LITERATURE REVIEW

Cheema & Abbas (2016) applied logistic regression model by using Pakistan Social and Living
Standard Measurement (PSLM) survey data 2010-11. They revealed that food insecurity
incidence is 28.63 percent; food insecurity gap is 5.28 percent and food insecurity squared gap is
1.46 percent. They concluded that food insecurity is negatively and significantly linked with
education, livestock ownership, foreign remittances and female households head whereas it is
related with poverty in Pakistan. They found out that results of rural and urban levels are also
consistent with national level. Education level from middle to higher levels, female heads and
poverty status signify urban food insecurity more than rural areas. Foreign remittances affect
food insecurity in urban and rural areas at equal level. Livestock ownership influence on food
insecurity more significantly in rural areas in contrast with urban areas.

Raboloko (2016) used a multiple linear regression model to assess the determinants of urban
household food security in Botswana. He found that wage income, gender of household head,
household size and age of the household head have significant impact on urban household food
security. While education and dependency ratio have no significant effect on urban food security.

Abu & Soom (2016) collected data from Primary sources and analyzed data using descriptive
statistics, Food Security Index and Probit model in order to determine the factors associating
household food security status among rural and urban farming households of Benue State,
Nigeria. They concluded that income of household’s head, rural households size and farm size
have a positive impact on household food security. On the other hand, age of household head and
urban household size have a negative relationship with household food security. Lack of access
to credit facilities, infertility of soil, unfavorable weather condition, poverty, storage and
processing problems and lack of non-farm income generating activities are the major constraints
associating the households’ food security. They recommended Government to provide credit
facilities to farmers at minimum interest rates and also suggested Poverty Alleviation
Programmes to increase income level of farmers to improve food security situation.

Aziz et al.(2016) investigated the extent, causes and severity of household food security at
rovincial level in Pakistan. They collected data from Household Integrated Economic Survey
2010-2011. They used logit model in order to highlight the determinants of food security status
at provincial level. They concluded that Sindh is the most food insecure province in Pakistan.
Households having larger family sizes, higher dependency ratio, lower levels of educated
households head and less number of rooms per adult equivalent are to be more with food
insecurity. Male headed households have lesser probability to reduce food insecutity in
comparison with female headed households. They also found out that household food security is
increased if households have also secondary job.

Abdullah et al. (2015) employed logistic regression in order to analyze the determinants of
household food security among rural households in Kaduna State, Nigeria. They collected
primary data and adopted multi-stage simple random sampling technique. They found out that
age, number of extension contact, source of labour and per capita income were significant.
Results of marginal effect revealed that probability of food secure among farm households is
more responsive to a change in age than to extension contact, source of labour and per capita
income. They recommended that Nigerian Government should design food security strategies in
a way that would address the identified determinants in order to achieve Millennium
Development Goals of eradicating hunger in Nigeria.

Abubakari & Abubakari (2015) employed binary logit model to the data collected from
primary and secondary sources in order to analyze the household’s food security status among
farmers in Telensi Nabdam district of upper East region of Ghana. They found out that farmers
based organization, household size, extension contact and labour with the exception of credit,
married, age and male have a significant impact on household food security status.

Ahmed et al. (2015) analyzed the determinants of food security among urban households in
Borne State, Nigeria. Descriptive Statistics, Cost of Calorie Function and Logit Regression
Model were employed to analyze the data collected from 360 randomly selected households.
Family size, education, extension agents’ contact, credit, assets, income and diet diversity, farm
size, child dependency ratio and family labour are significant determinants food security status
among urban households.
Afza et al. (2015) collected data from primary sources and used purposive random sampling
technique in order to analyze the food security status of livestock rearing small farmers in
Ghazipur district of Bangladesh. Using descriptive analysis, they concluded that fifty percent of
sample farmers are food secured and rest of them are food insecure on the basis of the
recommended calorie requirement 2122 kcal per day. Results from logit model revealed that
education level of household head, annual income, number of small animals and large animals
have significant positively impact on household’s food security status. They suggested to adopt
modern and scientific technologies in order to increase productivity.

