Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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The Central Submarine Canyon in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northwestern South

China Sea: Architecture, sequence stratigraphy, and depositional processes
Chenglin Gong a, *, Yingmin Wang a, Weilin Zhu b, Weiguo Li c, Qiang Xu b, Jinmiao Zhang b
a
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
b
CNOOC Research Center, Beijing 100027, China
c
BP America Inc., Houston, TX 77079, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Submarine canyons have been the subject of intense studies in recent years because of their close link to
Received 9 December 2010 deepwater systems. The Central Canyon is a large unusual submarine canyon in the northwestern margin
Received in revised form of the South China Sea, has a total length of about 425 km and is oriented sub-parallel to the continental
7 June 2011
slope. Using integrated 2D/3D seismic, well log, core, and biostratigraphy data, the current study
Accepted 18 June 2011
Available online 28 June 2011
documents the stratigraphic framework, internal architecture, depositional processes, and controlling
factors of the segment of the Central Canyon located in the Qiongdongnan Basin.
The integrated analysis shows that the canyon fill consists of four 3rd-order sequences, SQ4, SQ3, SQ2,
Keywords:
Submarine canyon
and SQ1. Each of them is bounded by regionally important erosional surfaces (3rd-order sequence
Sequence stratigraphy boundaries). Within each 3rd-order sequence there is maximum regressive surface separating a regres-
Stratigraphic architecture sive systems tract in the lower part and a transgressive systems tract in the upper part. Nine facies are
Depositional processes identified and are further grouped into five depositional units, DU1 through DU5.
Controlling factors The canyon evolved through four cut-and-fill stages, with a change from predominantly axial cut-and-
fill to primarily side cut-and-fill. Axial cut-and-fill dominated during the first stage, and the slope-
subparallel paleo Xisha Trough was intensely eroded by large-scale axial gravity flows. During the
second cut-and-fill stage, the Central Canyon experienced both axial and side cut-and-fill. The third stage
was dominated by side cut-and-fill. The canyon was eroded and fed by slope channels that transported
sandy sediments from the shelf to the north during regression, and was covered by side-derived muddy
MTCs during transgression. The last stage was also dominated by side cut-and-fill. The canyon, however,
was filled predominantly by side-derived muddy MTCs.
Evolution and depositional processes in the Central Canyon were likely controlled by slope-subparallel
negative-relief induced by paleo-seafloor morphology, structural inversion of the Red River Fault and the
slope-subparallel basement faults. Additionally, Coriolis force, sea-level fluctuations, high sedimentation
rate, and rapid progradation of the slope also controlled and influenced the depositional processes, and
internal architectures of the canyon.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Continental margins are strongly dissected by submarine
canyons, and these act as major conduits for the delivery of
sediments from the shelf and upper slope into deepwater envi-
ronments (McHugh et al., 2002; Babonneau et al., 2002; Popescua
et al., 2004; Antobreh and Krastel, 2006). Major submarine
canyons also hold critical sedimentological and climatic
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 15210726942.
E-mail address: chenglingong@yahoo.com.cn (C. Gong).
information from their neighboring regions and, thus, have long
been of interest sedimentologists and paleo-climatologists
(Bouma, 2001; Gingele et al., 2004). From a hydrocarbon reser-
voir perspective, significant amounts of sandy sediments can
accumulate in such canyons, forming important hydrocarbon
reservoirs in many slope and basin-floor settings (Clark and
Pickering, 1996; Fuh et al., 2009; Crossey et al., 2006).
Over the last decades, improvements in techniques and seismic
image resolution have significantly improved our understandings
of the morphology (Taylor and Smoot, 1984; Hagen et al., 1996;
Babonneau et al., 2002; Laberg et al., 2007; Jobe et al., 2011),
evolution (Wonhama et al., 2000; Hasiotis et al., 2005; Stigter et al.,
2007; Arzola et al., 2008; Mountjoy et al., 2009), and depositional

0264-8172/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.06.005
 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702 1691

dynamics (Xu et al., 2002; Shanmugam, 2003; Liu and Lin, 2004;
Oliveira et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009a, b) of submarine canyons.
Canyon fills have been argued to contain very complex turbiditic
reservoirs (Mayall and Jones, 2006; Di Celma et al., 2010), and
improved seismic imaging techniques and sequence stratigraphic
analysis have proved to be critical in understanding these complex
reservoirs (Catuneanu, 2006; Catuneanu et al., 2009; Di Celma et
al., 2010). Examples of submarine canyon architecture and evolu-
tion using high-resolution seismic, well log, core data are still few
in number. Noticeable exceptions are the work on the Carlin
canyon, Nevada (Fails, 1960) and canyon fills in the Sacramento
Basin, California (Williams et al., 1998) and the Peri-Adriatic Basin,
central Italy (Di Celma et al., 2010).
In contrast to many other submarine canyons, the studied
Central Canyon (Fig. 1) is characterized by: (1) an slope-subparallel
orientation, (2) a length of about 425 km, (3) no spill throughout its
lifetime, and (4) both axial and side depositional processes. Because
of these unusual characteristics, the canyon has been the focus of

