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AG'ENDA

THE I'NITED NATIONI5

P RO(ERAII'IIVIE (oF ACTT(ON
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 ACENDA 2lz
Progromme of Actionfor
i nobleDevelopment
Susto

RIO DECTARAflON
on Environment
ond Development

Stotement
of
FORESTPRINCIPTES

Thefinoltextof ogreements
negotiotedby Governments
ot the UnitedNotionsConferenceon
Environment ond Development (UNCED),
3-14 June1992, Riode Joneiro,Brozil
Moteriolcontoinedin thisbookisnotsubiectto copyright.lt moybe reproducedfor strictly
non<ommerciol purposes, providedocknowledgement is givento the UnitedNotions.

Addressenquiries to:
ProiectMonogerfor Sustoinoble Development, Deportment of PublicInformotion,
R o o m9 .| 0 3 2 , U n i te dN o t i ons,N ew Y ork,N Y l 00l Z, U S A Fox l 2l 2) 963-l l 86

ISBN:92-l-100509-4
U n i t e dN o t i o n sP u b l i c o t i o n s - S o lN
eos . E . 9 3 . 1 .I1

by the UnitedNotionsDeportment
Published of PublicInformotion
Tobleof Contents

PARAGRAGHS PAGE
Foreword. I
I n t r o d u c t i o. .n. . . . . . . . . .
Acronyms 5

RIO D:CIARATIOI{ OI{ E]IYINOililENT AIID DIVE1OPMENT

ACE]IDA 2I: PROGNAftlllE OF ACTloil ;OR SUSIAINAB]E DEYETOPffIENT...... l3

r. Preomble r.6 15

17
2. lnternotionolcooperotionto qccelerotesustoinobledevelopment
in developingcountriesond reloteddomesticpolicies 2 . 1 -2 . 4 3 l9
Combotingpoverty.... 3.r-3.r2 27
4. Chongingconsumption
potterns..... 4.1- 4.27 3l
5. Demogrophic
dynomicsond sustoinobility
... 5 . 1- 5 . 6 6 35
6. Protectingond promotinghumonheolth 6.1- 6.46 42
7. Promotingsustoinoblehumonsettlement
development... 7.1- 7.80 52
8. Integroting
environment
ond development
i n decision-moking
........ 8 .r - 8 . 5 4 65

Secllon 2; Conrervcllon ond ilcnngemenl of Resources for Developmenl ... 75

s. Protection
of the otmosphere...... Y.t- v.J5 77
to Integrotedopproochto the plonningond monogement
or lond resources. r0.t-r0.'t8 84
tt Combotingdebrestotion... il.t-1r.40 88
i2. Monoging frogile ecosystems:
Combotingdesertificotion
ond drought... 12.1-
12.63 98
13. Monogingfrogileecosystems:
Sustoinoble mountoin development. r3.1-r3.24 r09
14. Promotingsustoinoble
ogricultureond ruroldevelopment 1 4 . 1 -1 4 . 1 0 4 114
15. Conservotionof biologicoldiversity t5.t-15.11 131
16. Environmentolly
soundmonogement
of biotechnology.. 1 6 . 1 -1 6 . 4 6 136
17. Protectionof the oceons,oll kindsof seos,includinqenclosed
ond semi-enclosed seos,ond coostoloreosond thJ protection,
rotionoluseond developmentof their living resources 1 7 . 1 1- 7 . 1 3 7 147
 PARAGRAPHS PAGE
i8 Protection
of the quolityond supplyof fresh*oterresources:
Applicotiorr
of integrotecJ
oporoochesto the cjevelopmenr,
mCInogernent ond useof woter resources r 8 .t - 1 8 . 9 0 166
t9 E nv iro n me n tosl loyu n dm o n o q e m e notf toxi cchemi col s
inc lu d i n gp re v e n ti oonf i l l e g o [i n te rn oti onol
troffi ci n
toxicond dongerousproducts 1 9 . 11- 9 . 7 6
24. EnvironmentoIly sound- monogementof hozordouswostes,
inc lu d i n gp re v e n ti oonf i l l e g o il n te rn o ti onol
troffi ci n
hozordouswostes 20.1-20.46
11 E nv ir o n m e n i osl loy u n dm o n o q e m e notf soi i dw ostes
l ' r r . v
ono sewoge-retotedtssues
2 1 . 12 1 . 4 9 206
ll Sofe ond environmentollysound rnonogementof rodiooctivewostes
2 2 . 12 2 . 9 tt3

Section 3: Strengthening the Role of Molor Groups 217

23 Preomble
23.1_
23.4 219
)A
Globol octionfor womentowordssustoinobie
ond
equito b l ed e u e l o p m e n t..... 24.1-24.12 220
25 Child re no n d y o u thi n s u s to i n o b d
l ee vel opment 25.1-25.17 224
26 Reco.gnizing ond s'trengthening the roleof indigenouspeople
o n d t h e i rc o m m u n i t i e s^ . . .
26.1 26.9 227
l/ S t r en g th e n i nthge ro l eo f orgoni zoti ons:
,n o n ,-g o v e rnmentol
!-orfners tor susto rnobledevelopment 2 7 . 12- 7 . 1 3 230
2B Loc olo u th o ri ti e si n' i ti o ti v eisn s u p p o rtof A gendo2j .... 28.1-28.7 233
29. sirengthening the roieof workersond theirtrodeunions 2 9 . 12- 9 1 4 235
30 S t r en g th e n i nthge ro l eo f b u s i n e sosn d i ndustry 30.r-30.30 237
31. S c i e n t i f oi cn d t e c h n o l o g i ccool m m u n i t y . . . . . . . 3t.r-31.12 240
S t r en g th e n i nthge ro l eo f fo rme rs ..... . 32.1-32.14 243

Sectlon 4: Meons of lmplemenlalion

247
33 F inon c i ore
l s o u rc eosn d me c h o n i s m s 3 3 .r 3 3 . 2 1 249
34 Tronsfer of environmentolly soundtechnology,
cooperotion
o n dc o p o c i r y - b u i l d i n g . . . . . . . 34.1-34.29 257
35 Sciencefor sustoinoble
development. JJ. I- JJ.ZJ 257
36. P r om o ti negd u c c ti o np, u b l i co w o re n e ss ond troi ni ng...... 36.1 36.27 264
J/ Not ion o lm e c h o n i s ms o n d i n te rn o ti o nol cooperoti on for
c o p o c i f - b u i l d i nign d e v e l o p i ncgo u n t r i e.s. . . 3 7 . 13-7 . 1 3 270
38 I nt er n o i i o n o
i nl s ti tu ti o noorro
l n g e m e n ts. 3 8 .t - 3 8 . 4 5 274
39 int er n o ti o n o
l el g o li n s tru m e notsn d m e c honi sms
. 3 9 t. - 3 9 .t 0 t6 l
4a ! n f o r r n o t i of onr d e c i s i o n - m o k i n g . . . , . . 40.r 40.30 284

SIATEMENT OF FOREST PRINCIPTES

389
Foreword

Humanity today is in the midst of a profound civilizational change.There are signs of

it everywhere,and for the thousandsof dedicatedpeople who were involved in that
extraordinary event at Rio a year ago-indeed, for all the people of the globe-they
are exhilarating,uplifting signs.
While it is still too early to provide a precisely calibratedmeasureof the ultimate
successof the Earth Summit, I believe it has ignited a wildfire of interestand support
at every level of society in every corner of the planet. Since last June,there has been a
profusion of conferences,seminars,symposiaand other organizedcolloquies of
major sectoralgroups. Industrialists,economists,financiers,engineers,scientists-
those who, in truth, hold the levers of economicpower and change-have joined the
constituencyof earnestenvironmentalistsin a commitment to the fulfilment of the
hopesand aspirationsengenderedby Rio.
In short, the movement to turn the world from its self-consumptivecourseto one
of renewal and sustenancehas unmistakablyspreadfrom the grassroots to the brass
roots. The Declaration of Rio and its Agenda 2l actronprogramme are now, it seems
clear,on everyone'sagenda.
But this discernibleincreasein momentum is still only a beginning, albeit a highly
encouragingone. The economic gulfs which lie within and among the world's
peoplesand nationsnot only remain, but are daily deepening.Hunger and poverty-
which are both a cause and an effect of global environmental degradation- are still
appallingly pervasivein the developing world, where population growth compounds
the problems of alleviating them. Industrial countriescontinue to be addictedto the
patternsof production and consumptionwhich have so largely producedthe major
risks to the global environment.
Though in the aftermath of Rio there is a heightenedawarenessof, and debate
over, the compelling needsfor action, there is not yet a concertedand decisive
responseto the magnitudeand urgency of the task. Nor do we possessdetailed
specificationsfor the tools we will need to forge this secondindustrial revolution-
this eco-revolutionthat is essentialin order to shift the world onto a new pathway to a
more secure,sustainableand equitablefuture.
There is much to be done. And I look to the new United Nations Commission on
SustainableDevelopmentto be the focal point for the massiveeffort neededto create
the new era of internationalcooperation,the new global partnership,that will make
this shift possible.

zZa;
MouriceF.Strong,Secretory-Generol
UnitedNotionsConferenceon Environment
ond Development
Introduction

Agenda 2I-a programmeof action for sustainabledevelopmentworldwide, the Rio

Declarationon Environment and Development,and the statementof principles for the
sustainablemanagementof forestswere adoptedby more than 178 Governmentsat
the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development,known as the
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil,from 3 to l4 June 1992.
Togetherthey fulfil the mandategiven to the Conferenceby the United Nations
GeneralAssembly when, in 1989,it called for a global meeting to deviseintegrated
strategiesthat would halt and reversethe negativeimpact of human behaviouron the
physical environmentand promote environmentally sustainableeconomic develop-
rnentin all countries.
The agreements,which were negotiatedover two and a half yearsleading up to
the Surnmit and finalized in Rio, are presentedhere in final form. While they lack the
force of internationallaw. the adoptionof the texts carrieswith it a strong moral
obligation to ensuretheir full implementation.
Agenda 21 standsas a comprehensiveblueprint for action to be taken globally-
from now into the twenty-first century-by Governments,United Nations organiza-
tions, developmentagencies,non-governmentalorganizationsand independent-sector
groups,in every areain which human activity impacts on the environment.
The Agenda should be studiedin conjunction with both the Rio Declaration-
which provides a context for its specific proposals-and the statementof forest prin-
ciples. It is hoped that the forest principles will form the basis for a f-utureinternation-
al-levelagreement.
Underlying the Earth Summit agreementsis the idea that humanity has reacheda
turning point. We can continue with presentpolicies which are deepeningeconomic
divisionswithin and betweencountries-which increasepoverty,hunger,sickness
and illiteracy and causethe continuing deteriorationof the ecosystemon which life
on E,arthdepends.
Or we can changecourse.We can act to improve the living standardsof those
who are in need.We can better manageand protect the ecosystemand bring about a
rnore prosperousfuture for us all. No nation can achievethis on its own. Togetherwe
can-in a global partnershipfor sustainabledevelopment.
Central to that partnershipwill be the United Nations Commission on Sustainable
Development,establishedby the GeneralAssembly in responseto a requestof the
Conference.Made up of Governmentrepresentatives, it will examineprogressmade
in implementingAgenda 2l globally.The Commission will first meet in June 1993-
the first anniversarvof the Earth Summit.
Acronyms

APELL Aworenessond Preporednessfor Emergenciesot Locol Level

CFC c h l o r o lf u o r o c o r b o n
CGIAR Consultotive G r o u p o n I n t e r n o t i o n oAl g r i c u l t u r o R
l eseorch
CILSS P e r m o n e nItn t e r - S t o tCeo m m i t t e eo n D r o u g h tC o n t r o li n t h e S o h e l
EEZ e x c l u s i v ee c o n o m i cz o n e
ECA E c o n o m i cC o m m i s s i o nf o r A f r i c o
ECE E c o n o m i cC o m m i s s i o nf o r E u r o p e
ECLAC E c o n o m i cC o m m i s s i o nf o r L o t i nA m e r i c o o n d t h e C o r i b b e o n
ELCI E n v i r o n m e n t oLl i o i s o nC e n t r eI n t e r n o t i o n o l
EMINWA e n v i r o n m e n t o l lsyo u n d m o n o g e m e n o t f i n l o n dw q t e r
ESCAP E c o n o m i co n d S o c i o lC o m m i s s i o nf o r A s i o o n d t h e P o c i f i c
ESCWA E c o n o m i co n d S o c i o lC o m m i s s i o nf o r W e s t e r nA s i o
FAO F o o d o n d A g r i c u l t u r eO r g o n i z o t i o no f t h e U n i t e dN o t i o n s
GATT Generol Agreementon Toriffsond Trode
GAW Globol AtmosphereWotch (WMO)
GEF G l o b o l E n v i r o n m e nFt o c i l i t ' y
GEMS G l o b o l E n v i r o n m e n t oMl o n i t o r i n g S y s t e m( U N E P )
GEMS/WATER Globol Woter Quolity Monitoring Progromme
GESAMP J o i n tG r o u p o f E x p e r t so n t h e S c i e n t i f i cA s p e c t so f M o r i n e P o l l u t i o n
GIPME G l o b o l I n v e s t i g o t i o on f P o l l u t i o ni n t h e M o r i n e E n v i r o n m e n(tU N E S C O )
GiS G e o g r o p h i c o lI n f o r m o t i o nS y s t e m
GLOBE s r g o n i s o t i o nf o r o B o l o n c e dE n v i i " o n m e n t
G l o b o l L e g i s l o t o rO
GOS Globol Observing System(WMO/WV\A//)
GRID G l o b o l R e s o u r c eI n f o r m o t i o nD o t o b o s e
GSP generolized systemof preferences
HIV h u m o ni m m u n o d e f i c i e n cv yi r u s
IAEA I n t e r n o t i o n oAl t o m i c E n e r g yA g e n c y
IAP-WASAD I n t e r n o t i o n oAl c t i o n P r o g r o m m eo n W o t e r o n d S u s t o i n o b l eA g r i c u l t u r o D
l evelopmenf
IARC I n t e r n o t i o n oAl g e n c y f o r R e s e o r c ho n C o n c e r
IBSRAM I n t e r n o t i o n oBi o o r d o f S o i l R e s o u r c eosn d M o n o g e m e n t
ICCA i n t e r n o t i o n oCl o u n c i lo f C h e m i c o lA s s o c i o t i o n s
ICES I n t e r n o t i o n oCl o u n c i lf o r t h e E x p l o r o t i o no f t h e S e o
ICPIC I n t e r n o t i o n oCl l e o n e r P r o d u c t i o nI n f o r m o t i o nC l e o r i n o H o u s e
ICSC I n t e r n o t i o n oCl i v i l S e r v i c eC o m m i s s i o n
ICSU I n t e r n o t i o n oCl o u n c i lo f S c i e n t i f i U
c nions
IEEA i n t e g r o t e de n v i r o n m e n t ool n d e c o n o m i co c c o u n t i n q
IFAD I n t e r n o t i o n oFl u n df o r A g r i c u l t u r o Di evelopment
IGADD I n t e r g o v e r n m e n tA o lu t h o r i i yf o r D r o u g h to n d D e v e l o p m e n t
IGBP I n t e r n o t i o n oGl e o s p h e r e - B i o s p h eP r er o g r o m m e( I C S U )
IGBP/START l e o s p h e r e - B i o s p h eP
l n t e r n o t i o n oG r er o g r o m m e / G l o b o C
l h o n g e S y s t e mf o r A n c r i y s i s ,
Reseorch ond T r o i n i n g
ILO I n t e r n o t i o n oLl o b o u rO r g o n i s o t i o n
IMF I n t e r n o t i o n oMl onetoryFund
IMO I n t e r n o t i o n oM
l o r i t i m eO r g o n i z o t i o n
INFOTERRA I n t e r n o t i o n oEl n v i r o n m e nItn f o r m o t i o nS y s t e m( U N E P )
roc Intergovernmentol Oceonogroph ic Commission
IPCC Intergovernmentol Ponelon ClimoteChonge
rPcs lnternotionol Progromme on ChemicolSofety
IPM integroted pestmonogement
IRPTC Internotionol Register of Potentiolly Ioxic Chemicols
rTc In te rn o ti o nToilnC o unci l
ITTO Internotionol TropicolTimberOrgonizotion
IUCN Internotionol Unionfor Conservotion of Notureond NoturolResources
MARPOL Internotionol Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
fromShips
OECD Orgonisotion for Economic Cooperotionond Development
PGRFA plontgeneticresources for ogriculture
PIC prior informedconsentprocedure
SADCC Southern AfriconDevelopment CoordinotionConference
SARD sustoinoble ogriculture ond ruroldevelopment
UNCTAD UnitedNotionsConference on Trodeond Development
UNDP UnitedNotionsDevelopment Progromme
UNDRO Officeof the UnitedNotionsDisoster ReliefCoordinotor
UNEP U n i te dN o ti o n sE n v i ronment P rogromme
UNESCO U n i te dN o ti o n sEd ucoti onol S ,ci enti fiond
c C ul turolOrgoni zoti on
UNFPA UnitedNotionsPopulotion Fund
UNICEF U n i te dN o ti o n sC h i l dren'Fund
s
UNIDO UnitedNotionslndustriol Development Orgonizotion
UNU UnitedNotionsUniversity
WCP World C IimoteProgromme {WMO/UNEP/ICSU/UN ESCO)
WFC World FoodCouncil
WHO World HeolthOrgonizotion
WMO WorldMeteorologicol Orgonizotion
WWF World Wide Fundfor Noture(olsocolledWorld Wildl;feFund)
WWW World WeotherWotch (WMO)
 Rlo
DECLARAilON
ond Development
on Environment
 ond Development
on Environment
RioDeclorotion
Having met at Rio de Janeirofrom 3 to 14 June 1992,
Reaffirmingthe Declarationof the United Nations Con-
ferenceon the Human Environment, adoptedat Stock-
holm on 16 JuneI972.oand seekingto build upon it,
With the goal of establishinga new and equitableglobal
partnershipthroughthe creationof new levelsof cooper-
ation amongStates,key sectorsof societiesand people,
Workingtowardsinternationalagreementswhich respect
the interestsof all and protectthe integrityof the global
environmentaland developmentalsystem,
Recognizingtheintegraland interdependentnatureof the
Earth.our home.
Proclaims that:
PRINCIPLEI
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sus-
tainabledevelopment.They areentitledto a healthyand
productive life in harmony with nature.
PRINCIPLE
2
Stateshave,in accordance with the Charterof theUnited
Nationsandthe principles of internationallaw,the sover-
eign right to exploit their own resources pursuantto their
own environmentaland developmental policies,and the
responsibilityto ensurethat activitieswithin their juris-
dictionorcontrol do not causedamage to theenvironment
of other Statesor of areasbevondthe limits of national
jurisdiction.
PRINCIPLE
3
The right to developmentmust be fulfilled so as to
equitablymeetdevelopmentaland environmentalneeds
of presentand future generations.
PRINCIPLE
4
In order to achievesustainabledevelopment,environ-
mental protection shall constitutean integral part of the
developmentprocessand cannotbe consideredin isola-
tion from it.
PRINCIPLE
5
All Statesand all peopleshall cooperatein the essential
task of eradicatingpoverty as an indispensable require-
ment for sustainabledevelopment,in order to decrease
the disparitiesin standardsof living and bettermeetthe
needsof the majority of the peopleof the world.
PRINCIPLE
6
The specialsituationand needsof developingcountries,
particularlythe leastdevelopedand thosemost environ-
mentally vulnerable,shall be given specialpriority. In-
ternationalactionsin the field of environmentanddevel-
opmentshouldalsoaddressthe interestsandneedsof all
countries.
PRINCIPLE
Z
Statesshallcooperatein a spirit of global partnershipto
conserve,protectand restorethe healthand integrity of

