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Chapter 3

Total Quality Communication

Symbols and the Role of Perception in TQC
Recall from earlier discussion that we applied a very specific definition of communication. It
comprises three components that must be present for communication to occur. If any one of
the components is missing, then communication does not occur. We define communication as
the...

Transmission of Information
Transmission of Understanding
Use of Common Symbols

The Danger of the Common Symbol

Most people readily see the role of the first

component, transmission of information, as
a part of the definition. Some people
intuitively include the second component,
the transmission of understanding, as a
part of the definition. But, most people fail
to fully grasp the significance, or danger, in
the idea of a common set of symbols by which to transmit information and understanding.
The concept of common areas to individual frames of reference was introduced in earlier
discussion. As discussed then, the symbols used to encode messages must be symbols that are
selected from an area common to the frames of reference of the two communicators.
Encoding a message using symbols outside the frame of reference of a receiver prevents the
transmission of understanding at the least and usually prevents the transmission of
information at all. While the statement "using common symbols" sounds simple, it is really
far more complex. It's like an iceberg, 90 percent of the problems can't be seen.

What Is a Symbol?

A symbol can be anything that carries an agreed upon meaning among two or more
people. Anything! We usually think of communication symbols in terms of language.
But other symbols carry meaning and understanding as well.

Symbols may be verbal

Oral symbols used in oral (spoken) language

Written symbols used in written language

or non verbal

Paralanguage...inflection, emphasis, or other additions to language that enhance or alter

meanings

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Kinesics...movements of the body that add meaning, change meaning, or carry meaning
of their own.
Proxemics...space and time and the messages they impart.

Symbols and Meaning--The Symbolic Interactionists

As a foundation to understand the effect of symbols, an understanding of how

symbols are used is necessary. The fundamental concept describing the role of
symbols in human culture and society can be traced to the philosophical movement called
"symbolic interactionists." This is a philosophy founded by Herbert Blumer based on writings
of George Mead. While the paradigm of symbolic interactionists is complex, we can simplify
one segment of the paradigm to illustrate its effect on human psychological characteristics.
Among other things, the symbolic interactionists said that symbols originally framed to
describe events or reality eventually define reality.[2]

This suggests that we create symbols [words, signs, etc.] to describe or represent
something we experience in our environments. After continued use over extended
periods of time, the symbol begins to define meaning for us. Instead of merely
describing some phenomenon, it defines the reality of the phenomenon for us. For
example, watch the reaction of a room full of people when a wasp flies in a window.
The symbol of the wasp and its sting defines the reality of the situation and people react
accordingly, usually with panic. In fact, a wasp sting is a serious medical threat to only a few
people who are highly allergic to the venom. For the rest of "normal people," a wasp sting is
only a minor nuisance. This effect of symbols defining reality becomes pervasive in our lives
and eventually is the source of the individual's perception of reality.

Symbols and Meaning--The General Semanticists

Another philosophy that provides some insight into the role of symbols in
communication comes from the general semanticists. General Semantics is the
name applied to a specific philosophical approach to language and word symbols. It is not the
same thing as semantics, which is the study of root origins of words. General Semantics traces
its ancestor to a self-educated Polish count named Alfred Korzybski.

Korzybski was born in Poland during the 1800s and was a student of many different areas of
interest. One interest was the social implications of asylums or bedlams that were in wide
spread use in Europe around the turn of the century. These are institutions where people
judged to be mentally deficient were committed. Little or no therapy was incorporated, so
these institutions were more of a holding tank for the mentally ill until the natural course of
death relieved them of their malady.

Korzybski saw the existence of these institutions as a terrible part of society and sought ways
to aid the inmates. He came to the conclusion that the basic reason for mental illness was the
inability of people to cope with the difference between their expectations, defined by the
symbols in their lives (typically words in a language) and the reality they experienced. We
would call the difference between these two "cognitive dissonance." Korzybski suggested that
reducing this difference between expectations and reality would eliminate mental illness by
removing the need to cope psychologically with the differences.

Well, some academics and scientists exposed to Korzybski's philosophy came to a similar

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conclusion--Korzybski was nuts! But, they found that some of the foundations of his
philosophy had some merit in understanding the role symbols take in communication.
Unfortunately, Korzybski wanted an all or nothing acceptance of his ideas as a discipline, so
he eventually faded into oblivion except for a number of people who actively support his
beliefs. However, the legacy of Korzybski includes the ideas gleaned by academics and
scientists that led to an approach called General Semantics as it is professed today.[3]

Among the ideas resulting from the General Semanticists that are significant to us are...