Figure 1. (a) The shaded topographic map (modified form the images provided by Ch. Lie) showing the regional drainage system, major structural features associated with the
Central Canyon, and its link to the Red River system and to the Tibet Plateau. The dotted lines in Figure 1 (a) showing the positions of shelf breaks at 5.5 Ma, 1.8 Ma, and present.
Major structure features are modified from Xie et al. (2008) and Zhu et al. (2011). (b) Bathymetric map showing the locations of the Central Canyon (outlined by the red line). Also
shown are the areas with 2D/3D seismic coverage and the locations of the YC35-1-2 well, and the cross sections in Figures 2e4. The segment of the canyon within the 3D seismic
survey is the focus of this study, and amplitude maps shown in Figures 8e11 cover the full 3D area. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
1692 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702
many studies in recent years (Gong and Li, 1997; Lin et al., 2001; Su
et al., 2009; Yuan, 2009). The current study, using an integrated
high-resolution 2D/3D seismic, well log, core, and biostratigraphy
data set, documents the internal facies, stratigraphic architecture,
and depositional processes of the Central Canyon.
2. Regional geology and the study area
The Central Canyon (named by Su et al., 2009) is a large
submarine canyon in the northwestern margin of the South China
Sea, and it has a length of about 425 km, width of 3e12 km, and an
average area of 50,000 km2. The canyon is overall orientated WeE
and its axis shows an “S” shape in plan view (Su et al., 2009; Yuan,
2009) (Fig. 1).
A significant segment of the canyon is located in the Qiong-
dongnan Basin and is the focus of this study. The study area is
located near the junction between the offshore segment of the Red
River Fault in the Yinggehai Basin and the No. 2 Fault and its
associated faults in the Qiongdongnan Basin (Gong and Li 1997;
Zhu et al., 2009a, b, 2011) (Fig. 1).
The Qiongdongnan Basin was initiated as an elongated rift, and
the basin underwent two tectonic stages: a rifting stage from
Paleocene to early Oligocene, and a post-rifting stage from Early
Miocene to Quaternary. Basin evolution and fill share many simi-
larities with passive margins (Xie et al., 2008). Evolution of the
Qiongdongnan Basin is closely linked to the strike-slip movement
of the Red River Fault. Leloup et al. (1995) suggested that the Red
River Fault experienced sinistral strike-slip form 35 Ma to 20 Ma
and dextral movement after about 5.5 Ma. After this reversal,
faulting in the Qiongdongnan Basin was controlled by dextral
movement of the Red River Fault (Zhu, 2007). Zhu et al., 2011
suggested that basement faulting was also characterized by
dextral slip from Pliocene to Present.
In the tectonic context, basin infill consists of two super-
sequences: the lower rift supersequence and the upper post-rift
supersequence. These two supersequences are separated by an
angular unconformity that corresponds to the T60 (23.3 Ma)
seismic reflection (Chen et al., 1993; Zhu et al., 2009a, b; Sun et al.,
2009, 2010). In the post-rift supersequence, submarine canyons
and channels are further widely developed in response to a more
prominent slope-basin physiography (Zhu, 2007). The Central
Canyon is the largest among these submarine canyons.
3. Data and methodology
Both multichannel 2D and high-resolution 3D seismic data were
used in the study, and the 3D volume covers an area of 1670 km2
(see Fig. 1 for the areas with 2D and 3D seismic coverage). The
original seismic data were well processed and then uploaded to
workstations and were interpreted with Landmark 2003. To iden-
tify typical seismic facies, analysis was conducted in a group of
representative seismic lines in the first stage and then interpreta-
tions were expanded to other lines.
Well data is mainly from YC35-1-2 (see Fig. 1 for well location). A
whole suite of well logs, and biostratigraphy data were collected
from the well and were used for detailed lithofacies, stratigraphic
architecture, and age analysis. Sonic and density logs were carefully
calibrated and processed for better seismic-well tie. After seismic-
well tie, geological significance of key seismic reflections was
determined and seismic facies were tied to depositional facies.
Zmap and Poststack/PAL modules in Landmark 2003 were fully
involved in the study to get RMS attribute volumes. Meanwhile 3D
visualization techniques in Geoprobe were also used to better
under the detailed internal architecture and depositional processes
within the canyon.
4. Results
Sequence stratigraphic concepts emphasize investigating rock
units bounded by time lines and in practice the chronostratigraphic
approach involves different data sets, such as core, well log, seismic
data (Catuneanu, 2006; Catuneanu et al., 2009). Similarly, the
current study integrates seismic and well data in investigating the
sequence stratigraphic architecture of the Central Canyon in the
Qiongdongnan Basin. The results are summarized as follow.
4.1. Results from seismic data analysis
2D and 3D seismic data reveal the reflection termination rela-
tionships (lapouts) and stratal stacking patterns within the canyon
in detail. 3D visualization techniques, in particularly, allow identi-
fying different stratigraphic surfaces with confidence (Catuneanu
et al., 2009).
4.1.1. Reflection termination relationships and key boundaries
Three types of stratal termination relationships, truncation,
onlap, and downlap, are identified from seismic profiles, particu-
larly those along depositional strike in the study area (Fig. 2). Five
major erosional surfaces, TA through TE, are also recognized based
on detailed analysis of seismic data and each of these erosional
surfaces shows clear truncation below and onlap above. Downlap
termination relationships are more distinct above TA (Fig. 2).
Correlating the five erosional surfaces using seismic data shows
that they are regionally important (Fig. 3). This, coupled with the
common occurrence of truncation and onlap below and above and
the basinward shift in facies across these surfaces (Figs. 2 and 3),
suggest that they are sequence boundaries.
4.1.2. Stratal stacking pattern
Stratal truncations are interpreted as associated with relative
sea-level fall and forced regression; onlaps are linked to canyon fill
during lowstand and transgression. Each of the four sequences
indicates regression and then transgression, a full ReT cycle (Figs. 2
and 4).
4.2. Seismic-well tie and results of integrated analysis
Data from the YC35-1-2 well provide key facies and biostratig-
raphy information for further detailed analysis. High quality sonic
and density logs from the well, meanwhile, allow seismic-well tie
and using well data to calibrate seismic interpretations (Fig. 4).
4.2.1. Chronostratigraphic significance of the sequence boundaries
The integrated analysis suggests that sequence boundaries TA,
TB, TC, TD, and TE appropriately correspond to 5.5 Ma, 4.2 Ma,
3.6 Ma, 2.6 Ma, and 1.8 Ma respectively (Fig. 4).
4.2.2. Log signatures, facies, and stratigraphic architecture
GR and SP responses in between TA and TE show four distinct
intervals, each with upward increase in GR and decrease in SP.
These log signatures suggest that there are four fining-upward
successions from TA to TE (Fig. 4). These successions are in
between TAeTB, TBeTC, TCeTD, and TDeTE. Core data show that
each of these successions has a sharp erosional base and consists of
yellowish sandy facies in the lower part and gray- and/or green-
colored muddy facies in the upper part (Fig. 4). The seismic-well
tie shows that the four fining-upward successions are the four
3rd-order sequences identified.
Each of the younger 3rd-order sequences is muddier with
respect to its preceding ones. Stacking vertically, these higher-order
 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702 1693

