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micromechanical analysis of nonwoven DOI: 10.1177/0021998316664197
jcm.sagepub.com
kenaf fibre/epoxy composites produced
by resin transfer moulding

NG Andre1, Dody Ariawan1,2 and ZA Mohd Ishak1,3

Abstract
In this paper, the mechanical performance of resin transfer moulded nonwoven kenaf fibre/epoxy composites in the fibre
volume fraction (Vf) range of 0–0.42 was investigated. The effect of the needle-punching direction on the tensile proper-
ties of the composites was also investigated. The highest tensile, flexural and fracture properties were attained at a Vf of
0.42. The nonwoven kenaf fibre/epoxy composites were proven to exhibit tensile isotropy. The typical load versus
displacement graph and scanning electron microscopy micrographs of the epoxy and nonwoven kenaf fibre/epoxy
composites revealed that the energy absorbing events caused by the fibres led to improvements in the fracture tough-
ness. Meanwhile, the micromechanical parameters of the composites were determined by a micromechanics analysis
using the Cox–Krenchel model. The analysis proved the applicability of the model for nonwoven kenaf fibre/epoxy
composites as the calculated efficiency factors were comparable to the values from previous literatures.

Keywords
Natural fibre, micromechanics analysis, kenaf nonwovens, mechanical properties, fracture behaviour

Introduction composite. Motivated by environmental concerns,


There has been a rapid growth in the utilisation of nat- there is an increasing demand to fully exploit nonwoven
ural fibres as a reinforcement or filler in composites.1–3 natural fibres as reinforcement composites in the
This is driven by the advantages they offer such as high interior of automobiles.11 Among the advantages of
specific strength and moduli, and a non-abrasive needle-punched nonwoven natural fibres are that
nature during processing.4–7 Natural fibres have also they are lightweight, have excellent strength and good
been proven to provide a greener, cheaper and viable sound efficiency, are flexible and versatile, and have an
replacement for conventional glass fibres.8 The life attractive cost/performance ratio.12 In addition, needle-
cycle assessment (LCA) of glass fibre mats and flax punched nonwoven natural fibres have excellent
fibre mats confirm that the production of the former
requires a significantly higher amount of non-renewable
energy as compared to the production of natural
fibres.9 Natural fibres provide lower environmental
1
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Malaysia
impacts as they are able to (1) reduce the amount of 2
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
polluting base polymers, (2) lower the weight of com- Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia
posites, thus reducing fuel consumption when used in 3
Cluster for Polymer Composites, Science and Engineering Research
automotive applications, and (3) give out energy and Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
carbon credits from their end-of-life incineration.10
Natural fibres come in a variety of forms, and Corresponding author:
ZA Mohd Ishak, School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering,
the nonwoven form produced by the needle-punching Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau
process has been utilised in numerous applications Pinang, Malaysia.
and possesses great potential as reinforcement in a Email: zarifin.ishak@gmail.com

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2 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

