ECONOMY
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Engineering Economy
Description: Annual cost comparison;
Economic analysis for Present value analysis;
engineering decision Rate of return;
making;
Depreciation and taxes;
The finance function in
Multiple alternatives;
an industrial enterprise,
time value of money; Mathematical models for
equipment replacement;
Basic interest formulas;
Decision analysis;
Concepts of cost
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engineering.
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Why Engineering Economy is Important to
Engineers
v Engineers design and create
v Designing involves economic decisions
v Engineers must be able to incorporate economic
analysis into their crea;ve efforts
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Opening Story 2: Google
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A Little Google History
• 1995
• Developed in dorm room by Larry Page and Sergey Brin,
graduate students at Stanford University
• Nicknamed BackRub (reflecting great taste… J)
• 1998
• Raised $25 million to set up Google, Inc.
• Ran 100,000 queries a day out of a garage in Menlo Park
• 2005
• Over 4,000 employees worldwide
• Over 8 billion pages indexed
• Estimated market value over $100 billion
• As of today, the value of Google is likely to be in the
hundreds of billions range
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Engineering Economics
Overview
• Rational Decision-Making Process
• Economic Decisions
• Predicting Future
• Role of Engineers in Business
• Large-scale engineering projects
• Types of strategic engineering economic
decisions
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Rational Decision-Making
Process
1. Recognize a decision problem The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart
your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.
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A Simple Illustrative Example: Car to
Lease – Saturn or Honda?
§ Recognize the decision • Need to lease a car
problem
§ Collect all needed • Gather technical and
(relevant) information financial data
§ Identify the set of feasible • Select cars to consider
decision alternatives
§ Define the key objectives • Wanted: small cash outlay,
and constraints safety, good performance,
aesthetics,…
§ Select the best possible • Choice between Saturn and
and implementable Honda (or others)
decision alternative
• Select a car (i.e., Honda, 9
Saturn or another brand)
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Financial Data Required to Make an Economic
Decision
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Engineering Economic
Decisions
Manufacturing Profit
Planning Investment
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Marketing
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Predicting the Future
• Es;ma;ng a Required
investment
• Forecas;ng a product
demand
• Es;ma;ng a selling price
• Es;ma;ng a
manufacturing cost
• Es;ma;ng a product life
and the profitability of
con;nuing produc;on 12
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Role of Engineers in Business
Create & Design
• Engineering Projects
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Accounting Vs. Accounting
Evalua3ng past performance Evalua3ng and predic3ng future events
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Two Factors in Engineering
Economic Decisions
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Types of Strategic Engineering
Economic Decisions in
Manufacturing Sector
q Service Improvement
q Equipment and Process Selec;on
q Equipment Replacement
q New Product and Product Expansion
q Cost Reduc;on
q Profit Maximiza;on
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U.S. Gross Domestic Products (GDP)
Manufacturing
(14%)
Service sector
(80%)
Healthcare (14%)
Agriculture (2%) 18
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Industrial Employment
Industry 1993 1983-94 1994-2005
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Types of Strategic Engineering Economic
Decisions in Service Sector
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Service Improvement
n How many more jeans would Levi need to sell to jus;fy the cost
of addi;onal robo;c tailors?
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Example - Healthcare Delivery
Which plan is more
economically viable?
n Tradi;onal Plan: Pa;ents
visit each service provider.
: pa3ent
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: service provider
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Equipment & Process Selection
• How do you choose between the Plas;c SMC and the Steel
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Which Material to Choose?
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Equipment Replacement Problem
• Now is the ;me to
replace the old machine?
• If not, when is the right
;me to replace the old
equipment?
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New Product and Product
Expansion
• Shall we build or acquire
a new facility to meet the
increased demand?
• Is it worth spending
money to market a new
product?
