion

Reflections on Universal Friendship (additional reflections):

 Maitri Amity

 Pramoda Appreciation

 Karuna Compassion

 Madhyastha Equanimity
8. Nirjara - exhaustion of the attached karma

The attached karma exhaust themselves by producing their results when it is time for them to do so. At that time new
karma attach to the soul.

Unless the attached karma are exhausted before they start producing the results, it becomes difficult for the soul to
be free.

Therefore, it is necessary to exhaust all karmas before their maturity. This is done by rigorous austerities and
penance. This process is called nirjara.

There are twelve types of nirjara defined in the Jain scriptures. They are divided into two groups; external nirjara
which disciplines the human body against passions and desires and internal nirjara which purifies the soul. The
internal nirjara is the true austerities because it exhausts the attached karma before their maturity from the soul.

External Nirjara:

 Anasan
Complete abstinence of eating any food and drinking liquid for certain time

 Alpahara or Unodary
Reduction in the quantity of food one normally eats

 Ichhanirodha or Vritti_sankshep
Limiting the number of food items to eat and material things for use

 Rasatyaga

 Complete abstinence of eating or drinking juicy and tasty foods such as honey, alcohol, butter, milk, tea,
sweets, juice etc. (no attachments to the taste of the foods)

 Kayaklesa
Live and travel on a bare foot in a severe heat and cold whether condition. Remove hair with the hand.

 Samlinata
Sitting in a lonely place in due postures with senses and mind withdrawn inwardly.

Internal Nirjara:

 Prayaschita

 Repentance for the breach of vows for spiritual purification

 Vinaya

 Politeness (appropriate behavior) towards teachers and elders

 Vaiyavrata

 Rendering selfless service to the suffering and deserving

 Svadhyaya

 Studying and listening of religious scriptures

  Dhyana

 Religious meditation

 Kayotsarg or Bhutsarga

The ultimate internal austerity, where the activities of body, speech and mind are withdrawn. The body is fixed without
movement, the speech is fixed by means of silence, and the mind is fixed by means of sublime meditation. This
nirjara destroys all karmas.

9. Moksha:

Moksha is the liberation of the soul after complete exhaustion or elimination of all karmas.

A liberated soul regains totally its original attributes of perfect knowledge, vision, power, and bliss. It climbs to the top
of Lokakas and remains their forever in its blissful and unconditional existence.

It never returns again into the cycles of birth, life, and death.

This state of the soul is the liberated or perfect state, and this is called "Nirvana."

Anekantavada & Syadavada

According to McEvilley, the Jain theory of knowledge is not a phenomenalism but a realistic correspondence view.[8]
The Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva, that is, rationality and logic.[9] Jain suggests that the
ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason.[9] Thus, one finds in the
Jain texts, deliberative exhortations on any subject in all its facts.[10] In the process, the Jains came out with three
doctrines of relativity[11] used for logic and reasoning.

1. Anekāntavāda—The theory of relative pluralism or manifoldness

2. Syādvāda—The theory of conditioned predication

3. Nayavāda—The theory of partial standpoints

These Jain philosophical concepts made very significant contributions to the ancient Indian philosophy, especially in
the areas of skepticism and relativity.[8]

Anekantavada
Anekāntavāda (Devanagari: अअअअअअअअअअअ), meaning “non-absolutism,” is one of the basic principles of Jainism
that encourages acceptance of relativism and pluralism. According to this doctrine, truth and reality are perceived
differently from different points of view, and no single point of view is the complete truth.[1][2]
The word anekāntavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words: Anekānta “manifoldness” and vāda “school of
thought.”[3] The term anekānta consists of the Sanskrit negative prefix an, the number one eka and the word for
“attribute,” anta—”not of solitary attribute.”[3]
Jain doctrine states that objects have infinite modes of existence and qualities so they cannot be completely grasped
in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. Only the Kevalins—the omniscient beings—can
comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations; others are capable of only partial knowledge.[4] Consequently,
no specific human view can claim to represent the absolute truth.
Anekāntavāda is literally the doctrine of “non-onesidedness” or “manifoldness;” it is often translated as “non-
absolutism.” As opposed to it, ekānta (eka+anta “solitary attribute”) is one-sidedness. Jains compare all attempts to
proclaim absolute truth with adhgajanyāyah or the “maxim of the blind men and elephant.” In this story, one man felt
the trunk, another the ears and another the tail. All the blind men claimed to explain the true appearance of the
elephant, but could only partly succeed, due to their narrow perspectives.[5]
Syncretisation of changing and unchanging reality is achieved through Anekantavaad. Mahavira employed Anekanta
extensively to explain the Jain philosophical concepts. Māhavīra’s responses to various questions recorded in
Bhagvatisūtra demonstrates a recognition that there are complex and multiple aspects to truth and reality and a
mutually exclusive approach cannot be taken to explain such reality: Gautama: Lord! Is the soul permanent or
impermanent?
Māhavīra: The soul is permanent as well is impermanent. From the point of view of the substance it is eternal. From
the point of view of its modes it undergoes birth, decay and destruction and hence impermanent.[18] Jayanti: Lord! Of
the states of slumber or awakening, which one is better?
Māhavīra: For some souls the state of slumber is better, for some souls the states of awakening. Slumber is better for
those who are engaged in sinful activities and awakening for those who are engaged in meritorious deeds.[19]
Thousands of questions were asked and Māhavīra’s responses suggested a complex and multifaceted reality with
each answers qualified from a view point. Even a Tīrthankara, possessing and perceiving infinite knowledge cannot
express reality completely because of limitations of language, which is of human creation.
This philosophical sycrentisation of paradox of change through anekānta has been acknowledged by modern
scholars:
Our experience of the world presents a profound paradox which we can ignore existentially, but not philosophically.
This paradox is the paradox of change. Something—A changes and therefore it cannot be permanent. On the other
hand, if A is not permanent, then what changes?
In this debate between the “permanence” and “change,” Hinduism seems more inclined to grasp the first horn of the
dilemma and Buddhism the second. It is Jainism that has the philosophical courage to grasp both horns fearlessly
and simultaneously, and the philosophical skill not to be gored by either.[20]
In Jain scriptures and teachings Anekānta is firmly entrenched in the Jain texts as is evident from the various
teachings of the Jain scriptures. Ācārya Amrtacandra starts his famous tenth century C.E. work
Purusathasiddhiupaya by paying obeisance to the doctrine of anekānta:[21] ”I bow down to the anekānta, the source
and foundation of the highest scriptures, the dispeller of wrong one-sided notions, that which takes into account all
aspects of truth, reconciling diverse and even contradictory traits of all objects or entity.”
Ācārya Siddhasena Divākara, fifth Century C.E., explains the nature of truth in the court of King Vikramāditya:[22]
”Vikramāditya: What is “truth”? That which is said repeatedly, that which is said loudly, that which is said with
authority or that which is agreed by the majority?
Divākara: None of the above. Every one has his own definition of ‘truth’ and that it is conditional.Vikramāditya: How
about traditions? They have been established by our ancestors and have passed the test of time?
Divākara: Would the system established by ancestors hold true on examination? In case it does not, I am not here to
justify it for the sake of saving the traditional grace of the dead, irrespective of the wrath-I may have to face.
“Ācārya Vidyānandi provides analogy of ocean to explain the nature of truth in Tattvarthaslokavārtikka: “The water
from Ocean contained in a pot can neither be called an ocean nor a non-ocean, but simply a part of Ocean. Similarly,
a doctrine, though arising from absolute truth can neither be called a whole truth nor a non-truth.”[23]
Ācārya Haribhadra, one of the leading proponent of anekānta, was the first classical author to write a doxography, a
compendium of a variety of intellectual views which, rather than espousing narrow partisan views, attempted to
contextualise the Jain thoughts within the broad framework of possible intellectual orientations available to Indian
thinkers around the eighth century C.E.[24]
Going beyond anekānta, Yasovijayaji, seventeenth century Jain monk, advocated madhayastha, meaning “standing
in middle or equidistant,” a position that allowed him to praise the qualities in others even though they may be non-
Jain and belonging to other faiths.[25]
Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties.
Proponents of anekantvāda apply this principle to religion and philosophy, reminding themselves that any religion or
philosophy, even Jainism, which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets, is committing an error based on its limited
point of view.[6] In this application, anekantvāda resembles the Western principles of cultural and moral relativism.
The principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi’s principles of religious tolerance, ahimsa and
satyagraha.[7]