the Earrh'secosystem.In view of the different contribu-
tions to global environmentaldegradation,Stateshave
commonbut differentiatedresponsibilities.The developed
countriesacknowledgethe responsibilitythat they bear
in the internationalpursuitof sustainabledevelopmentin
view of the pressurestheir societiesplace on the global
environment and of the technologies and financial
resourcesthey command.
8
PRINCIPLE
To achievesustainabledevelopmentand a higher quality
of life for all people,Statesshouldreduceand eliminate
unsustainablepatternsof production and consumption
and promote appropriatedemographicpolicies.
9
PRINCIPLE
Statesshouldcooperateto strengthenendogenouscapac-
ity-building for sustainabledevelopmentby improving
scientific understandingthrough exchangesof scientific
and technologicalknowledge,and by enhancingthe de-
velopment, adaptation,diffusion and transfer of tech-
nologies,includingnew and innovativetechnologies.
IO
PRINrcIPLE
Environmentalissuesare best handledwith the partici-
pation of all concernedcitizens,at the relevantlevel. At
the nationallevel, eachindividual shall have appropriate
accessto information concemingthe environmentthat is
held by public authorities,including information on haz-
ardousmaterialsand activitiesin their communities,and
the opportunity to participate in decision-makingpro-
cesses.States shall facilitate and encouragepublic
awarenessand participation by making information
widely available. Effective accessto judicial and
adm inis t r a ti v ep ro c e e d i n g s ,i n c l u d i n g r edressand
remedy,shall be provided.
PRINCIPIE I1
Statesshall enact effective environmentallegislation.
Environmentalstandards,managementobjectivesand
priorities should reflect the environmentaland develop-
mental context to which they apply. Standardsapplied
by some countriesmay be inappropriateand of unwar-
rantedeconomicand social cost to other countries,in
particulardevelopingcountries.
t0
'I2
PRINCIPLE
Statesshouldcooperateto promotea supportiveandopen
international economic system that would lead to eco-
nomic growth and sustainabledevelopment in all
countries,to betteraddressthe problemsof environmen-
tal degradation.Tradepolicy measuresforenvironmental
purposesshould not constitute a meansof arbitrary or
unjustifiablediscriminationor a disguisedrestrictionon
international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with
environmentalchallengesoutsidethe jurisdiction of
the importing country shouldbe avoided.Environmental
measuresaddressingtransboundaryor global envi-
ronmentalproblemsshould, as far as possible,be based
on an internationalconsensus.
PRINCIPLE
I3
Statesshall developnational law regardingliability and
compensation for the victims of pollution and other
environmentaldamage.Statesshall also cooperatein an
expeditious and more determined manner to develop
further i nternationallaw regardingliability and compen-
sation for adverse effects of environmental damage
causedby activitieswithin theirjurisdiction or control to
areasbeyond their jurisdiction.
I4
PRINCIPLE
States should effectively cooperateto discourageor
preventthe relocationand transferto other Statesof any
activitiesandsubstancesthatcausesevereenvironmental
degradationor are found to be harmful to humanhealth.
PRINCIPLE
I5
In order to protect the environment, the precautionary
approachshall be widely appliedby Statesaccordingto
their capabilities.Where there are threatsof seriousor
irreversibledamage,lack of full scientific certainty shall
not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to preventenvironrnentaldegradation.
PRINCIPLE16
National authorities should endeavourto promote the
internalization of environmental costs and the use of
economicinstruments,taking into accountthe approach
that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of
pollution, with due regard to the public interest and
without distorting internationaltradeand investment.
IZ
FRINCIPLE
Environmentalimpact assessment,as a national instru-
ment shall be undertakenfor proposedactivities that are
likely to have a significant adverseimpact on the envi-
ronment and are subject to a decision of a competent
national authority.
I8
PRINrcIPLE
Statesshallimmediatelynotify other Statesof any natural
disastersor other emergenciesthat are likely to produce
sudden harmful effects on the environment of those
States.Every effort shall be made by the intemational
community to help Statesso afflicted.
PRINICIPLEI9
States shall provide prior and timely notification and
relevant information to potentially affected States on
activitiesthat may havea significantadversetransbound-
ary environmental effect and shall consult with those
Statesat an early stageand in good faith.
PRINCIPLE
20
Women have a vital role in environmentalmanagement
and development.Their full participation is therefore
essentialto achievesustainabledevelopment.
PRNICIPTE 2I
The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the
world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership
in order to achievesustainabledevelopmentand ensure
a better future for all.
o on theHumonEnviron-
Reportof the UnitedNotionsConference
ment,Stockholm, 5-.l6 June 1972 lUnitedNotionspublicoiion,
S o l e sN o . E . Z 3 . l l . A . l 4o n d c o r r i g e n d u mc)h, o p f elr.
PR]NCIPLE 22
Indigenouspeopleand their communitiesand other local
communitieshavea vital role in environmentalmanage-
ment and developmentbecauseof their knowledge and
traditionalpractices.Statesshould recognizeand duly
support their identity, culture and interestsand enable
their effectiveparticipationin the achievementof sus-
tainabledevelopment.
PRINCIPIE
23
The environmentand natural resourcesof people under
oppression,domination and occupation shall be pro-
tected.
24
PRINCIPLE
Warfareis inherentlydestructiveof sustainabledevelop-
ment. States shall therefore respect international law
providing protection for the environment in times of
armedconflict and cooperatein its further development,
as necessary.
PRINCIPLE
25
Peace,developrnentand environmental protection are
and indivisible.
interdependent
PRINCIPLE
26
States shall resolve all their environmentaldisputes
peacefullyand by appropriatemeansin accordancewith
the Charterof the United Nations.
PRINCIPLE 2Z
Statesand people shall cooperatein good faith and in a
spirit of partnershipin the fulfilment of the principles
embodiedin this Declarationand in the further develop-
ment of internationallaw in the field of sustainable
development.
t1
AOENDA2I
A blueprintfor octionfor globol
sustoinoble development
i n t ot h e 2 l s t c e n t u r y
 I Preomble
l.l Humanitystandsat a definingmomentin history.
We are confronted with a perpetuationof disparities
between and within nations, a worsening of poverty,
hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the continuing
deteriorationof the ecosystems on which we dependfor
our well-being. However, integrationof environment
and developmentconcernsand greaterattentionto them
will leadto thefulfilment of basicneeds,improvedliving
standardsfor all. betterprotectedand managedecosys-
temsand a safer,more prosperousfuture.No nationcan
achievethis on its own; but togetherwe can- in a global
partnershipfor sustainabledevelopment.
1.2 This globalpartnershipmustbuild on the premises
of GeneralAssemblyresolution411228of 22 December
1989,which was adoptedwhen the nationsof the world
called for the United Nations Conferenceon Environ-
mentandDevelopment, andontheacceptance of theneed
to take a balancedand integratedapproachto environ-
mentand development questions.
1.3 Agenda2l addresses the pressingproblemsof today
and also aims at preparingthe world for the challenges
of the next century.It reflectsa global consensusand
politicalcommitmentatthehighestlevelon development
a n d e n v i r o n m e n tc o o p e r a t i o n .I t s s u c c e s s f u il m -
plementationis first and foremost the responsibility
o f G o v e r n m e n t s .N* a t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s ,p l a n s ,
p o l i c i e sa n d p r o c e s s eas r e c r u c i a li n a c h i e v i n gt h i s .
I nt er nat ionalc o o p e ra ti o ns h o u l d s u p p o rt a nd sup-
plem ent s uc h n a ti o n a l e ffo rts . In th i s c o n text, the
Unit ed Nat ionss y s te mh a s a k e y ro l e to p l a y . Other
int er nat ional,re g i o n a l a n d s u b re g i o n a l o rgani za-
t ions ar e als oc a l l e du p o n to c o n tri b u teto th i s effort.
T he br oades t p u b l i c p a rti c i p a ti o n a n d th e acti ve
i nv olv em entof th e n o n -g o v e rn me n taol rg a n i zati ons
and ot her gr ou p ss h o u l d a l s o b e e n c o u ra g e d .
1.4 The developmentaland environmentalobjectives
of Agenda2l will requirea substantialflow of new and
additionalfrnancialresources to developingcountries,in
order to cover the incrementalcostsfor the actionsthey
have to undertake to deal with global environmental
problems and to acceleratesustainabledevelopment.
Financialresourcesare also requiredfor strengthening
the capacity of internationalinstitutions for the im-
plementationof Agenda2l. An indicativeorder-of-mag-
nitude assessmentof costs is included in each of the
programmeareas. This assessment will need to be ex-
aminedand refined by the relevantimplementingagen-
cies and organizations.
1.5 In the implementationof the relevantprogramme
areasidentifiedin Agenda21, specialattentionshouldbe
gi ven to the parti cul ar ci rcumstancesfaci ng t he
economiesin transition. It must alsobe recognizedthat
thesecountriesare facing unprecedented challengesin
transformingtheireconomies,in somecasesin themidst
of considerablesocialand political tension.
1.6 The programmeareasthatconstituteAgenda?l are
describedin terms of the basis for action, objectives,
activitiesand meansof implementation.Agenda21 is a
dynamicprogramme. It will be carriedout by thevarious
actorsaccordingto thedifferentsituations,capacitiesand
prioritiesof countriesandregionsin full respectof all the
principlescontainedin the Rio Declarationon Environ-
ment and Development.It could evolveover time in the
light of changingneedsandcircumstances. This process
marks the beginning of a new global partnershipfor
sustainable development.
* When the term "Governments" is used,it will be deemedto
includethe EuropeonEconomicCommunily within its oreosof
competence. Throughout Agendo2l the term"environmentolly
sound"meons"environmentolly sofeond sound",in porticulor
when oppliedto the terms"energysources","energysupplies",
"energysyslems"ond "technology"or "iechnologies".
t5
SectionI

Sociolond
Economic
Dimensions
 Internotionol
cooperotionto occelerote
sustoinoble
developmentin developingcountries
ond reloted
domesticpolicies
INTRODUCTION
2.1 In orderto meetthe challengesof environmentand
development,Stateshave decided to establisha new
global partnership.This partnershipcommitsall States
to engagein a continuousand constructivedialogue,
inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient and
equitableworld economy,keepingin view the increasing
interdependenceof the community of nations and that
sustainabledevelopmentshouldbecomea priority item
on the agendaof the internationalcommunity. It is
recognizedthat,for the successof this new partnership,
it is important to overcomeconfrontationand to foster a
climateof genuinecooperationandsolidarity.It is equal-
ly important to strengthennational and intemational
policiesandmultinationalcooperationto adaptto thenew
r ealit ies .
2.2 Economic policies of individual countries and
int er nat ional e c o n o mi c re l a ti o n s b o th h a v e great
relevanceto sustainable development.The reactivation
andacceleration of developmentrequires both adynamic
and a supporliveinternationaleconomic environment
and determinedpoliciesat the nationallevel. It will be
frustratedin the absenceof eitherof theserequirements.
A supportiveexternaleconomicenvironmentis crucial.
The developmentprocesswill not gathermomentumif
the global economylacksdynamismand stabilityand is
besetu,ith uncertainties.Neither will it gathermomen-
tum if the developingcountriesare weighteddown by
externalindebtedness, if developrnentfinanceis inade-
quate,if bamers restrictaccessto marketsand if com-
modity prices and the terms of trade of developing
countriesremaindepressed. The recordof the 1980swas
essentiallynegativeon eachof thesecountsandneedsto
be reversed.The policiesandmeasuresneededto create
an internationalenvironmentthat is stronglysupportive
of national developmentefforts are thus vital. Interna-
tional cooperation in this area should be designed to
complementand support- not to diminish or subsume
- sounddomesticeconomicpolicies,in both developed
and developing countries, if global progress towards
sustainable developmentis to be achieved.
2.3 The internationaleconomy should provide a sup-
portive internationalclimate for achieving environment
and developmentgoalsby:
(a) Promoting sustainabledevelopmentthrough trade
liberalization;
(b) Making trade and environment mutually suppor-
tive;
(c) Providing adequatefinancial resourcesto develop-
ing countriesand dealingwith internationaldebt;
(d) Encouragingmacroeconomic policiesconduciveto
environmentand development.
2.4 Governmentsrecognizethat there is a new global
effort to relatethe elementsof the internationaleconomic
systemand mankind's needfor a safeand stablenatural
environment. Therefore,it is the intent of Governments
that consensus-building at theintersectionof theenviron-
mental and tradeand developmentareaswill be ongoing
in existingintemationalforums,aswell asin thedomestic
policy of eachcountry.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) PROTVTOT|NG
SUSTAINABLEDEVETOPMENT
THROUGHTRADE
BASIS
FORACTION
2.5 An open,equitable,secure,non-discriminatory and
predictablemultilateraltradingsystemthat is consistent
l9
with the goals of sustainabledevelopmentand leads to
the optimal distribution of global production in accord-
ance with comparative advantageis of benefit to all
trading partners.Moreover, improved market accessfor
developingcountries'exportsin conjunctionwith sound
macroeconomicand environmentalpolicieswould have
a positive environmentalimpact and thereforemake an
important contribution towards sustainabledevelop-
ment.
2.6 Experiencehas shownthat sustainabledevelopment
requiresa commitmentto sound economicpolicies and
management,an effective and predictable public ad-
ministration,the integrationof environmentalconcemsinto
decision-makingaurdprogresstowardsdemocraticgovem-
ment, in the light of country-specificconditions, which
allows for full participation of all parties concerned.
These attributes are essentialfor the fulfilment of the
policy directionsand objectiveslistedbelow.
2J The commodity sectordominatesthe economiesof
many developing countries in terms of production,
employmentand export earnings. An important feature
of the world commodityeconomyin the 1980swas the
prevalenceof very low and declining real pricesfor most
commodities in international markets and a resulting
substantialcontractionin commodity export earningsfor
manyproducingcountries.The ability of thosecountries
to mobilize. through internationaltrade, the resources
neededto finance investmentsrequiredfor sustainable
developmentmay be impairedby this developmentand
by tariff and non-tariff impediments, including tariff
escalation,limiting their accessto export markets.The
removal of existing distortionsin internationaltrade is
essential.In particular,the achievementof this objective
requiresthat there be substantialand progressivereduc-
tion in the supportand protectionof agriculture-cover-
ing intemalregimes,marketaccessand exportsubsidies
- as well as of industry and other sectors,in order to
avoid inflicting large losses on the more efficient
producers,especiallyin developingcountries.Thus, in
agriculture,industry and other sectors,thereis scopefor
initiativesaimedat tradeliberalizationand at policiesto
make production more responsiveto environment and
developmentneeds.Tradeliberalizationshouldtherefore
be pursuedon a global basisacrosseconomicsectorsso
as to contributeto sustainabledevelopment.
2.8 The internationaltrading environment has been
affectedby a numberof developmentsthat havecreated
new challengesand opportunitiesand have mademulti-
lateraleconomiccooperationof evengreaterimportance.
World trade has continuedto grow faster than world
outputin recentyears.However,the expansionof world
tradehasbeenunevenlyspread,andonly a lirnitednum-
ber of developingcountrieshavebeencapableof achiev-
20
ing appreciablegrowth in their exports. Protectionist
pressuresand unilateral policy actions continue to en-
danger the functioning of an open multilateral trading
system, affecting particularly the export interests of
developing countries. Economic integration processes
have intensified in recent years and should impart
dynamism to global trade and enhance the trade and
developmentpossibilities for developing countries. In
recent years,a growing number of thesecountrieshave
adoptedcourageouspolicy reforms involving ambitious
autonomous trade liberalization, while far-reaching
reforms and profound restructuringprocessesare taking
placein Central and EasternEuropeancountries,paving
the way for their integrationinto the world economyand
the international trading system. Increasedattention is
being devoted to enhancingthe role of enterprisesand
promoting competitive markets through adoption of
competitive policies.The GSPhas proved to be a useful
tradepolicy instrument,althoughits objectiveswill have
to be fulfilled, and trade facilitation strategiesrelating to
electronic datainterchange(EDI) have beeneffective in
improving the tradingefficiency of the public and private
sectors.The interactionsbetweenenvironment policies
and tradeissuesare manifold and have not yet beenfully
assessed.An early, balanced,comprehensiveand suc-
cessful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateral
trade negotiationswould bring about further liberaliza-
tion and expansionof world trade,enhancethe tradeand
developmentpossibilities of developing countries and
provide greatersecurityand predictabilityto the interna-
tional trading system.
OBJECTIVES
2.9 In the years ahead, and taking into account the
results of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade
negotiations,Governmentsshould continue to strive to
meet the following objectives:
(a) To promote an open,non-discriminatoryand equi-
table multilateral trading system that will enable all
countries- in particular,the developingcountries- to
improvetheireconomicstructuresandimprovethe stand-
ard of living of their populationsthrough sustainedeco-
nomic development;
(b) To improve access to markets for exports of
developingcountries;
(c) To improve the functioning of commodity markets
and achieve sound, compatible and consistentcom-
modity policies at national and internationallevels with
a view to optimizing the contribution of the commodity
sector to sustainabledevelopment,taking into account
environmentalconsiderations ;
(d) To promote and support policies, domestic and
 international,that make economic growth and environ-
mentalprotectionmutually supportive.
ACTIVITIES
A) /NTERNAT/ONAL
AND REG/ONA/COO7ERATION
AND COORD/NAIION
> Promotingon internotionoltroding systemthat fokesoc-
counfof the needsof developingcountries
2.10 Accordingly,the internationalcomnrunityshould:
(a) Halt and reverseprotectionismin order to bring
aboutfurtherliberalizationandexpansionof world trade,
to thebenefitof all countries,in particularthe developing
countries;
( b ) P r o v i d e f o r a n e q u i t a b l e ,s e c u r e ,n o n - d i s -
criminatoryandpredictableinternationaltrading system;
(c) Facilitate,in a timely way, the integrationof all
countriesinto the world economyand the intemational
tradingsystem;
(d) Ensure that environment and trade policies are
mutuallysupportive, with a view to achievingsustainable
development:
(e) Strengthenthe internationaltrade policies system
throughan early,balanced,comprehensive anclsuccess-
ful outcomeof the UruguayRoundof multilateraltrade
negotiations.
2.11 Theinternational communityshouldaimatfinding
ways and meansof achievinga betterfunctioningand
enhancedtransparencyof commodity markets,greater
diversificationof the cornmodity sectorin developing
economieswithin a macroeconomicframework that
takesinto considerationa country'seconomicstructure,
resourceendowmentsand marketopportunities, and bet-
ter managementof naturalresourcesthat takesinto ac-
countthe necessities of sustainable development.
2J2 Therefore,all countriesshould implementpre-
vi ous c om m it m e n tsto h a l t a n d re v e rs ep ro te c tioni sm
and furtherexpandmarketaccess,particularlyin areas
o f int er estto dev e l o p i n gc o u n tri e s .T h i s i mp ro v e ment
of market accesswill be facilitated by appropriate
s t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t m e n ti n d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s .
Dev elopingc oun tri e s h o u l dc o n ti n u eth e tra d e - pol i cy
reforms and structuraladjustmentthey have uncler-
tak en.I t is t hus u rg e n tto a c h i e v ea n i m p ro v e menti n
m ar k et ac c es sc o n d i ti o n sfo r c o mn to d i ti e sn, otabl y
thr ough t he pr o g re s s i v ere mo v a l o l - b a rri e rs that
r e s t r i c t i m p o r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y 1 ' r o md e v e l o p i n g
co unt r ies ,of c om m o d i ty p ro d u c ts i n p ri m a ry and
processedforms.as well as the substantialand progres-
sivereductionof typesof supportthatinduceuncompeti-
tiveproduction, suchasproductionandexportsubsidies.
B) MANAGEMENT-RE
LAT
EDACTTV
tTtES
>-Devglopingdomesticpoliciesthotmoximize the benefits
of trodeliberolizationfor sustainable
development
2.13 For devel opi ng countri esto benefi t from t he
liberalizationof tradingsystems,they shouldimplement
the following policies,as appropriate:
(a) Create a domesticenvironmentsupportiveof an
optimalbalancebetweenproductionfor thedomesticand
export marketsand remove biasesagainstexportsand
discourageinefficientimport-substitution ;
(b) Promotethe policy frameworkand the infrastruc-
ture required to improve the efficiency of export and
irnport trade as well as the functioning of domestic
markets.
2.14 The fol l ow i ng pol i ci es shoul d be adopredby
developingcountrieswith respectto commoditiescon-
sistentwith marketefficiency:
(a) E xpand processi ng,di stri buti on and i mpr ove
marketingpracticesand the competitiveness of the com-
modity sector;
(b) Diversify in order to reduceclependence on com-
modity exports,
(c) Reflect efficient and sustainableuse of factorsof
productionin theformationof commodityprices,includ-
ing the reflectionof environmental,socialand resources
costs.
c) DATAAND /NFORMATTON
> Encourogingdoto collection
ond reseorch
2.15 GATT, UNCTAD and other reler,'antinstitutions
should continue to collect appropriatetrade data and
information. The Secretary-General of the United Na-
tions is requestedto strengthenthe Trade Control
MeasuresInforrnationSystemmanagedby UNCTAD.
> lmprovinginternationol
,cooperationin commoditytrade
ond thediversificotion
of the sector
2.16 With regard to commodity trade, Governments
should,directly or throughappropriateinternationalor-
ganizations,whereappropriate:
(a) Seek optimal functioningof commodity markets,
interalia, throughimprovedmarkettransparency involv-
ing exchanges of views and informationon investment
plans,prospectsandmarketsfor inciividualcommodities.
Substantivenegotiationsbetweenproclucersand con-
sumersshouldbepursuedwith a view to achievingviable
andmoreefficientinternationalagreements thattakeinto
21
accountmarket trends,or affangements,as well as study
groups. In this regard,particularattentionshouldbe paid
to the agreementson cocoa, coffee, sugar and tropical
timber. The importance of international commodity
agreementsandalrangementsis underlined.Occupation-
al health and safety matters, technology transfer and
servicesassociatedwith the production,marketingand
promotion of commodities,as well as environmental
considerations, shouldbe takeninto account;
(b) Continueto apply compensationmechanismsfor
shortfalls in commodity export earningsof developing
countriesin order to encouragediversificationefforts;
(c) Provide assistanceto developingcountriesupon
requestin the designand implementationof commodity
policies and the gatheringand utilization of information
on commodity markets;
(d) Support the efforts of developing countries to
promote the policy framework and infrastructure re-
quired to improve the efticiency of export and import
trade:
(e) Supportthediversificationinitiativesof thedeveloping
countriesat the national,regionaland intemationallevels.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ FINANCINGAND COSTEVALUATION
2.17 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesin this progralruneareato be about$8.8bil-
lion from the internationalcommunity on grant or con-
cessionalterms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-mag-
nitude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments.Actual costsand financialterms,includ-
ing any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B) CAPACTTY-BUtLDING
2.18 The above-mentionedtechnical cooperation
activities aim at strengtheningnational capabilitiesfor
designandimplementationof commoditypolicy,useand
managementof nationalresourcesand the gatheringand
utilizationof informationon commoditymarkets.
B) frrAKrNG TRADEAND ENVIRONTYIENT
fiIUTUAILY SUPPORTIVE
FORACTION
BASIS
2.19 Environmentandtradepoliciesshouldbe mutually
22
supportive.An open,multilateraltradingsystemmakes
possiblea more efficient allocation and useof resources
and therebycontributesto an increasein production and
incomesand to lesseningdemandson the environment.
It thusprovidesadditionalresources neededfor economic
growth and developmentand improved environmental
protection. A sound environment,on the other hand,
provides the ecological and other resourcesneededto
sustaingrowth and underpina continuingexpansionof
trade. An open,multilateraltrading system,supported
by the adoptionof soundenvironmentalpolicies,would
havea positiveimpacton theenvironmentandcontribute
to sustainable development.
2.20 Internationalcooperationin the environmental
field is growing,anciin anumberofcasestradeprovisions
in multilateralenvironmentagreementshave played a
role in tackling global environmentalchallenges.Trade
measureshave thus been used in certain specific in-
stances,whereconsiderednecessary, to enhancethe ef-
fectivenessof environmentalregulationsfor the protec-
tion of theenvironment.Suchregulationsshouldaddress
the root causesof environmentaldegradationso asnot to
resultin unjustifiedrestrictionson trade.The challenge
is to ensure that trade and environmentpolicies are
consistentand reinforce the processof sustainable
development.However,accountshouldbe taken of the
fact that environmental standardsvalid for developed
countriesmay have unwarrantedsocial and economic
costsin devdlopingcountries.
OBJECTIVES
2.21 Govemmentsshould strive to meet the following
objectives,throughrelevantmultilateralforums,including
GATT, UNCTAD and other internationalorganizations:
(a) To make international trade and environment
policies mutually supportivein favour of sustainable
development;
(b) To clarify the role of GATT, UNCTAD and other
international organizationsin dealing with trade and
environment-related issues,including, where relevant,
conciliationprocedureand disputesettlement;
(c) To encourageinternationalproductivity and com-
petitiveness andencouragea constructiverole on thepart
of industryin dealingwith environmentanddevelopment
issues.
ACTIVITIES
> Developingon environment/trode
ord deuJlophentogendo
2.22 GovernmentsshouldencourageGATT, UNCTAD
 and other relevantinternationaland regionaleconomic developmentalrequirementsof developingcountriesas
institutionsto exarnine,in accordance with theirrespec- they movetowardsinternationallyagreedenvironmental
tive mandatesand competences, the following proposi- objectives;
tionsandpr inc ip l e s : C) Develop more precision, where necessary,and
(a) Elaborateadequatestudiesfor the better under- clarify the relationship between GATT provisions and
standingof the relationshipbetweentradeand environ- someof themultilateralmeasures adoptedin theenviron-
ment for the promotionof sustainable development; ment area;
(b) Promote a dialogue betweentrade, development (k) Ensurepublic input in the formation,negotiation
and environnrent comrnunities: and implementationof trade policies as a means of
(c) In thosecaseswhen trademeasures relatedto en- fosteringincreasedtransparency in the light of country-
vironment are used, ensure transparencyand com- specificconditions;
patibilitywith international obligations; (l) Ensurethat environmentalpoliciesprovidethe ap-
(d) Deal with the root causesof environmentand propriatelegaland institutionalframeworkto respondto
development problemsin a mannerthatavoidstheadop- new needsfor the protectionof the environmentthat may
tion of enr,'ironmental measures resultingin unjustified resultfrom changesin productionand trade specializa-
restrictions on trade: tion.
(e) Seekto avoidthc useof traderestrictions or distor-
tionsasa meansto offsetdifferences in costarisingfrom
differenccsin environmentalstandardsand regulations, c) PROVTD|NGADEQUATEF|NANC|ATRESOURCES
sincetheirapplicationcouldleadto tradedistortionsand TO DEVETOPINGCOUNTRIES
increaseprotectionist tendencies:
(f) Ensure that environment-related regulationsor
stanclards. including those relatedto health and safety BASIS
FORACTION
standards,do not constitutea meansof arbitrary or 2.23 Investmentis critical to the ability of developing
unjustifiable discrimination or a disguisedrestrictionon countriesto achieveneededeconomicgrowthto improve
trade: the welfare of their populationsand to meet their basic
(g) Ensurethat specialfactorsaffectingenvironment needsin a sustainablemanner,all without deteriorating
and tradepoliciesin the developingcountriesareborne or depletingthe resourcebasethat underpinsdevelop-
in mind in theapplicationof environmental standards, as ment. Sustainabledevelopmentrequiresincreasedin-
well asin theuseof anytrademeasures. It is worthnoting vestment, for which domestic and external financial
that standardsthat are valid in the most advanced resources areneeded.Foreignprivateinvestmentandthe
countriesmav be inappropriate andof unwarrantedsocial returnof flight capital,which dependon a healthyinvest-
costlbr the developingcountries; ment climate, are an important sourceof financial re-
(h ) Encourage participation of developingcountriesin sources.Many developingcountrieshaveexperienceda
nrultrlateralagreementsthrough such mechanismsas decade-longsituationof negativenettransferoffinancial
sp ec ialt r ans it io n arul l e s : resources,during which their financial receipts were
(i) Avorcluniiateral actionsto dealwith environmental exceededby paymentstheyhadto make,in particularfor
ci r allengc sout s i d eth e .j u ri s d i c ti o no f th e i mporti ng debt-servicing.As a result, domesticallymobilized
countr\'. Environrnentalmeasuresaddressingtransbor- resourceshad to be transferredabroadinsteadof being
der or glohalcnvirclnmental problemsshould,as far as investedlocally in order to promote sustainableeco-
possiblc.bebasedon aninternationalconsensus. Domes- nomic development.
tic nreasures tar_qeted to achievecertainenvironmental 2.24 For manydevelopingcountries,thereactivationof
ob.jcctives may needtraclentcasures io renderthem ef- developmentwill not take place without an early and
l'ectrre'.Shouldtradepolicymeasures befoundnecessary durable solution to the problemsof externalindebted-
for thr-enforccrnent of environmentalpolicies,certain ness,takinginto accountthe fact that,for manydevelop-
p rir r c iplcanc
- s lr ul e ss h o u l da p p l y .T h e s ec o u l di n c l ude, ing countries,external debt burdensare a significant
iritr uiitr. the principieof non-discrirnination; the prin- problem.The burdenof debt-servicepaymentson those
ciple thei tlte trademeasurechosenshouldbe the least countrieshasimposedsevereconstraintson their ability
trade-rcstrictivc necessary to achievethe objectives;an to accelerategrowth and eradicatepoverty and hasled to
obligationto ensuretransparencyin the use of trade a contracti oni n i mports, i nvestmentand consum p-
rllcdsulcsrclatc'c-l to the environment and to provide ti on. E xternal i ndebtedness has emergedas a ma in
lucleiluaic notification of nationalregulations:and the factor i n the economi c stal ematei n the devel oping
n e edt o gir c ' t ' or r s i d e ra tro
tonth e s p e c i acl o n d i ti o ns
and countri es.C onti nuedvi gorousi mpl ementati on of t he