Figure 2. Seismic profiles along depositional strike (AeA0 and BeB0 ) and dip (CeC0 ) showing typical stratal termination relationships and stacking patterns within the studied
submarine canyon. Truncations are interpreted as associated with relative sea-level fall and forced regression and onlaps are associated with canyon fill during lowstand and
transgression. Notice that the internal seismic reflection configurations indicate flow directions in the canyon, and also notice that the southeastern margins of the canyon are
steeper than their northwestern counterparts. O ¼ onlap, T ¼ truncation, MTCs ¼ mass transport complexes, 4th SB ¼ 4th-order sequence boundary, TA through TE are the major
erosional surfaces identified in the study area. See Figure 1 for locations of the seismic profiles.

Figure 3. Strike-oriented seismic profiles showing the major erosional surfaces, sequence boundaries, in the study area and their V- and U-shaped morphologies. The occurrence of
these erosional surfaces throughout the study area suggests that they are regionally important. Notice again the southeastern margins of the canyon are steeper than their
northwestern counterparts. See Figure 1 for locations of the seismic profiles. TA through TE are the major erosional surfaces identified in the study area. See text for detailed
discussion.
1694 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702

Figure 4. Seismic-well tie and facies and stratigraphic architecture within the canyon fill based on integrated well log, core, seismic, and biostratigraphy data. See Figure 1 for
location of the YC35-1-2 well. Each of the 3rd-order sequence consists of a fining-upward succession, the vertical stacking of which results in a 2nd-order sequence. Notice that the
high-amplitude reflections overlying T30 are the seismic response to the sandy deposits in SQ3, indicating that high-amplitude events within the canyon most probably represents
sandy facies. TST ¼ systems tract, RST ¼ regressive systems tract, TST ¼ transgressive systems tract.