Syādavāda
Syādvāda is the theory of conditioned predication which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that
epithet Syād be attached to every expression.[12] Syādvāda is not only an extension of Anekānta ontology, but a
separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force. The Sanskrit etymological root of the term Syād is
“perhaps” or “maybe,” but in context of syādvāda, it means “in some ways” or “from a perspective.” As reality is
complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term “syāt” should be prefixed before
each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement.[13]
Syädväda or Sapta-Bhanga (Seven Predications)‘‘The doctrine of Syädväda holds that since a thing is full of most
contrary characteristics of infinite variety, the affirmation made is only from a particular standpoint or point of view and
therefore it may be correct or true. However, the same assertion may be wrong or false from some other standpoint
or point of view. Thus, the assertion made cannot be regarded as absolute. All affirmations in some sense are true
and in some sense are false. Similarly, all assertions are indefinite and true in some sense as well as indefinite and
false in some other sense. Assertions could be true, or false or indefinite. Thus, Jainism proposes to grant the non-
absolute nature of reality and relativistic pluralism of the object of knowledge by using the word ‘Syät’ (or Syäd)
before the assertion or Judgment. The word ‘Syät’ literally means ‘may be.’ It is also translated as ‘perhaps’, ‘some
how’, ‘relatively’ or ‘in a certain sense’. The word ‘Syät’ or its equivalent in English used before the assertion makes
the proposition true but only under certain conditions i.e. hypothetically. What is to be noted is that the word ‘Syät’ is
not used in the sense of probability leading to uncertainty. Probability again hints at skepticism and Jainism is not
skepticism. Since reality has infinite aspects, our judgments are bound to be conditional. Thus, Syädväda is the
theory of relativity of knowledge. The Jains quoted quite a good number of parables, which are conventionally used
by Jain writers to explain the theory. The most famous one for the grip over the core of the theory is the famous
parable of six blind men who happened to come across an elephant. Each one was sure and asserting about his own
description alone being correct. However, each one was correct from his point of view though contrary to each other.
Thus the Jains hold that no affirmation or judgment is absolute in its nature, each is true in its own limited sense only.
The affirmations will tell either about the existence, or non-existence, or about the inexpressible. Combining these
three will give four more alternatives. So, we derive the seven alternatives technically known as Sapta-Bhanga Naya
or the sevenfold Judgment.Theory of Seven Predications (Sapta-Bhanga)
To clarify the above approach of ascertaining the truth by the process of Syädväda, the Jain philosophers have
evolved a formula of seven predications, which are known as Sapta-bhanga. ‘Sapta’ means ‘seven’ and ‘Bhanga’
means ‘mode’. These seven modes of ascertaining the truth are able to be exact in exploring all possibilities and
aspects.
Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative view points or
propositions, it is know as theory of conditioned predication. These seven propositions also known as saptabhangi
are:[14]

1.Syād-asti—”in some ways it is”

2.syād-nāsti—”in some ways it is not”

3.syād-asti-nāsti—”in some ways it is and it is not”

4.syād-asti-avaktavya—”in some ways it is and it is indescribable”

5.syād-nāsti-avaktavya—”in some ways it is not and it is indescribable”

6.syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—”in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable”

7.syād-avaktavya—”in some ways it is indescribable”

All these seven modes can be expressed with regard to every proposition. The Jain philosophers have applied them
with reference to self, its eternality, non-eternality, identity and character. In fact, this approach of Anekänta
permeates almost every doctrine, which is basic to Jain philosophy. S. Gopalan quotes Eliot in this connection as
saying: “The essence of the doctrine (of Syädväda) so far as one can disentangle it from scholastic terminology,
seems just for it amounts to this, that as to matters of experience it is impossible to formulate the whole and the
complete truth, and as to matters which transcend experience, language is inadequate.”
Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted reality from a relative point of view of time,
space, substance, and mode. To ignore the complexity of the objects is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism.
The theory of sevenfold predication is treated as synonymous with Syädväda owing to the fact that the number of
possible or alternative truths under the conditional method of Syädväda is seven only.’
CONCEPT OF LESHYA

In Jainism, there is a great deal of importance given to Leshya. Leshya refers to the state of Mind. Our activities
reflect our state of mind. The following illustration shows how our activities vary with the state of our mind. Once there
were six friends who were going on a trip, but along the way got lost in a forest. Soon they became hungry and
thirsty. They searched for food for sometime and finally found a fruit tree.