23
evolving international debt strategy is aimed at re-
storing debtorcountries'externalfinancial viability,
and the resumptionof their growth and development
would a s s i s t i n a c h i e v i n g s u s ta i n abl egrow th and
dev elo p m e n t.In th i s c o n te x t, a d d i t i onal fi nanci al
resourcesin favour of developing countriesand the
efficient utilization of such resourcesare essential.
OBJECTIVES
2.25 The specificrequirementsfor the implementation
of the sectoraland cross-sectoralprogrammesincluded
in Agenda27 aredealt with in the relevantprogramn're
ar eas a n d i n c h a p te r 3 3 (F i n a n c i a l resourcesand
mechanisms).
ACTIVITIES
A) MEETING /NIERNAI/ONAI TARGETSOF OFFICIAL
DEVELA PMENI ASS'SIANCE FUNDING
2.26 As discussedin chapter 33, new and additional
resourcesshould be provided to support Agenda 21
programmes.
THEDEBT'SSUE
B) ADDRESSING
2.27 In regardto the externaldebt incurredwith com-
mercial banks, the progressbeing made under the
strengtheneddebt strategyis recognizedand a morerapid
implementation of this strategy is encouraged.Some
countrieshave already benefitedfrom the combination
of soundadjustmentpoliciesand commercialbank debt
reductionorequivalentmeasures. The internationalcom-
munity encourages:
(a) Other countries with heavy debts to banks to
negotiatesimilar commercial bank debt reductionwith
their creditors:
(b) The partiesto sucha negotiationto takedueaccount
of both the medium-termdebt reductionand new money
requirementsof the debtor country;
(c) Multilateral institutionsactively engagedin the
strengthened internationaldebt strategyto continueto
support debt-reductionpackagesrelated to commer-
cial bank debt with a view to ensuringthat the mag-
nitudeof suchfinancinsis consonantwith theevolving
debt strategy;
( d) Cr e d i to r b a n k s to p a rti c i p a tei n debt and debt-
servicereduction:
(e) Strengthened policies to attractdirect investment,
avoid unsustainable levels of debt and foster the return
of flight capital.
24
2.28 With regard to debt owed to otficial bilateral
creditors,the recentmeasurestaken by the Paris Club
with regardto moregeneroustermsof relief to thepoorest
most indebtedcountriesare welcomed.Ongoingefforts
to implementthese"Trinidadterms"measuresin a man-
ner cofiunensurate with the paymentscapacityof those
countriesand in a way that gives additionalsupportto
their economicrefbrm efforts are welcomed.The sub-
stantial bilateral debt reduction undertakenby some
creditorcountriesis alsowelconted,andotherswhich are
in a positionto do soareencouraged to takesimilaraction.
2 . 2 9 T h e a c t i o n so f l o w - i n c o m ec o u n t r i e sw i t h s u b -
stanti aldebt burdensw hi ch conti nue,at gr eat cost ,
to servi cethei r debt and safeguardtheir cr edit wor -
thi nessare commended.P arti cul aratte nt ionshould
be pai d to thei r resourceneeds. Other debt - dis-
tresseddevel opi ngcountri esw hi ch are m akinggr eat
efforts to conti nue to servi ce thei r debt and m eet
thei r externalfi nanci al obl i eati onsal so deser vedue
attenti on.
2.30 In connectionwith multilateraldebt,it is urgedthat
seriousattentionbe given to continuingto rvork towards
grow'.h-oriented solutionsto the problemof developing
countrieswith seriousdebt-servicing problems,includ-
ing thosewhosedebt is mainly to official creditorsor to
multilateralfinancialinstitutions. Particularlyin thecase
of l ow -i ncomecountri esi n the processo f econom ic
reform, the supportof the mul ti l ateralfinancial in-
sti tuti onsi n the form of new di sbursem entand s t he
ruseof thei r concessi onal fundsi s w el comed.The use
of supportgroupsshoul d be conti nuedin pr oviding
resourcesto cl ear arrearso1'countri e s em bar king
upon vi gorous economi c reform progrant m essup-
portedby IMF and the W orl d B ank. Mea sur esby t he
mul ti l ateral fi nanci al i nsti tuti onssuch as t he r ef i-
n a n c i n go f i n t e r e s to n n o n - c o n c e s s i o n laol a n sw i t h
ID A refl ow s - " fi fth di mensi on"- are not ed r vit h
appreci ati on.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALUATION-
D) ENCOURAGTNGECONOMICPOLICIES
DEVELOPMENT
CONDUCIVETO SUSTAINABLE
BASISFORACTION
2.31 The unfavourahle external environment facing
developing countries makesdomesticresourcemobiliza-
tion and efficient allocation and utilization of domesti-
*See chop. 33
{ F i n o n c i orl e s o u r c e os n d m e c h o n i s m s } .
cally mobilized resourcesall the more important for the
promotionof sustainabledevelopment.In a numberof
countries,policies are necessaryto correct misdirected
public spending,large budget deficits and other macro-
economicimbalances, restrictivepoliciesanddistortions
in the areasof exchangerates,investmentand finance,
a n d obs t ac lest o e n tre p re n e u rs h i p .In d e v e l oped
countries.continuing policy reform and adjustment,in-
cluding appropriatesavingsrates,would help generate
resources to supportthetransitionto sustainable develop-
ment both domesticallyand in developingcountries.
232 Good managementthat fostersthe associationof
effective, efficient, honest,equitableand accountable
public administrationwith individual rights and oppor-
tunitiesis an essentialelementfor sustainable, broadly
baseddevelopmentand soundeconomicperformanceat
all developmentlevels. All countriesshould increase
their efforts to eradicatemismanagementof public and
private affairs, including corruption,taking into account
the factorsresponsiblefor, and agentsinvolved in, this
phenomenon.
2.33 Many indebteddevelopingcountriesareundergo-
ing structural adjustmentprogrammesrelating to debt
reschedulingor new loans.While suchprogrammesare
necessaryfor improving the balancein fiscal budgetsand
balance-of-payments accounts,in somecasesthey have
resultedin adversesocialandenvironmentaleffects,such
as cuts in allocations for health care, education and
environmentalprotection. It is important to ensurethat
structuraladjustmentprogrammesdo not have negative
impacts on the environmentand social developmentso
that such programnles can be more in line with the
objectivesof sustainabledevelopment.
OBJECTIVES
2.34 It is necessaryto establish,in the light of the
country-specificconditions,economic policy reforms
that promote the efficient planning and utilization of
resourcesfor sustainabledevelopment through sound
economicandsocialpolicies,fosterentrepreneurship and
the incorporation of social and environmentalcosts in
resourcepricing, and remove sourcesof distortion in the
areaof tradeand investment.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMFNI-RETATED
ACTIVITIES
D Promotingsoundeconomicpolicies
2.35 The industrializedcountriesand othercountriesin
a position to do so should strengthentheir efforts:
(a) To encouragea stableand predictableintemational
economic environment, particularly with regard to
monetary stability, real ratesof interestand fluctuations
in key exchangerates;
(b) To stimulatesavingsand reducefiscal deficits;
(c) To ensurethat the processesof policy coordination
take into account the interests and concerns of the
developing countries, including the need to promote
positive action to support the efforts of the least
developedcountriesto halt their marginalizationin the
world economy;
(d) To undertakeappropriatenationalmacroeconomic
and structuralpoliciesaimedat promotingnon-inflation-
ary growth, narrowing their major extemal imbalances
and i ncreasi ng the adj ustment capaci ty of the ir
economies.
2.36 Developingcountriesshould considerstrengthen-
ing their effortsto implementsoundeconomicpolicies:
(a) That maintain the monetary and fiscal discipline
requiredto promoteprice stability and externalbalance;
(b) That resultin realisticexchangerates;
(c) Thatraisedomesticsavingsandinvestment,aswell
as improve returnsto investment.
2.37 More specifically, all countries should develop
policies that improve efficiency in the allocation of
resourcesand take full advantageof the opportunities
offered by the changingglobal economicenvironment.
In particular,whereverappropriate.and taking into ac-
count national strategiesand objectives, countries
should:
( a ) R e m o v e t h e b a r r i e r s t o p r o g r e s sc a u s e d b y
bureaucraticinefficiencies,administrativestrains,un-
necessarycontrolsand the neglectof marketconditions;
(b) P romote transparencyi n admi ni strati onand
decision-making;
(c) Encourage the private sector and foster
entrepreneurship by inrprovinginstitutionalfacilitiesfor
enterprisecreationand market entry. The essentialob-
jective would be to simplify otrremovethe restrictions,
regulationsand formalities that make it more compli-
cated,costly and time-consumingto set up and operate
enterprisesin many developingcountries.
(d) Promoteandsupportthe investmentand infrastruc-
ture requiredfor sustainableeconomicgrowth anddiver-
sificationon an environmentallysoundand sustainable
basis;
(e) Provide scope for appropriate economic instru-
ments,including market mechanisms,in hannony with
the objectivesof sustainabledevelopmentandfulfilment
of basicneeds;
(t) Promotethe operationof effective tax systemsand
financial sectors;
(g) Provide opportunitiesfor small-scaleenterprises,
25
both farm and non-farm, and for the indigenouspopula-
tion and local communities to contribute fully to the
attainmentof sustainabledevelopment;
(h) Remove biases against exports and in favour of
inefficient import substitutionand establishpolicies that
allow them to benefit fully from the flows of foreign
investment. within the framework of national, social,
economicand developmentalgoals;
(i) Promote the creation of a domestic economic en-
vironment supportive of an optimal balance between
productionfor the domesticand export markets.
,ANDREG/ONALCOOPERAflON
8/ 'NTERNAilONAL
AND COORDINAI'ON
2.38 Governmentsof developedcountries and those of
other countriesin a position to do so should,directly or
through appropriateinternationaland regional otganiza-
tions and internationallending institutions,enhancetheir
efforts to provide developing countries with increased
technicalassistance for the following:
(a) Capacity-buildingin the nation's design and im-
plementationof economicpolicies,upon request;
(b) Design and operationof efficient tax systems,ac-
countingsystemsand financial sectors;
(c) Promotionofentrepreneurship.
2.39 Internationalfinancialanddevelopmentinstitutions
should further review their policies and programmesin
the light of the objectiveof sustainable development.
2.40 Strongereconomiccooperationamongdeveloping
countrieshas long been acceptedas an important com-
ponentof efforts to promoteeconomicgrowth and tech-
nologicalcapabilitiesand to acceleratedevelopmentin
26
the developing world. Therefore, the efforts of the
developing countriesto promote economic cooperation
among themselvesshould be enhancedand continue to
be supportedby the internationalcommunity.
MEANSOF IMPI-EMENTATION
AND COSTEVALUATTON
,A' T,NANCTNG
2.41 The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activities in this prograrnmearea to be about $50
million from the international community on grant or
concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-
magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby
Governments. Actual costsand financial terms,includ-
ing any that arenon-concessional, will dependupon,inter
alia, the specific strategiesand programmes Govern-
ments decide upon for implementation.
B) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG
2.42 Theabove-mentioned policy changesin developing
countri es i nvol ve substanti alnati ona l ef f or t s f or
capacity-building the areas public administration,
in of
central banking, tax administration,savingsinstitutions
and financial markets.
2.43 Particularefforts in the implementationof the four
progrirmme areasidentified in this chapterare warranted
in view of the especially acute environmental and
developmentalproblemsof theleastdevelopedcountries.
 Combotingpoverty
P R O G R A M MAER E A
ENABUNG THE POOR TO ACHIEVE
SUSTAINABTETIVETIHOODS
BASIS
FORAC-TION
3.1 Poverty is a complex multidimensionalproblem
with origins in both the national and international
domains.No uniform solution can be found for global
application. Rather, country-specificprogrammesto
tacklepoverty and intemationalefforts supportingnational
effofts,aswell astheparallelprocessofcreatinga supportive
internationalenvironment,arecrucialfor a solutionto this
problem. The eradicationof poverty and hunger,greater
equityin incomedisribution andhumanresourcedevelop-
ment remain major challengeseverywhere.The struggle
againstpovertyis the sharedresponsibilityof all countries.
3.2 While managingresourcessustainably, an environ-
mental policy that focusesmainly on the conservation
and protectionof resourcesmust take due accountof
thosewho dependon the resourcesfor their livelihoods.
Otherwise it could have an adverseimpact both on
poverty and on chancesfor long-terrnsuccessin resource
and environmentalconservation.Equally,a development
policy that focusesmainly on increasingthe productionof
goodswithclutaddressing thesustainabilityof theresources
on which productionis basedwill sooneror later run into
decliningproductivity,which could also have an adverse
impacton poverty"Aspeciticanti-povertystrategyis there-
fore one of the basic conditionsfor ensuringsustainable
development. An effective strategyfor tackling the
problemsof poverty,developmentandenvironmentsimul-
taneouslyshouldbegin by focusingon resources, produc-
tion and people and should cover demographicissues,
enhancedhealthcareand education,the rightsof women,
the role of youth and of indigenouspeopleand local com-
munities and a democraticparticipationprocessin
associationwith improved govemance.
3.3 Integralto suchactionis, togetherwithintemational
support,the promotion of economicgrowth in develop-
ing countriesthat is both sustainedand sustainableand
direct action in eradicating poverty by strengthening
employmentand income-generatingprogramrnes.
OBJECTIVES
3.4 The long-termobjectiveof enablingall peopleto
achieve sustainablelivelihoods should provide an in-
tegratingfactor that allows policiesto addressissuesof
development, sustainableresource managementand
poverty eradicationsimultaneously.The objectivesof
this progratnmeareaare:
(a) To provide all personsurgentlywith the opportunity
to eam a sustainable livelihood;
(b) To implementpoliciesand strategiesthat promote
adequate levelsof fundingandfocuson integratedhuman
developmentpolicies,including incomegeneration,in-
creased local control of resources,local institution-
strengtheningandcapacity-buildingandgreaterinvolve-
mentof non-governmental organizationsandlocallevels
of governmentas deliverymechanisms;
(c) To developfor all poverty-sffickenareasintegrated
strategiesand programmesof sound and sustainable
managementof the environment.resourcemobilization,
poverty eradicationand alleviation, employment and
incomegeneration;
(d) To createa focusin nationaldevelopmentplans and
budgetson investmentin human capital, with special
policiesandprogranunesdirectedat rural areas,the urban
poor,women and children.
ACTIVITIES
3.5 Activities that will contributeto the integratedpro-
27
motion of sustainablelivelihoods andenvironmentalpro-
tectioncover a variety of sectoralinterventionsinvolving
a rangeof actors,from local to global, and are essential
at everylevel,especiallythe communityandlocal levels.
Enabling actions will be necessaryat the national and
internationallevels, taking full account of regional and
subregionalconditions to support a locally driven and
country-specific approach. In general design, the
programmesshould:
(a) Focuson the empowermentof local andcommunity
groups through the principle of delegating authority,
accountabilityandresourcesto the mostappropriatelevel
to ensurethat the programmewill be geographicallyand
ecologicallyspecific;
(b) Containimmediatemeasuresto enablethosegroups
to alleviatepoverty and to develop sustainability;
(c) Contain a long-term strategyaimed at establishing
the bestpossibleconditionsfor sustainablelocal,regional
and national developmentthat would eliminate poverty
and reducethe inequalitiesbetweenvarious population
groups
groups. It shouldassistthe most disadvantaged
- in particular,women,children and youth within those
groups - and refugees. The groups will include poor
smallholders,pastoralists,artisans,fishing communities,
landlesspeople,indigenouscommunities,migrantsand
the urban informal sector.
3.6 The focus hereis on specificcross-cuttingmeasures
- in particular, in the areas of basic education,
primary/matemal health care, and the advancementof
women.
COMMUNTTTES
A) EMPOWFRING
3.7 Sustainabledevelopmentmust be achievedat every
level of society.Peoples'organizations,women's groups
and non-governmentalorganizationsareimportantsources
of innovation and action at the local level and have a
stronginterestand proven ability to promote sustainable
livelihoods. Governments,in cooperationwith ap-
propriateinternationaland non-governmentalorganrza-
tions, should support a community-driven approachto
sustainability,which would include, inter alia:
(a) Empowering women through full participation in
decision-making;
(b) Respectingthe cultural integrity and the rights of
indigenouspeopleand their communities;
(c) Promoting or establishinggrass-rootsmechanisms
to allow for the sharing of experienceand knowledge
betweencommunities;
(d) Giving communitiesa large measureof participa-
tion in the sustainablemanagementand protectionof the
local naturalresourcesin order to enhancetheir produc-
tive capacity;
28
(e) Establishinga network of community-basedlearn-
ing centres for capacity-building and sustainable
development.
ATEDACTIVITtES
B) MANAGEMFNT-REL
3.8 Governments,with theassistance of andin coopera-
tion with appropriate international, non-govemmental
and local community organizations,should establish
measuresthat will directly or indirectly:
(a) Generateremunerativeemploymentandproductive
occupational opportunitiescompatible with country-
specific factor endowments,on a scalesufficient to take
care of prospectiveincreasesin the labour force and to
cover backlogs;
(b) With international support, where necessary,
develop adequateinfrastructure,marketing systems,
technology systems,credit systemsand the like and the
humanresourcesneededto supporttheaboveactionsand
to achieve a widening of options for resource-poor
people. High priority shouldbe given to basiceducation
and professionaltraining;
(c) Provide substantialincreasesin economicallyeffi-
cient resourceproductivity and measuresto ensurethat
the local population benefits in adequatemeasurefrom
resourceuse:
(d) Empower community organrzationsand people to
enablethem to achievesustainablelivelihoods;
(e) Setup an effectiveprimary healthcareand maternal
healthcaresystemaccessibleto all;
( f ) C o n s i d e r s t r e n g t h e n i n g / d e v e l o p i n gl e g a l
frameworksfor land management,accessto land resour-
ces and land ownership- in particular,for women -
and for the protectionof tenants;
(g) Rehabilitatedegradedresources,to the extentprac-
ticable, and introduce policy measuresto promote sus-
tainableuseof resourcesfor basichumanneeds;
(h) Establishnew community-basedmechanismsand
strengthenexisting mechanismsto enablecommunities
to gain sustainedaccessto resourcesneededby the poor
to overcometheir poverty;
(i) Implementmechanismsfor popularparticipation-
particularlyby poorpeople,especiallywomen- in local
community groups,to promotesustainabledevelopment;
0) Implement, as a matter of urgency,in accordance
with country-specific conditions and legal systems,
measuresto ensurethat women and men have the same
right to decidefreely and responsiblyon the numberand
spacingof their children and have accessto the informa-
tion, educationand means,asappropriate,to enablethem
to exercise this right in keeping with their freedom,
dignity and personally held values, taking into account
ethicaland cultural considerations.Governmentsshould
take active stepsto implement programmesto establish
and strengthenpreventiveand curative health facilities,
which include women-centred,women-managed,safe
and effective reproductive health care and affordable,
accessibleservices,as appropriate,for the responsible
planningof family size,in keepingwith freedom,dignity
and personallyheld values, taking into account ethical
andcultural considerations.Programmesshouldfocuson
providing comprehensive health care, including pre-
natal care, education and information on health and
responsibleparenthoodand should provide the oppor-
tunity for all women to breast-feedfully, at least during
the first four months post-partum. Programmesshould
fully supportwomen'sproductiveand reproductiveroles
and well-being, with special attention to the need for
providing equaland improvedhealthcarefor all children
and the need to reduce the risk of maternal and child
mortality and sickness;
(k) Adopt integratedpolicies aiming at sustainability
in the managementof urban centres;
(l) Undertakeactivitiesaimed at the promotion of food
security and, where appropriate,food self-sufficiency
within the contextof sustainableagriculture;
(m) Supportresearchon and integrationof traditional
methodsof productionthat have been shown to be en-
vironmentally sustainable;
(n) Actively seekto recognizeand integrateinformal-
sector activities into the economy by removing regula-
tions and hindrancesthat discriminateasainstactivities
in thosesectors;
(o) Cons iderm a k i n g a v a i l a b l el i n e s o f c re d i t and
other facilities for the informal sectorand improved
a c c es st o land f or th e l a n d l e s sp o o r s o th a t th e y can
a c quir et he m ean so f p ro d u c ti o na n d re l i a b l ea ccess
to nat ur alr es ourc e sIn . ma n y i n s ta n c e ss p e c i alcon-
siderationsfor women are required.Strict feasibility
appraisalsare needed for borrowers to avoid debt
c r is es :
(p) Provide the poor with accessto fiesh water and
sanitation;
(q) Provide the poor with accessto primary educa-
ti o n.
C) DATA,/NFORMAI/ONAND EVALUATION
3.9 Governmentsshouldimprove the collectionof in-
formation on target groups and target areas in order to
facilitatethe designof focusedprogrammesand activities,
consistentwith the target-groupneedsand aspirations.
Evaluation of such programmesshould be gender-
specific,sincewomen ere a particularlydisadvantaged
group.
D/ TNTERNAT/ONAI
AND REG/ONA
L COO?ERAilON
AND COORD/NAT'ON
3.10 The United Nations system,through its relevant
organs, organizationsand bodies, in cooperationwith
Member Statesand with appropriateintemational and
non-governmentalorganizations,should make poverty
alleviation a major priority and should:
(a) AssistGovernments,whenrequested, in the formu-
lation andimplementationof nationalactionprogrammes
on poverty alleviationand sustainabledevelopment.Ac-
tion-orientedactivities of relevanceto the above objec-
tives, suchas poverty eradication,projectsand program-
mes supplementedwhere relevantby food aid, and sup-
port and special emphasison employment and income
generation,should be given particular attention in this
regard;
(b) Prornotetechnical cooperationamong developing
countriesfor poverty eradicationactivities;
(c) Strengthen existingstructuresin the UnitedNations
system for coordination of action relating to poverty
eradication,including the establishment of a focal point
for information exchangeand the formulation and im-
plementationof replicablepilot projectsto combatpov-
ert!,
(d) In the follow-up of the implementationof Agenda
21, gle high priority to the review of the progressmade
in eradicatingpoverty;
(e) Examine the international economic framework,
including resourceflows and structural adjustment
programmes,to ensurethat social and environnrental
concernsare addressed, and in this connection,conduct
a review of the policies of internationalorganizations,
bodiesand agencies,including financial institutions,to
ensurethe continuedprovision of basic servicesto the
poor and needy;
(0 Promote international cooperation to addressthe
root causesof poverty.The developmentprocesswill not
gathermomentumif developingcountriesare weighted
down by externalindebtedness, if developmentfinance
is inadequate, if barriersrestrictaccessto marketsand if
commodity pricesand the terms of tradein developing
countriesremaindepressed.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
3.l I The secretariat of the Conferencehasestimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (19%-2m0) of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$30 billion,
including about$15 billion from the internationalcom-
29
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Ciovernments.This estimateoverlaps
estimatesin otherpartsof Agenda2l . Actual costsand
financialterms,includingany that arenon-concessional,
will dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand
programmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementa-
tion.
B) CAPACITY-BUILDING
3.12 National capacity-buildingfor implementation
of the aboveactivitiesis crucial and should be eiven
30
highpriority. It is particularlyimportantto focuscapac-
ity-building at the local community level in order to
supporta community-drivenapproachto sustainability
and to establishand strengthenmechanismsto allow
sharingof experienceand knowledgebetweencom-
munity groupsat nationalandinternationallevels. Re-
quirementsfor suchactivities are considerableand are
relatedto the various relevantsectorsof Agenda 2l
calling for requisiteinternational,financial and tech-
nologicalsupport.
 / l ' r'
Chongingconsumption
potterns
4.1 This chaptercontainsthefolkrwing programmeareas:
(a) Focusingon unsustainablepatternsof production
and consumption;
(b) Developing national policies and strategiesto en-
couragechangesin unsustainable consumptionpattems.
4.2 Sincethe issueof changingconsumptionpatterns
in severalpartsof Agenda
is very broad,it is addressed
21, notablythosedealingwith energy,transportation and
wastes,and in the chapterson economicinstrumentsand
the transferof technology.The presentchaptershould
alsobe readin conjunctionwith chapter5 (Demographic
dynamicsand sustainability).
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) FOCUSTNG
ON UNSUSTATNABIEPATTERNS
OF PRODUCTIONAND CONSU}TPTION
BASIS FORACTION
,1.3 Povertyandenvironmentaldegradationareclose-
ly intenelated.While poverty resultsin certainkinds of
environmentalstress,the major causeof the continued
deteriorationof the global environmentis the unsustain-
ablepatternof consumptionandproduction,particularlyin
industrializedcountries,which is a matterof graveconcern,
aggravatingpovertyand imbalances.
4.4 Measuresto be undertakenat ttre internationallevel
for theprotectionandenhancernent of tlteenvironmentmust
takefully into accountthe currentimbalancesin the global
patternsof consumptionandproduction.
4.5 Specialattentionshouldbe paid to the demandfor
naturalresourcesgeneratedby unsustainable consump-
tion and to the efficientuseof thoseresourcesconsistent
with the goal of minimizing depletion and reducing
pollution.Although consumptionpatternsare very high
in certainpartsof the world, the basicconsumerneedsof
a largesectionof humanityarenot beingmet. This results
in excessivedemandsandunsustainable lifestylesamong
the richer segments,which placeimmensestresson the
environment.The poorer segments,meanwhile,are un-
able to meet food. health care. shelterand educational
needs.Changing consumptionpattems will require a
multiprongedstrategyfocusing on demand,meeting the
basicneedsof the poor,and reducingwastageand the use
of finite resourcesin the productionprocess.
4.6 Crowing recognitionof the imporlanceof addressing
consumptionhas also not yet been matchedby an under-
standingof irsimplications.Someeconomistsarequestioning
traditionalconceptsof economicgrowttrandunderliningthe
importanceof pursuingeconomicobjectivesthattakeaccount
of the full valueof naturalresourcecapital.More needsto be
known abouttherole of consumptionin relationto economic
growth and populationdynamics in order to formulate
coherentintemationalandnationalpolicies.
OBJECTIVES
4.7 Action is neededto meet the followins broad ob-
jectives:
(a) To promotepatternsof consumptionandproduction
that reduceenvironmentalstressand will meetthe basic
needsof humanity;
(b) To develop a better understandingof the role of
consumptionand how to bring about more sustainable
consumptionpattems.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI.R
ELATED
ACTIVITIES
> Adopt.ingon internationalapproach to ochieving
susfoinobleconsumption pattern
s
4.8 In principle, countries should be guided by the
31
following basic objectives in their efforts to address
consumptionandlifestylesin the contextof environment
and development:
(a) All countriesshouldstrive to promote sustainable
consumptionpatterns;
(b) Developedcountriesshouldtakethe leadin achiev-
ing sustainableconsumptionpatterns;
(c) Developingcountriesshould seekto achievesus-
tainable consumption patterns in their development
process,guaranteeing the provisionof basicneedsfor the
poor, while avoiding those unsustainable patterns,par-
ticul arly i n industrializedcountries,generally recognized
as unduly hazardousto the environment,inefficient and
wasteful,in their developmentprocesses.This requires
enhancedtechnologicaland other assistancefrom in-
dustrialized countries.
4.9 In the follow-up of the implementationof Agenda
2I thereview of progressmadein achievingsustainable
consumptionpatternsshouldbe given high priority.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMAT/ON
> lJndertokingreseorchon consumption
4.10 In order to support this broad strategy,Govern-
ments,and/orprivate researchand policy institutes,with
the assistance of regionaland internationaleconomicand
environmentalorganizations,should make a concerted
effort to:
(a) Expand or promote databaseson production and
consumptionand developmethodologiesfor analysing
them;
(b) Assessthe relationshipbetween production and
consumption,environment,technologicaladaptationand
innovation, economic growth and development,and
demographicfactors;
(c) Examine the impact of ongoing changesin the
structure of modern industrial economies away from
material-intensiveeconomic growth;
(d) Consider how economiescan grow and prosper
while reducing the use of energy and materialsand the
production of harmful materials;
( e ) I d e n t i f y b a l a n c e dp a t t e r n so f c o n s u m p t i o n
worldwide which the Earlhcan supportin the long term.
> Developingnewconcepts economic
of sustoinoble growth
ond prosperity
4.ll Considerationshould also be given to the present
concepts of economic growth and the need for new
conceptsof wealth and prosperitywhich allow higher
standardsof living throughchanged andareless
lif-estyles
32
dependenton the Earth's finite resourcesand more in
harmonywith theEarth'scarryingcapacity.This shouldbe
reflectedin the evolutionof new systemsof nationalac-
countsand otherindicatorsof sustainable
development.
c/ /NTERNAT/ONAI
COOqERATION
AND
COORD/NAI/ON
4.12 While internationalreview processesexist for ex-
amining economic,developmentand demographicfac-
tors, more attentionneedsto be paid to issuesrelatedto
consumptionand production patternsand sustainable
lifestylesand environment.
4.13 In the follow-up of the inrplementationof Agenda
21, reviewing the role and impact of unsustainable
productionand consumptionpatternsand lifestylesand
theirrelationto sustainabledevelopmentshouldbe given
high priority.
> Finoncingand costevaluotion
4.14 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthat im-
plementationof this programmeis not likely to require
significantnew financialresources.
B) DEVETOPTNGNATTONATPOUC|ESAND
STRATEGIES
TO ENCOURAGECHANGESIN
UNSUSTAINABTECONSUMPTION PATTERNS
FORACTION
BASIS
a.l5 Achieving the goals of environmentalquality and
sustainabledevelopment will require efficiency in
productionand changesin consumptionpatternsin order
to emphasizeoptimizationof resourceuseandminimiza-
tion of waste. In many instances,this will require re-
orientationof existingproductionand consumptionpat-
ternsthat have developedin industrialsocietiesand are
in turn emulatedin much of the world.
4.16 Progresscan be made by strengtheningpositive
trends and directions that are emerging, as part of a
processaimed at achieving significantchangesin the
consumpti onpatternsof i ndustri es,Gove r nm ent s,
householdsand individuals.
OBJECTIVES
4.11 ln the years ahead,Governments,working with
appropriateorganizations,should strive to meet the fol-
lowing broadobjectives:
(a) To promoteefficiencyin productionprocesses and
reducewastefulconsumptionin the processof economic
growth, taking into accountthe developmentneedsof
developingcountries;
(b) To developa domesticpolicy frameworkthat will
encouragea shift to more sustainablepatternsof produc-
tion and consumption:
(c) To reinforceboth valuesthat encouragesustainable
production and consumption patternsand policies that
encouragethe transfer of environmentally sound tech-
nologiesto developingcountries.
ACTIVITIES
A) ENCOURAG'NG EFFICIENCY
GREATER
AND RFSOURCES
IN IHE USEOF ENERGY
4.l8 Reducingthe amountof energyandmaterialsused
per unit in the production of goods and servicescan
contributeboth to the alleviationof environmentalstress
and to greatereconomicand industrialproductivityand
competitiveness.Governments,in cooperationwith in-
dustry, should therefore intensify efforts to use energy
and resourcesin an economicallyefficientand environ-
mentally soundmannerby:
(a) Encouragingthe disseminationof existingenviron-
mentallysoundtechnologies;
(b) Promotingresearchand developmentin environ-
mentallysoundtechnologies;
(c) Assistingdevelopingcountriesto use thesetech-
nologiesefficiently and to developtechnologiessuited
to their particularcircumstances.
(d) Encouragingthe environmentallysounduseof new
and renewablesourcesof energy,
(e) Encouragingthe environmentallysound and sus-
tainableuseof renewablenaturalresources.
OF WASTES
B) M|N|MIZINGTHEGENERAT/ON
4. 19 A t t he s ameti me , s o c i e tyn e e d sto d e v e l o peffec-
tive ways of dealingwith the problenrof disposingof
m ount ing lev e l s o f w a s te p ro d u c ts a n d m a teri al s.
G ov er nm ent sto , g e th e rw i th i n d u s trv h and
. o u s e h ol ds
the public, should make a concertedeffort to reduce
the generationof wastesand wasteproductsby:
(a) Encouragingrecycling in industrialprocessesand
at the consumerlevel;
(b) Reducingwastefulpackagingof products,
(c) Encouragingthe introductionof moreenvironmen-
tally soundproducts.
AND HOUSEHOI.DS
C/ A55/SI'NG/NDIYIDUALS
TO MAKEENY/RONMENTALLY SOUND
PURCHASING DECISIONS
4.20 The recentemergencein many countriesof a more
environmentallyconsciousconsumerpublic, combined
with increasedintereston the part of someindustriesin
providing environmentallysoundconsumerproducts,is
a significant development that should be encouraged.
Governmentsand intemational organizations,together
with the private sector, should develop criteria and
methodologiesfor the assessment of environmentalim-
pacts and resourcerequirementsthroughoutthe full life
cycle of productsand processes.Resultsof thoseassess-
mentsshouldbe transformedinto clearindicatorsin order
to inform consumersand decisionmakers.
4.21 Governments,in cooperationwith industry and
other relevantgroups, should encourageexpansionof
environmentallabelling and other environmentallyre-
lated productinformation prografitmesdesignedto assist
consumersto make informedchoices.
4.72 T\ey should also encouragethe emergenceof an in-
formed consumer public and assist individuals and
householdsto makeenvironmentallyinformedchoicesby:
(U Providinginforrnationon the consequences of con-
sumption choices and behaviour so as to encourage
demandfor environmentallysoundproductsand use of
products;
(b) Making consumersawareof thehealthandenviron-
mentalimpact of products,throughsuchmeansas con-
sumerlegislationand environmentallabelling;
(c) E ncouragi ngspeci fi c consumer-ori entedpr o-
grammes,suchasrecyclingand deposiVrefund systems.
G A D E R S HTH
D ) E X E R C /S /NLE IPR OU GH
GOVERNMENI PURCHASING
4.23 Governmentsthemselvesalso play a role in con-
sumption,particularlyin countrieswherethe public sec-
tor plays a large role in the economy and can have a
considerableinfluenceon both corporatedecisionsand
public perceptions.They should thereforereview the
purchasingpoliciesof their agenciesanddepartmentsso
that they may improve,wherepossible.the environmental
content of governmentprocurementpolicies, without
prejudiceto intemationaltradeprinciples.
E) MOVTNGTOWARDS
ENy/RONMENTALI.y
SOUNDPR/CING
4.24 Without the stimulusof pricesand market signals
33
that makeclear to producersand consumersthe environ-
mentalcostsof the consumptionof energy,materialsand
natural resourcesand the generationof wastes,sig-
nificant changesin consumptionand productionpatterns
seemunlikely to occur in the near future.
4.25 Someprogresshasbegunin the useof appropriate
economicinstrumentsto influenceconsumerbehaviour.
These instrumentsinclude environmental chargesand
taxes, deposit/refundsystems,etc. This processshould
be encouraged in the light of country-specific
conditions.
F) RETNFORC'NG
VALUES THATSUPPORT
SUSIA'NA8
[F CONSUMPTION
4.26 Governmentsand private-sectororganizations
should promote more positive attitudestowards sus-
tainableconsumptionthrougheducation,public aware-
34
ness programmesand other means, such as positive
advertisingof productsand servicesthat utilize environ-
mentally sound technologiesor encouragesustainable
production and consumptionpatterns.In the review of
the implementationof Agenda21, an assessment o1'the
progressachievedin developingthesenationalpolicies
and strategiesshouldbe given due consideration.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
4.27 This programme is concerned primarily with
changesin unsustainablepatternsof consumptionand
productionand valuesthat encouragesustainable con-
sumptionpatternsand lifestyies.It requiresthe com-
b i n e d e f f o r t s o f G o v e r n m e n t s ,c o n s u m e r sa n d
producers.Particular attention should be paid to the
significant role played by women and householdsas
consumersand the potentialimpactsof their combined
purchasingpower on the economy.
 Demogrophic
dynomics
ond sustoinobility