Habyarimana (2015) applied a probit model to analyze the factors influencing the food security
status among rural households in developing countries. He collected data from Comprehensive
Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis and Nutrition Survey conducted in 2012 in Rwanda.
They found out that female headed households are more food insecure as compared to male
headed households. Descriptive analysis indicate that food insecurity is more accomodated by
rural areas than urban areas. They recommended to adopt latest agricultural techniques to
increase productivity and make better the lifestyle of rural households.

Mutisya et al. (2015) analyzed the effect of household food security status and its interaction
with household wealth status on stunting among children aged between 6 and 23 months in two
urban areas, Korogocho and Viwandani located in Nairobi, Kenya. They used longitudinal data
collected from Maternal and Child Health (MCH) study between 2006 and 2012. Applying
descriptive statistics, they concluded that the prevalence of stunting was 49 %. Results of Cox
Regression Model revealed that the proportion of stunted children increased with food insecurity.
Stunting was the highest among the severely food insecure households. Most of the households
were ranked in the middle poor wealth status. Food security has not statistically association with
stunting among the poorest households. They gave focus on social protection policies to
overcome the increasing rate of child malnutrition in two urban areas of Kenya.

Aslam & Rasool (2014) estimated the determinants of three components of food security which are food
availability, food accessibilty and food absorption in Pakistan. They collected primary data and used
random sampling technique. Expenditure on food items per month was taken as proxy variable food
security. Ordinary Least Square Regression was run and concluded results that electrificated households
and educated persons are positively related with food accessibility. Malnutrition in terms of diseases,
educated persons and safe drinking water have positively influence on food absorption. The consumption
vof food items has a positive impact on food availability. They realized that education and health related
policies will lead to food security.

Adepoju et al. (2014) investigated role of women in household food security in Osun State, Nigeria.
They gathered primary data using multistage sampling technique. By analyzing descriptive statistics and
logit model, they concluded that years of education, household size and total monthly expenditure a proxy
for income are significant to ensure food security.

Ngongi & Urassa (2014) determined the food security status on the basis of Dietry Energy
Consumed per Adult Equivalent per day in Tanzania. They collected data from primary and
secondary souces. Using Multiple Linear Regression, results showed that total annual income,
the amount of Maize and Paddy produced, household size, the number of plots owned and
number of cattle owned in the household have a significantly effct on household’s food
production and supply. Dependence on rainfall and lack of irrigation have an insignificant .
Binary regression indicated that household’s use of organic and inorganic fertilizers, cost of food
items, purchasing food on credit and borrowing foods from relatives are significant at 0.05. They
concluded that rely on less preferred foods is significant as a coping strategy of food insecurity.

Ibok et al. (2014) used a two-stage sampling technique to select a sample of 217 urban food crop
farmers in Southern Nigeria. Data was analyzed using food security index, head count index,
productivity index and logistic regression. On the basis of recommended daily calorie intake of
2250 kcal, they concluded that 53.5% of the households are food insecure while 46.5% are food
secure. The logistic regression estimates revealed that the productivity of urban farming
households have a significant and positive impact on household’s food security status of the
respondents.

Jumi et al. ( 2014) comprised the four indicators of food availabity, food accessibilty, food
quality and food affordability and discussed the status of household food security on the basis of
the total index scores of these four indicators .Logistic regression analysis was employed to
determine the factors of food insecurity. Size of landholding, annual income, social
participation, adoption of modern agriculture technology, food availability and food qualtity
have positive impact. They concluded that overall household food security status is low among
the Below Poverty Line households as compared to Below Poverty Line households.

Zakari et al. (2014) discussed the factors affecting household food security in Niger. They
collected data from Primary sources and used logistic regression. They concluded that the gender
of the head of household, diseases and pests, labor supply, flooding, poverty, access to market,
the distance away from the main road and food aid are significant factors to influence on the
odds ratio of a household having enough daily rations. They also revealed that male headed
households are more food secure as compared to female headed households. They suggested to
move agricultural food items from surplus to shortage areas through the development of
infrastructures and trade policies. They also recommended Government to work on such projects
that will raise rural and urban incomes.