z-directional properties that reduce delamination analysed and discussed. Then, the fracture toughness
problems.11,12 was characterised, and a morphological study was car-
Resin transfer moulding (RTM) is a suitable pro- ried out on the fractured surface of the composites.
cessing method for reinforcing thermosets with nonwo- Lastly, the micromechanics analysis of the tensile
ven natural fibres. This particular processing method moduli at 0 and 90 to the needle-punching direction
retains the shape of the needle-punched nonwoven nat- was carried using the Cox–Krenchel model.
ural fibres, as well as produces a composite with better
mechanical properties compared to other processing
methods such as compression moulding and the hand Experimental
lay-up method.3,13,14 Despite the advantages offered by
nonwoven composites fabricated with RTM, there are
Materials
still very limited studies directed at the mechanical The needle-punched nonwoven KF mat with an areal
properties of nonwoven kenaf fibre/epoxy (NKFE) density of 1100 g/m2 and stitching density of 50 cm2
composites. was supplied by Kenaf Natural Fibre Industries, Pulau
The mechanical properties are essential and crucial Pinang, Malaysia. The average density of a single KF
as nearly all fabrication processes and most service extracted from the nonwoven mat was 1400 kg/m3. The
conditions are exposed to some kind of mechanical Bisphenol A epoxy resin (CP 210DF part A) and amine
loading. Basically, the mechanical properties of hardener (CP 210DF part B) used in the study were
fibre-reinforced polymer composites are influenced supplied by Camel Polymer Sdn. Bhd. The mixing
by several factors such as the fibre volume fraction, ratio of the epoxy-hardener was 2:1, respectively.
fibre–matrix interaction, fibre aspect ratio and fibre
orientation.15 As the mechanical properties are a
direct representation of the service performance of the
Fibre length and diameter distribution
composites, there is a need to better understand and The distribution of the fibre lengths was characterised
quantify the micromechanical parameters which con- in accordance with the ISO 6989 Method A. Five
trol the relationship between the structure and the hundred individual fibres were extracted from the non-
properties of nonwoven reinforced thermoset compos- woven mat for the length distribution measurement.
ites. This can be done through a micromechanics ana- Meanwhile, the distribution of the fibre diameters was
lysis by utilising suitable models. measured under an optical microscope (Olympus BX61
The modified rule of mixture by Cox–Krenchel16,17 is model). Two hundred individual fibre diameters were
one of the widely used models due to its simplicity recorded.
of usage. There have been several studies dedicated
to determining the efficiency factor by using the
Cox–Krenchel model for composites such as glass
Single fibre tensile testing
fibre/polyamide-66,18 glass fibre/ABS,19 bamboo/ The tensile strength, rf, and longitudinal tensile
CP300,20 hemp/PP21 and stoneground wood fibre/PP.22 modulus, Ef1 of a single KF were measured according
Although this model is primarily used for composites to the ASTM C 1557 standard by utilising the mini-
with short fibres, several studies have utilised the ature tensile tester model LEX810 Dia-stron (UK)
model for randomly oriented fibres with lengths ranging equipped with a laser diameter gauge (Mutitoyo Series
from 10 to 50 mm.23,24 To date, studies on the determin- 544 LSM-500S) and a load cell of 19.6 kN. The displace-
ation of efficiency factors for NKFE composites by the ment speed of the upper clamp was set to 3 mm/min.
Cox–Krenchel model have been little to none. Therefore, Individual KF were secured onto a plastic mounting
it is important to investigate the applicability of the tab by using UV setting glue as shown in Figure 1.
aforementioned model for nonwoven natural fibre-rein-
forced thermoset composites by comparing the results of
a micromechanics analysis with the theoretical values
and the results from previous studies.
The aim of the present work was to study the mech-
anical behaviour of NKFE composites fabricated by
using RTM. First, the physical and tensile properties
of the kenaf fibres (KF) were characterised. Second, the
effects of the fibre loading and needle-punching direc-
tion on the tensile properties of the NKFE composites
were investigated. Third, the flexural properties of the Figure 1. Fibre placement on plastic mounting tab for single
composites at different fibre volume fractions were fibre tensile testing.

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Andre et al. 3

Figure 2. Schematic representation of resin transfer moulding (RTM).

The tensile strength of 20 individual KF extracted


from the nonwoven mat was measured. Prior to the
test, the fibres were dried in a circulating oven at 60 C
for 4 h.
Figure 3. Cutting directions of composites into tensile test
Preparation of composites samples.