-5.1 This chaptercontainsthefollowing prograrnmeareas: [ion, and development.Populationpolicy should also

(a) Developinganddisseminating knowledgeconcern- recognizethe role played by human beings in environ-
ing thelinks betweendemographictrendsandfactorsand mental and developmentconcerns.There is a need to
sustainabledevelopment; increaseawarenessof this issueamongdecisionmakers
(b) Fornrulatingintegratednational policies for en- at all levels and to provide both better information on
v ir onm ent and d e v e l o p me n t,ta k i n g i n to a ccount which to base national and internationalpolicies and a
demographictrendsand factors; tramework againstwhich to interpretthis information.
'Ihere
( c ) I m p l e m e n t i n g i n t e g r a t e d ,e n v i r o n m e n t a n d 5.4 is a needto developstrategiesto mitigateboth
der.'eloprnent prograrrunes at the local level, taking into the adverseimpact on the environmentof human activ-
accountdemographictrendsand factors. ities and the adverseimpactof environmentalchangeon
human populations.The world's populationis expected
to exceed8 billion by the year 2020. Sixty per cent of
the world'spopulationalreadylive in coastalareas,while
P R O G R A M MAER E A S 65 per cent of cities with populationsabove2.5 million
are located along the world coasts;severalof thern are
Al DEVETOPTNGAND DtSSErYilNAIlNG alreadyat or below the presentsealevel.
KNOIA/IEDGECONCERNINGTHETINKSBETWEEN
DEMOGRAPHICTRENDSAND FACTORS AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVETOPMENT OBJECTIVES
5.5 The following objectives should be achievedas
soonas practicable:
FORACTION
BASIS (a) To incorporatedemographictrendsand factorsin the
-5.1 Demographictrends and factors and sustainable global analysisof environmentanddevelopmentissues;
der,'elopment have a synergisticrelationship. (b) To developa betterunderstandingof the relationships
.s.3 The growthof world populationandproductioncom- among demographicdynamics,technology,cultural be-
bined with unsustainable consumptionpatternsplacesin- haviour,naturalresourcesand life supportsystems;
creasinglyseverestresson thelife-supportingcapacitiesof (c) To assesshumanvulnerabilityin ecologicallysen-
our planet.Theseinteractiveprocesses affecttheuseof land, sitive areasand centresof populationto determinethe
\\'ater.air, energyand other resources.Rapidly growing priorities for action at all levels,taking full accountof
crties. unless well-managed,face major environmental community-definedneeds.
prohlems.The increasein boththe numberandsizeof cities
calis fbr greaterattentionto issuesof local govemmentand
mr"rnicipalmanagement.The human dimensionsare key ACTIVITIES
element-s to considerin thisintricatesetof relationshipsand
ther shouldbe adequatelytakeninto consideration in com- > Reseorchon the inferoctionbefweendemogrophictrends
prehensivepoliciesfor sustainabledevelopment. Such ond foctorsond sustoinobledevelopment
policics shor"rldaddressttrelinkagesclfdemographic trends
andfactors.resourceuse,appropriatetechnologydissemina- 5.6 Relevant international,regional and national in-