As they ran to the tree, the first man said, "Let’s cut the tree down and get the fruits." The second one said, "Don’t cut
the whole tree down, cut off a big branch instead." The third friend said, "Why do we need a big branch? A small
branch has enough fruit." The fourth one said, "We do not need to cut any branches, just climb up and take the
bunches of fruit." The fifth man said, "Why pick that many fruits and waste them, instead just pick the fruits that you
want to eat." The sixth friend said quietly, "There are plenty of good fruits on the ground, so let’s just eat them first."

You can see that the states of minds of these six friends cause a range of thoughts which begin with the destruction
of a tree and end with picking up what is on the ground. The six friends’ minds represent six types of leshyas.

The first friend’s state of mind represents krishna (black) leshya.

The second friend’s state of mind represents neel (blue) leshya.
The third friend’s state of mind represents kapot (brown) leshya.
The fourth friend’s state of mind represents tejo (red) leshya.
The fifth friend’s state of mind represents padma (yellow) leshya.
The sixth friend’s state of mind represents shukla (white) leshya.

The first leshya is the worst and the sixth leshya is the best. The first three leshyas lead the soul to ruin and the last
three lead the soul to spiritual prosperity. Therefore, people should strive for the white leshya and not the red leshya.
It is not so that a person’s state of mind remains the same at all times and therefore, it can be changed for the better
or for the worst. The popular story of King Prasanraj, who lived during Lord Mahavira’s time, illustrates the effects of
leshays..

One day King Shrenik was on his way to pay homage to Lord Mahavira and on the way he saw a sage who was
meditating and illuminating very brightly. He bowed down to the sage and continued on his way to pay homage to
Lord Mahavira. After reaching Lord Mahavira, King Shrenik asked the Lord, "Oh Lord, I saw a very illuminated sage
who was engaged in meditation on the way here. Supposing he died at that moment, what state would he have
acquired?" The Lord replied, "He would have been hurled down to the seventh hell-region." The king was much
astonished to hear this reply from the Lord. He thought, "Why would such a sage go to hell? Perhaps the Lord might
have misunderstood me." He asked the Lord again, "Oh Lord, if the sage leaves this body just now, then what state
will he attain?"

The Lord replied, "He will be an angel in Sarvarthasidha, a heavenly region."

The king was much surprised at this reply, too. He thought, "The Lord first said he would attain the seventh hell and
now he says that the sage would be an angel." The king was perplexed. At that very moment drums began sounding
in the sky and voices of `victory' were proclaimed. The king asked the Lord, "What is the cause of these sounds?"
The Lord said, "Oh, king, the sage about whom you were inquiring has Acquired omniscience and so the angels are
beating the drums and proclaiming `Victory'."

The king was extremely surprised by these answers and therefore, he requested the Lord to explain them.

Thereupon the Lord said, "Oh king, right before you approached the sage, two soldiers leading your procession
diverted the mind of the sage by their conversation. His mind began thinking about his kingdom where his ministers
turned out to be untrustworthy and would eventually kill his son. He was inflamed with rage and he lost his mental
equanimity. Therefore, he started mentally fighting against his ministers. He very violently discharged his weapons
one after the other against his ministers. Soon his weapons were exhausted and his foes were not destroyed. So,
he thought of throwing his steel helmet against them in order to destroy them. You bowed down to him at that time
when he was reflecting on such thoughts. I, Therefore, replied that he would attain the 7th hell.

Thereafter, when the sage placed his hand on his head for the steel helmet, he realized that he was not King
Prasanraj but that he was a sage. His anger calmed down immediately. He remembered that he has been initiated
into the vow of equanimity and of non-violence to any living being mentally, verbally, and physically. He deeply
regretted and repented for the breach of his vow and indulgence in acute anger. He further thought that he ought to
have maintained love for all creatures of the world, ought to have no malice for the ministers, and no attachment for
his son. He severely condemned his mental act. He despised it and withdrew himself from such a feat of anger and
malice. Oh king, when he thought this way, you asked me the next question and I replied that he would be born in the
Savartha Siddha (heaven) as an angel. Even thereafter, he continued the purification of his mental reflections and
gradually he reached the stage of `Kshapaka', where he annihilated all of his ghati karmas, and attained
omniscience."

King Shrenik’s doubts were resolved and he learned how mental reflections can fluctuate. He also learned that not
only can physical acts or verbal abuses have such devastating effects, but so can mental acts. We too must learn
from this episode. Let us understand the characteristic of personalities and the outcomes resulting different leshyas.

1) Krishna (Black) Leshya: People in this state of mind do not show no compassion or mercy. Everyone is afraid of
them as their anger turns into violence. They always burn with jealousy and have ill-will for everyone. They are filled
with animosity and malice and do not believe in religion. This state of mind is the worst and most dangerous. If
anyone dies in this state of mind, they will go to hell.

2) Neel (Blue) Leshya: People in this state of mind are proud, haughty, and lazy. They are unreliable and other
people avoid their company. They are cheaters, cowards, and hypocrites. Such people also avoid the religious
lectures. If anyone dies in this state of mind, they will be reborn as a plant.

3) Kapot (Brown) Leshya: People in this state of mind always remain sad and gloomy. They find faults in others and
are vindictive. They boast about themselves, become excited over small matters, and lack mental balance. If
anyone dies in this state of mind, they will be reborn as a bird or an animal.

4) Tejo (Red) Leshya: People in this state of mind are very careful about their actions and discriminate between
good and evil. They know the difference between what is right and what is wrong. They are kind, benevolent, and
religious and lead a harmonious life. If anyone dies in this state of mind, they will be reborn as a human being.

5) Padma (Yellow) Leshya: People in this state of mind are kind and benevolent and forgive everyone, even their
enemies. They observe some austerities and are vigilant in keeping their vows till their last breath. They remain
unaffected by joys and sorrows. If anyone dies in this leshya, they will be reborn in heaven as a celestial being.

6) Shukla (White) Leshya: People in this state of mind strictly observe the principles of non-violence, truth, non-
stealing, celibacy, and non-attachment. They are trustworthy, treat every soul as if it was their own soul, and do not
have ill feelings even for their enemies. They remain calm even if someone abuses them. If anyone dies in this state
of mind, they will be reborn as a human being or an angel. People who perfect this state of mind have no attachment
or hatred and treat everyone alike. They do not become happy or sad. Their state of mind is the purest. If anyone
dies in this perfected state of mind, they will be liberated from the cycle of birth and death.