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Example - MACH 3 Project
• R&D investment: $750 million
• Product promo;on through
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Cost Reduction
• Should a company buy
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Fundamental Principles of
Engineering Economics
• Principle 1: A instant (nearby) dollar is worth more than a
distant dollar
• Principle 2: All it counts is the differences among alterna=ves
• Principle 3: Marginal revenue must exceed marginal cost
• Principle 4: Addi=onal risk is not taken without the expected
addi=onal return
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Principle 1: A nearby dollar is
worth more than a distant dollar
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Principle 2: All it counts is the
differences among alternatives
Option Monthly Monthly Cash Monthly Salvage
Fuel Maintena outlay at payment Value at
Cost nce signing end of
year 3
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Principle 3: Marginal revenue must
exceed marginal cost
Marginal
cost
Marginal
Sales revenue 1 unit revenue
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Principle 4: Additional risk is not
taken without the expected additional
return
Investment Class Potential Expected
Risk Return
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Summary
• The term engineering economic decision refers to all
investment decisions rela;ng to engineering projects.
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Engineering Economy
• Engineering Economy involves
• Formulating
• Estimating, and
• Evaluating
expected economic outcomes of alternatives designed to accomplish a
defined purpose
• Easy-to-use math techniques simplify the evaluation
• Estimates of economic outcomes can be deterministic or stochastic in
nature
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General Steps for Decision Making Processes
1. Understand the problem – define objectives
2. Collect relevant information
3. Define the set of feasible alternatives
4. Identify the criteria for decision making
5. Evaluate the alternatives and apply sensitivity analysis
6. Select the “best” alternative
7. Implement the alternative and monitor results
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Steps in an Engineering Economy Study
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Ethics – Different Levels
Ø Universal morals or ethics – Fundamental beliefs: stealing, lying,
harming or murdering another are wrong
Ø Personal morals or ethics – Beliefs that an individual has and maintains
over time; how a universal moral is interpreted and used by each
person
Ø Professional or engineering ethics – Formal standard or code that
guides a person in work activities and decision making
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Code of Ethics for Engineers
All disciplines have a formal code of ethics. National Society of Professional
Engineers (NSPE) maintains a code specifically for engineers; many
engineering professional societies have their own code
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Interest and Interest Rate (borrower’s perspective
- paid)
• Interest – the manifestation of the time value of money
• Fee that one pays to use someone else’s money
• Difference between an ending amount of money and a beginning amount of
money
Ø 41
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Interest and Interest Rate (borrower’s perspective
- paid)
• Example 1
• Example 2
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Rate of Return – ROR / Retorn on
Investment -ROI (saver / lender /
investor’s perspective - earned)
q Interest earned over a period of ;me is expressed as a
percentage of the original amount (principal)
interest accrued per time unit
Rate of return (%) = x 100%
original amount
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Interest paid Interest earned
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Commonly used Symbols
t = ;me, usually in periods such as years or
months
P = value or amount of money at a ;me t
designated as present or ;me 0
F = value or amount of money at some future
;me, such as at t = n periods in the future
A = series of consecu;ve, equal, end-of-period
amounts of money
n = number of interest periods; years, months
i = interest rate or rate of return per ;me period;
percent per year or month
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INFLATION
• Infla;on : Changing value of money that is forced upon a
country’s currency by infla;on.
Cost and revenue cash flow es;mates increase
over ;me.
Infla;on contributes:
• A reduc;on in purchasing power
• An increase in the CPI (consumer price index)
• An increase in the cost of equipment and its maintenance
• An increase in the cost salaried professionals and hourly
employees
• A reduc;on in the real rate of return on personal savings and 47
corporate investments
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Cash Flows: Terms
• Cash Inflows – Revenues (R), receipts, incomes,
savings generated by projects and activities that flow in.
Plus sign used
• Cash Outflows – Disbursements (D), costs, expenses,
taxes caused by projects and activities that flow out.
Minus sign used
• End-of-period assumption: 48
Funds flow at the end of a given interest period
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Cash Flows: Estimating
ü Point estimate – A single-value estimate of a cash flow element of an
alternative
Cash inflow: Income = $150,000 per month
ü Range estimate – Min and max values that estimate the cash flow
Cash outflow: Cost is between $2.5 M and $3.2 M
Point estimates are commonly used; however, range estimates with
probabilities attached provide a better understanding of variability of
economic parameters used to make decisions
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Cash Flow Diagrams
What a typical cash flow diagram might look like
Time
0 1 2 … … … n-1 n
One =me
period
F = $100
Show the cash flows (to approximate scale)
0 1 2 … … … n-1 n
Cash flows are shown as directed arrows: + (up) for inflow
P = $-80 50
- (down) for outflow
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Cash Flow Diagram Example
Plot observed cash flows over last 8 years and estimated sale next
year for $150. Show present worth (P) arrow at present time, t = 0
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Cash Flow Diagram
Example 4
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Economic Equivalence
Definition: Combination of interest rate (rate of return) and time value of
money to determine different amounts of money at different points in
time that are economically equivalent
How it works: Use rate i and time t in upcoming relations to move money
(values of P, F and A) between time points t = 0, 1, …, n to make them
equivalent (not equal) at the rate i
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Example of Equivalence
Different sums of money at different times may be equal in economic
value at a given rate
$110
Year
0 1
Rate of return = 10% per year
$100 now
$100 now is economically equivalent to $110 one year from now, if the
$100 is invested at a rate of 10% per year.