Symbols range from very descriptive to very abstract.

The more abstract the symbol, the less it communicates in transmitting exact
meaning.
Words can be arrayed in an order of abstractness from very concrete, simple words to
very abstract words.

As an example, we see an object at the front

of a classroom. We all experience the object
by seeing it and, perhaps, touching it. We
give it a label, "desk." This symbol is a very
concrete symbol. When we encounter the
symbol in the future, we all will recall a
visual image that is similar in appearance.
The images may vary a little depending on
your experience with other realities
associated with the term "desk." If we move
up on a ladder of abstractness, and call the
reality "school furniture," we lose detail about the reality we are talking about. If we move
higher in abstractness, to "University of Texas property," then we lose even more detail. And,
if we move to the highest abstract, State of Texas asset," then we have very little similar image
created for each of us. One major problem in business communication is the tendency for
people to write and speak at this high order of abstractness making symbol interpretation
very difficult. It's probably why there is so much misunderstanding among business
communicators.

The bottom line is that if you want to achieve communication, encode your messages with
concrete words. Remember your goal is to convey information and understanding, not to
impress people with your vocabulary. Think about this, which sentence do you believe
conveys information more effectively and efficiently...

Observe Ms. Jane Pauley motivating her bipedal extremities from

point A to point B as rapidly as possible.

Or

See Jane run

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal cues are symbols with meaning interpretations also. In general, nonverbal symbols
perform five functions in communication.

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Five functions of nonverbal communication

1. Accenting-calling attention to the message source using some device (hitting the table
for example)
2. Complimenting-using nonverbal cues to enhance the meaning of verbal symbols
3. Substituting-a nonverbal symbol replaces a verbal symbol
4. Contradicting-the nonverbal symbol sends a message different from the verbal symbols
5. Regulating-the nonverbal symbol is used to regulate or, even, terminate the verbal
communication process. [Fisher, 1992]

Three Basic Types of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal symbols can be arranged among three general categories:

1. Paralanguage--nonverbal enhancements to language symbols

2. Kinesics--nonverbal symbols of body movement
3. Proxemics--nonverbal symbols of distance, space, and time

Paralanguage

The inflection, tempo, emphasis, or insertions to add meaning to oral language. Paralanguage
includes any device that can be used to modify the meaning interpretation of a verbal symbol.
These devices include inflection or emphasis added to spoken symbols or highlighting,
bolding, or all capital letters added to written symbols. For example, look at the following
sentence and read it while emphasizing each word in sequence.

I didn't say she stole the money.

When emphasizing the word "I," the sentence takes on a shaded meaning from its
non-emphasized state. Emphasizing the word "didn't" changes the meaning of the sentence,
as does emphasizing the word "say." Depending on which word is emphasized
(paralanguage), the sentence carries a different meaning interpretation. The problem of
symbols is best understood when you realize that the paralanguage effect can be introduced
by the encoder (purposefully or inadvertently) or by the decoder (purposefully or
inadvertently).

Kinesics

Kinesics is the category of nonverbal symbols created by the body. Types of Kinesics are:

1. Gestures
2. Gesticulations
3. Facial Expressions
4. Eye Contact
5. Appearance

Gestures are among the most culture-related communication symbols. While verbal
languages are specific to cultures, the word symbols typically are different between
languages. In the case of gestures, similar hand gestures are found in many different cultures,
but the meaning associated differs by culture.

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For example, making the "vee" sign with the index and middle fingers of your hand with the
palm outward produces a gesture that carries meaning. In the U.S., England, and other
English speaking cultures, it most likely represents the idea of "victory." On the other hand, it
could mean ÒtwoÓ. Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of England for many years, was
making a speech in a foreign country. She wanted to evoke the image of Winston Churchill, a
World War II-era Prime Minister who made the "vee for victory" gesture famous. Only, she
made it with the palm of the hand facing in instead of out. In the local culture, this gesture
was considered a vile insult. Her audience was not amused.