The NKFE composite laminates were fabricated using


the resin transfer moulding (RTM) machine Hypaject 20  200  9 mm3 for each needle-punching direction
MKV equipped with two reciprocating pumps. The (0 and 90 ), as shown in Figure 3.
ratio of the hardener to the epoxy resin was 1:2. Prior
to the moulding, the nonwoven KF were cut into
600  300 mm2 dimension and dried at 60 C for 4 h.
Flexural properties
Then, the dried nonwovens were placed accordingly For the flexural properties, three-point bend tests were
on to the surface of the lower mould, followed by the also performed with an INSTRON 5969 universal test-
placement of the upper mould on top of the lower ing machine in accordance with ASTM D 790. The
mould as shown in Figure 2. It was then clamped approximate width, depth and length of the samples
tightly by using F-clamps to ensure no resin leakage were 18, 8 and 160 mm, respectively. At least five sam-
during mould filling. The mixture was then injected ples for each fibre loading were tested at a crosshead
into the mould containing different loadings of the non- speed of 5 mm/min and a span length of 130 mm.
woven KF. After the mould was completely filled, the
mixture was left to cure at room temperature for 24 h.
After the mixture was fully cured, demoulding of the
Fracture toughness
composite will be carried out. It was then cut into smal- The fracture toughness was determined using the single
ler test specimens by using a bandsaw followed by post- edge notch bending test (SEN3PB) in accordance
curing at 60 C for 24 h. with the ASTM D 2344 and also by using the
INSTRON 5969 universal testing machine equipped
with 50 kN load cell. The length (L), span length (S),
Tensile properties width (W), and thickness (B) of the samples were 160,
The tensile strength and modulus of the NKFE 60, 18, and 8 mm, respectively, which fulfilled the con-
were evaluated according to the ASTM D 3039 stand- dition of 2B < W < 4B required by the aforementioned
ard by using an INSTRON 5969 universal testing standard. A sharp pre-crack was generated in the
machine built in with an extensometer. The test notch by tapping a sharp razor blade, and its length
machine was also equipped with a 50 kN load cell and (a) was then measured under an optical microscope.
operated at a rate of 2 mm/min. A total of at least five The samples were tested at a crosshead speed
samples were tested with approximate dimensions of of 1 mm/min and the load–displacement curves were

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4 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

the KF was 40.10 mm with a standard deviation of


17.40 mm. The standard deviation revealed a wide
range between the maximum and minimum length.
Figure 4 also shows the diameter distribution of a
single KF. The calculated mean was 63.79 mm with a
standard deviation of 37.37 mm. The calculated stand-
ard deviation indicated a large variation in the diameter
of the KF, which is a common occurrence in natural
fibres.26 Therefore, the properties of the nonwoven
KF/epoxy composites were consequently expected to
have significant variations.26
The average tensile strength rf, and longitudinal
tensile modulus Ef1 of the single KF were 514.59 
141.06 MPa and 26.06  6.63 GPa, respectively.
The standard deviations proved that both rf and Ef1
exhibited large variations. Such variations may be due
to the assumption of fibre circular cross-section27 and
also the varied content of cellulose in the fibre, which is
common in natural fibres.28,29 Nevertheless, the rf and
Ef1 values obtained were still within the range of the
experimental values presented in the previous litera-
ture.30,31 It is important to note that the section of
Figure 4. (a) Length distribution and (b) diameter distribution the kenaf plant from which the fibres are extracted
of single KF.
will have a significant effect on the properties of the
composites. To optimize the mechanical properties of
recorded. The maximum load upon fracture was then the single KF, the fibres should be taken from the sec-
used to determine the fracture toughness, KC, which tion closest to the ground, and the bast fibres should be
was defined as follows25 separated from the core.31,32
pffiffiffi
3PS a
KC ¼ Y ð1Þ Tensile properties
2BW2
In this study, the effects of fibre loading and the needle-
where P is the maximum load upon fracture, and Y is punching direction on the tensile properties were
the shape factor. The shape factor, Y, was calculated investigated. Figure 5 represents the tensile strength
using the following equation25 and modulus of the neat epoxy and the NKFE com-
posites at increasing Vf of the samples at 0 and 90 to
a  a 2  a 3  a 4
Y ¼ 1:93  3:07 þ 14:53  25:11 þ 25:8 the needle-punching direction. Comparing the two
W W W W needle-punching directions, the tensile properties gen-
ð2Þ erally displayed a similar trend. Also, at each Vf,
the tensile properties of the composites at the two direc-
tions showed small differences. This indicates that
the nonwoven KF mats exhibited tensile isotropy, as
Fracture surface morphology reflected in the tensile properties of the NKFE compos-
Samples were first coated with a thin layer of gold by ites. Moreover, the tensile isotropy of the composites
using the VG Microtech-Polaron Sputter Coater to indicated that there was no preferential orientation
render them electrically conductive. The fracture sur- in the nonwoven mat. This was verified by its micro-
face morphology of the composites was then observed scope image, as shown in Figure 6, in which the KF in
using the SEM Carl Zeiss Leo Supra 50 VP model. the nonwoven mat appeared to be orientated in all
directions.
The composites at both needle-punching directions
Results and discussion showed reductions in the tensile strength upon
incorporation of 0.15 Vf. At a low fibre loading, the
Properties of single kenaf fibre
nonwoven KF acted as flawed and the amount of
Figure 4(a) and (b) shows the length and diameter dis- fibres was not enough to impart and sustain a high
tribution of a single KF. The calculated mean length of strength in the matrix phase.33,34 A model by Kelly