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Simple and Compound Interest
• Simple Interest
Interest is calculated using principal only
Interest = (principal)(number of periods)(interest rate)
I=P.n.i
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• Compound Interest
Interest is based on principal plus all accrued interest
That is, interest compounds over time
It = ( P + Σ Ij ) (i)
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j=1
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Compound Interest Example
Example: $100,000 lent for 3 years at i = 10% per year compounded. What is
repayment after 3 years?
Interest, year 1: I1 = 100,000(0.10) = $10,000
Total due, year 1: T1 = 100,000 + 10,000 = $110,000
Interest, year 2: I2 = 110,000(0.10) = $11,000
Total due, year 2: T2 = 110,000 + 11,000 = $121,000
Interest, year 3: I3 = 121,000(0.10) = $12,100
Total due, year 3: T3 = 121,000 + 12,100 = $133,100
Practical Solution for the amount due the stated time in the future
F = P. (1 + i) n
$133,100 = 100,000 (1.10)3 58
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Compound Interest
Example 6
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Minimum Attractive Rate of Return
v MARR is a reasonable rate of
return (percent) established
for evaluating and selecting
alternatives
v An investment is justified
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MARR Characteristics
• MARR is established by the financial managers of the firm
• MARR is fundamentally connected to the cost of capital
• Both types of capital financing are used to determine the weighted
average cost of capital (WACC) and the MARR
• MARR usually considers the risk inherent to a project
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Types of Financing
In general, capital is developed in two ways;
Example: Assume MARR = 10%. Project A, not funded due to lack
of funds, is projected to have RORA = 13%. Project B has RORB =
15% and is funded because it costs less than A
Opportunity cost is 13%, i.e., the opportunity to make an
addi;onal 13% is forgone by not funding project A
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Rule of 72
§ A common ques;on most o>en asked by investors is:
how long will it take for my investment to double in value
§ Must have a known or assumed compund interest rate in
advance
§ Assume a rate of 13%/year to illustrate….
§ iapproximate = 72 / n
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Chapter Summary
• Engineering Economy fundamentals
v Time value of money
v Economic equivalence
v Introduction to capital funding and MARR
v Spreadsheet functions
• Interest rate and rate of return
v Simple and compound interest
• Cash flow estimation
v Cash flow diagrams
v End-of-period assumption
v Net cash flow
v Perspectives taken for cash flow estimation
• Ethics
v Universal morals and personal morals
v Professional and engineering ethics (Code of Ethics) 66
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ENGINEERING ECONOMY
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Chapter 1
Foundations Of
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Example 15
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ENGINEERING ECONOMY
Combining Factors
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
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Shifted Uniform Series
A shifted uniform series starts at a time other than period 1
The cash flow diagram below is an example of a shifted series
Series starts in period 2, not period 1
Remember: When using P/A or A/P factor, PA is always one year ahead
of first A
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When using F/A or A/F factor, FA is in same year as last A
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Example Using P/A Factor: Shifted Uniform Series
The present worth of the cash flow shown below at i = 10% is:
(a) $25,304 (b) $29,562 (c) $34,462 (d) $37,908
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Actual year
0 1 2 3 4 5 Series year
A = $10,000
Solution: (1) Use P/A factor with n = 5 (for 5 arrows) to get P1 in year 1
(2) Use P/F factor with n = 1 to move P1 back for P0 in year 0
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P0 = P1(P/F,10%,1) = A(P/A,10%,5)(P/F,10%,1) = 10,000(3.7908)(0.9091) = $34,462
Answer is (c) L-1
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Example Using F/A Factor: Shifted Uniform Series
FA = 8000(F/A,10%,8)
= 8000(11.4359)
= $91,487
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Shifted Series and Random Single Amounts
For cash flows that include uniform series and randomly placed single amounts:
The resulting values are then combined per the problem statement
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Example: Series and Random Single Amounts
Find the present worth in year 0 for the cash flows
shown using an interest rate of 10% per year.