Another common gesture, which could be misinterpreted, is the common US Òcome hereÓ
hand signal of palm up with the pointer finger moving.Ê In China, this is the equivalent of
flipping someone the bird in the US.Ê Instead, the Chinese use the hand with the palm facing
down and all four fingers moving to signal Òcome hereÓ.

Do you have a body movement you use when nervous or excited? It could be rubbing your ear
when nervous. It could be holding your chin while thinking deeply. These movements are
basically involuntary. They are habits that are acquired by each individual over time, but they
are consistent and can be read by others to reveal underlying feelings. They are called
gesticulations. An example would be a baseball pitcher whose fastball is consistently
knocked 0ut of the stadium. He doesn't realize that the opposing teams are aware that he
scratches a certain part of his anatomy every time he sets to deliver a fastball.

Somebody once said that with the number of muscles in our face, we can make more than
30,000 different facial expressions. Many of those have meaning attached to them. A smile
means we are happy. Many of these more commonly used expressions carry meaning shared
across cultures. A smile means happiness to many different cultures. ÊHowever, in some
Asian cultures, a smile could mean that the person is embarrassed.Ê

Eye Contact is important in some cultures while not making eye contact is important in
other cultures. In the U.S. and other Western cultures, eye contact sends a message of
confidence or trustworthiness. In some Eastern and African cultures, eye contact is
disrespectful and insulting, especially if the people involved have any difference in status or
power within the culture.

How you dress, the color and style of clothes, how you fix your hair, your body type, and your
posture are among the elements of appearance that send messages. Again, these nonverbal
symbols are very culture-bound, as the aesthetics associated with the culture will influence
many of the appearance characteristics and their meaning interpretations.Ê

Proxemics--Distance

The proxemics of distance is a culture sensitive communication symbol. The

distances between people reserved for categories of acquaintance will vary
depending on the cultural interpretation of the distance. Studies in the United States suggest
that the distances and symbol interpretations that are carried are as follows:

1. intimate distance (contact to 18 in.)

2. personal distance(18" to 4 ft.)
3. social distance (4' to 12 ft.)

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4. public distance (12' to infinity)

Intimate distance is the distance reserved for those people we want to be especially near.
Family members, main-squeezin's, or others can enter this distance range and we are
comfortable, in fact, their presence is psychologically pleasing to us.

Personal distance is the range of distance we are comfortable with acquaintances we know
well, but who are not among those we prefer to have in intimate distance. Most friends and
some close fellow workers may be in this category.

Social distance is the range where we feel comfortable about those whom we know or have
just met. Someone from this category moving across the threshold of the nearer distances can
make use psychologically uncomfortable.

Public distance is the range we feel comfort for people we encounter by chance and don't
know at all. These people crossing other distance thresholds make us very uncomfortable.

Again, these distances are very culture specific. For some cultures these distance ranges may
be compressed, for others they may be expanded. When involved in cross-cultural
communication, understanding these variations of distance symbols is essential to
maintaining effective communication.

Proxemics-Space

In the case of space proxemics, the following are examples of things that can be interpreted as
having symbolic meaning:

1. Room size
2. Odor
3. Color
4. Lighting
5. Room Arrangement
1. The shape and layout of the room provides nonverbal symbolic clues to people
using the room of the expectations of roles to be filled.
2. Physical positions in an office layout establish power or status for the employees
in the physical positions.

Proxemics--Time

Even time is used as a symbol and conveys a meaning, regardless of whether the meaning is
intentional or not. Examples of time as a symbol include:

1. Being Fashionably Late

2. Ambiguity (culture specific)

Receiver Comprehension

One way to evaluate the effect these symbol interpretations have on the
communication process is to look at one suggestion of what goes on inside a
receiver's head as he or she is exposed to communication and processes through
comprehension of the message. A receiver probably makes three sequential

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judgments during the comprehension process. When the receiver makes a negative judgment
about a specific domain of concern, he or she is likely to abort the comprehension process. In
other words, each domain of comprehension must be judged at least neutral to positive
before the next domain's judgments are processed

Attraction Domain

The attraction domain includes judgments about visual symbols that are the basis of a
receiver's decision whether or not to attempt to interpret the communication. For example,
the form of communication carries symbolic interpretation. A letter is perceived to be more
formal and, therefore, more deserving of attention than a memo might. E-mail may be
considered more urgent than snail-mail (e-mailer's term for regular mail). A particular form
carries a meaning interpretation about the importance, urgency, accuracy, credibility, and
usefulness of communication. The visual appeal of the communication (in terms of
appearance of the document in written communication or the appearance of the speaker in
oral communication) leads to attraction of the receiver's interest in exposure to the
communication. A communication that is not appealing visually is unlikely to attract the
attention of the intended audience.