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Andre et al. 5

Figure 5. Tensile strength and modulus of epoxy and NKFE composites at different Vf and needle-punching directions.

tensile strength was achieved at 0.42 Vf for both com-


posites at 0 and 90 to the needle-punching direction.
Meanwhile, the tensile moduli at both needle-punch-
ing directions increased linearly upon the addition of
the nonwoven KF, with the highest being achieved at
0.42 Vf. This improvement was due to the nature of the
KF itself. The addition of a fibre that possesses a higher
modulus than the polymer matrix will inhibit the move-
ment of the polymer chain. Consequently, the stiffness
of the resulting composites was improved. These values
were also higher than those reported in previous studies
in which hot compression was used to form the non-
woven KF.39 This implies that the formation of a non-
woven mat through the needle-punching process might
produce composites with a better tensile modulus com-
pared to the formation of nonwoven by hot compres-
sion. This could be due to the hollow cylinders of the
Figure 6. Optical microscope image of nonwoven KF.
needle path, as shown in Figure 7(a), produced by the
needle-punching process, which aid in the penetration
and Davies explained that the decrease in the tensile of the resin into the fibre mat.40 This induced a lower
strength upon the incorporation of fibres occurs when void content (5%) in the composites, which has been
the fibres have a lower failure strain compared to the reported in our previous study,41 as compared to the
matrix. Consequently, the composite failed at the strain void content (8%) reported by Fiore et al.39 This may
level corresponding to the fibre tensile failure strain.35 have been responsible for the superior tensile modulus.
This premature failure occurred especially at a lower In addition, the mechanical fibre interlocking within the
fibre loading when the Vf was smaller than the critical nonwoven KF shown in Figure 7(b) might be respon-
fibre volume fraction, Vcrit, as explained by Gibson.36 sible for the enhancement of the tensile properties of
The random orientation of the KF also contributed the composites as it promotes a more efficient stress
to the decrease in tensile strength. Some parts of the transfer between the fibres.40,42
fibres were perpendicularly oriented to the loading dir-
ection, thus acting as a potential defect.37 Sreekala et al.
also found that using fibres with a length of 40 mm
Flexural properties
will induce fibre curling, which will then reduce the fibre Figure 8 shows the flexural properties of the epoxy and
length, and consequently reduce the effective stress NKFE composites at different Vf. Both the flexural
transfer.38 This was also worsened by the poor inter- strength and modulus at 0 of the needle-punching dir-
action between the hydrophilic KF and the hydropho- ection showed a similar trend to that of the tensile
bic epoxy. Nevertheless, as the fibre volume fraction of properties. The flexural strength dropped after the
the nonwoven KF increased, the properties of the fibre incorporation of 0.15 Vf of nonwoven KF. Similar to
phase became more dominant, and consequently, the the tensile strength, the decrease in the flexural strength
tensile strength of the composite improved. The highest may have been due to the low loading of the nonwoven

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6 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

Table 1. Fracture toughness of epoxy and NKFE composites


and the average time taken to reach break point.