DOCTRINE OF KARMA

Why do some students do well in school while others struggle? Why do some earn money easily while others are
poor? Why do some suffer while others enjoy their lives? Why do some live longer while others die at a young age?

The answers to all of these questions is the effects of our karmas.The theory of karma explains how, why, and what
happens to us. It also explains the role that karmas play in our lives, how we accumulate karmas, and how we get rid
of them.

Karmas are the derivatives of karman particles. Karman particles are non-living matter scattered all around us and all
over the universe. They are very fine particles that cannot be seen even with a microscope. A cluster of innumerable
karman particles is called Karman Vargana. When you act with passions like attachment, anger, greed, ego, or
deceitfulness, Karman Varganas are attracted towards your soul. Karman Varganas that are attached to your soul
are called karmas.

THE PROCESS OF BONDAGE

Whenever we think, speak, or act, Karman Varganas around us are attracted to our souls. (This process is called
Asrava in Sanskrit.) The Varganas become bonded to our soul depending on our passions: anger, ego, greed, and
deceit. Once they are bonded, they are called Karma. (The bondage is called Bandh in Sanskrit.) The Karma can be
furthur divided into two concepts, Bhav Karma and Dravya Karma. Bhav Karma is the non-physical thinking or
activity that attracts the Karman Varganas. Dravya Karma is the physical Karman Varganas themselves that have
attached to the soul.

There cannot be Dravya Karma without the Bhav Karma and both of these concepts occur at the same time. In a
simplified sense, one can think of the Bhav Karma as 'thoughts' because mental activity is at the base of all activity of
the soul. However, the true understanding is that the Bhav Karma is the non-physical part of the Karma.

There are three ways to perform activities; mentally, verbally, and physically. We can take each of these a step
further in three more ways. We can perform the activities ourselves, ask someone else to perform the activities for
us, or encourage someone else to perform the activities. Thus, there are nine ways to perform any activity. Out of all
of these activities, mental activities have the farthest reaching effects on our souls.

At the time of bondage of karmas to the soul, four characteristics of karmas are decided. They are:

1) Prakriti (nature).

2) Pradesh (quantity).

3) Sthiti (duration).

4) Anubhag (intensity).

The nature and quantity of karmas depend on the vigor of the activities, while the duration and intensity of karmas
depend upon the intensity of the desires behind the activities.

I. PRAKRITI (NATURE OF BONDAGE)

There are eight types of karmas. Depending upon your activities, you

can accumulate one or more of these eight karmas:

1) Jnanavarniya - Knowledge-Obscuring Karma

2) Darshanavarniya - Perception-Obscuring Karma

3) Antar�ya - Obstructive Karma

4) Mohniya - Deluding Karma

5) Nam - Body-determining Karma

6) Gotra - Status-determining Karma

7) Vedniya - Feeling-Producing Karma

8) Ayushya - Age-Determining Karma

These karmas are grouped into two categories Ghati Karmas (destructive) and Aghati Karmas (non-destructive).
Ghati Karmas destroy the true nature of the soul. Aghati Karmas do not destroy the nature of the soul, but affect the
body in which the soul resides. The first four types of karmas are Ghati karmas, and last four are aghati karmas.

II. PRADESH (QUANTITY OF BONDAGE)

If the physical vigor of our activities is slight, then we accumulate fewer karman particles, but if the physical vigor is
strong, then we accumulate larger numbers of karman particles on our soul.

III. STHITI (DURATION OF BONDAGE)

The duration of the karmic particles to be bonded with the soul is decided by the intensity of our desires at the time of
the activity.

The milder the intensity, the shorter is the duration of the bondage of the karmas. The stronger the intensity, the
longer is the duration of bondage. The time karmas stay bonded to the soul range from a fraction of a second to an
innumerable numbers of years.

IV. ANUBHAG (INTENSITY OF RESULTS)

The intensity of karmas depends upon how intense our passions are at the time of our activities. The lesser the
intensity of our passions, the less severe is the result of the bondage; the greater the intensity,the more severe the
result of the bondage.

When karmas attach to the soul, there are four levels of bondage:

1. Sprusta or Sithil (Loose): Karmas can be easily shed by regret.

2. Baddha or Gadha (Tight): Karmas can be shed by offering an apology.

3. Nidhatta (Tighter): Karmas can shed by very strong efforts, like austerity.

4. Nikachit (Tightest): Karmas can only be shed by bearing the results.

It should be realized that it is not always true that we have to wait in order to bear the results of our karmas; we can
change the course of our karmas before they mature. It can be changed in duration and intensity as well as in nature
too. This is very important point because it means, that not only we do have control over our karmas, but that we can
change our fate. For explanatory purpose let us understand some terms.

1) Abadhakal - the duration of bondage of karmas to the soul, which starts from the time of the karmas� bondage
until its maturity.

2) Bandh - bondage of karmas to the soul.

3) Uday - refers to the results of karmas being manifested in normal during their normal maturation time.

4) Udirana - refers to the results of karmas being manifested prematurely.

5) Satta - refers to those karmas which are dormant on the soul.

6) Sankramana - Depending of our activities, bonded karmas can transform within some of their sub-types. Example:
Shata and Ashata Vedniya karmas are the two sub-types of Vedniya karmas. Shata Vedniya karma causes comfort
while Ashata Vedniya karma causes discomfort. If our current activities causes comfort to someone then our Ashata
Vedniya karma gets transformed to Shata Vedniya karma. And, so it works for opposite activities.

7) Utkarshana - increase of duration and intensity of karmas which are already bonded to the soul.

8) Apakramana - diminution of duration and intensity of karmas which are already bonded.

9) Upashama - state in which karmas are suppressed and cannot produce results.
10) Nidhatti bondage - type of bondage in which karmas are neither brought into operation prematurely nor
transferred into that of another sub-class, but may increase or decrease in duration and intensity of results.

11) Nikachit bondage - type of bondage in which karmas do not operate prematurely, nor transferred, nor increase or
decrease in duration or intensity of results.

12) Samuddhat - After achieving perfect knowledge, Kevali Bhagwan (Omniscient, Omnipotent) realized that the
duration and quantity of Vedniya, Nam and Gotra Karmas were greater than that of Ayushya Karma. Therefore, by
expanding the size and shape of the soul (Atma Pradeshes), Kevali Bhagwan made the duration and quantity of
Vedniya, Nam and Gotra Karmas equal to that of Ayushya Karma. This process is called Samuddhat.