sequences form a lower-order sequence that also shows an overall
fining-upward trend (Fig. 4).
Seismic-well tie also shows that the high-amplitude reflections,
particularly the high-amplitude packages overlying T30, are
seismic response to sandy deposits, indicating that high-amplitude
reflections in the canyon fill most probably represent sand-rich
facies (Fig. 4).
4.3. Seismic facies and depositional elements within the submarine
canyon
Nine major seismic facies were identified based on the internal
configuration and texture and external geometry of seismic
reflections (Fig. 5 and Table 1). Seismic facies are then interpreted
and tied to different depositional elements based on information
from the YC35-1-2 well and observations from previous seismic
facies analysis of submarine canyon fills (Schwenk, 2003; Schwenk
et al., 2005; Mayall and Jones, 2006; Moscardelli et al., 2006;
Weimer and Slatt, 2007; Wynn et al., 2007; Bull et al., 2009;
Cross et al., 2009).
Seismic facies 1 (Fig. 5A) is characterized by sub-parallel, high-
amplitude, and moderate to low continuous reflections with gull-
wing-shaped geometries. These are interpreted as channel-levee
deposits, as have also been widely observed in previous studies
(e.g. Schwenk, 2003; Schwenk et al., 2005; Weimer and Slatt,
2007). Seismic facies 2 (Fig. 5B) consists of transparent, chaotic
reflection packages with variable seismic amplitude and reflection
continuity and are considered as mass transport complexes (MTCs).
Moscardelli et al. (2006) and Bull et al. (2009) documented the
same seismic facies. Seismic facies 3 (Fig. 5C) consists of parallel to
sub-parallel, high-amplitude, continuous reflections contained
within U-shaped scours. These are interpreted as channel fills.
Similar observations have been made by Mayall and Jones (2006),
Wynn et al. (2007), and Cross et al. (2009). Seismic facies 4
(Fig. 5D) is characterized by chaotic seismic reflection configura-
tions with variable amplitude and continuity. In contrast to seismic
facies 2 (MTCs), seismic facies 4 mainly consists of deposits derived
from the adjacent canyon walls and shows complex contorted
geometries. These are generally interpreted as slump and debris
flow deposits (e.g. Mayall and Jones, 2006).
Seismic facies 5 (Fig. 5E) is characterized by parallel to sub-
parallel, high-amplitude reflections, with lens- or irregular-shaped
external geometry. The associated deposits commonly onlap the
underlying reflectors. Lithofacies information from YC35-1-2 indi-
cates that this seismic facies corresponds to thalweg deposits.
Seismic facies 6 (Fig. 5F) consists of sheet-like, low-amplitude,
continuous parallel reflectors. This seismic facies is typically asso-
ciated with shale drapes as has been verified by the results from
seismic-well tie and core data from YC35-1-2 (Fig. 2).
Seismic facies 7 (Fig. 5G) and seismic facies 8 (Fig. 5H) both
consist of sheet-like, parallel, high-amplitude, continuous seismic
reflections. The difference is that the latter (seismic facies 8) is
commonly associated with slope channels and thus is interpreted
as lobe deposits (Weimer and Slatt, 2007). Seismic facies 7 is
interpreted as thin interbedded sand and shale successions
deposited under stable depositional environments, as inferred from
its seismic refection characteristics.
Seismic facies 9 (Fig.5I) shows high-amplitude, sub-parallel
reflections with irregular external geometry. The associated
deposits are commonly truncated by the younger successions. In
the seismic profile in Figure 5I, for instance, deposits associated
with this seismic facies are erosively truncated by their overlying
MTCs. Seismic facies 9 is thus interpreted as relict deposits that most
probably consist of turbidities (Li et al., 2010).
 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702 1695

Figure 5. Seismic profiles showing the nine major seismic facies identified in the studied submarine canyon based on the internal configuration and texture and external geometry
of seismic reflections. Notice the common occurrence of downcutting channels (5C) and lobes (5H) in between T29eT28 (4.2 Mae3.6 Ma, SQ2), indicating that channels in up dip
locations are the major carriers for the sediments delivered to the lobes down dip within the canyon.