Average time
Fibre volume Fracture toughness, taken to reach
fraction, Vf KIC (MPa.m1/2) break point (s)

0 (neat epoxy) 1.89  0.29 31.60


0.15 2.00  0.16 80.09
0.31 2.98  0.38 123.33
0.42 3.34  0.18 130.29

Figure 7. (a) Needle path in nonwoven KF produced by


needle-punching and (b) cross section of nonwoven KF showing
the mechanical fibre interlocking.

Figure 9. Typical load versus displacement curve of epoxy and


NKFE composites at different Vf (arrows are showing ‘‘pop-in’’).

Fracture toughness
Table 1 and Figure 9 display the effects of the Vf on the
fracture toughness and the typical force–displacement
plot of the neat epoxy and NKFE composites,
respectively. The fracture toughness of the neat epoxy
was still within the range of what was reported in pre-
Figure 8. Flexural strength and modulus of epoxy and NKFE vious studies.43 The fracture toughness of the NKFE
composites at different Vf. composites increased as the Vf of the nonwoven
KF increased. A similar trend was also reported
by Hughes et al., whereby the fracture toughness
mat, which consequently acted as flaws in the compos- of hemp and jute/polyester composites increased as
ites. The reduction in strength could also be attributed the Vf increased.44 The highest fracture toughness was
to the random orientation of the fibre, fibre curling and attained at 0.42 Vf with an improvement of 77% over
poor fibre–matrix interaction. An increment followed the neat epoxy.
soon after the strength reduction, with the highest The toughness of the neat epoxy was due to the
being attained at 0.42 Vf; an increase of 6% from the energy dissipation mechanism by plastic deformation.45
flexural strength of the neat epoxy. It could also be seen This mechanism was hindered when the nonwoven KF
that the incorporation of 0.15 and 0.31 Vf improved the was added. Instead, the fracture toughness of the com-
flexural modulus by 27% and 69%, respectively. posites was attributed to energy-absorbing events such
The highest flexural modulus was achieved at 0.42 Vf as fibre pull-outs, fibre fracture and fibre-bridging,
with an improvement of more than 120% from the as shown in the SEM micrographs in Figure 10 (dis-
flexural modulus of the neat epoxy. The improvements cussed later).46,47 Fibre-bridging, in particular, might
in the flexural modulus were also due to the stiffness of be improved by the interlocking of mechanical fibres
the KF. within the nonwoven KF. Therefore, the addition of

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Andre et al. 7

Figure 10. Fracture surface morphology of (a) epoxy and NKFE composites at (b) 0.15 Vf (c) 0.31 Vf and (d) 0.42 Vf of nonwoven KF.