13) Shaileshikaran - Immediately before his final death (Nirvana),Kevali Bhagwan went into very pure meditation
during which there was no activity and hence no inflow of karma at all. This stage lasted very short period during
which one can speak five short letters only. It is called Saileshikaran. During this time, Kevali Bhagwan discarded all
remaining Vedniya, Nam, Gotra, and Ayushya Karmas for ever.

Karmas obstruct these eight attributes of a pure soul:

1) Kevaljnana (Perfect Knowledge) - State in which the soul knows everything, past, present, and future that is
happening in the world, all at the same time. Jnanavarniya Karma obscures this attribute.

2) Kevaldarshan (Perfect Perception) - State in which the soul can see, hear, and perceive everything from the past,
present, and future all at the same time. Darshanavarniya Karma obscures this attribute.

3) Anant Virya (Infinite Power) - State in which the soul has infinite power. Antar�ya Karma obstructs this attribute.

4) Vitraga (Victory over Inner Enemies) - State in which the pure soul has no attachment or hatred for anyone.
Mohniya Karma obscures this attribute.

Aforementioned four attributes of the soul are experienced by Lord Arihants. The following four attributes are
experienced only when the soul is liberated, when Lord Arihants become Lord Siddhas upon theirdeath.

5) Infinite Bliss (No Joy or Sorrow) - State in which there is no pain, suffering, or happiness; the soul has ultimate
peace. Vedniya Karma obscures this attribute.

6) Ajaramar (End of the Cycle of Birth and Death) - Point at which the soul is never again born. Ayushya Karma
obscures this attribute.

7) Arupi (No form) - State in which the pure soul no longer occupies a body and is formless. Nam Karma obscures
this attribute.

8) Agurulaghu (End of Status) - fact that all liberated souls are equal; none is higher or lower in status than any
other. Gotra Karma obscures this attribute.

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR MONKS & HOUSEHOLDERS

To achieve Moksha we need the right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct known as three jewels of Jainism.
Regarding right conduct, we must achieve control over our inner desires and reach a stage where there is no
attachment or hatred. It is not as easy as it sounds, for we will have to form new habits and discard old habits. In
order to change our habits, we take vows which help us to restrict what we do and eventually live naturally restrained.
Although different people take different vows and despite the outer differences in the observance of these vows, the
goal of all is to attain right conduct. As we find in the scriptures, there are different vows for monks and nuns, and for
male and female house holders. When one makes a resolution to restrain willfully from something with full
understanding and faith then that resolution becomes a vow. The scriptures have divided these vows into two main
groups:

1) Maha Vrats (Major Vows or Absolute Vows)

2) Anu Vrats (Minor Vows or Relative Vows)

1) Maha Vrats

In these vows, non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness are observed mentally,
verbally, and physically in total. Each of these three aspects are further observed in three ways: not committing
yourself, not asking anyone else to do so, and not encouraging anyone else to do so. Those who wish to observe
these vows renounce their worldly lives and become known as sadhus (monks) and sadhvis (nuns) or Anagari.

2) Anu Vrats

It is difficult for house holders to fully practice the above vows, and so, the vows that house holders take have some
limitations and are called minor vows. These vows are not as stringent as Maha vrats and people who that take
these vows are called shravaks, shravikas, or Agari.

MAHA VRATS

1) Savvao Panaivayao Virman Vrat (Absolute Non-Violence Vow)

In this vow, non-violence is observed mentally, verbally, and physically in total including for daily needs.

2) Savvao Musavayao Virman Vrat (Absolute Truthfulness Vow)

In this vow, lying is given up mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Only the truth is spoken.

3) Savvao Aadinnadanao Virman Vrat (Absolute Non-Stealing Vow)

In this vow, stealing is given up mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Nothing is taken unless it is offered by the
owner, and meets the restrictions of the monkshood life.

4) Savvao Mehunao Virman Vrat (Absolute Celibacy Vow)

Celibacy is observed mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Upon taking this vow, one can not even touch or think
about a member of the opposite sex.

5) Savvao Pariggrahao Virman Vrat (Absolute Non-Possessiveness Vow)

Greed and material possessions are given up mentally, verbally, and physically in total. Only items which are needed
on a daily basis are kept.

ANU VRATS

1) Sthool Panaivayao Virman Vrat (Limited Non-Violence Vow)

Being a house holder, you must carry out house hold and community activities. Thus, it is not possible to totally avoid
violence, especially against one sensed living beings. However, you should take the utmost care to observe non-
violence.

2) Sthool Musavayao Virman Vrat (Limited Truthfulness Vow)

You should take the utmost care in not telling lies. Another words you should only speak the truth.

3) Sthool Aadinnadanao Virman Vrat (Limited Non-Stealing Vow)

You should take the utmost care not to steal or borrow the belongings of others without their permission.

4) Sthool Mehunao Virman Vrat (Limited Celibacy Vow)

You should be satisfied with your spouse only and should avoid sexual contact with others.

5) Sthool Pariggahao Virman Vrat (Limited Non-Possessiveness Vow)

Your earning for material possessions, and greed for collection should be as limited as possible.

GUNA VRATS (Supporting Vows)

The following vows support the above five vows so that they can be carried out more effectively.

6) Disha Pariman Vrat (Geographic Limitation Vow)

Since it is necessary to move only so much to satisfy your needs, you should limit your desire to perform activities
within a needed radius of area. Therefore, you should set limits within the scope of travel or business, etc.

7) Bhogopbhog Virman (Consumption and Occupation Limitation Vow)

You should set limits on the consumption of various items, despite whether they are used once or repeatedly, to
avoid incoming sins. Also, you should limit yourself to the kind of occupation you select because some occupations
have more exposure to sins than others.

8) Anartha Dand Virati Vrat (Purposeless Violence Limitation Vow)

We sometimes carry out activities for fun or to tease our friends and foes. However, we should realize that all such
activities attract karmas. This vow reminds us not to build unnecessary karma.

SHIKSHA VRAT (Training Vows)

The above eight vows tell us how we can limit our actions in order to reduce the inflow of karma. The next four vows
train us to stop karma from coming in, and to get rid of existing karmas.

9) Samayik Vrat (Self-control and Equanimity Vow)

Since we live a social life, it may not be possible to spend much time in shedding karmas, but we should spend at
least forty-eight minutes a day in such efforts. During these forty-eight minutes, we give up all familial, social,
economical, and cultural responsibilities, and we control ourselves mentally, verbally, and physically. During this time
we should concentrate on religious readings or meditation, which will help prevent new karma from coming in as well
as help get rid of our old karma. This 48 minutes will also give us a glimpse as to how easy or difficult it may be to
control ourselves. Once we become accustomed to doing this, we may extend the self-control time to a period of
more than 48 minutes.