35

stitutionsshould considerundertakingthe following ac-
tivities:
(a) Identifying the interactionsbetweendemographic
processes,natural resourcesand life support systems,
bearing in mind regional and subregionalvariations
deriving from, inter alia,different I eveIs of deveIopment;
(b) Integratingdemographictrendsand t-actorsinto the
ongoingstudyof environmentalchange,usingthe exper-
tise of international,regional and national researchnet-
worksandof localcommunities,first,to studythehuman
dimensionsof environmentalchange and, second,to
identify vulnerableareas;
(c) Identifying priority areasfor action and developing
strategies andprogrammes to mitigatetheadverseimpact
of environmentalchangeon humanpopulations'andvice
versa.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
5.7 The Conference secretariathas estirnatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$10 million
from the internationalcomrnunityon grant or conces-
sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-mag-
nitude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments.Actualcostsandfinancialterms,includ-
ing any that are non-concessional, will dependupon,
inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
RESEARCH
B/ SIRENGIHEN'NG PROGRAMMES
POPULAT'ON,ENYIRONMENI
THATINTEGRAIE
AND DEVELOPMENT
5.8 In order to integratedemographicanalysisinto a
broadersocialscienceperspectiveon environmentand
development,interdisciplinaryresearchshouldbe in-
creased. Internationalinstitutionsand networks of
expertsshouldenhancetheir scientiflccapacity,taking
full accountof communityexperienceandknowledge,
and shoulddisseminatethe experiencegainedin multi-
disciplinar,vapproachesand in linking theoryto action.
5.9 Bettermodellingcapabilitiesshouldbe developed,
identifying the range of possibleoutcomesof current
human activities,especiallythe interrelatedimpact of
demographictrendsand factors,per capitaresourceuse
and wealth distribution,as well as the major migration
flows that may be expectedwith increasingclimatic
eventsandcumulativeenvironmentalchangethat may
destroypeople'slocal livelihoods.
36
AND
/NFORMATION
c) DEVELOP'NG
AWARFNESS
PUBLIC
5 . 1 0 S o c i o - d e m o g r a p h i ci n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d b e
developedin a suitableformatfor interfacingwith physi-
cal,biologicalandsocio-economic data.Compatiblespa-
tial andternporalscalesandcross-country andtime-series
infbrmation, as well as global behaviouralindicators,
shouidbe developed,learningfrom local communities'
perceptionsand attitudes.
5.11 Awarenessshouldbe increasedat all ievelsconcern-
ing the needto optimizethe sustainable useof resources
through efficient resourcemanagement,taking into ac-
count the development needs of the populations of
developingcountries.
5.t2 Awarenessshouldbe increasedof the fundamental
linkagesbetweenimproving the statusof women and
demographicdynamics,particularly through women's
accessto education,primary andreproductivehealthcare
programmes,economicindependence andtheir effective,
equitableparticipationin all levelsof decision-making.
5.13 Results of researchconcernedwith sustainable
developmentissuesshouldbe disseminated throughtech-
nical reports, scientificjoumals, the media, workshops,
forums or other meansso that the information can be used
by decisionmakersatall levelstoincreasepublic awareness.
AND/ORENHANCING
D) DEVELOPING
,NSI/IUIIONAICAPAC'IYAND COLLABORAI'ON
5.14 Collaborationand exchangeof informationshould
be increasedbetweenresearchinstitutions and interna-
tional,regionalandnationalagenciesandall othersectors
(including the private sector,local communities,non-
governmentalorganizationsand scientific institutions)
from both the industrializedanddevelopingcountries,as
appropriate.
5.15 Efforts should be intensified to enhancethe
capaci ti esof nati onal and l ocal governm ent s,t he
organizationsin
private sectorand non-governmental
developingcountriesto meet the growing needsfor
of rapidly growingurbanareas.
improvedmanagement
B) FORfrTULATING NATIONAL
INTEGRATED
POTICIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAND DEVETOPMENT'
TAKING INTO ACCOUNT DEMOGRAPHICTR,ENDS
AND FACTORS
BASISFORACTION
5.16 Existing plans for sustainabledevelopmenthave
generallyrecognizeddemographictrendsand factors as
elementsthat have a critical influenceon consumption
patterns,production,lifestylesand long-term sustaina-
bility. But in future,rrore attentionwill haveto be given
to these issuesin generalpolicy formulation and the
designof developmentplans.To do this"all countrieswill
have to improve their own capacitiesto assessthe envi-
ronment and developmentimplicationsof their demo-
graphictrendsand f-actors.They will alsoneedto formu-
late and implement policies and action prograrnmes
whereappropriate. Policiesshouldbedesignedto address
the consequences of populationgrowth built into popu-
lation momentum,while at the sametime incorporating
measuresto bring about demographictransition. They
shouldcombineenvironmentalconcernsand population
issueswithin a holistic view of developmentwhose
primary goalsinclude the alleviationof povertli secure
livelihoods;goodhealth;quality of life; improvementof
the status and income of women and their accessto
schoolingandprofessionaltraining.aswell asfulfilment
of their personalaspirations;and empowermentof indi-
viduals and communities. Recognizingthat large in-
creasesin the size and number of cities will occur in
developingcountriesunderany likely populationscena-
rio, greaterattentionshouldbe givento preparingfor the
needs,in particularof womenandchildren,for improved
municipalmanagementand local govenrment.
OBJECTIVE
5.17 Full integrationof populationconcemsinto national
planning,policy and decision-making processesshould
continue. Populationpoliciesand programmesshouldbe
considered,with full recognitionof women'srights.
ACTIVITIES
5.I 8 Governmentsandotherrelevantactorscould,inter
alia. undertakethe following activities,with appropriate
assistance from aid agencies,and report on their status
of implementation to the International Conference on
Populationand Developmentto be held in 1994,esF,e-
cially to its committeeon populationand environment.
A/ ASSESS/NG
THEtMPt-tCArlONS
OF NAI/ONAI.
DEMOGRAPH'CIRENDSAND FACIORS
5.19 The relationshipsbetweendemographictrendsand
factorsand environmentalchangeand betweenenviron-
mentaldegradationand the componentsof demographic
changeshouldbe analysed.
5.20 Researchshouldbe conductedon how environmen-
tal factorsinteractwith socio-economicfactorsasa cause
of migration.
5.21 Vulnerablepopulationgroups(such as rural land-
less workers, ethnic minorities, refugees,migrants,dis-
placed people, women heads of household) whose
changes in demographic structure may have specific
impactson sustainable developmentshouldbe identified.
5.22 An assessment shouldbe madeof the implications
of the agestructureof the populationon resourcedemand
and dependencyburdens,ranging from educationalex-
pensesfor the young to health care and supportfor the
elderly, and on householdincome generation.
5.23 An assessment should also be made of national
populationcarryingcapacityin thecontextof satisfaction
of humanneedsandsustainabledevelopment,andspecial
attentionshouldbe given to critical resources,such as
water and land, and environmentalfactors such as eco-
systemhealthand biodiversity.
5.24 The impact of national demographictrends and
factors on the traditional livelihoods of indigenous
groups and local communities,including changesin
traditional land usebecauseof internal populationpres-
sures,shouldbe studied.
B) BUILDING
AND SIRENGIHENING
A NAI/ONAT/NFORMATIONSASE
5.25 Nationaldatabases on demographictrendsand fac-
tors andenvironmentshouldbe built and/orstrengthened,
disaggregating databy ecologicalregion(ecosystemap-
proach),and population/environment profilesshouldbe
establishedby region.
5.26Methodologies and instruments should be
developedto identify areaswhere sustainabilityis, or
may be,threatenedby the environmentaleffectsof demo-
graphictrendsandfactors,incorporatingboth currentand
projected demographicdata linked to natural environ-
mentalprocesses.
5.27 Case-studies of local level responsesby different
groupsto demographicdynamicsshouldbe developed,
particularlyin areassubjectto environmentalstressand
in deterioratingurbancentres.
5.2t1 Populationdata shouldbe disaggregated by, inter
alia, sexand agein order to takeinto accountthe impli-
cationsof the genderdivision of labour for the useand
managementof naturalresources.
CJ /NCORPORAI/NGDEMOGRAPHIC
FEATURES
,NIO POLICIES
AND PIANS
policies,account
5.29 In formulatinghumansettlements
37
shouldbe takenof resourceneeds,wasteproductionand
ec os y s t e mh e a l th .
5.30 The direct and induced effects of demographic
changeson environmentand developmentprogrammes
should,whereappropriate,be integrated,and the impact
on demographicfeaturesassessed.
5 . 3 1N a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n p o l i c y g o a l s a n d p r o -
grammesthat areconsistentwith nationalenvironment
and developmentplansfor sustainabilityand in keep-
ing with the freedom, dignity and personally held
values of individuals should be establishedand im-
plemented.
5.32 Appropriatesocio-economic policiesfor the young
and the elderly, in termsof both family and statesupport
systems,shouldbe developed.
5.33 Policiesand programmesshouldbe developedfor
handlingthe varioustypesof migrationsthat resultfrom
or induceenvironmentaldisruptions,with specialatten-
tion to women and vulnerablegroups.
5.34 Demographicconcerns,includingconcernsfor en-
vironmentalmigrants and displacedpeople,should be
incorporatedin the programmesfor sustainable develop-
ment o1'relevantinternationaland regionalinstitutions.
5.-15National reviews shouldbe conductedand the inte-
grationof populationpoliciesin nationaldevelopmentand
environmentstrategiesshouldbe monitorednationally.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
Ai F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
5. 36 T he C o n fe re n c es e c re ta ri a th a s e sti matedthe
averagetotal annualcost(1993-2000)ol implementing
the activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$90 million
from the internationalcommunity on grant or conces-
sionalterms.Theseareindicativeand order-of-magni-
tude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, in-
cluding any that are non-concessional. will depend
upon, int e r a l i a . th e s p e c i fi c s tra te gi esand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecide upon for implementa-
t ion.
B/ RA/S/NGAWARENESS OF DEMOGRAPHTC
A ND S USIA /N A 8 TDFE VE L O P M EN
/NIIE RA C I/ON S
5.37 Understandingof the interactionsbetweendemo-
graphictrendsand factorsand sustainabledevelopment
shouldbe increasedin all sectorsof society.Stressshould
be placedtln local andnationalaction. Demographicand
sustainabledevelopmenteducation should be coordi-
natedand integratedin both the formal and non-formal
38
educationsectors.Particularattentionshouldbe given to
population literacy programmes, notably for women.
Specialemphasisshould be placed on the linkage be-
tween these programmes,primary environmental care
and the provision of primary health care and services.
INSI'IUI/ONS
C/ SIRENGIHEN'NG
5.38 The capacityof national,regionaland local struc-
turesto deal with issuesrelatingto demographictrends
and factorsand sustainabledevelopmentshouldbe en-
hanced.This would involve strengtheningthe relevant
bodiesresponsiblefor populationissuesto enablethem
to el aboratepol i ci es consi stentw i th th e nat ional
prospects for sustainabledevelopment. Cooperation
amongGovemments,nationalresearchinstitutions,non-
governmentalorganizationsand local communitiesin
assessingproblemsand evaluatingpoliciesshould also
be enhanced.
5.39 The capacityof therelevantUnited Nationsor€ans,
organizationsand bodies,internationaland regionalinter-
govemmentalbodies,non-governmental organizations and
local communities should, as appropriate,be enhancedto
helpcountriesdevelopsustainable developmentpolicieson
requestand, as appropriate,provideassistance to environ-
mentalmigrantsanddisplacedpeople.
5.40 Inter-agencysupport for nati onal sust ainable
developmentpolicies and programmesshould be im-
proved through better coordination of population and
environmentactivities.
D) PROMOI'NGHUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
5.41 The internationalandregionalscientificinstitutions
should assist Governments,upon request,to include
concernsregardingthe population/environment interac-
tions at the global, ecosystemand micro-levelsin the
training of demographersand populationand environ-
ment specialists.Training should include researchon
linkagesand ways to designintegratedstrategies.
cl rrvlPtEMENTtNG
TNTEGRATED
ENVIRONTVIENT
AND DEVETOPMENT PROGRAM'VIES
AT THE LOCAT
LEVEL,TAKING INTO ACCOUNTDEMOGRAPHIC
TRENDSAND FACTORS
BASISFORACTION
5.42 Population programmes are more effective when
implemented together with appropriate cross-sectoral
policies.To attainsustainabilityat the iocal level, a new
framework is neededthat integratesdemographictrends
and factors with suchfactors as ecosystemhealth, tech-
nology andhumansettlements,and with socio-economic
structures and access to resources.Population pro-
grammesshouldbe consistentwith socio-economicand
environmentalplanning.Integratedsustainable develop-
ment programmes should closely correlate action on
demographictrends and factors with resourcemanage-
ment activities and developmentgoals that meet the
needsof the peopleconcemed.
OBJECTIVE
5.43 Population programmesshould be implemented
along with natural resourcemanagementand develop-
ment programmes at the local level that will ensure
sustainable improvethe quality
useof naturalresources,
of life of the people and enhanceenvironmentalquality.
ACTIVITIES
5.44 Governmentsand local communities, including
community-basedwomen's organizationsand national
non-governmentalorganizations,consistentwith na-
tional plans,objectives,strategiesand priorities,could,
inter alia, undertakethe activitiessetout below with the
assistanceand cooperation of international otganiza-
tions, as appropriate.Governments could share their
experiencein the implementationof Agenda 2l at the
International Conference on Population and Develop-
ment, to be held in 1994,especiallyits committeeon
populationand environment.
FORACIION
A FRAMEWORK
A] DEVELOP'NG
5.45 An effectiveconsultativeprocessshouldbe estab-
lishedandimplementedwith concernedgroupsof society
wherethe formulationand decision-makingof all com-
ponentsof the programmesare basedon a nationwide
consultativeprocessdrawing on community meetings,
regionalworkshopsand nationalseminars.as appropri-
ate. This processshouldensurethat viewsof womenand
men on needs,perspectivesand constraintsare equally
well reflectedin the design of programmes,and that
solutionsarerootedin specificexperience.The poor and
underprivilegedshouldbe priority groupsin this process.
5.46 Nationally determinedpolicies for integratedand
multifacetedprogrammes,with special attentionto
women,to the poorestpeopleliving in critical areasand
to other vulnerablegroupsshouldbe implemented,en-
suringtheinvolvementof groupswith a specialpotential
to act asagentsfor changeand sustainable development.
Specialemphasisshouldbe placedon thoseprogrammes
thatachievemultipleobjectives,encouragin g sustainabl
e
economicdevelopment,mitigating adverseimpactsof
demographictrendsand f'actorsand avoiding long-term
environmentaldamage.Food security,accessto secure
tenure,basicshelter.and essentialinfrastructure,educa-
tion, family welfare,women'sreproductivehealth,fam-
ily credit schemes,reforestationprogrammes,primary
environmentalcareandwomen'semploymentshould,as
appropriate,be includedamongotherfactors.
5.41 An analyticalframework should be developedto
identify complementaryelementsof sustainabledevel-
opment policiesas well as the nationalmechanismsto
monitor and evaluatetheir etfbcts on population dy-
namics.
5.48 Specialattentionshouldbe givento the criticalrole
of women in population/environment programmesand
in achievingsustainabledevelopment.Projectsshould
takeadvantageof opportunitiesto link social,economic
and environmentalgains for women and their families.
Empowermentof women is essentialand should be
assuredthrougheducation,trainingandpoliciesto accord
and improvewomen'sright and accessto assets,human
and civil rights, labour-savingmeasures, job oppor-
tunities and participationin decision-rnaking.Popula-
tion/environmentprogrammesmust enable women to
mobilize themselvesto alleviatetheir burden and im-
prove their capacityto participatein and benefit from
socio-economic development.Specificmeasures should
be undertakento closethe gapbetweenfemale and male
illiteracyrates.
PROGRAMMES
B) SUPPORIING THATPROMOTE
CHANGESIN DEMOGRAPHICIRENDSAND
FACIORSTOWARDSSUSIAINABILITY
5.49 Reproductivehealth programmesand services
should, as appropriate,be developedand enhancedto
reducematernaland infant mortalityfrom all causesand
enablewomenandmento fulfil theirpersonalaspirations
in termsof family size,in keepingwith theirfreedomand
dignity and personallyheld values.
5.-50Governmentsshouldtakeactivestepsto implement,
as a matterof urgency,in accordancewith country-spe-
cific conditionsand legal systems,measuresto ensure
that women and rnenhave the sameright to decidefreely
and responsiblyon the number and spacing of their
childrenandto haveaccessto the information,education
andmeans,asappropriate.to enablethemto exercisethis
right in keepingwith their freedom,dignity and person-
39
 ally held values,taking into accountethicaland cultural
considerations.
5.51 Governmentsshould take active stepsto imple-
ment programmesto establishand strengthenpreven-
tive and curative health facilities that include women-
centred.women-managed,safe and effective reproduc-
tive health care and affordable, accessibleservices,as
appropriate,for the responsibleplanning of family size,
in keeping with freedom,dignity and personallyheld
valuesand taking into accountethicaland culturalcon-
siderations.Programmesshould focus on providing
comprehensivehealth care, including pre-natalcare,
education and information on health and responsible
parenthood,and shouldprovide the opportunity for all
women to breast-feedfully, at leastduring the first four
monthspost-partum.Programmesshouldfully support
women'sproductiveand reproductiveroles and well-
being,with specialattentionto the needfor providing
equaland improvedhealthcarefor all childrenandthe
needto reducethe risk of maternaland child mortalitv
and sickness.
5.52 Consistentwith nationalpriorities,culturallybased
information and education programmes that transmit
reproductivehealthmessagesto men and women that are
easilyunderstoodshouldbe developed.
C) CREATING
APPROPRIATE'NSI/IUI'ONAI.
coND/r,oNs
5.53 Constituencies andinstitutionalconditionsto facili-
tatetheimplementationof demographicactivitiesshould,
as appropriate,be fostered. This requires support and
commitment from political, indigenous,religious and
traditional authorities,the private sectorand the national
scientific community. In developing theseappropriate
institutionalconditions,countriesshouldcloselyinvolve
establishednationalmachineryfor women.
5.54 Populationassistanceshould be coordinatedwith
bilateralandmultilateraldonorsto ensurethat population
needsand requirementsof all developing countriesare
addressed,fully respecting the overall coordinating
responsibility and the choice and strategiesof the
recipientcountries.
5.55 Coordinationshouldbe improvedat local andinter-
nationallevels. Working practicesshouldbe enhanced
in order to make optimum use of resources,draw on
collectiveexperienceandimprovethe irnplementation of
programmes.UNFPAandotherrelevantagenciesshould
strengthenthe coordinationof internationalcooperation
activitieswith recipientand donor countriesin order to
ensurethat adequatefunding is available to respondto
growing needs.
40
5.56 Proposalsshould be developedfor local, national
and international population/environmentprogrammes
in line with specific needsfor achieving sr"rstainability.
Where appropriate,institutional changesmust be im-
plemented so that old-age security does not entirely
dependon input from family members.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ FTNANC/NG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
5.57 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this prograrnmeto be about $7 billion, in-
cluding about $3.5 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGo'rernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ RESEARCH
5.58 Researchshouldbe undenakenwith a view to de-
velopingspecificactionprograrnmes; itwill benecessary
to establishprioritiesbetweenproposedareasof research.
5.59 Socio-demographic researchshould be conducted
on how populationsrespondto a changingenvironment.
5.60 Understandingof socioculturaland political factors
that can positively influence acceptanceof appropriate
populationpolicy instrumentsshouldbe improved.
5.61 Surveysof changesin needsfor appropriateservices
relatingto responsibleplanningof family size,reflecting
variations among different socio-economicgroups and
variations in diff-erentgeographicalregions, should be
undertaken.
C ) H U MA NR E S OU R CDEE V E LOP ME N T
AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
5.62 The areasof humanresourcedevelopmentand ca-
pacity-building,with particularattentionto theeducation
and training of women, are areasof critical importance
and are a very high priority in the implementation of
populationprogrammes.
5.63 Workshops to help programme and project man-
agersto link populationprogrammesto other develop-
ment and environmentalgoalsshouldbe conducted.
5.64 Educationalmaterials,includingguides/workbooks
for planners and decision makers and other actors of
population/environment/development programmes,
should be developed.
5.65 Cooperationshould be developedbetweenGovern-
ments, scientific institutions and non-govemmentalor-
ganizationswithin the region, and similar institutions
outside the region. Cooperationwith local or:ganizations
should be fosteredin order to raise awareness,engageln
demonstration projects and report on the experience
gained.
5.66 The recofiImendationscontained in this chapter
should in no way prejudicediscussionsat the Interna-
tional Conferenceon Population and Development in
1994, which will be the appropriateforum for dealing
with population and development issues, taking into
accountthe recommendationsof the InternationalCon-
ferenceon Population,held in Mexico City in 1984,rand
the Forward-looking Strategiesfor the Advancementof
Women,2adoptedby the World Conferenceto Review
and Appraise the Achievementsof the United Nations
Decadefor Women: Equality, Developmentand Peace,
held in Nairobi in 1985.
'Report
of the lnternationolConferenceon Populotion,Mexico
City,6-14 August 1984 lUnitedNotionspublicotion,SolesNo.
E . 8 4 . X l l l . 8clh, o p .l .
2
Reportof the World Conferenceto Reviewond Approise the
Achievementsof the United Nofions Decode for Women:
Equolity,Developmentond Peoce, Noirobi, l5-26 July 1985
( U n i t e dN o t i o n sp u b l i c o t i o nS, o l e sN o . E . 8 4 . | V . 1 0 )c,h o p . l ,
sect.A.
4l
 ond promotinghumonheolth
Protecting
INTRODUCTION
6.1 Health and developmentare intimatelyintercon-
nected.Both insufficientdevelopmentleadingto pov-
erty andinappropriate developmentresultingin overcon-
sumption,coupledwith an expandingworld population,
can result in severeenvironmentalhealth problemsin
both developingand developednations. Action items
underAgenda2l must addressthe primary healthneeds
of the world's population,sincethey are integralto the
achievement of thegoaisof sustainabledevelopmentand
primary environmentalcare. The linkageof health,en-
vironmentaland socio-economic improvementsrequires
intersectoralefforts. Suchefforts,involving education,
housing,public works andcommunitygroups,including
businesses, schoolsand universitiesand religious,civic
are aimed at enablingpeople
and cultural c>rganizations,
in their communitiesto ensuresustainable development.
Particularlyrelevantis the inclusionof preventionpro-
grarrrmesratherthan relying solely on remediationand
treatment.Countriesought to developplansfor priority
actions,drawingon the programmeareasin this chapteq
which are basedon cooperativeplanningby the various
levels of government,non-governmentalorganizations
and local communities. An appropriateintemational
organization,such as WHO, should coordinatethese
activities.
6.2 The fbllowing programme areasare contained in
this chapter:
(a) Meeting primary healthcare needs,particularlyin
rural areas:
(b) Control of communicablediseases;
(c) Protectingvulnerablegroups;
(d) Meetingthe urbanhealthchallenge;
(e) Reducinghealthrisksfrom environmentalpollution
and hazards.
42
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
HEALTHCARENEEDS,
A! 'YTEEnNGPRITVIARY
PARNCUTARIYIN RURATAREAS
FORACTION
BASIS
6.3 Healthultimatelydependson the ability to manage
successfullythe interactionbetweenthe physical.spiri-
tual , bi ol ogi cal and economi ci soci alenvir onm ent .
Sound developmentis not possiblewithout a healthy
population;yet most developmentalactivitiesaffect the
environmentto some degree,which in tum causesor
exacerbates many healthproblems.Conversely,it is the
very lack of developmentthat adverselyaffectsthehealth
conditionof many people,which can be alleviatedonly
through development.The health sector cannot meet
basicneedsandobjectiveson its own; it is dependenton
social,economicandspiritualdevelopment, while direct-
ly contributingto suchdevelopment.It is alsodependent
on a healthyenvironment,including the provisionof a
safewater supply and sanitationand the promotion of a
safefood supplyandpropernutrition.Particularattention
should be directed towards food safety, with priority
placedon the eliminationof food contamination;com-
prehensive andsustainablewaterpoliciesto ensuresafe
drinking water and sanitationto precludeboth micro-
bial and chemical contamination;and promotion of
heal th educati on, i mmuni zati on and pro vision of
essentialdrugs.Educationand appropriateservicesre-
gardingresponsibleplanningof family size,with respect
for cultural,religiousand socialaspects,in keepingwith
freedom,dignity and personallyheld valuesand taking
into account ethical and cultural considerations,also
contributeto theseintersectoralactivities.
OBJECTIVES
6.4 Within the overall strategyto achievehealth for all
by the year 2000, the objectivesare to meet the basic
healthneedsof rural, peri-urbanand urbanpopulations;
to provide the necessaryspecializedenvironmental
health services;and to coordinatethe involvementof
citizens,the healthsector,the health-related sectorsand