Once the attention of the receiver is focused on the communication, the second domain of
judgment kicks in.

Detection Domain

Three components of judgment occur in this domain. First, is a review of the subject to judge
perceived self-interest. If the subject is not one that taps a "hot button" for the receiver, then
the comprehension process stops. If the judgment is that the subject is related to self-interest,
then the judgment regarding readability is made in the case of written communication while
a similar judgment about oral communication is also made. Readability is the degree of ease
that the words on the page or spoken can be decoded for meaning. Several factors comprise
readability, including size of words, length of sentences, typeface, type size, type color, and
paper color. If the receiver's judgment is that the style of type or size, or color makes the
information too difficult to bother with, the comprehension process stops. If the judgment is
made that the readability is sufficient for the receiver to easily detect the information, he or
she probably views the presentation of information. Information presented in graphical
format is easier to interpret than is information presented in a narrative format. Think about
a company's balance sheet. In its graphical format, it's relatively easy for anyone to
understand the financial position of a firm. However, suppose the same information were
written in a narrative form. Understanding the relationship among the numbers would be

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nearly impossible.

Motivation Domain

If all variables are acceptable, the receiver reaches a point to decide whether or not to
attempt to comprehend the communication based on two fundamental symbolic
interpretations--the credibility of the information source and the perceived self-interest in
the information. This is different from the subject judgment earlier. In this case, the receiver
takes a subject that he or she perceived to be of potential interest and now judges the degree
of self-interest in the subject. For example, you may now be interested in knowing what goes
on in Sri Lanka's civil war, but your self-interest is not sufficient for you to write your
congressman.

One note of importance--the perception of self-interest is the most powerful variable in

determining whether or not someone comprehends your information. If you get them this
far, a perception of self-interest will activate them to try to comprehend your information
regardless of the negatives of all other variables. For example, the want ads for jobs violate all
suggestions for comprehension success. Its type is small, its visual appeal is terrible, its
readability is marginal, and its visual appeal is rotten. However, if we're out of work, we read
the ads with a fine-toothed comb to glean information and understanding from them. We do
this because our self-interest is so high that it overcomes all the deficiencies. In business, we
rarely have the luxury of a potential self-interest that high in what we are trying to
communicate to people. Therefore, we have to make our communication as easy as possible
for the receiver to comprehend.

Outcomes Domain

When a receiver has progressed through the comprehension process, he or she reaches the
domain of outcome for the process. Now, there are three possibilities based on the receiver's
comprehension: to internalize the information for future use; to make some behavioral
change now; or to reject the information outright.

Perception and Communication

One conclusion arising from the discussion of symbols is that they are susceptible to
individual meaning interpretation. The ultimate meaning interpreted resides in the receiver,
not in the sender. This suggests that most communication is dependent on the way the
receiver perceives the symbols encountered and the meanings he or she ascribes to the
symbols.

Perception Defines Reality

Two types of perception are operative:

Sensory Perception
Normative Perception

Sensory perception is the process of your receiving stimuli from your environment through
one or more of your biological senses. Normative perception provides meaning to the stimuli
you sense through your senses. Your brain uses several types of tools to help it make sense of
what you sense.

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Contexts
Selective Sets
Psychological Sets

The brain tries to place the experience into context in terms of previous experiences or with
known expectations. For example, when we see something such as an unknown light in the
sky, our brain looks for a context in which to interpret a meaning. In some cases, we might
have an expectation such as "lights in the sky mean UFOs." Then, regardless of what the lights
may actually be, we are convinced we saw a UFO. A rash of "documentary" television shows
about UFOs have hit the airwaves during the past few years since the 50th anniversary of the
Roswell Crash. These TV shows include displays of photos taken all over the world of
reported UFOs. For someone ready to see the objects in the photos in this context as UFOs,
they are remarkable evidence of their existence. However, for someone who walks past the
TV just as they are showing one of these photos, the new viewer asks why they are showing
pictures of light fixtures double exposed on landscapes of the countryside.