10) Dishavakashik Vrat (Day to Day Additional Limitation Vow)

At the time of waking up, we take this vow in order to put definite limits on our activities for that day, and thus, limit
our exposure to accumulating karma. In this way we learn to live a more controlled life.

11) Poshadh Vrat (Monkshood Exposure Vow)

This vow teaches us how to live like a monk, or a nun, for a day. By taking this vow, we give up all our household,
social, economical, and cultural responsibilities for a day. We should practice this vow as often as possible. By
practicing this vow, the inflow of new karma is slowed down, and existing karmas are eradicated. If this vow is easy to
observe it may eventually lead to monkshood.
12) Atithi Savinbhag Vrat (Selfless Offerings to Unexpected Guests Vow)

This vow teaches us to share. Sharing is more worthwhile when an unexpected, needy person comes to your door
and you offer with an open heart. Monks and nuns are the best receptors for this type of sharing. However, while
giving, you should not have any regrets or expectations in your mind. By sharing, you are developing a sense of
detachment with the feeling that nothing is mine. Observing this vow will lead to liberation from worldly life. Our
thoughts while taking these vows are also very important. They should be positive and meant to destroy karmas.

DAS-VIDH DHARMA

Jain Religion is the religion of soul. Practice of Anuvratas and Mahavratas lead on the path of salvation, at the apex
of which infinite qualities (attributes) of the soul are manifested. Various festivals in Jain tradition aim at the
purification of the soul. Among these, Dashlakshan Parva in the month of Bhadrapad (Bhado) is the most prominent
festival, when almost all the Jains practice religious norms. Dashlakshan Parva emphasizes the sincere effort to
adopt 10 Dharmas one by one for 10 days, so that the purity of the soul gradually increases. Brief description of these
Dharmas is as follows :

Uttam Kshama Dharma (Forgiveness)

‘To forgive’ is the character of this Dharma. To remain fully calm & peaceful against the harsh treatment or being
mocked by wicked or unknowledgeable persons even when there is the capacity to reply. Forgiveness can be
practised only by a brave man and not by a coward (Kshama Virasya Bhushnam). Without this characteristic of
forbearance, nobody can proceed on the true path of salvation.

Uttam Mardav Dharma (Humility)

‘Humility’ or ‘Not to be Proud’ is the character of this Dharma. To think that all my worldly glamour, my own body,
higher caste, strength, worldly knowledge etc. will definitely destroy one or the other day then why to be proud of
these? Thus considering all the worldly possessions like a dream one becomes fully humble or modest to proceed
long on the eternal path of liberation.

Uttam Arjav Dharma (Honesty)

‘Honesty’ or ‘Straight-forwardness’ is the character of this Dharma. To speak & behave just according to what is in
heart or in other words, not to deceive the other with sweet (but false) talks is called as Arjav Dharma. One who
cheats other, can never remain happy for long but one with simple & honest behaviour only, can get heaven and
ultimately the Moksha.

Uttam Satya Dharma

(Truth) ‘To speak the truth’ is the character of this Dharma. One should tell only the correct & true fact but the truth
should not be harsh & rude. One must utter beneficial & pleasant words only. It is better to keep quiet rather than
speaking the truth, which can pierce the heart of the other. One, who speaks truth, becomes adorable for all.

Uttam Shauch Dharma (Holiness)

Shauch means ‘holiness’ or ‘sacred-ness’, which is attained by Contentment. One who remains contented with own
possessions and does not wish for the money, glamour etc. of the other or in other words, remains away from all
types of greed, anger, violence etc. realizes Shauch Dharma. Without this purity of heart, the path of liberation can
not be obtained.

Uttam Sanyam Dharma

(Self-restraint) ‘Self-restraint’ is the character of this Dharma. To refrain from the violence of Shatkaya Jeevas (Six
types of body forms of living beings i.e. Trasa or mobile & 5 types of Sthavaras or immobile beings) and from the
sensual pleasures of 5 senses (Body, Tongue, Nose, Eyes, Ears) define Sanyam Dharma. Acharya says that it is
most difficult to be a humanbeing in the worldly transmigration and only the self-restraint with Samyaktva
(righteousness) can make the human-life successful.

Uttam Tapa Dharma (Austerity)

‘Austerities’ characterize Tapa Dharma. One who wants to destroy all the Karmas bound to the soul, takes the shelter
of Tapa Dharma. 6 types of external & 6 types of internal austerities have been mentioned for Jain Saints. Fasting,
Eating less than one’s appetite, Taking a mental vow to accept food, Daily renunciation of one or more of 6 kinds of
delicacies (Ghee, Milk, Curd, Sugar, Salt, Oil), Sitting & sleeping in lonely place (devoid of animate beings) and
Mortification of the body (till there is no mental agony) are the external austerities while Expiation, Reverence,
Service (of the Saints or worthy people), Study of scriptures, Giving up the attachment of the body and Meditation are
the internal austerities.

Uttam Tyag Dharma (Renunciation)

‘Renunciation’ is the character of Tyag Dharma. Four types of Dann (Charity)-Food/meals, Medicines, Scriptures &
Place for staying (or removing the cause of fear) should be donated by a householder (Shravak) to the Jain Saints.
The worldly belongings like money etc. become successful in this way only. Renunciation of the attachment & malice
both lead to salvation.

Uttam Akinchanya Dharma (Non-Attachment)

‘Non-attachment’ is the character of this Dharma or in other words, not taking the non-self for one’s own self defines
Akinchanya Dharma. Not a single particle in 3 Lokas is of mine, only my soul is of my own or I am the soul only, this
type of feeling ends the worldly transmigration.

Uttam Brahmacharya Dharma (Chastity)

‘Chastity’ or ‘Celibacy’ characterizes this Dharma. To renounce the sensual pleasures fully or partially i.e. to consider
ladies except own wife as mother, sister or daughter symbolizes Brahmacharya. To be stable in own soul is the real
form of this Dharma. Without Brahmacharya all other qualities are of no avail. Thus the understanding of the essence
& practice of these 10 observances can illuminate our life in true sense. The word ‘Uttam’ signifies the association of
Samyaktva with all these qualities and the true form of these Dharmas realize in great Digambar Jain-Saints only.