5. Discussions 5.2. Facies and their organization within the canyon fill

5.1. Sequence stratigraphic architecture and framework 5.2.1. Depositional units

The studied canyon fill shows both complex stratigraphic
The studied canyon fill consists of four 3rd-order sequences, SQ1 architecture and complex internal facies types and organization
through SQ4, each of which is bounded by a regional erosional (Fig. 7). Nine depositional facies were identified based on detailed
surface (3rd-order sequence boundary). Within each of the 3rd- seismic facies, log, and core data analysis (Figs. 4 and 5; Table 1).
order sequences, there is a maximum regressive surface (4th-order These facies are further grouped into five depositional units (DU1
sequence boundary) that separates a regressive systems tract in the through DU5) (Figs. 6b, 8e11).
lower part and a transgressive systems tract in the upper part DU1 (Figs.6b and 8a): The unit is dominated by vertically stacked
(Figs. 2, 4, and 6a). channel-levee and thalweg facies, with subordinate proportions of
debris flows/slump deposits, and overall higher N:G on logs.
Thalweg deposits (seismic facies 5 in Fig. 5) in DU1 were formed
Table 1 during canyon erosion and sediment bypass. High N:G stacked
A summary of the nine major seismic facies and their associated depositional
elements identified in the studied submarine canyon in the Qiongdongnan Basin,
channel-levee deposits (seismic facies 1) are the most important
northwestern South China Sea. sandy facies in the depositional unit and are most probably
developed during late regression to very early transgression. There
Depositional elements and Reflection Seismic texture External
facies configuration geometry
are also limited slump and debris flow deposits (seismic facies 4)
Amplitude Continuity near the canyon walls (Figs. 6b and 8b). Overall, sandy facies in DU1
1: Channel-levee Sub-parallel High Moderate Gull-wing have higher potential for forming high quality reservoirs.
deposits to low DU2 (Figs. 6b and 8b): This unit contains significant mud drapes
2: Mass transport complex Chaotic Variable Variable Transparent
3: Channel fills Parallel, High High U
(seismic facies 7), with subordinate occurrence of thin interbedded
sub-parallel sand and shale deposits (seismic facies 6). These muddy facies
4: Debris flow/slump Chaotic Variable Variable Irregular generally cannot form effective reservoirs, but may serve as low
deposits permeability vertical barriers.
5: Thalweg deposits Parallel, High Moderate Lens or
DU3 (Figs. 6b and 9a): The unit consists mainly of muddy MTCs,
sub-parallel irregular
6: Shale drapes Parallel Low High Sheet with subordinate occurrence of relict deposits.
7: Thin interbedded Parallel High High Sheet DU4 (Figs. 6b and 10a): it consists dominantly of sandy slope
sandstone and mudstone channel and lobe facies, with very limited spread of muddy shale
deposits drapes. These sandy facies can form high quality and prolific
8: Lobe Parallel High High Sheet
9: Relict deposits Subparallel High Variable Irregular
reservoirs as have been documented in many previous studies
(Weimer and Slatt, 2007; Mayall and Jones, 2006).
1696 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702

Figure 6. Uninterpreted (a) and interpreted (b) seismic profiles showing the sequence stratigraphic framework and the architecture of the canyon fill. Three hierarchies of
boundaries are identified. The canyon fill consists of four 3rd-order sequences. Within each of these, there is a maximum regressive surface separating a regressive systems tract in
the lower part from a transgressive systems tract in the upper part (a). Five depositional units, DU1 through DU5, are identified (b). RST ¼ regressive systems tract, TST ¼ trans-
gressive systems tract, 4th SB ¼ 4th-order sequence boundary. See text for more details.

DU5 (Figs. 6b, 10b and 11): The unit is dominated by mud-prone
MTCs.
5.2.2. Internal staking patterns within the canyon fill
SQ4 consists of sandy channel-levee and thalweg facies of DU1
in the regressive systems tract. The sandy depositional unit is
oriented in an east-west direction (Figs. 6b and 8a), and sediments
in it are most probably fed by large-scale gravity flows in the
confined slope-subparallel paleo Xisha Trough. As relative sea level
began to rise during the ensuing transgression, turbidity currents
and other gravity flows ceased and the canyon was covered by
widespread muddy drapes in DU2 (Fig. 8b).
SQ3 is overall thinner and muddier than SQ4, and internally it
consists of muddy DU3 and DU2 in the regressive systems tract and
the transgressive systems tract respectively (Figs. 6b and 9). Stacking
vertically, SQ4 and SQ3 results in a fining- and thinning-upward
pattern, with muddy drapes and MTCs overlying sandy turbidites
(Figs. 6, 8 and 9).
The regressive systems tract of SQ2 consists mainly of sandy
slope channel and lobe facies of DE4, and the transgressive systems
tract, in contrast, is dominated by muddy MTCs of DU5 (Figs. 6 and
10). SQ1 consists mainly of muddy MTCs of DU5 (Figs. 6 and 11).
SQ2 and SQ1 together show another fining-upward succession.
Overall the canyon fill becomes muddier upward, and muddy
MTCs within DU5 are the dominant facies in the upper part of the
fill (Figs. 6 and 11).
5.3. Depositional processes within the canyon
Figure 12 is a schematic illustration of the depositional
processes within the studied canyon. Four canyon development
stages, stage 1 through stage 4, are identified (Fig. 12). From stage 1

Figure 7. Relative sea-level fluctuations in the Qiongdongnan Basin since 10.4 Ma and their genetic linkage to the sequence stratigraphic framework and architecture documented
in the submarine canyon. One long-term cycle is identified and punctuating on it are four short-term cycles. The development of the submarine canyon is initiated by the relative
sea-level fall in the earliest short-term cycle. The relative sea-level curve for the Qiongdongnan Basin and the global eustatic curve are from Wei et al. (2001) and Haq et al. (1987)
respectively. QDNB ¼ the Qiongdongnan Basin, 4th SB ¼ 4th-order sequence boundary, RST ¼ regressive systems tract, TST ¼ transgressive systems tract, R ¼ regression,
T ¼ transgression.
 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702 1697