Fawehinmi & Adeniyi (2014) analyzed the role of gender on household food security status in
Oyo State, Nigeria. They collected data from primary sources and used multistage random
sampling technique in order to select the respondents. They analyzed data using descriptive
statistics, Cost of Calorie function, FGT analysis and Probit regression analysis. They concluded
that food insecurity exists between both male-headed and female-headed households but male
headed households are more food secure rather than female headed households. They also
showed that age and household size have a negative effect on the food security status while
education level, membership of the cooperative societies, asset ownership have positive effects.

Wiranthi et al. (2014) investigated determinants of household food security in eastern compared
to western region of Indonesia. Using Ordered Logistic Regression Model, expenditure
equivalent, age and education level of household head, gender of the household head, household
size, main occupation of the household head, and household location are all significantly
determinants of the food security in eastern and western Indonesia. The main difference between
both regions was that access to electricity is significantly determined in eastern part whereas
access to safe drinking water and loan are significantly determined in western regions.
Muhoyi et al. (2014) estimated a logistic regression in order to find the determinants of
household food insecurity in agriculture regions of Murehwa district, Zimbabwe. Based on cross
sectional data collected in 2010, they concluded that Household size has a negative relationship
with food security while farmland quality, climatic adaptation, availability of draught power and
livestock ownership have a positive impact on food security. Gender of the household head, age
of the household head, education of the household head, employment status of the household
head and fertilizer application by the household are statistically insignificant.

Kuwenyi et al. (2014) highlighted crucial factors that determine rural households’ food security
in Shiselwani region using cross sectional data and two stage sampling technique. Under Logistic
Regression Model, results revealed that age, gender, land size above hectare, livestock ownership
have significantly impact on households’ food security at 5 % whereas education, employment
and income are insignificant in order to analyze the food security status.

Ifeoma & Agwa (2014) determined the food security status among farming households in rural
areas of Kano State, Nigeria. A multistage random sampling technique was adopted to select a
sample of 120 rural farm households. They analyzed using percentage, mean score, logistic
regression and food security index. The results of logistic regression revealed that educational
level of household head, sex of household head, household size and access to credit are
significant. They concluded that engaging in on-farm and non-farm jobs to increase household
incomes are major coping strategies of household food insecurity.

Kumbhare et al. (2014) used logistic regression analysis to estimate the factors influencing the
food security status in India. They concluded that overall household food security status is
observed below Poverty Line. They found out that annual income, food quality, adoption of
modern technology, social participation have positively influence on household food security
status. On the other hand, age, education, value orientation, economic motivation, rationality in
decision making, level of aspiration, change proneness, mass media exposure, extension agency
contact, availability of resources, market orientation, food accessibility and food affordability
have no significant impact on poverty and household food security status. They emphasized on
promotion of modern technology to increase productivity and incomes of people.
Mahmood et al. (2014) analyzed the determinants of food security in rural areas of Faisalabad.
They used multistage sampling technique in order to select a sample of 120 households. They
concluded that monthly income, livestock, joint family system and better educational levels have
positive influence on rural household food security. Greater household head’s age and family
size have a negative impact on household food security.

Bashir et al. (2013) analyzed regional sensitivity of rural household food security in three i.e
South, Central and North of the Punjab province of Pakistan. They collected primary data using
stratified sampling technique and applied binary logistic regression model. They found out that
monthly income has a positive influence on household’s food security in Central and North
Punjab but insignificant in South, Punjab. Household head’s age is significant only for Central
Punjab and Total Earners in the household is significant for North Punjab. While family size is
significant for all three regiions. The influence of all education levels for South is insignificant
while up to intermediate, graduation level and above is significant for Central and North regions.
Ownership of large livestock assets is statistically significant for South and Central Punjab
whereas small livestock is significant for North region.They concluded that Central Punjab
region was the most food insecure region in contrast with South and North Punjab.