more nonwoven KF resulted in greater energy absorp- bifurcation, also indicates poor consolidation of the
tion, which consequently led to an increase in the KIC of composites. As mentioned earlier, the pop-in was only
the NKFE composites.48 observed in composites with 0.31 and 0.42 Vf.
From Figure 9, it can be seen that the load versus Therefore, it can be assumed that the consolidation
displacement curves of the neat epoxy and its compos- quality of the composite was poorer at higher Vf, and
ites were typical of elastic/stiff materials. For the neat this was due to the higher resistance for the resin to
epoxy, a sharp drop in the load occurred immediately penetrate easily into the nonwoven mat.
after the break point, while all the composites at every
Vf displayed extensive and stable crack growth. Due to
Fracture surface morphology
the relatively low tenacity of the matrix phase, the crack
growth was locally accelerated in the resin-rich area. The SEM micrographs of the neat epoxy and its com-
Meanwhile, in the fibre-rich area, the reinforcement posites are shown in Figure 10(a) to (d). The SEM
acted as an obstacle that caused the deflection of the micrographs revealed that the fracture surface of the
crack, which in turn reduced the velocity of the crack neat epoxy was smooth with striated lines indicating
propagation and produced a tortuous crack path. extensive plastic deformation. This further proved
The average time taken for the composites to com- that the crack propagation was rapid, as mentioned
pletely break down, as shown in Table 1, further vali- earlier. Meanwhile, the SEM micrographs of the
dated the aforementioned statement. NKFE composites showed a rough fracture surface.
A small drop in the load before the maximum load The nonwoven KF provided bridges in the crack that
point was also observed for the composites with 0.31 dampened or slowed down the crack propagation in the
and 0.42 Vf, which indicated a ‘‘pop-in’’ (pointed by the composites. The micrographs of composites also
arrows in Figure 9). The cause has yet to be fully under- showed extensive fibre pull-out. In addition, circular
stood; however, Karger-Kocsis et al. associated this and longitudinal voids, which were produced from the
phenomenon with crack bifurcation, which occurs fibre debonding, could also be seen. Both were more
after the sudden deviation of a crack from the preferred visible at higher Vf. Besides the fibre pull-out, plastic
path in the case of PP/glass fibre composites.49 Fibre deformation could be observed at the matrix region,
orientation is one of the factors that may have an influ- which was also developed during the fracture event.
ence on crack bifurcation. A study by Romhány et al.50 Figure 10 also shows that the fibre pull-outs were
stated that a pop-in, which is associated with crack more prominent at the fracture surface of the

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8 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

composites at different fibre loading, as compared to


the fibre breakage. This may have been due to the
poor adhesion between the hydrophilic nonwoven KF
and the hydrophobic epoxy matrix.

Micromechanics analysis
As mentioned earlier, a micromechanics analysis allows
the quantification of the parameters which control
the structure–property relationships of the natural
fibre-nonwoven/thermoset composites. However, no
micromechanical model was developed specifically for
the composites with the needle-punched nonwoven
mat, which was made up of a loose matting structure Figure 11. Tensile modulus at different needle-punching dir-
with fibre mechanical interlocking and hollow cylin- ections against Vf.
ders. It was proven in the previous section that the
NKFE composites exhibited tensile isotropy. Thus, the
micromechanical model meant for randomly oriented The Cox shear-lag theory defined the length effi-
fibres could be used for the micromechanics analysis. ciency factor gl as
In this paper, the micromechanics analysis was based vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l
on the modified rule of mixture developed by Cox16 tanh 2 2u
u Em
and Krenchel,17 which was performed on the composites l ¼ 1  l
with ¼ t  
d E ð1  ÞLn 
at 0 and 90 to the needle-punching direction. The mod- 2 f1 i Vf
ified rule of mixture was defined as ð6Þ
 
EC ¼ e Ef Vf þ Em 1  Vf ð3Þ In equation (6),  is the coefficient of the stress con-
centration rate at the end of the fibre, l is the fibre
in which the term ge in equation (3) was defined as the length, d is the diameter of the fibre and v is the
overall fibre efficiency factor. Poisson’s ratio of the composite at a particular Vf. In
The experimental data for the tensile moduli of the this study, the fibres were assumed to be packed in a
NKFE composites at both needle-punching directions square arrangement, thus i ¼ 4.51 Equation (6) gives
from 0 to 0.42 Vf of the nonwoven KF reinforcement the calculation of gl. The calculated mean of gl for
displayed increasing trends (see Figure 5). This was the composites at both needle punching-directions
consistent with the modified rule of mixture. The was 0.962 with a standard deviation of 0.014. This
moduli in Figure 5 could be modelled by rearranging was close to the values reported in previous studies,
the modified rule of mixture equation where gl was in the range of 0.89 to 0.91.21,22,52
From here, the orientation factor go was calculated
using equation (5). It was 0.38  0.02 and 0.39  0.02
EC ¼ ðe Ef1  Em ÞVf þ Em ð4Þ
for the composites at 0 and 90 to the needle-
punching direction, respectively. Both were very close
Figure 11 shows the best regression line of the tensile to the results reported in previous studies in which go
modulus of the composites according to equation (4). was equal to 0.37524 and 0.45253 for randomly oriented
From the best regression line, it was possible to calcu- fibre and needle-punched fibre, respectively. According
late the ge for the moduli of the composites at both to Krenchel,17 the orientation factor can be computed
needle-punching directions. For the composites at 0 by using the equation below
to the needle-punching direction, the mean value of ge
was 0.37 with a standard deviation of 0.02. Meanwhile, o ¼  cos4 o ð7Þ
at 90 to the needle-punching direction, the mean value
of ge was 0.37 with a standard deviation of 0.03. where o is the fibre orientation limit angle. Since the
The efficiency factor ge was also defined as the values for go were known, the fibre orientation limit
product of the orientation factor (go) and the length angle, o, could be computed. The calculated mean
factor (gl) value of o for the composites at 0 to the needle-
punching direction was 37.67 with a standard devi-
ation of 1.84, and 40.91 with a standard deviation of
e ¼ o  l ð5Þ