Figure 8. RMS amplitude maps (high RMS in yellow and orange) showing the major depositional facies in the regressive stage (a) and transgressive stage (b) of SQ4. (a) Captures the
major facies in depositional unit 1 (DU1) of SQ4. Notice the widespread of thalweg and channel-levee deposits during the regressive stage. Facies in depositional unit 2 (DU2) as
shown in (b) are dominated by shale drapes deposited during transgression. The higher amplitudes indicative of sandy facies are mainly around the axis of the canyon, suggesting
that these facies are deposited primarily by the axial cut-and-fill of sandy gravity flows as marked by the arrowed dash lines. Time window used for RMS amplitude extraction in the
3D seismic volume: (a), 20 ms above TA; (b), 15 ms below TB. See Figure 1 for the location of the area covered by the 3D seismic survey. (For interpretation of the references to color
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Figure 9. RMS amplitude maps (high RMS in yellow and orange) showing the major depositional facies in the regressive stage (a) and transgressive stage (b) of SQ3. The canyon was
filled mainly by muddy material brought in from both axial and side directions (shown by the arrowed dash lines). Time window used for RMS amplitude extraction: (a), 30 ms
above TB; (b), 15 ms below TC. See location in Figure 1. See Figure 1 for the location of the area covered by the 3D seismic survey. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
1698 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702

Figure 10. RMS amplitude map (colors: high RMS in yellow and orange) showing the major depositional facies in the regressive stage (a) and transgressive stage (b) of SQ2. The
regressive systems tract is dominated by sandy facies in DU4, and the transgressive systems tract is primarily muddy facies of DU5. Notice that the channels as oriented overall
normal to the canyon wall as shown by the arrowed dash lines in (a), indicating that side cut-and-fill are common during this stage. Time window used for RMS amplitude
extraction: (a), 15 ms above TC; (b), 20 ms below TD. See Figure 1 for the location of the area covered by the 3D seismic survey. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Figure 11. RMS amplitude maps (high RMS in yellow and orange) showing the major depositional facies in the regressive stage (a) and transgressive stage (b) of SQ1. The sequence
is dominated by MTCs of DU5. The overall orientation of the MTCs (marked by the arrowed dash lines) shows that mass transport processes are predominantly normal to the canyon
wall, indicating significant side cuts and fills. Time window used for RMS amplitude extraction: (a), 30 ms above TD; (b), 15 ms below TE. See Figure 1 for the location of the area
covered by the 3D seismic survey. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702 1699

(SQ4) to stage 4 (SQ1) there is a change from axial cut-and-fill to
side cut-and-fill as described below.
5.3.1. Stage 1: axial cut-and-fill
Large volumes of high-energy gravity flows were common in the
early stage of SQ4, as evidenced by the widespread occurrence of
sandy thalweg and channel-levee deposits. These flows may have
been triggered by the structural inversion of the Red River Fault and
the slope-subparallel basement faults around 5.5 Ma and other
processes discussed below. Confined within the slope-subparallel
paleo Xisha Trough, the large-scale and high-energy gravity flows
induced significant erosion, resulting in a regionally important
erosional surface, TA. The erosional surface was then covered by
sandy channel-levee and thalweg deposits formed during late
regression and early transgression (Figs. 8a and 12a).
During transgression, sediments carried by the turbidity
currents became finer grained, and meanwhile there was probably
a great decrease in the frequency and volume of these currents. The
canyon was thus filled by mud drapes (DU2) (Figs. 8b and 12b).
5.3.2. Stage 2: mixed axial and side cut-and-fill
The canyon was widened (Figs. 8e11) and its right-hand margin
was steepened (Figs. 2, 3 and 6) during the regressive stage of SQ3.
This widening and steepening processes were most probably
driven by the Corolis force as discussed below.
Compared with stage 1, there was relative sea-level rise and
decrease in structural activity during stage 2, leading to a decrease
in the amount of clastic sediments fed to the canyon. SQ1 was
eroded by weaker slope sub-parallel and down-slope gravity flows,
resulting in a new 3rd-order sequence boundary, TB. The boundary
was then overlain by mud-prone MTCs and relict deposits within
DU3 (Figs. 9a and 12c).
With continued relative sea-level rise during transgression,
sandy sediments delivered to the canyon further decreased, and the
canyon was filled mainly by muddy material (DU2) brought in from
both axial and side directions (Figs. 9b and 12d).
5.3.3. Stage 3: side cut-and-fill
From 3.6 Ma to 2.6 Ma when SQ2 was developed, there was an
overall relative sea-level rise with respect to that during SQ3 and
SQ2, even though relative sea level was on the falling limb of the
long-term cycle (Fig. 6). During stage 3, slopes in the Qiongdongnan
Basin had been constantly prograding southward (Xie et al., 2006).
Controlled by this and the emerging drainage systems to the north,
the studied canyon was likely linked to the Hainan Island by well-
developed downcutting shelf and slope channels (Fig. 10a). These
channels were able to erode and prograde across the shelf during
forced regression and dump their load from the north side directly
into the canyon. This is evidenced by the wide occurrence of the
northesouth and/or northwestesoutheast oriented downcutting
channels and their genetically linked lobes in the forced regressive
systems tract of SQ2 (Seismic facies 1 and 8 in Fig. 5, 10a, and 12e).
During transgression, sandy sediments waned and the canyon was
largely filled by MTCs shed from the north side (Figs. 10b and 12f).