PT = ?
i = 10%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A = $5000
$2000
PT = ?
i = 10%
Actual year
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Series year
A = $5000
$2000
Solution:
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Example: Series and Random Single Amounts
PA
PT = ? i = 10%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Actual year
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Series year
A = $5000 $2000
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Example Worked a Different Way
(Using F/A instead of P/A for uniform series)
PT = ? FA = ?
i = 10%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A = $5000
$2000
Solu=on: Use F/A to get FA in actual year 10: FA = 5000(F/A,10%,8) = 5000(11.4359) = $57,180
Move FA back to year 0 using P/F: P0 = 57,180(P/F,10%,10) = 57,180(0.3855) = $22,043
Move $2000 single amount back to year 0: P2000 = 2000(P/F,10%,8) = 2000(0.4665) = $933
Now, add two P values to get PT: PT = 22,043 + 933 = $22,976 Same as before
As shown, there are usually multiple ways to work equivalency problems 129
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Example: Series and Random Amounts
Convert the cash flows shown below (black arrows) into
an equivalent annual worth A in years 1 through 8 (red arrows)
at i = 10% per year.
A=?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 i = 10%
0 1 2 3 4 5
A = $3000
$1000
Approaches: 1. Convert all cash flows into P in year 0 and use A/P with n = 8
2. Find F in year 8 and use A/F with n = 8
Solution: Solve for F: F = 3000(F/A,10%,5) + 1000(F/P,10%,1)
= 3000(6.1051) + 1000(1.1000)
= $19,415
Find A: A = 19,415(A/F,10%,8)
= 19,415(0.08744) 130
= $1698
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Shifted Arithmetic Gradients
The present worth of an aritmetic gradient will always be located two periods
the gradient starts
Shifted gradient begins at a time other than between periods 1 and 2
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Example: Shifted Arithmetic Gradient
John Deere expects the cost of a tractor part to increase by $5 per year
beginning 4 years from now. If the cost in years 1-3 is $60, determine the
present worth in year 0 of the cost through year 10 at an interest rate of 12%
per year. i = 12%
PT = ? Actual years
0 1 2 3 4 5 10
0 1 2 3 8 Gradient years
60 60 60
65
70
G=5 95
Solu=on: First find P2 for G = $5 and base amount ($60) in actual year 2
Next, find PA for the $60 amounts of years 1 and 2 PA = 60(P/A,12%,2) = $101.41
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Finally, add P0 and PA to get PT in year 0 PT = P0 + PA = $396.70 9
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Shifted Geometric Gradients
Shifted gradient begins at a time other than between periods 1 and 2
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Example: Shifted Geometric Gradient
Gradient starts between actual years 5 and 6; these are gradient years 1 and 2.
Pg is located in gradient year 0, which is actual year 4
Pg = 7000{1-[(1+0.12)/(1+0.15)]9/(0.15-0.12)} = $49,401
Changed from + to -
Pg = A1{1-[(1-g)/(1+i)]n/(i+g)}
Changed from - to +
All other procedures are the same as for positive gradients 146
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Example: Negative Shifted Arithmetic Gradient
For the cash flows shown, find the future worth in year 7 at i = 10% per year
F=?
G = $-50
Solu=on: Gradient G first occurs between actual years 2 and 3; these are gradient years 1 and 2
PG is located in gradient year 0 (actual year 1); base amount of $700 is in gradient years 1-6
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Summary of Important Points
P for shifted uniform series is one period ahead of first A;
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ENGINEERING ECONOMY
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Understand interest rate statements
2. Use formula for effective interest rates
3. Determine interest rate for any time period
4. Determine payment period (PP) and compounding
period (CP) for equivalence calculations
5. Make calculations for single cash flows
6. Make calculations for series and gradient cash flows
with PP>=CP
7. Use interest rate formula for continuous compounding
8. Make calculations for varying interest rates 4-15
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