relevantnon-healthsectors(business, social,educational
andreligiousinstitutions)in solutionsto healthproblems.
As a matterof priority,healthservicecoverageshouldbe
achievedfor populationgroupsin greatestneed,particu-
larly thoseliving in rural areas.
ACTIVITIES
6.5 National Governmentsand local authorities,with
the supportof relevantnon-governmental organizations
and internationalorganizations,
in the light of countries'
specific conditionsand needs,should strengthentheir
healthsectorprogramrnes, with specialattentionto rural
needs,to:
A) BU|LD BASTCHEALTHTNFRASTRUCTURES,MONTTORTNG AND
PLANNING SYSTEMS:
(i) Developandstrengthen
primaryhealthcaresystems
thatarepractical,community-based, scientifically sound,
sociall-v"acceptableand appropriateto their needs and
that meet basic health needsfor clean water. safe food
and sanitation;
(ii) Supportthe useand strengthening
of mechanisms
that irnprove coordinationbetweenhealth and related
sectorsat all appropriatelevels of government,and in
communitiesand relevantorganizations;
(iii) Developand implementrationaland affordableap-
proachesto theestablishment andmaintenance of health
fac ilit ies :
(iv) Ensureand, where appropnate,increaseprovision
of socialservicessuppon;
(v) Develop strategies,including reliablehealth indi-
cators.to monitortheprogressandevaluatetheeffective-
nessof healthprogrammes;
(vit Explorewaysto financethe healthsystembasedon
the assessment of the resourcesneededand identify the
variouslinancingalternatives;
(vii) Promotehealtheducationin schools,information
exchange,technicalsupportand training;
(viii; Supportinitiativesfor self-management of serv-
icesby vulnerablegroups;
(ix) Integrate traditional knowledge and experience
into nationalhealthsystems,as appropriate;
(x) Promotethe provisionsfor necessarylogisticsfor
outreachactivities,particularlyin rural areas;
(xi) Promote and strengthencommunity-basedre-
habilitation activities for the rural handicapped.
B) SUPPORT
RESEARCH
ANDMFIHODOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT
(i) Establishmechanismsfor sustainedcommunityin-
volvementin environmentalhealthactivities,including
optimization of the appropriateuseof community finan-
cial and humanresources;
(ii) Conductenvironmentalhealthresearch,including
behaviour researchand researchon ways to increase
coverage and ensure greater utilization of servicesby
peripheral,underservedand vulnerablepopulations,as
appropriateto good preventionservicesand healthcare;
(iii) Conduct researchinto traditional knowledge of
preventiveand curativehealthpractices.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ FTNANC/NG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
6.6 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-2000)of implementing the
activities of this programmeto be about $40 billion,
including about $5 billion fiom the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfbr implementation.
B/ sC/ENTIFIC
AND TECHNOLAGICAL
MEANS
6.7 New approaches to planningand managinghealth
caresystemsand facilitiesshouldbe tested.and research
on ways of integratingappropriatetechnologiesinto
health infrastructuressupported. The developmentof
scientificallysound health technologyshould enhance
adaptabilityto local needsand maintainabilityby com-
munity resources,includingthe maintenanceand repair
of equipmentusedin healthcare.Programmesto facili-
tate the transferand sharingof infonnation and expertise
shouldbe developed,includingcommunicationmethods
and educationalmaterials.
C ) H U MA NR E S OU R CDEE V E LOP MFN I
6.8 Intersectoralapproachesto the reform of health
personneldevelopmentshouldbe strengthened to ensure
its relevanceto the "Health for All" stratesies.
Effortsto
43
enhancemanagerialskills at the distnct level shouldbe
supported,with the aim of ensuringthe systematicdevel-
opmentandefficient operationof the basichealthsystem'
Intensive,short,practicaltrainingprograrnmeswith em-
phasison skills in effectivecommunication,community
organizationand facilitationof behaviourchangeshould
be developedin order to preparethe local personnelof
all sectorsinvolved in social developmentfor carrying
out their respectiveroles. In cooperationwith the edu-
cation sector, special health education progratrunes
should be developedfbcusingon the role of women in
the health-caresystem.
D) CA P AC IT Y-B U IL D IN G
6.g Govetnmentsshould consider adopting enabling
and facilitatingstrategiesto promotethe participationof
cclmmunitiesin meetingtheir own needs,in additionto
providing direct supportto the provisionof health-care
services. A major focus should be the preparationof
community-basedhealth and health-relatedworkers to
assumean activerole in communityhealtheducation'
with emphasison teamwork, socialmobilizationandthe
support of other developmentworkers. National pro-
grammesshouldcover district health systemsin urban,
peri-urbanand rural areas,the delivery of health pro-
grammesat the district level, and the developmentand
supportclf referralservices.
DISEASES
B) CONTROTOF CO,\IIVIUNICABLE
BASIS FORACTION
6.10 Advancesin the development of vaccinesandche-
motherapeutic agents have brought many communicable
diseasesunder control. However, there remain many
important communicable diseases for which environ-
mentalcontrol measures are indispensable. especiallyin
the field of water supply and sanitation. Such diseases
leishmaniasis.ma-
includecholera,diarrhoealdiseases,
In all such instances,the envi-
laria and schistosomiasis.
eitheras an integralpart of primary
ronmentalmeasures,
healthcareor undertakenoutsidethe healthsector,form
an indispensablecomponentof overall diseasecontrol
strategies,togetherwith health and hygieneeducation,
and. in somecases,are the only component.
6.11 With HIV infectionlevelsestimatedto increaseto
30-40 million by the year 2000, the socio-economic
impactof the pandemicis expectedto be devastatingfor
all countries,and increasinglyfor women and children.
While directhealthcostswill be substantial, theywill be
dwarfed by the indirect costsof the pandemic- mainly
costsassociatedwith the loss of income and decreased
productivity of the worktorce.The pandemicwill inhibit
growth of the service and industrial sectorsand signifi-
cantlyincreasethecostsof humancapacity-buildingand
retraining. The agricultural sector is particularly af-
fectedwhere productionis labour-intensive.
OBJECTIVES
6.12 A numberof goalshavebeenformulatedthrough
extensiveconsultationsin variousinternationalforums
attendedby virtually all Governments,relevantUnited
N ati ons organi zati ons(i ncl udi ng W H O , UNI CEF
UNFPA, UNESCO, UNDP and the World Bank) and a
number of non-governmentalorganizations.Goals (in-
cluding but not limited to thoselistedbelow) are recom-
mendedfor implementationby all countrieswhere they
areapplicable,with appropriateadaptationto the specific
situationof eachcountryin termsof phasing,standards,
priorities and availability of resources,with respectfor
cultural, religious and social aspects,in keeping with
freedom,dignity and personallyheld valuesand taking
into accountethicalconsiderations. Additionalgoalsthat
are particularlyrelevant to a country'sspecificsituation
shouldbe added in the country's national plan of action
(Planof Action for Implementingthe World Declaration
on the Survival,ProtectionandDevelopmentof Children
in the 1990s).tSuch national-level actionplansshould
be coordinated and monitored from within the public
healthsector. Some major goals are:
(a) By the year2000,to eliminateguineaworm disease
(dracunculiasis);
(b) By the year 2000,to eradicatepolio;
(c) By the year 2000, to eff-ectivelycontrol onchocer-
ciasis(river blindness)and leprosy;
(d) By 1995,to redttcemeaslesdeathsby 95 per cent
and reducemeaslescasesby 90 per cent comparedwith
pre-immunization levels:
(e) By continuedeffbrts,to providehealthandhygiene
educationand to ensureuniversalaccessto safedrinking-
wateranduniversalaccessto sanitarymeasures of excreta
disposal,thereby markedly reducing waterborne diseases
suchas choleraand schistosomiasis and reducing:
(i) By the year2000,the numberof deathsfrom child-
hood diarrhoeain developingcountriesby 50 to 70 per
cent:
(ii; By the year 2000,the incidenceof childhooddiar-
rhoeain developingcountriesby at least25 to 50 percent;
(f) By the year 2000, to initiate comprehensivepro-
grammesto reducemortality from acute respiratoryin-
fectionsin childrenunderfive yearsby at leastonethird,
particularlyin countrieswith high infant mortality;
(g) By the year 2000, to provide 95 per cent of the
world's child populationwith accessto appropriatecare
for acuterespiratoryinfectionswithin the communityand
at first referral level;
(h) By the year 2000, to institute anti-malaria pro-
grammesin all countrieswheremalariapresentsa signi-
ficant healthproblem andmaintainthe transmission-free
statusof areasfreed from endemicmalaria;
(i) By theyear 2000,to implementcontrol programmes
in countrieswhere major human parasiticinfections
are endemic and achieve an overall reduction in the
prevalenceof schistosomiasisand of other trematode
infectionsby 40 per cent and25 per cent,respectively,
from a 1984baseline,as well as a markedreductionin
incidence,prevalenceand intensity of filarial infec-
tions;
0) To mobilize and unify national and international
efforts againstAIDS to prevent infection and to reduce
the personaland socialimpact of HIV infection;
(k) To contain the resurgenceof tuberculosis,with
particular emphasison multiple antibiotic resistant
forms;
(l) To accelerateresearchon improved vaccines and
implementto the fullest extentpossiblethe use of vac-
cinesin the preventionof disease.
ACTIVITIES
6.13 Each national Government,in accordancewith
nationalplansfor public health,prioritiesandobjectives,
shouldconsiderdevelopinga nationalhealthactionplan
with appropriateinternationalassistanceand support,
including,at a minimum, the following components:
A) NATIONAL HEALTH
PUBLIC SYSTEMS:
(i) Programmesto identify environmentalhazardsin
the causationof communicablediseases;
(ii) Monitoring systemsof epidemiologicaldata to en-
sure adequateforecastingof the introduction, spreador
aggravationof communicablediseases;
(iii) Interventionprogrammes,including measurescon-
sistentwith the principlesof the globalAIDS strategy;
(iv) Vaccinesfor the preventionof communicabledis-
CASCS:
B) PUBLTC ANDHEALTH
TNFORMATION EDUCATION:
Provide educationand disseminateinformation on the
risks of endemic communicablediseasesand build
awareness on environmentalmethodsforcontrol of com-
municablediseases to enablecommunitiesto play a role
in the control of communicablediseases:
C@PERATION
C) INTERSECTORAL ANDCOORDI NATION :
(i) Secondexperiencedhealth professionalsto relevant
sectors,suchasplanning,housingand agriculture;
(ii) Developguidelinesforeffectivecoordinationin the
areasof professionaltraining, assessmentof risks and
developmentof control technology;
FACTORSTHAT
ENVTRONMENTAL
D) CONTROLOF THE
INFLUENCE
ICABLE
OFCOM/\AUN
SPREAD DISEASES:
Apply methodsfor the preventionand control of commu-
nicable diseases,including water supply and sanitation
control,waterpollution control,food quality control,inte-
gratedvectorcontrol,garbagecollectionand disposaland
environmentallysoundirrigationpractices;
E) PRIMARY
HEALTH SYSTEM:
CARE
(i) Strengthenpreventionprogrammes,with particular
emphasison adequateand balancednutrition;
(ii) Strengthenearly diagnosticprogrammesand im-
prove capacitiesfor early preventive/treatmentaction;
(iii) Reducethe vulnerabilityto HIV infectionof women
and their offspring;
FORRESEARCH
F) SUPPORT ANDMETHODOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT
(i) Intensifyand expandmultidisciplinaryresearch,in-
cluding focusedefforts on the mitigation and environ-
mentalcontrol of tropicaldiseases;
(ii) Carry out interventionstudiesto provide a solid
epidemiological basisfor controlpoliciesandto evaluate
the efficiencyof alternativeapproaches:
(iii) Undertakestucliesin the populationand among
health r,l'orkersto determinethe influence of cultural.
behaviouraland socialfactorson controlpolicies;
ANDDISSEMINATION
G} DEVELOPMENT OFTECHNOLOGY
(a) Developnew technologiesfor the effectivecontrol
of communicablediseases;
(iit Promote studiesto determinehow optimally to
disseminateresultsfrom research:
(iii) Ensuretechnicalassistance,
includingthe sharing
of knowledgeandknow-how.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
6.14 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost ( 1993-2W0)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $4 billion,
including about $900 million from the international
45
cofilmunity on grant or concessionalterms. These are
indicativeandorder-of-magnin"rdeestimatesonly andhave
not beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand fi-
nancialterms,includinganythatarenon-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
gmmmesGovemmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
B / 5C/ F N IF tCA N D T EC H N O I.OG\CME
ALA N S
6.15 Efforts to preventand control diseasesshould in-
clude investigationsof the epidemiological,social and
economic basesfor the developmentof more effective
national strategiesfor the integratedcontrol of commu-
nicablediseases.Cost-effectivemethodsof environmen-
tal control should be adaptedto local developmental
conditions.
C) HUM ANR E SOU R CDEEV EL OP M EN T
6.16 Nationaland regionaltraininginstitutionsshould
Dromote broad intersectoral approachesto prevention
includingtraining
andcontrolof communicablediseases,
preventionandcontrol,
in epidemiologyandcommunity
of
immunology,molecular biology and the application
materials should be
new vaccines. Health education
developedfor use by community workers and for the
educationof mothersfor the preventionand treatmentof
diarrhoealdiseasesin the home.
D) CA PAC T T Y-B U IL D IN G
6.17 The healthsectorshoulddevelopadequatedataon
the distributionof communicablediseases,aswell asthe
institutionalcapacity to respondand collaboratewith
othersectorsfor prevention,mitigationandcorrectionof
communicablediseasehazardsthrough environmental
protection. The advocacyat policy- and decision-mak-
ing levels should be gained,professionaland societal
supportmobilized, and communitiesorganizedin de-
velopingself-reliance.
VULNERABTE
c) PROTECTTNG GROUPS
BASISFORACTION
6.18 In additionto meetingbasichealthneeds,specific
emphasishas to be given to protectingand educating
vulnerablegroups,particularlyinfants,youth, women,
indigenouspeopleandthe very poor asa prerequisitefor
sustainabledevelopment.Specialattentionshouldalso
45
be paid to the health needsof the elderly and disabled
population.
6.19 INFANTS ANDCHIIDREN Approximatelyone third of
the world's populationare childrenunder 15 yearsold.
At least l5 million of thesechildren die annuallyfrom
such preventablecausesas birth trauma, birth asphyxia,
acute respiratory infections, malnutrition, colnmunicable
diseasesand diarrhoea.The health of children is affected
more severelythanotherpopulationgoups by malnutrition
and adverseenvironmentalfactors,and many children risk
exploitationascheaplabouror in prostitution.
6.20 YOUTH As hasbeenthe historicalexperienceof all
countries,youth are particularly vulnerableto the prob-
lems associatedwith economic development,which
often weakenstraditional forms of social supportessen-
tial for the healthydevelopment,of young people. Ur-
banizationand changesin social moreshave increased
substance abuse,unwantedpregnancyandsexuallytrans-
mitted diseases,including AIDS. Currentlymore than
half of all peoplealive are underthe ageof 25, and four
of every five live in developingcountries. Thereforeit
is important to ensurethat historicalexperienceis not
replicated.
6.21 woMEN In developingcountries,the healthstatus
of women remainsrelativelylow, and during the 1980s
poverty, malnutrition and generalill-health in women
were even rising. Most women in developingcountries
still do not haveadequatebasiceducationalopportunities
and they lack the meansof promoting their health,re-
sponsiblycontrollingtheir reproductivelif-eandimprov-
ing their socio-economicstatus.Particularattention
shouldbe givento theprovisionof prenatalcareto ensure
healthybabies.
6.22 INDIGENOUS PEOPTEANDTHEIR COMMUNITIES Indige-
nouspeopleandtheir communitiesmakeup a significant
percentageof the global population.The outcomesof
theirexperiencehavetendedto be very similarin that the
basisof their relationshipwith traditionallandshasbeen
fundamentallychanged.They tend to featuredispropor-
tionatelyin unemployment,lack of housing,povertyand
poor health.In many countriesthe numberof indigenous
people is growing faster than the generalpopulation.
Thereforeit is importantto targethealth initiativesfor
indigenouspeople.
OBJECTIVES
6.23 The general objectives of protecting vulnerable
groupsare to ensurethat all suchindividualsshouldbe
allowed to develop to their full potential (including
healthyphysical,mentaland spiritualdevelopment);to
ensure that young people can develop, establishand
maintainhealthylives; to allow women to performtheir
key role in society;and to support indigenouspeople
through educational,economic and technical oppor-
tunities.
6.24 Specific major goals for child survival, develop-
ment and protection were agreed upon at the World
Summit for Children and remain valid also for Agen-
da 21. Supportingand sectoralgoals cover women's
health and education,nutrition, child health,water and
sanitation,basic educationand children in difficult cir-
cumstances.
6.25 Governments shouldtakeactivestepsto implement,
as a matterof urgency,in accordancewith country-spe-
cific conditionsand legal systems,measuresto ensure
that women and men have the sameright to decidefreely
and responsiblyon the number and spacing of their
children,to haveaccessto theinformation,educationand
means.as appropriate,to enablethem to exercisethis
right in keepingwith their freedom,dignity and person-
ally held values,taking into accountethicaland cultural
considerations.
6.26 Governmentsshould take active stepsto imple-
mentprogrammesto establishand strengthenpreventive
and curativehealthfacilitieswhich includewomen-cen-
tred. women-managed,safe and effective reproductive
healthcareandaffordable,accessibleservices,as appro-
priate, for the responsibleplanning of family size, in
keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held
values and taking into account ethical and cultural
considerations.Programmesshouldfocuson providing
comprehensivehealth care, including pre-natal care,
educationand information on health and responsible
parenthoodand should provide the opportunity for all
women to breast-feedfully, at leastduring the first four
rnonthspost-partum.Programmesshouldfully support
women's productive and reproductiveroles and well-
being, with specialattentionto the need for providing
equal and improvedhealthcare for all children and the
needto reducethe risk of maternaland child mortality
and sickness.
ACTN''TES
6.21 NationalGovernments,in cooperationwith local
and non-governmental
organizations,should initiate or
enhanceprogrammesin the following areas:
A) INFANTS
ANDCHILDREN:
(i) Strengthenbasichealth-careservicesfor childrenin
the context of primary health-caredelivery, including
prenatal care.breast-feeding,immunizationandnutrition
progriimmes:
(ii) Undertakewidespreadadult educationon the use of
oral rehydration therapy for diarrhoea,treatnent of res-
piratory infections and prevention of communicabledis-
EASCS;
(iii) Promotethe creation,amendmentand enforcement
of a legal framework protectingchildren from sexualand
workplace exploitation;
(iv) Protect children from the effects of environmental
and occupationaltoxic compounds;
B} YOUIH:
Strengthenservicesfor youth in health, education and
social sectors in order to provide better information,
education,counsellingand treatmentfor specifichealth
problems,including drug abuse;
c) WoMEN:
(i) Involve women'sgroupsin decision-makingat the
national and community levels to identify health risks
and incorporate health issues in national action pro-
grammeson women and development;
(ii) Provideconcreteincentivesto encourageand main-
tain attendanceof women of all agesat school and adult
educationcourses,includinghealtheducationand train-
ing in primary, home and maternalhealth care;
(iii) Carry out baselinesurveysandknowledge,attitude
andpracticestudieson thehealthandnutritionof women
throughouttheir life cycle, especiallyas relatedto the
impact of environmentaldegradationand adequate
resources:
D) INDIGENOUS PEOPLE ANDTHEIRCOI4MUNITIES:
(i) Strengthen,through resourcesand self-manage-
ment, preventiveand curativehealthservices;
(ii) Integratetraditionalknowledgeand experienceinto
healthsvstems.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
6.28 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost ( 1993-2ffi0)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $3.7 billion,
including about $400 million from the international
communityon grant or concessionalterms.Theseare
indicativeand order-of-magnitlrde estimatesonly and
havenot beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costs
and financial terms, including any that are non-con-
cessional,will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecideupon
for implementation.
47
 AND TECHNOLOGICAL
8' SCIENIIFIC MEANS
6.29 Educational,healthandresearchinstitutionsshould
be strengthenedto provide supportto improve the health
of vulnerablegroups. Social researchon the specific
problemsof thesegroupsshouldbe expandedand meth-
ods for implementingflexible pragmaticsolutionsex-
plored,with emphasison preventivemeasures. Technical
supportshouldbe providedto Govemments,institutions
and non-governmentalorganizationsfor youth, women
and indigenouspeople in the health sector.
C) HUMANRESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT
6.30 The developmentof humanresources for the health
of children,youth and women shouldincludereinforce-
mentof educationalinstitutions,promotionof interactive
methodsof educationfor healthandincreaseduseof mass
mediain disseminating informationto the targetgroups.
This requiresthe training of more community health
workers, nurses,midwives, physicians,social scien-
tists and educators,the educationof mothers,families
and communitiesand the strengtheningof ministries
of education,health,populationetc.
D) CAPACTTY-BU\LD\NG
6.31 Governmentsshouldpromote,wherenecessary:(i)
the organization of national, intercountry and interre-
gional symposiaand other meetingsfor the exchangeof
informationamongagenciesand groupsconcernedwith
the health of children, youth, women and indigenous
people,and (ii) women's organizations,youth groups
andindigenouspeople'sorganizations to facilitatehealth
and consult them on the creation,amendmentand en-
forcementof legal frameworksto ensurea healthyenvi-
ronment for children. vouth. women and indisenous
peoples.
D) ftTEETTNG
THE URBAN HEATTHCHATTENGE
BASIS
FORACTION
632 For hundredsof millions of people,thepoorliving
conditions in urban and peri-urbanareasare destroying
lives,health,and socialandmoral values.Urban growth
hasoutstrippedsociety'scapacityto meethumanneeds,
leavinghundredsof millions of peoplewith inadequate
incomes,diets, housing and services. Urban growth
exposespopulationsto seriousenvironmentalhazards
and has outstrippedthe capacityof municipaland local
48
governmentsto provide the environmentalhealth serv-
ices that the peopleneed. All too often,urbandevelop-
mentis associated with destructiveeffectson thephysical
environmentandtheresourcebaseneededfor sustainable
development.Environmentalpollution in urbanareasis
associatedwith excessmorbidity and mortality. Over-
crowding and inadequatehousing contributeto respi-
ratory diseases,tuberculosis,meningitisand other dis-
eases.In urban environments,many factorsthat affect
humanhealthareoutsidethehealthsector.Improvements
in urban health thereforewill depend on coordinated
actionby all levelsof government.healthcareproviders,
businesses, religiousgroups,socialand educationalin-
stitutionsand citizens.
OBJECTIVES
6.33 Thehealthandwell-beingof all urbandwellersmust
be improvedso that they cancontributeto economicand
socialdevelopment.The globalobjectiveis to achievea
10to 40 per centirnprovementin healthindicatorsby the
year 2000. The same rate of improvementshould be
achievedfor environmental,housingand healthservice
indicators.Theseincludethedevelopmentof quantitative
objectives f-or infant mortality, maternal mortality, per-
centageof low-birth-weightnewbomsand specificindi-
cators(e.g.tuberculosisasan indicatorof crowdedhous-
ing, diarrhoeaidiseases asindicatorsof inadequate water
and sanitation,ratesof industrialand transportationac-
cidentsthatindicatepossibleopportunities for prevention
of injury, and social problems such as drug abuse,
violenceand crime that indicateunderlyingsocialdisor-
ders).
ACTIVITIES
6.34 Local authorities,with the appropriatesupportof
national Governmentsand intemational organizations,
shouldbe encouragedto take effectivemeasuresto in-
itiate or strengthenthe tollowing activities:
A) DEVELOP
ANDTMPLEMENT
MUNtCtpAL
ANDLOCAL
HEALTHPLANS:
(i) Establishor strengthenintersectoralcommitteesat
both the politicai and technicallevel, includingactive
collaborationon linkageswith scientific,cultural,reli-
gious. rnedical,business,socialand other city institu-
tions,usingnetworkingalrangements;
(ii) Adopt or strengthenrnunicipal or local "enabling
sffategies"that emphasize"doing with" ratherthan"doing
for" and createsupportiveenvironmentsfor health;
(iii) Ensurethat public healttreducationin schools,work-
place,massmediaetc.is providedor strengthened;
(iv) Encouragecommunitiesto developpersonalskills training of municipal staff requiredfor healthy city pro-
and awarenessof primary health care; cesses.Basic and in-servicetraining of environmental
(v) Promoteand strengthencommunity-basedrehabili- healthpersonnelwill alsobe needed.
tation activitiesfor the urbanandperi-urbandisabledand
the elderly;
D) CAPACITY.BUILDING
WHERE
B) SURVEY NECESSARY
THEEXTSTTNGHEALTH,
SOCTAL
ANDENVIRONMENTAL IN CITIES,
CONDITIONS INCLUDING 6.38 The programmeis aimed towards improved plan-
DOCUMENTATION DIFFERENCES;
OFINTRA-URBAN ning and managementcapabilitiesin the municipaland
local governmentand its partnersin centralGovernment,
the private sectorand universities. Capacitydevelop-
C) STRENGTHEN HEALTH
ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES: ment shouldbe focusedon obtaining sufficient informa-
(i) Adopt healthimpact and environmentalimpact as- tion, improvingcoordinationmechanismslinking alt the
sessmentprocedures; key actors,andmaking betteruseof availableinstruments
(ii) Providebasic and in-servicetraining for new and and resourcesfor implementation.
existingpersonnel;