Figure 12. Schematics showing the history and depositional processes during different stages of the canyon fill. Four stages are identified during the evolution of the Central Canyon
and these stages correspond to the four sequence within the canyon. Stage, a and b; stage 2, c and d; stage 3, e and f; stage 4, g and h. Notice the change from axial cut-and-fill
during stage 1 to predominately side cut-and-fill during stages 3 and 4. See text for details. 4th SB ¼ 4th-order sequence boundary, DU ¼ depositional unit.
1700 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702
5.3.4. Stage 4: side cut-and-fill
This stage is characterized by widespread development of MTCs
in both the regressive systems tract and the transgressive systems
tract of SQ1 (Figs. 6 and 11). Side cut-and-fill were dominant during
this stage (Figs. 10a and 12g,h). Mass transport processes from the
side to the axis of the canyon during this stage were most probably
triggered by canyon wall instability induced by overall long-term
relative sea-level rises, high sedimentation rates, and rapid slope
progradation as described below.
5.4. Possible controlling factors on depositional processes
5.4.1. Paleo-seafloor morphology
Paleo-seafloor morphology plays an important role on the
general facies distribution and architecture within the canyon fill
(Armitage et al., 2009). The shelf-slope setting in the Qiongdon-
gnan Basin formed during Middle Miocene, and since then there is
no obvious thermal subsidence (Xie et al., 2006, 2008; Su et al.,
2009; Yuan, 2009). The Pliocene seafloor morphology would have
been similar to the present, and the slope-subparallel paleo Xisha
Trough, thus, most probably predates canyon formation. This
pronounced negative-relief would have acted as both the conduit
and accommodation space for gravity-induced flows and deposits.
5.4.2. The Red River Fault and slope-subparallel basement fault
The study area is part of the Qiongdongnan Basin, and the basin
enters post-rifting since Miocene and faulting and tectonic activi-
ties largely ceased since then (Xie et al., 2006; Zhu, 2007). The Red
River Fault in the western boundary of the studied area, however,
shifted from sinistral strike-slip to dextral movement at about
5.5 Ma (Fig. 1) (Leloup et al., 1995; Zhu et al., 2009a, b). The
structural inversion of the Red River Fault caused high-frequent
seismicity that has been documented in China, Vietnam, and the
Qiongdongnan and Yinggehai basins (Zhu et al., 2009a, b, 2011).
Additionally, the slope-subparallel basement faults also shifted to
dextral slip since Pliocene (5.5 Ma), and these faults may have slip
up to 5 km with a rate of 1e5 mm/yr (Zhu et al., 2011). All these
fault movements and the associated seismicity may have triggered
large-scale slope instability and failure, leading to high-energy
gravity flows in the study area, which in turn contributed to the
development of such a long (425 km) Central Canyon.
In addition, the No.2 Fault and other basement faults were
elongate sub-parallel to the shelf break (Figs. 1 and 6), indicating
that these faults may have contributed to the slope-subparallel
development of the canyon. The downward displacement of these
faults may also have prevented water and sediments from spilling
over the canyon wall.
5.4.3. Coriolis force
Coriolis force in the northern hemisphere is clockwise, and it
should push gravity flows in the canyon to the right-hand (south-
east) flank (looking down-canyon) (Wynn and Stow, 2002; Zhu
et al., 2010). As a result, these flows would favor erosion along
the southeastern margin of the canyon and deposition on the
northwestern counterpart. Morphology of the canyon shows that
its southeastern margin is steeper and the canyon becomes wider
from SQ4 to SQ1 (Figs. 2, 3, 8e11), suggesting that Coriolis force
may partially control the development of and deposition within the
canyon.
5.4.4. High sedimentation rate
Structural inversion of the Red River Fault during Pliocene when
the canyon was formed, to a large extent, changed the drainage
network of the Red River system, leading to an increase in the
amount of sediments shed from the Tibet Plateau to the Yinggehai
Basin via the paleo Red River (Xie et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2009a, b,
2011). Meanwhile, quick uplift and climate change induced by the
Himalayan collision most probably also increased the rate of sedi-
ment supply. In fact, Zhu et al. (2011) showed high sedimentation
rates (400e800 m/Ma) from Paleocene to Holocene in the Qiong-
dongnan Basin. As a result of rapid sediment supply and high
sedimentation rates, slope deposits may over steepened, leading to
significant instability and large-scale sediment failures.
5.4.5. Rapid slope progradation
The shelf breaks from SQ4 to SQ1 are sub-parallel to the