The tool of selective sets is probably a specialized case of the context process. In this case,
however, the brain interprets something that doesn't exist because the brain knows what is
supposed to be there. For example, when you get a paper back from the professor graded
with red ink all over it for misspelling words, you believe he or she must have changed the
spellings to get you. You are sure you didn't turn in a paper with so many errors. What
happened was that during the writing process, your brain knew what was supposed to be in
any particular sentence. So, when you read what you wrote, your brain saw the correct words
in the sentences, even if the words were misspelled. It's only when your brain has disengaged
from the situation that the selective nature of the interpretation is reduced and you can see
spelling errors that were, in fact, always there.

Lastly, perceptual sets are psychological sets influencing meaning interpretation. These work
similarly to context or selective sets. As an example, let's look at how these perceptual sets
can serve as barriers to communication.

Barriers to Communication

The psychological sets that can be barriers to communication can be characterized into
several basic categories. These sets can occur in the sender or in the receiver in the
communication process. The sender has the ability to recognize these barrier categories when
they occur and to transform communication to overcome them. However, the receiver is a
different story. If the receiver is interested in communication, he or she can recognize when
these barriers arise and can consciously overcome them. On the other hand, when a receiver
is passive in the communication process, he or she does not recognize the barriers and the
sender can do little to overcome the blockage.

Fact Inference Confusion

The Fact-Inference confusion has three basic components:

Making an inference for fact

Failing to recognize
Acting on the inference as if it were fact

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Until the third component occurs, the inference for fact does not really become a barrier to
communication. When we act on the inference as if it were a fact is when this barrier becomes
a major stumbling block to communication.

For example, let's say you work in a department of nine people that have been together for a
long while. You're best "buds." On many days, the group doesn't return from morning break
until late. During the years, lunch hour has stretched to the point that some of you don't get
back to your desks until 1:30 p.m. In all, it's a pretty good place to work. One Monday
morning, when you arrive, a woman is at a previously empty desk. She introduces herself as a
new employee. You and the group ask her to join you for morning break. She thanks you and
says that she has something she must do so she cannot join you. When you return from break,
five minutes late, she is already at her desk working. As you prepare for lunch, she similarly
declines to join your group. When you return from lunch at 1:20 p.m., she is already working
hard at her desk. This pattern repeats itself until Friday. On Friday at 3:00, the woman gets
up from her desk and goes to the supervisor's office. She goes in and closes the door. She is in
the office for about twenty minutes. She comes out and assumes her position without saying
anything to anyone. About 4:30, the supervisor comes out of her office and says to the group,

"Everybody gather around for a little meeting. We have to have some changes around here.
We have been a little lax in the time we take for breaks and lunches. From now on, get back
from breaks and lunch on time. Anybody not getting back on time will be reprimanded and
the incident entered in your personnel folder."

Most people would make an inference for fact. The new woman complained that she was
working while everyone else in the department was goofing off! At this point, the barrier to
communication has not occurred. Only when we act on the inference as if it were fact does
the blockage occur. If the group sanctions the new woman by giving her "the silent
treatment." or allowing the inference to influence how they react to the woman, then the
barrier occurs. When you get a hold of yourself, you approach the woman to ask her about
her part in this event. She tells you that her visit to the supervisor had nothing to do with the
afternoon announcement. In fact, she had gone to the supervisor to tell her that the job was
exactly what she had been looking for and that she was able to get to the company's on-site
day care facility to breast-feed her six-month old son during breaks and at lunch.

The bottom line to this barrier is to make a "reality check" to ensure that you do not allow an
inference to drive your actions.

Static Viewpoint

Of the barriers to communication, static viewpoint,

sometimes called frozen evaluation, is the one that
sometimes infects faculty members at colleges and
universities. It is a failure to recognize change over time.
It may also be a major affliction of our parents who
make judgments about your activities based on their
experiences as teenagers or young adults without
realizing that the mores and standards of society have
changed in the intervening twenty or thirty years. In the
case of professors, they become professors by

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completing doctoral degrees. By the time a dissertation

is finished, the crowning glory of a doctoral degree, the
candidate is likely the definitive expert in the world on
the dissertation's subject. He or she has lived with, slept
with, eaten and beaten the subject for as long as ten
years to reach completion. The first academic job tends
to be related to the dissertation subject. The result is a new professor who believes his or her
knowledge about the subject is complete. He or she assembles a course and begins a teaching
career, teaching the same material for the next thirty years. After all, he or she is the expert!
Right!! If you ever find yourself involved in the debate regarding the role of research as a
major component of a faculty member's responsibility, then this is the best argument for it. It
ensures that faculty don't get caught up in static viewpoint and, in turn, short change students
who trust the faculty member is providing the best, most up-to-date coverage of the topic
available.