PATH TOWARDS LIBERATION

The ultimate purpose of all life and activity in Jainism is to realize the free and blissful state of our true being. True
philosophy should result in removing all bondages (karmas) in the process of purifying the soul.

The central theme of Jainism considers religion as a science of ethical practice. The conduct of the present life
should be aimed to attain total freedom from which there is no return to the birth and death cycle. Every soul can
attain liberation and supreme spiritual state by realizing its intrinsic purity and perfection.

Jainism lays down a definitive course of practical moral discipline, contemplation of the highest truth, and
reorientation of life in light of these for attaining ultimate reality or truth.

The principle features of Jainism are:

 Religious tolerance

 Ethical purity

 Harmony between self and one's environment

 Spiritual contentment
Jainism prescribes a path to liberation (Moksha), consists of the following trinity (ratna-traya):

 Right perception - samyak darsana

 Right knowledge - samyak jnana

 Right conduct - samyak charitrya

Right perception creates an awareness of reality or truth, right knowledge impels the person to proper action, and
proper conduct leads him to the attainment of the total freedom. They must coexist in a person if one is to make any
progress on the path of liberation.

Right Perception (Samyak Darsana):

The first step in the process of self-realization is to discard superstitious beliefs and to adopt a rational attitude in life.

Right perception consists in seeing the true nature of every substances of the universe. Jainism advocates that one
should first try to know, comprehend, and understand the nature of reality, one's own self, religious goal, and the
path. One should analyze it, examine it, test it, verify it, and then, if satisfied, be convinced of its truth and efficacy.

From the practical point of view, perception in the nature of the reality means to have a total faith in the preachings of
Tirthankars (Arihantas or Jain Gods), and their scriptures known as agams.

Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana):

Right perception or faith makes us realize the reality of life, and the seriousness of our purpose in life.

Right knowledge is the true, correct, proper, and relevant knowledge of the reality. To understand reality, one should
know the constituent elements of universe and their relationship.

From the practical point of view, right knowledge means the proper knowledge of the six universal substances and
nine principles or tattvas.

Six Universal Substances are:

Soul, matter, motion, rest, space, and time

Nine Tattvas are:

soul, matter, asrava, bandh, punya, papa, samvara, nirjara, and moksha

Philosophically, the knowledge of reality is known as the theory of non-absolutism (Anekantvada) and calls for an
attitude of openness. Our limitations of knowledge dictate a style of relativity. The style of Syadvada allows no room
for assertions. This Jain theory of knowledge, incorporating the two principles of non-absolutism and relativity, has
made an esteemed contribution toward liberalizing the mind of human being.

Right knowledge makes us examine in detail the matter brought into the mind by right perception or conviction. Both
are mental processes.

Right knowledge must be free from three main defects: doubt, delusion, and indefiniteness.

Right Conduct (Samyak Charitrya):

Proper, correct, appropriate, and truly natural conduct of the living being (soul) is known as right conduct.

The main purpose for a human being is to free himself from attachment (raga) and aversion (dvesha). That is to be
free from all impure activities of thought, word, and deed. This will attain the state of perfect equanimity.
For practical purposes, right conduct comprises ethical codes, rules, and disciplines, which a human being is required
to pursue for the ultimate freedom.

This resolves into taking the five great vows of an ascetic or five limited vows of householder.

 Non-violence - Ahimsa

 Truth - Satya

 Non-stealing - Achaurya

 Chastity - Brahmacharya

 Non-possession/Non-attachment - Aparigraha

Right faith and right knowledge are required for right conduct, and all are interdependent.

Jains dedicate themselves to proper conduct through vows and subvows. Vows are at the heart of Jain morality and
are undertaken with a full knowledge of their nature and a determination to carry them through.

The trinity is necessary for a successful life. This threefold discipline helps us realize our own intrinsic purity. The
trinity must be cultivated collectively to ensure liberation. Individually, they are incomplete and insufficient because
they are mutually dependent. In isolation, perception, knowledge or conduct causes conflicts or tensions and vitiates
the environment. Collectively, the three jewels produce harmony, contentment, and blissfulness with the progressive
march of the soul to higher planes.

CONCEPT OF TAPA

"Practice of Tapa", i.e., observance of austerities is one of the important supplements to Ahimsa-vrata which is
considered useful in achieving Samvara, i.e., stoppage of influx of Karmic matter into the soul. These austerities are
regarded as essential things for achieving Nirjara, i.e., the shedding of Karmic matter from the soul, which is a
necessary condition to the attainment of Moksha, i. e., salvation. The Jaina scriptures distinguish twelve kinds of
austerities, as the expedients of Nirjara, grouped together under the two headings of Bahya Tapa, i.e., external
austerities, and Abhyantara Tapa, i.e., internal austerities.

Bahya Tapa:

The six external austerities are:

1. Anasana, i.e., periodical fasting,

2. Avamodarya, i.e., eating less than the capacity of the stomach,

3. Vrtti-parisankhyana, i.e., putting restrictions in regard to food, for example, to accept food only if a certain
condition is fulfilled.

4. Rasa-parityaga, i.e., daily renunciation of one or more of six kinds of delicacies, viz., ghee, milk, curds,
sugar, salt and oil,

5. Vivikta-sayyasana, i. e., sitting or sleeping in a lonely or isolated place, devoid of animate beings, and

6. Kayaklesa, i.e., mortification of the body so long as the mind is not disturbed.

Abhyantara Tapa:

The six internal austerities are

 1. Prayaschitta, i.e., expiation,

2. Vinaya, i.e., reverence,

3. Vaiyavrtya, i.e., service of the saints or worthy people,

4. Svadhyaya, i.e., study.

5. Vyutsarga, i.e., giving up attachment to the body, etc., and

6. Dhyana, i.e., concentration of mind.

All these external and internal kinds of austerities are practiced with the object of burning or shedding out all karmic
impurities from the soul. These austerities are meant mainly for the ascetics, but it has also been enjoined upon the
householders to practice them to the best of their abilities.