El R.EDUCTNG
HEATTHR|SKSFROM
ANDMAINTAIN
D} ESTABUSH NFIWORKS
CITY COTIABOR,ATION ENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTIONAND HAZARDS
FOR
ANDEXCHANGEOFMODELSOFGOODPRACNCE.

MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
Al F/NANCTNG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
6.35 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-2000)of implementing the
activitiesof this programmeto be about $222 million,
includingabout$22 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, ttre specifrc strategiesand pro.
grammesGovemmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ SC/ENI/F/C
AND TECHNOLOG|CAL
A4EANS
6.36 Decision-making models should be further de-
velopedandmore widely usedto assess the costsand the
health and environmentimpactsof alternativetechnol-
ogiesand strategies.Improvementin urbandevelopment
and managementrequiresbetternationaland municipal
statisticsbasedon practical,standardized indicators.De-
velopmentof methodsis a priority for the measurement
of intra-urbanandintra-districtvariationsin healthstatus
and environmentalconditions.and for the applicationof
this informationin planningand management.
BASIS
FORACTION
6.39 In many locations around the world the general
environment(air, water and land),workplacesand even
individual drvellingsare so badly polluted that the health
of hundredsof millions of peopleis adverselyaffected.
This is, inter alia, due to pastand presentdevelopments
in consumptionandproductionpattemsand lifestyles,in
energyproductionand use.in industry,in transportation
etc.,with little or no regardfor environmentalprotection.
There have been notableimprovementsin some coun-
tries,but deteriorationof theenvironmentcontinues.The
ability of countriesto tackle pollution and health prob-
lems is greatly restrainedbecauseof lack of resources.
Pollutioncontrol andhealthprotectionmeasureshaveoften
not kept pace with economicdevelopment.Considerable
development-related environmentalhealthhazardsexistin
thenewly industrializingcountries.Furthermore,therecent
analysisof WHO hasclearly establishedthe interdepend-
encearnongthe factorsof health,environmentand devel-
opmentand has revealedthat most countriesare lacking
such integration as would lead to an effective pollution
control mechanism.2Withort prejudiceto suchcriteria as
may be agreedupon by the internationalcommunity,or to
standardswhich will have to be determinednationally, it
will beessentialin all casesto considerthesystemsof values
prevailingin eachcounty andtheextentof theapplicability
of standardsthat are valid for the most advancedcountries
but may be inappropriateandof unwarrantedsocialcostfor
the developingcountries.

c ) HUM A NRF S O U R C ES
D EV EL OP M EN T OBJECTIVES
6.40 The overall objective is to minimize hazardsand
6.37 Programmesmust supplythe orientationand basic

49
 maintain the environmentto a degreethat human health
and safetyis not impairedor endangeredand yet encour-
agedevelopmentto proceed.Specificprogrammeobjec-
tives are:
(a) By the year 2000, to incorporateappropriateenvi-
ronmental and health safeguardsas part of national de-
velopmentprogrammesin all countries;
(b) By the year 2000,to establish,as appropriate,ade-
quate national infrastructureand programmesfor pre-
ventingenvironmental i nj ury,hazardsurveiI Ianceandthe
basisfor abatementin all countries;
(c) By the year 2000,to establish,as appropriate,inte-
grated programmesfbr tackling pollution at the source
andat thedisposalsite,rvitha focuson abatementactions
in all countriesl
(d) To identify and compile,as appropriate,the neces-
sary statisticalinformation on health ef'fectsto support
cost/benefitanalysis,including environmentalhealthim-
pact assessment for pollution control, preventionand
abatementmeasures.
ACTIVITIES
6.41 Nationallydeterminedactionprogrammes,with in-
ternationalassistance,supportand coordination,where
necessary,in this areashouldinclude:
A) URBAN
AtRPOLLUTTON:
(i) Develop appropriatepollution control technologyon
the basisof risk assessment and epidemiologicalresearch
for the introductionof environmentallysoundproduction
processes and suitablesafemasstransport;
(ii) Develop air pollution control capacitiesin large
cities,emphasizingenforcementprogrammesand using
monitoringnetworks,as appropriate;
B) TNDOOR AtRPOLLUTTON:
(i) Supportresearchand developprogrammesfor ap-
plying preventionandcontrolmethodsto reducingindoor
air pollution.includingthe provisionof economicincen-
tives for the installationof appropriatetechnology;
(ii) Develop and implement health educationcam-
paigns,particuliulyin developingcountries,to reducethe
healthimpactof domesticuseof biomassand coal:
c) WATER POLLUTTON:
(i) Develop appropnatewater pollution control tech-
nologieson the basisof healthrisk assessment;
(ii; Develop water pollution control capacitiesin large
c it ies :
50
D) PESTTCTDES:
Develop mechanismsto control the distributionand use
of pesticidesin order to minimize the risks to human
healthby transportation,
storage,applicationandresidual
effectsof pesticidesusedin agricultureand preservation
of wood;
E) SOLID
WASTE:
(i) Develop appropriatesolid wastedisposaltechnol-
ogieson the basisof healthrisk assessment:
(ii) Developappropriatesolid wastedisposalcapacities
in largecities;
F) HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS:
Developprogrammesfor irnprovinghealthconditionsin
human settlements,in particularwithin slumsand non-
tenuredsettlements,on the basisof health risk assess-
ment;
G) NOTSE:
Develop criteria for maximum permitted safe noise ex-
posurelevelsand promotenoiseassessment and control
as part of environmentalhealth programmes;
H) roNtztNcANDNON-|ON|Z|NG
RAD|AT|ON:
Developand implementappropriatenationallegislation.
standardsand enforcement procedureson the basis of
existinginternationalguidelines;
t) EFFECTS
OFULTRAVTOLET
RAD|ATION:
(i) Undertake,as a rnatter of urgency,researchon the
effects on human health of the increasingultraviolet
radiationreachingthe earth'ssurfaceas a consequence
of depletionof the stratospheric
ozonelayer:
(ii) On thebasisof the outcomeof thisresearch,
consicler
taking appropriateremedial measuresto mitigate the
above-mentioned effectson humanbeings:
J) INDUSTRY ANDENERGY PRODUCTION:
(i) Establishenvironmentalhealth impact assessment
proceduresfor the planning and developmentof new
industriesand energyfacilities;
(ii) Incorporateappropriatehealth risk analysisin all
nationalprogrammesfor pollution control and manage-
ment,with particularemphasison toxic compoundssuch
as lead:
(iii) Establishindustrialhygieneprogrammesin all major
industries for the surveillanceof workers' exposureto 8/ SC/ENI/F'C
AND IECHNOI.OGICAL
MEANS
healthhazards;
(v) Promotethe introductionof environmentallysound 6.43 Although technologyto preventor abatepollution
technologieswithin the industryand energysectors; is readily availablefor a largenumberof problems,for
programmeand policy developmelttcountriesshould
undertakeresearchwithin an intersectoralframework.
K) MONTTORTNG
ANDASSESSMENT: Sucheffortsshouldincludecollaborationwith the busi-
Establish,asappropriate,adequateenvironmentalmoni- nesssector.Cost/effectanalysisand environmentalim-
toring capacitiesfor the surveillanceof environmental pact assessment methodsshould be developedthrough
quality and the healthstatusof populations; cooperativeinternationalprograffLmes and appliedto the
settingof prioritiesandstrategies in relationto healthand
development.
L}INJURY
MONITORING
ANDREDUCTION: 6.44 In the activitieslisted ln paragraph6.41 (a) to (m)
(i) Support,asappropriate, thedevelopmentof systems above,developingcountryeffortsshouldbe facilitatedby
to monitor the incidenceand causeof injury to allow accessto and ffansferof technology,know-how and infor-
weII -targeted intervention/prevention strategies; mation,from the repositoriesof suchknowledgeandtech-
(i i) Dev elop, in a c c o rd a n c ew i th n a ti o n a l pl ans, nologies,in conformitywith chapter34.
strategiesin all sectors(industry,traffic and others)con-
sistentwith the WHO safecities and safecommunities
programmes,to reduce the frequencyand severity of
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
injury;
(iii) Emphasizepreventivestrategiesto reduceoccupa-
6.45 Comprehensivenational strategiesshould be de-
tionallyderiveddiseases anddiseases causedby environ-
signed to overcome the lack of qualified human re-
mentalandoccupationaltoxinsto enhanceworkersafety;
sources.which is a major impedimentto progressin
dealing with environmentalhealth hazards.Training
M) RESEARCH PROMOTION ANDMETHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT: shouldinclude environmentaland healthofficials at all
levelsfrom managers to inspectors.
Moreemphasisneeds
(i) Supportthe developmentof new methodsfor the
to be placedon including the subjectof environmental
quantitativeassessment of healthbenefitsand costsas-
healthin the curriculaof secondaryschoolsand univer-
sociatedwith differentpollution control strategies;
(ii) Develop and carry out interdisciplinaryresearch sitiesand on educatingthe public.
on the combinedhealth eff'ectsof exposureto multiple
environmentalhazards,includingepidemiologicalin-
vestigationsof long-term exposuresto low levels of D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
pollutantsand the use of biological markerscapable
of estimatinghuman exposures,adverseeffects and 6.46 Each country shoulddevelopthe knowledgeand
susceptibilityto environmentalagents. practical skills to foreseeand identify environmental
healthhazards,andthecapacityto reducetherisks.Basic
capacity requirementsmust include knowledge about
environmentalhealthproblemsandawareness on thepart
MEANS OFIMPLEMENTATION
of leaders,citizensand specialists; operationalmecha-
A/ FiNANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON nisms fbr intersectoraland intergovernmental coopera-
tion in developmentplanning and managementand in
6.42 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver- combatingpollution;arrangements for involving private
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe and community interestsin dealing with social issues;
activities of this programme to be about $3 billion, delegationof authorityand distributionof resourcesto
includingabout$115million from theinternational com- intermediateand local levelsof governmentto provide
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica- front-line capabilitiesto meet environmentalhealth
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot needs.
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
1
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,will a/u/025, onnex.
dependupon. inter alia. the specificstrategiesand pro- '2 ^ . r . l
R e p o r t o f t h e W H O C o m m i s s i o no n H e o l t h o n d E n v i r o n m e n t
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation. (Genevo, forthcoming).

5t
 sustoinoble
Promoting development
humonsetilement
INTRODUCTION
1.1 In industrializ.ed countrics.the consumptionpat-
ternsof citiesareseverelystressingtheglobalecosystem,
while settlements in the developingworld needmoreraw
material,energy,and econornicdevelopmentsimply to
overcomebasiceconomicand socialproblems. Human
settlementconditionsin manypartsof theworld, particu-
larly the developingcountries,are deterioratingmainly
as a result of the low levels of investmentin the sector
attributableto the overall resourceconstraintsin these
countries.In the low-incomecountriesfor which recent
data are available,an averageof clnly 5.6 per cent of
c ent r al go v e rn m e n te x p e n d i tu rew e n t to housi ng,
amenities.socialsecurityand welfare.r Expenditureby
internationalsupportandflnanceorganizations is equally
low. For example,only I per centof the UnitedNations
system'stotal grant-financedexpendituresin 1988went
to human settlements,' while in 1991,loansfrom the
World Bank and the InternationalDevelopmentAssoci-
ation (IDA) for urbandevelopmentand water supplyand
sewerageamountedto 5.5 and 5.4 per cent,respectively,
of their total lending.'
7.2 On the otherhand,availableinformationindicates
that technicalcooperationactivitiesin the humansettle-
rnent sector generateconsiderablepublic and private
sectorinvestment.For example,every dollar of UNDP
technicalcooperationexpenditureon humansettlements
in 1988generateda follow-up investmentof $122,the
highestof all UNDP sectorsof assistance."
7.3 This is the foundationof the "enablingapproach"
advocatedfor the human settlementsector. External
assistancewill help to generatethe internal resources
neededto improvethe living and working environments
of all peopleby the year 2000 andbeyond,includingthe
growingnumberof unemployed- the no-incomegroup.
52
At the sametime the environmentalimplicationsof urban
developmentshould be recognizedand addressedin an
integrated fashion by all countries, with high priority
being given to the needsof the urban and rural poor, the
unemployedand the growing number of peoplewithout
anv sourceof income.
HUMANSETTLEMENT
OBJECTIVE
7.4 The overall human settlementobjectiveis to im-
prove the social,economicand environmentalquality of
human settlementsand the living and working environ-
mentsof all people,in particularthe urbanandrural poor.
Suchimprovementshouldbe basedon technicalcooper-
ation activities,partnershipsamong the public, private
andcommunitysectorsand participationin thedecision-
making processby community groupsand specialinter-
estgroupssuchaswomen.indigenouspeople,theelderly
and the disabled.Theseapproachesshouldform the core
principlesof nationalsettlementstrategies. In developing
these strategies,countries will need to set priorities
among the eight programme areas in this chapter in
accordancewith their nationalplansand objectives,tak-
ing fully into account their social and cultural capa-
bilities. Furthermore,countriesshouldmake appropriate
provision to monitor the impact of their strategieson
marginalizedand di senfranchisedgroups,with particular
referenceto the needsof women.
7.5 The prograrruneareasincluded in this chapterare:
(a) Providing adequateshelterfor all;
(b) Improving human settlementmanagement;
(c) Promotingsustainable land-useplanningand man-
agement;
(d) Promotingthe integratedprovision of environmen-
tal infrastructure: water. sanitation.drainageand solid-
wastemanagement:
(e) Promotingsustainableenergyandtransportsystems
in humansettlements:
(f) Promoting human settlementplanning and manage-
ment in disaster-prone
areas;
(g) Promotingsustainableconstructionindustryactivities;
(h) Promotinghumanresourcedevelopmentand capac-
ity-buildingfor human settlementdevelopment.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) PROV|DTNGADEQUATESHETTER
FORALr
BASIS
FORACTION
7.6 Accessto safeand healthyshelteris essentialto a
person'sphysical,psychological,socialand economic
well-beingand shouldbe a fundamentalpart of national
and intemationalaction. The right to adequatehousing
as a basic human right is enshrinedin the Universal
Declarationof HumanRightsandthe lntemationalCove-
nant on Economic,Socialand Cultural Rights. Despite
this, it is estimatedthat at the presenttime, at least I
billion people do not have accessto saf-eand healthy
shelterand that if appropriateaction is not taken, this
nurnber will increasedramatically by the end of the
centuryand beyond.
7.7 A major globalprogrammeto addressthis problem
is the Global Strategy for Shelter ro rhe Year 2000,
adoptedby the General Assembly in December 1988
(resolution43ll8l, annex). Despiteits widespreaden-
dorsement,the Strategyneedsa much greaterlevel of
politicalandfinancialsupportto enableit to reachits goal
of facilitatingadequateshelterfor all by rhe end of the
centuryand beyond.
OBJECTIVE
7.8 The objective is to achieve adequateshelterfor
rapidly growing populationsand for the cuffently de-
privedurbanandruralpoorthroughanenablingapproach
to shelterdevelopmentand improvementthatis environ-
mentallysound.
ACTIVITIES
7.9 The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) As a first step towardsthe goal of providing ade-
quateshelterfor all, all countriesshouldtake immediate
measuresto provideshelterto their homelesspoor,while
the internationalcommunity and financial institutions
should undertakeactions to supportthe ef'fortsof the
developingcountriesto provide shelterto the poor;
(b) All countriesshould adopt and/or strengthenna-
tional shelterstrategies,with targetsbased.as appropri-
ate,on the principlesand recofiunendationscontainedin
the Global Strategyfor Shelterto the Year 2000. people
should be protectedby law againstunfair eviction from
their homesor land;
(c) All countriesshould, as appropriate,support the
sheltereffortsof the urbanandrural poor,theunemployed
and the no-income group by adopting and/or adapting
existingcodesand regulations,to facilitatetheir access
to land,financeand low-costbuilding materials,and by
actively promoting the regularizationand upgrading of
informal settlementsand urban slums as an expedient
measure and pragmatic solution to the urban shelter
deficit;
(d) All countriesshould,as appropriate,facilitate ac-
cessof urban and rural poor to shelterby adoptingand
utilizing housingand financeschemesand new innova-
tive mechanismsadaptedto their circumstances;
(e) All counties should supportand develop environ-
mentally compatible shelter strategiesat national,
state/provincialand municipal levels through parnrerships
amongthe private,public andcommunitysectorsand with
the supportof community-based organizations;
(f,) All countries,especiallydevelopingones,should,
as appropriate,formulate and implementprogrammesto
reducethe impact of the phenomenonof rural to urban
drift by improving rural living conditions;
(g) All countries,where appropriate,should develop
andimplementresettlement programmesthataddressthe
specific problems of displacedpopularionsin rheir
respectivecountries;
(h) All countriesshould.asappropriate,documentand
monitor the implementationof their national shelter
strategiesby using,inter alia, the monitoringguidelines
adoptedby the Comrnissionon Human Settlementsand
theshelterperformance indicatorsbeingproducedjointly
by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat)and the World Bank;
(i) Bilateral and multilateral cooperationshould be
strengthened in order to supportthe implementationof
the nationalshelterstrategiesof developingcountries;
0) Globalprogressreportscoveringnationalactionand
the supportactivitiesof internationalorganizationsand
bilateraldonorsshouldbe producedanddisseminated on
a biennial basis,as requestedin the Global Strategyfor
Shelterto the Year 2000.
MEANSOF IMPIEMENTATION
,A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALaJATTON
7.iO The Conferencesecretiuiathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost ( 1993-2(nU of implementingthe
53
activities of this programme to be about $75 billion, tries,in orderto enhancetheir ability to improvethe living
including about$10 billion from the internationalcom- conditionsof residents,especiallythe marginalizedand
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indica- disenfranchised, therebycontributingto the achievement
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not of nationaleconomicdevelopmentgoals.
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that arenon-concessional, will
and pro- ACTIVITIES
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation' URBANMANAGFMENI
A) IMPROV/NG

7.16 Oneexistingframeworkfor strengthening lnanage-

MEANS
8] SCIENTFrcAND TECHNOLOGICAL ment i s i n the U ni ted N ati ons D evel opm entPr o-
grammeNVorldBank/United Nations Centre for Human
7.1I The requirementsunderthis headingare addressed Settlements(Habitat) Urban Management Programme
in each of the other programme areas included in the (UMP), a concertedglobal effort to assistdeveloping
presentchapter. countriesin addressingurban managementissues. Its
coverageshouldbe extendedto all interestedcountries
during the period 1993-2000. All countries should' as
C) HUMANRESOURCE AND
DEVELOPMENI appropriateandin accordance with nationalplans,objec-
CAPACITY.BUILDING tives and prioritiesand with the assistance of non-gov-
ernmenfal organizations and representatives of local
7.12 Developedcountriesand funding agenciesshould authorities,undertakethe following activities at the na-
provide specific assistanceto developingcountriesin tional, state/provincialand local levels, with the assist-
arJoptingan enablingapproachto the provision of shelter anceof relevant programmes and support agencies:
for all, including the no-income group, and covering (a) Adopting and applying urban managementguide-
researchinstitutionsand training activitiesfor govern- lines in the areasof land management,urban environ-
communitiesandnon-gov-
ment officials,professionals, mental management,infrastructuremanagementand
ernmental organrzations and by strengtheninglocal ca- municipalfi nanceand administration;
pacity for the development appropriatetechnologies.
of (b) Accelerating efforts to reduce urban poverty
througha numberof actions,including:
(i) Generatingemploymentfor the urbanpoor,particu-
B) IMPROVING HUrtiAN sErrlrMENT T ANAGEMEM larly women, through the provision,improvementand
maintenanceof urbaninfrastructureand servicesand the
BASIS FORACTION supportof economicactivitiesin theinformalsector,such
7.13 By the turn of the century,the majority of the as repairs,recycling,servicesand small cofitmerce;
wor ld' sp o p u l a ti o nw i l l b e l i v i n g i n c i ti e s.W hi l e urban (ii) Providing specificassistance to the poorestof the
urban poor through, inter alia, the creation of social
settlements,particularlyin developingcountries'are
infrastructurein order to reduce hunger and homeless-
showing many of the symptomsof the global environ-
generate ness,andthe provision of adequate community services;
mentanddevelopmentcrisis,they nevertheless
(iii) Encouraging the establishment of indigenous com-
60 per cent of gross national product and' if properly
munity -based organization s, private v o luntary or ganrza-
managed,can developthe capacityto sustaintheir pro-
tions and other forms of non-governmental entitiesthat
ductivity,improvetheliving conditionsof theirresidents
can contributeto the efforts to reduce poverty and im-
and managenaturalresourcesin a sustainableway'
prove the quality of life for low-income families;
7.14 Some metropolitanareas extend over the boun-
dariesof severalpolitical and/oradministrativeentities (c) Adopting innovativecity planningstrategiesto ad-
(countiesand municipalities)eventhoughthey conform dressenvironmentaland socialissuesby:
to a continuousurbansystem.In manycasesthispolitical (i) Reducingsubsidieson, andrecoveringthe full costs
heterogeneityhinders the implementationof compre- of, environmental and other services of high standard
hensiveenvironmentalmanagementprogrammes. (e.g. water supply, sanitation,waste collection,roads'
telecommunications) providedto higher incomeneigh-
bourhoods;
OBJECTIVE (ii) Improving the level of infrastructureand service
7.15 The objectiveis to ensuresustainable management provisionin poorerurbanareas;
pafticularlyin developingcoun- (d) Developinglocal strategies for improvingthequality
of all urbansettlements,