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Andre et al. 9

Table 2. Calculated efficiency factors and fibre orientation limit angles under tensile mode for samples 0
and 90 to the needle-punching direction.

0 90

Vf ge gl go o, ge gl go o,

0.15 0.36 0.942 0.38 38.26 0.34 0.942 0.36 39.23


0.31 0.35 0.969 0.36 39.23 0.38 0.969 0.39 37.79
0.42 0.40 0.975 0.41 36.85 0.40 0.975 0.42 36.38
Mean 0.37 0.962 0.38 38.11 0.37 0.962 0.39 37.80
Standard Deviation 0.02 0.014 0.02 0.98 0.03 0.014 0.02 1.16

1.26 for the composites at 90 to the needle-punching The study of the effect of the needle-punching direc-
direction. tion revealed that the NKFE composites exhibited ten-
The details for the calculations of the efficiency fac- sile isotropy. This was due to the non-preferential
tors and orientation limit angle for the NKFE compos- orientation in the nonwoven KF, which validated that
ites at 0 and 90 to the needle-punching direction with it was randomly oriented. The tensile isotropy of the
0.15, 0.31 and 0.42 Vf are summarised in Table 2. From composites was also verified through a micromechani-
the calculations, it can be observed that the efficiency cal analysis using the Cox–Krenchel model. The ana-
factor of the NKFE composites at both needle-punch- lysis enabled the length and orientation efficiency
ing directions was still within the range of previously factors as well as the fibre orientation limit angle for
reported values.21,22,52 In Table 2, the computed mean composites at different needle-punching directions and
efficiency factors and the fibre orientation limit angles Vf values to be determined. The applicability of the
between the NKFE composites at the two directions Cox–Krenchel model in the micromechanics analysis
displayed small differences. Figure 11 further verified of the NKFE composites was validated as the calcu-
the previous statement as it could be observed that lated efficiency factors were comparable to the values
the slope of the best regression line for the composites from previous literature. Meanwhile, the fibre loading
at both needle-punching directions was almost identical showed no significant effect on the efficiency factors of
at every Vf. This proved the applicability of the Cox– the composites.
Krenchel model in the micromechanics analysis of the
NKFE composites. This also further supported the idea Declaration of Conflicting Interests
that the nonwoven KF used in the study consisted
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
indeed of randomly oriented fibres which were respon- respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
sible for the tensile isotropy of the composites. The article.
analysis also revealed that the fibre volume fraction,
Vf, had no significant effect on the efficiency factor of
Funding
the composites.
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
Conclusion article: The authors would like to appreciate the financial
support given by Universiti Sains Malaysia and the
In this investigation, the incorporation of nonwoven Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for providing RUC
KF basically improved the tensile and flexural proper- Grant (grant no. 231/PKT/8640012) and LRGS Grant (grant
ties alongside the fracture toughness of the NKFE com- no. 203/PKT/6725002), respectively.
posites, with the highest values being attained
at 0.42 Vf. The high modulus of the KF and the mech-
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