Asghar & Ahmed (2013) analyzed socio-economic determinants of household food insecurity
in Pakistan using data from Pakistan Social and Living Measurement 2007-2008. Logit
Regression Model was employed and concluded results that education level of head,annual
income, number of rooms, household size square and age square are negatively associated with
household food insecurity whereas age and household size are positively linked with food
insecurity.Only female education was found to be insignificant and influence of dependecy ratio
and access to safe water on food insecurity is counterintuitive for general model. They revealed
that for farmer households, household size, household size square, annual income, agriculture
income, number of rooms, dependency ratio, age, age square, electricity connection and
irrigation availability are found to be significant determinant of household food insecurity.

Sekhampu (2013) drawn data from primary sources to analyze the food security status of
households in the township of Bophelong, South Africa. Results revealed that 26 percent of
households are food secure. Estimating a Logistic Regression Model, they concluded that
household size and the marital status of the household head have a negative impact on household
food security. Whereas household size, age and gender of the household head have a positive
impact on food security The educational attainment of the household head is not to be helpful to
determine the household food security status.

Nisar et al. (2013) collected data from the Demographic Household Survey (DHS) 2011-12 in
order to analyze the household food security through its association between anemia and food
insecurity in Nepal. They revealed that food security and anemia has no strong association on the
basis of Chi-square value. The result of the multinomial logit model shows that woman
education, media awareness, households from middle and rich class have significant while food
poverty has insignificant impact of anemia. They also showed that male headed households have
fewer chances to suffer from anemia as compared to female headed households.

Amir et al. (2013) carried out a research in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. They collected
data from primary sources and analyzed data by using Statistical Package for Social Science
(SPSS). They concluded that lack of irrigational water, limited market access and high cost of
fertilizers were main production constraints. They found out that there is need of cash seeking
cropping patterns instead of subsistence type of farming in order to gain monetary benefits.

K.M.Kuwornu et al. (2013) collected data from primary sources and adopted multistage
sampling technique in order to analyze food security status of farming households in the Forest
Belt of the Central Region of Ghana. They employed Binary Logit Model and concluded results
that total annual household income, access to credit, quantity of owned production and
dependency ratio have significantly influence on farming households. The Government should
broaden pro-poor policies such as School Feeding and Livelihood Empowerment against poverty
intervention programmes in order to cover a large poor households.s

Hussain & Routray (2012) determined status and factors of food security in Pakistan. They
mainly gathered production data from Agriculture Statistics 2004-2005 and consumption data
from HIES. Results of Descriptive Statistics that include percentages, Indices and ratios revealed
that Pakistan’s net food availability is 2,562kcal per day per capita which is above than National
Food Security Line (2350 kcal per day per capita). They found out that Pakistan is a self-
sufficient country in food items. Average food consumption of the people of Pakistan is 1700
kcal per day per capita which is below the National Food Security Line. Punjab is the most
producing food province in comparison with other provinces and Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (FATA) is the most highly deficit unit. They revealed that food gap is 30 percent while a
35 percent portion of available food is not accessed due to economic and sometimes natural
factors.

Sultana & Kiani (2011) analyzed determinants of food supply at household level in Pakistan
using micro data taken from Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement Survey (PSLM)
2007-08. Applying a logistic regression procedure, they found that place of residence has a
significant and negative effect on household’s food security status. Dependency ratio has a
significant and negative impact on food security. Educational attainment level of household’s
head has also significant and positive impact on food security status of household. While social
capital and employment are insignificantly affected.

Asghar (2011) calculated food security indicators by using HIES data 2007-2008. He concluded
that Sindh is the most food insecure province in terms of percentages and Punjab has the highest
food insecurity in terms of absolute number.Urban population has the higher percentage of food
insecure than rural areas by setting 2250 calories per adult person per day as the minimum
daietary energy requirment. Cereals constitute more than 50 to 60 percent calories consumed by
all income groups. Household size and food insecurity are inversely related. Better educated
household heads have higher food security than less educated.