orientation of the Central Canyon (Fig. 1a). It is, thus, possible that
progradation of the associated lobes has controlled the develop-
ment and fill of the canyon. In the Qiongdongnan Basin, the shelf
breaks migrated seaward about 50 km from SQ4 to SQ1, and the toe
of the progradational clinoforms may have been closely linked to
the studied canyon. Sediments could be directly delivered into the
studied canyon from the shelf (Fig. 1a). Large sediment failures and
their associated MTCs within SQ1 and SQ2 appear to have been to
a large extent associated with rapid slope progradation in the
Qiongdongnan Basin.
5.4.6. Sea-level fluctuations
Relative sea-level changes have been argued as one of the crit-
ical factors controlling deposition in submarine canyons (Gingele
et al., 2004; Baztana et al., 2005; Antobreh and Krastel, 2006).
The integrated data set shows that the four cut-and-fill stages in the
canyons are directly linked to four short term relative sea-level
cycles. During each of these cut-and-fill stages, sandy gravity
flows were larger and more intense during regression and waned
during transgression as sandy sediment supply decreased.
The Coriolis force, high sandy sediment supply, and a confined
seafloor morphology associated with the Xisha Trough and fault
movement, all contribute to the development of large-scale sandy
gravity flows and axial cut-and-fill during stage 1 and 2 (SQ4 and
SQ3); high sedimentation rates, rapid southward slope pro-
gradation, and continued long-term relative sea-level rise facili-
tated side cut-and-fill in the canyon during stage 3 and 4 (SQ2 and
SQ1).
6. Conclusions
Using 2D and 3D seismic, well log, core, and biostratigraphy
data, the current study documented the sequence stratigraphic
architecture, depositional processes, and controlling factors within
the Central Canyon in the Qiongdongnan Basin, and the integrated
data set show that:
(1) There are four regionally important surfaces, 3rd-order
sequence boundaries, within the canyon, and these surfaces
subdivide the canyon fill into four 3rd-order sequences, SQ4
through SQ1. Within each of these sequences there is
a regressive systems tract in the lower part and a transgressive
systems tract in the upper part.
(2) Nine depositional facies are identified, and can be group into
five depositional units (DU). These are: DU1, dominantly sandy
channel-levee and thalweg facies; DU2, mainly mud drapes,
with subordinate occurrence of thin interbedded sand and
shale deposits; DU3, mainly muddy MTCs, with subordinate
relict deposits; DU4, sandy slope channel and lobe facies; and
DU5, mainly muddy MTCs.
(3) Overall from SQ4 to SQ1, the canyon fill becomes finer grained.
Internally, SQ3 stacks on SQ4, resulting in a fining-upward
succession with sandy DU1 in the lower part and muddy DU2
and DU3 in the upper part. Similarly, SQ2 and SQ1 form another
 C. Gong et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 28 (2011) 1690e1702
fining-upward succession, with sandy DU4 in the very lower
part and muddy DU5 upwards. Vertically, the muddy units can
form significant barriers to flow in between the sandy units,
leading to different reservoir compartments.
(4) Four cut-and-fill stages are recognized, and from stage 1 (SQ4)
to stage 4 (SQ1) there is a change from axial cut-and-fill to
predominately side cut-and-fill. Within each stage, there is
a regressive phase and a transgressive phase, separated by
a maximum regression.
(5) Development and architecture of the studied canyon are
likely controlled by several different factors. Paleo-seafloor
morphology associated with the Xisha Trough and downward
displacement of the slope-subparallel basement faults provides
the slope-subparallel confined accommodation and, thus shape
the overall orientation of the canyon. The inversion of the Red
River faults and these faults most probably also triggered high-
energy gravity flows during the early filling of the canyon. In
addition, Coriolis force, sea-level fluctuation, high sedimentation
rate, and rapid slope progradation are also important controls.
Acknowledgments
We thank China National Offshore Oil Company for providing
and permitting publishing the subsurface data. This study is sup-
ported by the National Basic Research Program of China (No.
2009CB219407) and the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No. 40972077). We thank our colleagues, Dong Li, Yongfeng
Wang, Haiteng Zhuo, and Lifen Wan for help on seismic data
interpretation. We also would like to thank Qiliang Sun for his
suggestions and comments. Special thanks go to reviewers, Piret
Plink-Bjorklund and Haughton, and editor Ron J Steel for their
insightful reviews and constructive suggestions to make the paper
a better contribution.
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