Blocked Mind

The blocked mind is probably best exemplified by Archie Bunker; of All In The Family TV
show fame, or a stereotype of the typical teenager's father. In this case, the person's mind is
closed to reality assuming that he or she knows everything there is to know about a subject. In
effect, the person refuses to acknowledge that any facts about the situation exist other than
what he or she knows about the situation. More importantly, when confronted with new facts,
the blocked mind refuses to accept the new facts as relevant, and these facts may even be met
with hostility.

No strong solution to this barrier exists if you encounter it in others. In order overcome it, the
blocked mind must be made to realize the nature of the closure. In essence, the blocked mind
must be made to see that it is its best self-interest to recognize that unknown facts may be out
there and to recognize that any of the unknown facts may serve to alter the situation. The
primary purpose of this tactic is to ensure that when unknown facts make themselves known,
the person is prepared to accept them as potential influences to the situation and to evaluate
them on the basis of their effect on the situation.

General Statement

The general statement category of blockage is, unfortunately, a category where the name
does not do a good job of relating to the barrier. The barrier occurs because we react to a
label rather than the reality it describes. You may recall from our discussion about the
Symbolic Interactionists that people tend to create symbols to describe things they encounter
in life. However, after time using these symbols, they begin to define reality for us. In the case
of the general statement, we allow ourselves to be influenced by the interpretation of a
symbol rather than the reality the symbol was created to describe. For example, if your
professor came into the room smiling and opened the lecture with the statement, "I feel gay
today!" Most students would react to the symbol "gay " as it has become applied to a
homosexual lifestyle rather than to the reality the word is trying to describe based on its
original meaning interpretation, that the professor feels happy and light hearted. The result
at the least is a titter (another general statement candidate) that runs through the class and,
at the worst, an interpretation by the students of the professor's preferred lifestyle.

Semantics

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Semantics is the natural weakness of language to convey meaning. As we discussed earlier

in the General Semanticist section, word symbols can be thought of at different levels of
abstraction from the reality they are trying to describe. Although you now understand that
the higher the abstraction, the less communicative is the symbol in conveying exact meaning,
you must also recognize that even the most concrete and descriptive word symbol is
inefficient in carrying complete meaning to describe the reality. This is a problem inherent in
the symbol process. The only defense is to recognize that the word symbols are inefficient,
and to select symbols with the highest level of effectiveness in representing the reality and to
combine these symbols in such ways as to more completely represent the idea to be
transmitted.

Two-Valued Thinking

Two-valued thinking, sometimes called polarization, occurs when contraries are treated
as contradictories. A contrary is an idea represented by a continuum anchored by
descriptive adjectives. For example, the adjectives "tall" and "short" are anchors on a reality
continuum with an infinite number of possibilities in between. No matter how you define
"tall" in absolute terms nor how you define "short," an infinite number of possibilities of
"tallness" or "shortness" exist between the anchor points. A contradictory is a true
dichotomous situation. Something is one way or another with no possible situation in
between. For example, "On" and "Off" are contradictories. Two-valued thinking as a barrier
occurs when we begin to stereotype the situation using contrary adjectives as contradictories.
In such a case, we refuse to recognize differences among people and situations and, instead,
allow narrow interpretation of the situation as one way or the other. For example, you may
encounter a person identified as a "high school student" who is dressed in a pair of jeans with
holes in the knees, a Grateful Dead T-shirt, with a gold stud in his nose, and blue hair that
stands on end. Your reaction to the person may be the result of your two-valued thinking
about high school students with this appearance--they're drug-selling, acid-popping, deviant
freaks. Much to your amazement, when you control your two-valued thinking, you
discover the high school student is a straight-A, National Merit Scholarship Finalist who
happens to have individualistic tastes in dress.