JAINA EPISTEMOLOGY

Just like the concept of reality, Jainism has its own theory regarding the existence and nature of soul. What is
important to note is the fact that Jainism accepts the existence of soul. It is Atmavadi Darsana; and the soul,
according to Jainism, has an inherent capacity to know all things, if the soul were in its perfection. Higher the degree
of purity higher the capacity to know. The main cause of obscured capacity being Karmic obstructions, on the total
destruction of all possible karmic veils, pure perception - 'ananta Jnana' (infinite knowledge) occurs. "In our empirical
lives, the purity of the soul is defiled by the absorption of the unconscious substance, matter. When the opposing
energies are completely overthrown, the soul vibrates at its natural rhythm and exercises its function of unlimited
knowing. Souls are substances characterized by intelligence, and their differences are due to the degree of their
connections with matter." The varieties of perception is nothing but the variation in degree of the karmic obstructions,
or purity of Self. Thus like Jain ethics and religion, Jain espistemology is based upon the Jain doctrine of Karma.

Knowledge (Jnana) according to Jainas," is the soul's intrinsic, inherent, inseparable and inalienable attribute, without
which no soul can exist. Knowledge plays an important part in the conception of soul and its emancipation. Jain
epistemology or Jain theory of knowledge thus becomes vital in Jain philosophy. As such Jain epistemology would
include the theory of knowledge along with various topics such as psychology; feelings emotions and passions,
theory of causation, logic, philosophy of non absolutism and the conditional mode of predication. But I, here in this
paper, propose to deal in brief with the types ofknowledge in Jain epistemology only.

Theory of Knowledge:

According to Jainism, the soul, as it is, exists and is consciousness (knowledge). The soul has power of
understanding. Consciousness and power of understanding are the most prominent inherent qualities of the soul.

Consciousness (Cetana), according to Jainas, is the power of the knowledge, the soul has. It stands for the passive
experience of the phenomena, the experience of psychical state leading to pure knowledge. "As conscious, the souls
experience in the three following ways. Some experience merely the fruits of karma; some, their own activity; some
again, knowledge". The Jaina thinkers and scholars were able to discover that Cetana or consciousness culminates
in pure and perfect knowledge and knowledge itself has grades and modes. Kunda-Kundacarya

observes that "Upyoga or understanding is of two modes, Cognition and Sensation," Nemicandra says,
"understanding is divided into two species Viz :- Darsana or sensation and Jnana or Cognition". Uma Svati says
"Understanding is the distinguishing characteristic of the soul. It is of two sets (viz; Jnana or Cognition and Darsana
or Sensation). The first is of eight kinds and the second, of four."
The further description and classification of Upyoga or Understanding, as it appears in Jaina scriptures, conclusively
proves that the early Jain thinkers clearly grasped the basic is essentially consciousness, Cetana or consciousness
operates through upyoga or understanding.

The two modes of upyoga are Darsana and Jnana. "That perception of the generalities (samanya) of things without
particularities (visesa) in which there is no grasping of details is called darsana.

Darsana or sensation is of four kinds -

Visual (Cakshusa)
Non-visual (acakshusa)
Clairvoyant (avadhi dersana)
Pure (Kevala)

Darshana is said to consist in the sensation of the generality of objects in which the forms and particulars
specification are not recognised. The first two kinds of the four are sensouous and both consists in the consciousness
that the eyes and other sense organs are affected.

The last two kinds of sensation viz: Clairvoyant and Pure are of the super-normal type. Out of these two the
Clairvoyant or Avadhi darsana is the sensation of the mysterious parts or aspects of material things, The Pure or
Keval Darsana consists in sensing all things of the universe.

The process of understanding becomes more complicated and subtle when it is cognition or Jnana.

The Jaina scholars divide cognition or Knowledge into two divisions viz;-

Valid Knowledge
Fallacious knowledge.

The valid knowledge is of five types viz:-

Senseous (mati or abhinibodhika),

Authoritative (Sruta),
Clairvoyant (Avadhi),
Telepathic (manah-paryaya), and
Pure (kevals).

The fallacious knowledge is of three types viz:-

Kumati,
Kusruta
Vibhang

The three fallacious knowledge are the fallacious forms of Mati, Sruta and Avadhi Jnana respectively.

Thus, according to Jaina theory of knowledge, cognition is of eight kinds, out of which five kinds are of the valid
knowledge and three, of the fallacious knowledge. Since the destruction of karmic veils and the higher degree of
purity of the soul is possible through the valid knowledge, the importance lies not in the fallacious species of
knowledge but in the valid knowledge.

The Jaina system distinguishes between two kinds of knowledge, namely, the immediate (aparokşa) and mediates
(parokşa).

Immediate knowledge is of two kinds -empirical (vyavahārika) and transempirical (pāramārthika). The former is what
is known by the senses and the mind while the latter is what the soul attains by removing the obstacles of Karmas
that prevent it from reaching the objects. There are three kinds of immediate knowledge. The first kind of immediate
knowledge is the knowledge of the gross objects that are minute and at a far off distance obtainable by a person who
has partially destroyed the influences of karma. This known as clairvoyance (Avadhi).

Secondly, the immediate knowledge is the knowledge of the present and the other minds obtainable by a person who
has overcome hatred, jealousy etc. which create obstacles in knowing.

This is known as telepathy (Manahparyaya).And thirdly, the immediate knowledge is the omniscience (kevalajňāna),
the absolute knowledge which the liberated soul obtains when all the obstacles to such knowledge are completely
removed. The three kinds of perception are called extraordinary perception.

And the Jainas distinguish between two kinds of mediate knowledge. One is the knowledge which we can obtain
through senses and through the mind. This knowledge is technically called mati which includes knowledge obtained
through memory recognition and inference. The other kind of mediate knowledge is that which is obtained from
authority, which is technically called śŗuta. This includes knowledge from what is heard from others and interpreted as
knowledge.

The authority may be what is spoken or written. The Jainas hold that the knowledge obtained through mati and śŗuti
as well as the lowest kind of immediate extraordinary knowledge (avadhi) are not absolutely free from error. But only
the two higher kinds of immediate extra- sensory knowledge wherein a person has direct access to the present, the
knowledge of other minds and absolute knowledge of the soul (manahparyaya and Kevala) is beyond error. The

Jainas accept the three Pramānas, namely, perception, inference and testimony (authority) for all ordinary purposes
of acquiring knowledge of the mediate kind. Perceptual knowledge, according to Jaina, is not immediate but mediate
in nature, because pure perception in the sense of mere sensation cannot pass for knowledge. It becomes
knowledge only when it is given meaning by conception or thought. So the Jaina includes perception under mati
which also includes inferential knowledge. Verbal testimony, according to Jaina, also comes under mediate
knowledge, known as shruta. Thus, the kinds of mediate knowledge, namely mati and shruta, have perception,
inference and authority as their instruments.