Arene & Anyaeji (2010) analyzed the determinants of food security status among households in
Nsukka metropolis of Enugu state, Nigeria. They collected data from both primary and
secondary sources. Using expenditure method of estimating food security status, results revealed
that about 60 per cent of the respondents are food insecure. Following binary logistic regression,
they concluded that income and age of household head impact positively on food security.
Bashir et al. (2010) highlighted the status of the food insecurity problem in rural and peri- urban
areas along with its socio-economic determinants. Using primary method, calorie intake method
was used to assess the food security status and logistic regression technique was used to discuss
the socio-economic factors of food security. They concluded that 18 percent of the households
were food insecure. They also revealed that livestock assets, education level, number of earners,
household heads’ income, tenancy status and income in the form of aids and gifts from relatives
or any aid giving agency have a positive influence on household food security. They found out
that food security situation in urban areas was a little better than peri-urban areas. While age of
household head, family size and expenditures in the form of transfers have a negative
relationship with household food security. They suggested to enhance primary and secondary
enrolment and gave focus on Family Planning Programmes in order to overcome food insecurity
problem.

Khan & Gill (2009) investigated the determinants of food security in rural areas of Pakistan.
They collected data at district level from Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI) 2003.
Ordinary Least Square Regression was run and concluded results that food availability require to
increase in the production of wheat, rice, maize, pulses, oilseeds, meat and milk. In the
component of food availability, Sindh is found to be more food secure. Electrification of districts
and adult literacy rate are positively related with food accessibility and child immunization,
female literacy, safe drinking water and number of hospitals have positive impact on food
absorption.

Farkhanda et al. (2009) collected primary data from Faisalabad, Pakistan. They adopted simple
random sampling technique in order to analyze the household food security situation. Using
descriptive and Bivariate Analysis, they concluded that majority of the respondents are illeterate
and most of them have large families and low incomes. They found out that poverty and
illeteracy are the main hurdles in gaining food security status.

Sidhu et al. (2008) investigated the incidence and depth of food insecurity and its determinants
in food surplus area. They selected 262 households from the district of Ludhina and used
multistage random sampling procedure.They found out that incidence and depth of food
insecurity was directly related with income of the households and availability of food. They
estimated determinants of food insecurity by using logit model and concluded that under the
pooled estimates, household income, family size, rural/urban status had a statistically significant
on the food security status of the households. They revealed that food security is largely
influenced by self production and income of a household in the rural areas and by household
income in the urban areas and decreases at a faster rate due to increase in family size.

Omonona & Agoi (2007) collected primary data in order to discuss the urban household’s food
security in Nigeria. By using Food Security Index, they concluded that the food insecurity for the
households is 0.49. Food insecurity incidence increases with increase in age of household heads.
It is highest when household heads are within the range of 61 – 70 years at 0.58 and least within
range 21 –30 years at 0.30. Food insecurity incidence is higher in female headed households than
male-headed households. Food insecurity incidence decreases with increase in level of
education. Food insecurity incidence is highest at 0.48 and lowest at 0.33 for the traders and
unemployed respectively. Food insecurity incidence increases with increase in household size.
This ranges between 0.27 and 1.00 for those households made up of 1-4 and greater than 12
members respectively. There is a decline in food insecurity incidence as income increases from
0.41 for the low-income group to 0.20 for the high-income group. On the basis of dependence
ratio, food insecurity incidence increases with increase in dependency ratio. This increases from
S0.30 for households with no dependence to 0.50 for households with greater than 1 dependency
ratio.

Irum & Butt (2004) drawn data from Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS) 1999 for
analyzing the problems of Household Food Security Status and its determinant in Pakistan.
Ordinary Least Square Regression Analysis was run and concluded results that mother’s age,
Average availability of housing, household income and access to safe water have positive and
significant impact on household per capita calorie intake. Independent house has a positive but
insignificant relation with household food security status. No toilet facility at house and
Dependency ratio have a negative impact on per capita calorie intake at the household level.
They revealed that per capita calorie intake is better in urban areas and in the perspectives of
provinces of Pakistan, per capita calorie intake is much improved in Balochistan rather than
other provinces.
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