Bypassing

Bypassing exists in two forms

Type I
When different words are used to describe the same event
Type II
When a word is used that has a different meaning for the receiver

An example of Type I Bypassing would be situations that typically arise because of different
symbol meaning associated with similar realities. Perhaps the best illustration is between the
United States and Great Britain. We share a common language, but many realities
encountered have been assigned different symbols for use. Conflicting Type I combinations
are such things as gasoline/petrol, truck/lorry, elevator/lift, conservative/liberal,
liberal/conservative and the like.

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Vingette

Type II Bypassing results from our using a word from our frame of reference that has a
different meaning in the frame of reference of the person targeted for communication. For
example, a new convenience store was opening in a small town near our university called
Edcouch. The owners of the convenience store wanted to open as soon as they could even if
they couldn't offer all the products and services they intended to. Therefore, as soon as the
building was complete, they opened to sell convenience goods plus bar-b-cue. They had to
wait on selling gasoline until their pump installation was complete. Since all passing
motorists could see the pumps, the owners believed they needed a temporary sign in front to
apprise passers by of the situation. The sign read:

"Buy Bar-B-Cue Today and Get Gas in Two Weeks."

Or, maybe they had a better understanding of their product than most roadside sellers of
bar-b-cue.

Pointing or Associating

When words are selected to clarify or obscure meaning, pointing or associating occurs. In
this case, the barrier is likely an intentional one where the "communicator" carefully selects
words to guide a meaning interpretation of the target audience in a direction other than one
that reflects reality. In recent days as we have been preparing this manuscript, the press has
been full of statements made by President Bill Clinton that are carefully crafted statements to
guide interpretation of the American public. Advertisers use the technique to influence the
interpretation of potential buyers. A classic example quoted in many marketing texts is a
merchandising experiment credited with any number of different department stores
(depending and the text you read). The story goes that the management wanted to test
merchandising so they divided a shipment of handkerchiefs (some stories divide socks, shirts,
or ties) and placed two stacks on a counter. One stack was labeled "Fine Irish Linen-$5.00
each," while the other was labeled "Nose Rags-3 for $1.00." Supposedly, the stack labeled
Fine Irish Linen sold out first, presumably because of the pointing or associating creating
an image in the consumers' minds of a better, higher quality product.

Blindering

Of all the barriers listed here, blindering is the one that probably most often affects
students. It is the placing unspecified boundaries on interpretation. The best example is from
our own experience. About thirty years ago, Southwestern Bell Telephone created as a part of

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its sales training seminars for customers a test that was given at the beginning of a training
cycle (actually they may have commandeered the test from some other source). The test had
a cover sheet that listed instructions including,

"You have four minutes to complete this test of twenty items.

Read all items before beginning to answer."

Item one said, "Write your name in the upper left-hand corner of this page." Item two said,
"Stand at your desk and crow like a chicken." Question three said, "go to the blackboard,
make a circle with chalk, place your nose in it and sing America." The remaining items were
similar until item twenty that said, "Do only item one and turn your paper in." The room was
filled with people standing and crowing like chickens, singing, and dancing. The reason this
occurs is blindering. When reading the instructions students placed an unspecified
boundary on themselves by thinking that if they only had four minutes to complete the test
and they had to read all twenty items before beginning, they wouldn't have time to complete
the entire test. Therefore, since they had to read every item as they worked through the test,
they could meet the essence of the instruction by reading as they worked. The result was a lot
of embarrassed people, wasted time, and useless effort.

When trying to analyze barriers to communication, you may find that a specific situation
might be classified in two or more categories. This is not unusual. These categories are not
finite laws. Rather they provide a method to help us identify why barriers to communication
occur. If a situation is easier to see as one type of barrier as opposed to another, that's OK as
long as we recognize it as a barrier that must be overcome.

Practice Exam
When you have completed reading this chapter, you may elect to take a practice exam
on-line. You may take the practice exam as many times as you wish. Each time, the test will
be compared to the answer key. You then have the option to review the results or not. You
may wish to try the exam again before seeing the results of the comparison.

©1997 2000 David L. Sturges and Michael Minor

These pages were created on November 1, 1999, and last modified on August 29, 2001, on a PowerBook G3-266 using Dreamweaver 3.0. Questions or
comments should be directed to the WebJŽfe.

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