54
 of life andtheenvironment,integratingdecisionson land
use and land management,investingin the public and
private sectorsand mobilizing human and materialre-
sources,therebypromotingemploymentgenerationthat
is environmentallysoundandprotectiveof humanhealth.
8/ STRENGTHENING
UREANDATASySIEMS
7.17 During the period 1993-2000all countriesshould
undertake,with the active participationof the business
sectoras appropriate,pilot projectsin selectedcities for
the collection,analysisand subsequent disseminationof
urbandata,includingenvironmentalimpact analysis,at
the local, state/provincial,national and international
levels and the establishmentof city data management
capabilities.5United Nations organizations,such as
Habitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide technical
adviceand model datamanagementsystems.
C) ENCOURAGING
/NIERMEDIATE
CITYDEVELOPMENT
7.I 8 In orderto relievepressure on largeurbanagglomer-
ations of developingcountries,policies and strategies
shouldbe implementedtowardsthe developmentof in-
termediatecities that createemploymentopportunities
for unemployedlabour in the rural areasand support
rural-basedeconomicactivities,althoughsound urban
management is essentialto ensurethaturbansprawldoes
not expandresourcedegradationover an everwider land
area and increasepressuresto convert open spaceand
agriculturaUbuffer landsfor development.
7.l9 Thereforeall countriesshould,asappropriate,con-
duct reviews of urbanizationprocessesand policies in
orderto assessthe environmentalimpactsof growth and
apply urbanplanningand managementapproaches spe-
cifically suited to the needs,resourcecapabilitiesand
characteri sticsof their growingintermediate-si
zedcities.
As appropriate, theyshouldalsoconcentrate on activities
aimed at facilitating the transitionfrom rural to urban
lifestylesand settlementpatternsand at promoting the
developmentof small-scaleeconomicactivities,particu-
larly the productionof food, to support local income
generationandthe productionof intermediategoodsand
sen,icesfor rural hinterlands.
7.20 All cities.particularlythosecharacterized by severe
sustainable developmentproblems,should,in accord-
ance u,ith nationallaws, rules and regulations,develop
and strengthenprogrammesaimed at addressingsuch
problemsandguidingtheir developmentalonga sustain-
able path. Some internationalinitiatives in supportof
suchefforts.as in the SustainableCities prosrammeof
Habitat and the Healthy Cities programme of WHO,
shouldbe intensified.Additionalinitiativesinvolving the
World Bank, the regional developmentbanks and bilat-
eral agencies,as well as other interestedstakeholders.
particularly internationaland nationalrepresentatives of
local authorities,should be strengthenedand coordi-
nated.Individual citiesshould,as appropriate:
(a) Institutionalize aparticipatoryapproachto sustain-
ableurbandevelopment,basedon a continuousdialogue
betweenthe actors involved in urban developrnent(the
public sector,privatesectorandcommunities),especially
women and indigenouspeople;
(b) Improve the urban environmentby promoting so-
cial organizationand environmentalawarenessthrough
the participationof local communitiesin the identifica-
tion of public servicesneeds,the provision of urban
infrastructure,the enhancement of public amenitiesand
the protectionand/or rehabilitarionof older buildings,
historicprecinctsandotherculturalartifacts.In addition,
"greenworks" programmesshouldbe activatedto create
self-sustaininghuman developmentactivitiesand both
formal and informal employmentopportunitiesfor low-
incomeurbanresidents;
(c) Strengthenthe capacitiesof their local governing
bodies to deal more effectively with the broad range of
developmentalandenvironmentalchallengesassociated
with rapid and soundurbangrowth throughcomprehen-
siveapprdaches to planningthatrecognizethe individual
needsof citiesandarebasedon ecologicallysoundurban
designpractices;
(d) Participatein international"sustainablecity net-
works" to exchangeexperiencesand mobilize national
and internationaltechnicaland financialsupport;
(e) Promotethe formulationof environmentallysound
andculturallysensitivetourismprogrammesasa strategy
for sustainabledevelopmentof urban and rural settle-
mentsand as a way of decentralizingurbandevelopment
and reducingdiscrepancies amongregions;
(f) Establishmechanisms,with the assistance of rele-
vant internationalagencies,to mobilize resourcesfor
local initiativesto improveenvironmentalquality;
(g) Empowercommunitygroups,non-governmental or-
ganizationsand individuals to assumethe authority and
responsibilityfor rnanagingandenhancingtheirimmediate
environmentthrough participatorytools, techniquesand
approaches embodiedin theconceptof environmentalcare.
7.21 Citiesof all countriesshouldreinforcecooperation
amongthemselvesand citiesof the developedcountries,
undertheaegisof non-governmentalorganizationsactive
in this field, such as the InternationalUnion of Local
Authorities(IULA), the InternationalCouncil for Local
EnvironmentalInitiatives(ICLEI) and the World Feder-
ation of Twin Cities.
55
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
1.22 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $100 billion,
includingabout$ 15billion from theinternationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare in-
dicative and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and
have not beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costs
andfinancialterms.includingany thatarenon-conces-
s ional, wil l d e p e n d u p o n , i n te r a l i a . the speci fi c
strategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecideupon
for implementation.
B) HUMANRESOURCE AND
DEVELOPMENI
CAPACITY-BUILDING
1.23 Developingcountriesshould,with appropriatein-
ternationalassistance,considerfocusingon trainingand
developinga cadreof urbanmanagers,technicians,ad-
ministratorsand other relevant stakeholderswho can
successfullymanageenvironmentallysound urban de-
velopmentand growth and are equippedwith the skills
necessaryto analyseand adapt the innovative experi-
encesof other cities.For this purpose,the full rangeof
training methods__ from formal educationto the useof
the mass rnedia - should be utilized, as well as the
"learningby doing" option.
7.24 Developingcountriesshouldalso encouragetech-
nological training and researchthroughjoint efforts by
donors, non-governmentalorganizationsand private
businessin such areasas the reductionof waste,water
quality, saving of energy,safe productionof chemicals
and lesspollutingtranspoftation.
7.25 Capacity-building activitiescarriedout by all coun-
tries,assistedas suggestedabove,shouldgo beyondthe
training of individualsand functionalgroupsto include
institutionalarrangements, administrativeroutines,inter-
agencylinkages,informationflows andconsultativepro-
CCSSCS.
7. 26 I n ad d i ti o n , i n te rn a ti o n a le ffo rts , s uch as the
Urban ManagementProgramme,in cooperationwith
multilateraland bilateralagencies,shouldcontinueto
assistthe developingcountriesin their efforts to de-
v elop a pa rti c i p a to ry s tru c tu re b y mo bi l i zi ng the
humanresources of theprivatesector,non-governmen-
tal organizationsandthe poor,particularlywomenand
the disadvantaged.
56
c) PROMOTTNGSUSTAINABLEIAND-USE
PTANNING AND }TANAGEMENT
FORACTION
BASIS
7.27 Accessto land resourcesis an essentialcomponent
of sustainablelow-impactlifestyles.Land resourcesare
the basis for (human) living systemsand provide soil,
energy,water and the opportunity for all human activity.
In rapidly growing urbanareas,accessto land is rendered
increasingly difficult by the conflicting demandsof in-
dustry, housing, commerce, agriculture, land tenure
structuresand the needfor openspaces.Furthermore,the
rising costsof urban land preventthe poor from gaining
accessto suitable land. In rural areas,unsustainable
practices,suchas the exploitationof marginallandsand
the encroachmenton forests and ecologically fragile
areasby commercialinterestsand landlessrural popula-
tions,resultin environmentaldegradation,as well as in
diminishing returnsfor impoverishedrural settlers.
OBJECTIVE
7.28 Theobjectiveis to providefor theland requirements
of human settlementdevelopmentthrough environmen-
tally soundphysicalplanningandlandusesoasto ensure
accessto land to all householdsand, where appropriate,
the encouragementof communally and collectively
owned and rnanagedland.6 Particularattentionshould
be paidto the needsof womenandindigenouspeoplefor
economicand culturalreasons.
ACTIVITIES
7.29 Allcountriesshouldconsider, under-
asappropriate,
taking a comprehensivenationalinventoryof their land
resourcesin order to establisha land information system
in which land resourceswill be classifiedaccordingto
their most appropriateusesand environmentallyfragile
or disaster-proneareas will be identified for special
protectionmeasures.
, ll countriesshould consider
7 . 3 0S u b s e q u e n t l ya
developingnationalland-resource managementplansto
guide land-resource developmentand utilizationand,to
that end, should:
(a) Establish,as appropriate,national legislation to
guidethe implementationof public policiesfor environ-
mentally sound urban development,land utilization,
housing and for the improved managementof urban
expansion;
(b) Create,where appropriate,efficient and accessible
land markets that meet coffImunity developmentneeds
by, inter alia. improving land registry systemsand
streamliningproceduresin land transactions;
 (c) Develop fiscal incentivesand land-usecontrol B/ SC'ENI/F/C
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
MEANS
measures,including land-useplanning solutionsfor a
more rationaland environmentallysounduseof limited 7.33 All countries,particularly developing countries,
land resources; aloneor in regionalor subregionalgroupings,shouldbe
(d) Encouragepartnerships amongthe public, private given accessto modern techniquesof land-resource
and community sectorsin managingland resourcesfor management, suchasgeographicalinformationsystems,
humansettlements development; satellitephotography/imageryand otherremote-sensins
(e) Strengthencommunity-based land-resourceprotec- technologies.
tion practicesin existingurbanand rural settlements;
(f) Establishappropriateforms of land tenurcthat pro-
vide securityof tenurefor all land-users,especiallyin- C) HUMANRESOURCEDEVELOPMENI
AND
digenouspeople,women,localcommunities, thelow-in- CAPACITY-BUILDING
come urbandwellersand the rural poor;
(g) Accelerateefforts to promoteaccessto land by the 7.34 Environmentally focusedtrainingactivitiesin sus-
urban and rural poor, including credit schemesfor the tai nabl e l and-resourcespl anni ng and managem elt t
purchaseof land and for building/acquiringor improving should be undertakenin all countries,with developing
safeand healthyshelterand infiastructureservices; countriesbeing given assistancethrough international
(h) Develop and support the implementationof im- supportand funding agenciesin orderto:
proved land-managementpracticesthat deal compre- (a) Strengthen the capacityof national,state/provincial
hensively with potentially competing land require- and local educationalresearchand training institutions
mentsfor agriculture,industry,transport,urbandevel- to provide formal training of land-management techni-
opment,greenspaces,preservesand othervital needs; ciansand professionals;
(i) Promoteunderstanding amongpolicy makersof the (b) Facilitatethe organizationalreview of government
adverseconsequences of unplannedsettlements in envi- ministriesand agenciesresponsible for land questions,
rorunentallyvulnerableareasand of the appropriatena- in order to devise more etficient mechanisrnsof land-
tional and local land-useand settlementspolicies re- resourcemanagement, and carry out periodicin-service
quiredfor this purpose. refreshercoursesfor the managersand staff of such
7.31 At the internationallevel, global coordinationof ministriesand agenciesin orderto familiarizethem with
land-resource management activitiesshouldbe strength- up-to-dateland-resource-management technologies;
ened by the variousbilateral and multilateralagencies (c) Where appropriate,provide such agencieswith
and programmes,suchas UNDP, FAO, the World Bank, modern equipment, such as computer hardware and
the regionaldevelopmentbanks,other interestedorgan- softwareand surveyequipment;
izationsandthe UNDPAVoTIdBank/HabitatUrbanMan- (d) Strengthenexisting programmesand promote an
agementProgramme,and actionshouldbe takento pro- intemationaland interregionalexchangeof information
motethetransferof applicableexperienceon sustainable and experiencein land managementthroughthe estab-
land-management practicesto and among developing lishmentof professionalassociations in land-manage-
countries. ment sciencesand relatedactivities,suchas workshops
and seminars.

MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON D) PROMOTTNGTHETNTEGRATED pROVtStONOF

7 .32 T he Conf ere n c es e c re ta ri a h t a s e s ti ma tedthe
a v er aget ot al ann u a lc o s t (1 9 9 3 -2 0 0 0o) f i mp l e ment-
ing the activities of this programmeto be about $3
b i llion.inc ludinga b o u t$ 3 0 0m i l l i o n fro m th e i n terna-
ti o nal c om m uni ty o n g ra n t o r c o n c e s s i o n ate l rms.
Theseareindicativeandorder-of-rnagnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costsandfinancialterms,includingany that are
non-concessional. will depend upon, inter alia, the
sp ec if ic s t r at eg i e sa n d p ro g ra m m e sG o v e rn m ents
d e c ideupon f or im p l e me n ta ti o n .
ENVIRONI ENTAI INFRASTRUCTURE:
WATER,
SANITATION,DRAINAGEAND SOTID-WASTE
MANAGEMENT
BASIS
FORACTION
7.35 The sustainabilityof urbandevelopmentis defined
by many parametersrelatingto the availabilityof water
supplies,air quality and the provisionof environmental
infrastructurefor sanitationand wastemanagement.As
a resultof the densityof users,urbanization,if properly
managed,offers uniqueopportunitiesfor the supply of

\7
sustainableenvironmentalinfrastructurethrough ade-
quate pricing policies, educationalprogrammesand
equitableaccessmechanismsthat are economicallyand
environmentallysound.In most developingcountries,
however,the inadequacyand lack of environmentalin-
frastructureis responsiblefor widespreadill-healthand
a large numberof preventabledeathseachyear.In those
countriescclnditionsare set to worsen due to growing
needs that exceed the capacity of Governmentsto
respondadequateiy.
1.36 An integratedapproachto the provisionof environ-
mentally soundintiastructurein human settlements.in
particularfor the urbanand rural poor, is an investment
in sustainabledevelopmentthat can improvethe quality
of life, increaseproductivity,improvehealthand reduce
the burden of investmentsin curative medicine and
povertyalleviation.
7.37 Most of the activitieswhosemanagement would be
improved by an integrated approach. are covered in
Agenda 2l as follows: chapters6 (Protecting and pro-
moting human health conditions),9 (Protectingthe at-
mosphere),18 (Protectingthe qualitv and supply of
freshwaterresources)and 21 (Environmentallysound
managementof solid wastesand sewage-related issues).
OBJECTIVE
7.38 The objectiveis to ensurethe provisionof adequate
environmentalinfrastructurefacilitiesin all settlements
by the year 2025. The achievementof this objective
would requirethat all developingcountriesincorporate
in theirnationalstrategiesprogrammes to build theneces-
sary technical,flnancial and human resource capacity
aimed at ensuringbetter integrationof infrastructureand
environmental planning by the year 2000.
ACTIVITIES
7.39 All countriesshouldassessthe environmentalsuit-
ability of infrastructurein human settlements,develop
nationalgoalsfor sustainable managementof waste,and
implementenvironmentallysoundtechnologyto ensure
thattheenvironment,humanhealthandqualityof life are
protected.Settlementinfrastructureand environmental
programmesdesignedtcl promotean integratedhuman
settlementsapproachto the planning, development,
maintenanceand managementof environmentalinfra-
structure(watersupply,sanitation,drainage,solid-waste
management) shouldbe strengthenedwith theassistance
of bilateral and multilateral agencies.Coordination
amongtheseagenciesand with collaborationfrom inter-
nationalandnationalrepresentatives of local authorities,
the privatesectorand communitygroupsshouldalsobe
58
strengthened. The activitiesof all agenciesengagedin
providing environmental infrastructure should, where
possible,reflect an ecosystemor metropolitan area ap-
proach to settlementsand should include monitoring,
appliedresearch,capacity-building, transferof appropri-
ate technology and technical cooperation among the
rangeof programmeactivities.
7.40 Developingcountriesshouldbe assistedat the na-
tional and local levelsin adoptingan integratedapproach
to theprovisionof watersupply.energy,sanitation,drain-
age and solid-wastemanagement,and externalfunding
agenciesshouldensurethat this approachis appliedin
particularto environmentalinfiastructureimprovement
in informal settlementsbasedon regulationsand stand-
ards that take into account the living conditions and
resourcesof the communitiesto be served.
7.41 All countriesshould,as appropriate,adoptthe fol-
lowing principles for the provision of environmental
infrastructure:
(a) Adopt policiesthatminimizeif not altogetheravoid
environmentaldamage,wheneverpossible;
(b) Ensurethat relevantdecisionsare precededby en-
vironmentalimpact assessments and also take into ac-
count the costsof any ecologicalconsequences;
(c) Promote developmentin accordancewith indige-
nous practices and adopt technologies appropriate to
local conditions;
(d) Promotepoliciesaimedat recoveringtheactualcost
of infrastructureservices,while at the sametime recogniz-
ing the need to find suitableapproaches(including sub-
sidies)to extendbasicservicesto all households;
(e) Seekjointsolutionsto environmentalprobiemsthat
affectseverallocalities.
7.42 The disseminationof information from existing
prograrnmesshouldbe facilitatedandencouragedamong
interestedcountriesand local institutions.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANCINGAND COSTEVALUATION
7.43 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedmost of
the costs of implementing the activities of this pro-
gramme in other chapters. The secretariatestimatesthe
averagetotal annualcost(1993-2000)of technicalassist-
ancefrom the internationalcomrnunity on grant or con-
cessionalterms to be about $50 million. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and
have not beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costs
and financial terms,including any that are non-conces-
sional,will dependupon,inter olia,the specificstrategies
and programmes Governmentsdecide upon fbr im-
plementation.
 ME,ANS
8' SC'ENIIFICAND IECHNOI.OGICAL
7.44 Scientificandtechnologicalmeanswithin theexist-
ing programmes should be coordinated wherever
possibleand should:
(a) Accelerateresearchin the areaofintegratedpolicies
of environmental infrastructure programmes andprojects
basedon cost/benefitanalysisand overall environmental
impact;
(b) Promotemethodsof assessing"effective demand",
utilizing environmentand developmentdata as criteria
for selectingtechnology.
C) HUMANRESOURCE AND
DEVELOPMFNT
CAPACITY-BUILDING
7..15With the assistanceand supportof funding agencies,
all countriesshould,as appropriate,undertaketraining and
popularparticipationprogrammesaimed at:
(a) Raising awarenessof the means,approachesand
benefitsof the provision of environmentalinfrastructure
facilities,especiallyamongindigenouspeople,women,
low-income groupsand the poor;
ft) Developinga cadreof professionals with adequate
skills in integratedinfrastructuralservice planning and
maintenanceof resource-efficient,environmentally
soundand socially acceptablesystems;
(c) Strengtheningthe institutional capacity of local
authoritiesand administratorsin the integratedprovision
of adequateinfrastructure servicesin partnershipwith
local communitiesand the private sector;
(d) Adopting appropriatelegal and regulatory instru-
ments,includingcross-subsidy anangements,to extend
the benefits clf adequateand affordable environmental
infrastructureto unservedpopulationgroups,especially
the poor.
El PROIIOTING SUSTAINABLEENERGYAND
TRANSPORTSYSTEMSIN HUftIAN SETITE'VIENTS
FORACTION
BASIS
7.46 N{ost of the commercialand non-commercialen-
ergyproducedtodayis usedin andforhumansettlements,
anda substantial percentageof it is usedby thehousehold
sector.Developingcountriesareat presentfacedwith the
need to increasetheir energy production to accelerate
developmentandraisethe living standards of their popu-
lations,while at the sametime reducingenergyproduc-
tion costs and energy-relatedpollution. Increasingthe
efficiency of energy use to reduceits polluting effects
and to promote the use of renewableenergiesmust be a
priority in any action taken to protectthe urban environ-
ment.
7.47 Developed countries,as the largest consumersof
energy,are faced with the need for energyplanning and
management,promotingrenewableandalternatesources
of energy,and evaluatingthe life-cycle costsof current
systemsand practicesas a result of which many metro-
politan areas are suffering from pervasive air quality
problemsrelatedto ozone,particulatemattersandcarbon
monoxide.The causeshavemuch to do with technologi-
cal inadequacies andwith anincreasingfuel consumption
generated by inefficiencies,high demographicandindus-
trial concentrationsand a rapid expansionin the number
of motor vehicles.
7.48 Transport accountsfor about 30 per cent of com-
mercial energyconsumptionand for about60 per cent of
totalglobalconsumptionof liquid petroleum.In develop-
ing countries,rapid motorizationandinsufficientinvest-
ments in urban-transportplanning, traffic management
and infrastructure are creating increasing problems in
terms of accidentsand injury, health,noise,congestion
and loss of productivity similar to those occurring in
many developedcountries.AII of theseproblemshavea
severe impact on urban populations, particularly the
low-incomeand no-incomegroups.
OBJECNVES
7.49 The objectivesare to extendthe provisionof more
energy-efficienttechnology and alternative/renewable
energy for human settlementsand to reduce negative
impactsof energyproductionand use on human health
and on the environment.
ACTIVITIES
7.50 The principal activitiesrelevantto this programme
area are included in chapter9 (Protectionof the atmos-
phere), programme area B, subprogramme I (Energy
development,efficiency and consumption)and subpro-
gramme 2 (Transportation).
7.51 A comprehensiveapproachto human settlements
developmentshouldincludethepromotionof sustainable
energydevelopmentin all countries,as tollows:
A) DEVELOPING lN PARTICULAR,
COUNTRTES, SHOULD:
(i) Formulatenationalactionprograrnmesto prolnoteand
supportreaftbrestationandnationalforestregenerationwith
a view to achievingsustainedprovision of the biornass
energyneedsof the low-incomegroupsin urbanareasand
the rural poor,in particularwomen and children;
(ii) Formulatenational action programlnesto promote
59
integrateddevelopmentof energy-savingand renewable
energy technologies,particularly for the use of solar,
hydro, wind and biomasssources;
(iii) Promotewide disseminationandcommercializationof
renewableenergy technologiesthrough suitablemeasures,
inter alia, fiscal andtechnologytransfermechanisms;
(iv ) Cany out information andtrainingprogftImmesdirected
at manufacturersandusersin orderto promoteenergy-saving
techniquesandenergy-efficientappliances;
B) TNTERNATTONAL ORGANTZATIONS AND BILATERAL DONORS
SHOULD:
(i) Supportdevelopingcounfies in implementingnational
energyprogrammesin order to achievewidespreaduse of
energy-savingand renewableenergytechnologies,particu-
larly ttreuseof solar,wind, biomassandhydro sources;
(ii) Provide accessto researchand developmentresults
to increaseenergy-useefficiencylevelsin humansettle-
ments.
7.52 Promoting efficient and environmentally sound
urban transport systems in all countries should be a
comprehensiveapproachto urban-transportplanningand
management. To this end, all countriesshould:
(a) Integrate land-use and transportationplanning to
encouragedevelopment pattems that reduce transport
demand;
(b) Adopt urban-transportprogrammesfavouring high-
occupancypublic transportin countries,asappropriate;
(c) Encouragenon-motonzed modes of transport by
providing safe cycleways and footways in urban and
suburbancentresin countries,as appropriate;
(d) Devoteparticularattentionto effectivetraffic man-
agement,efficientoperationof public transportandmain-
tenanceof transportinfrastructure;
(e) Promotetheexchangeof informationamongcounfies
and representatives of local and metropolitanareas;
(0 Re-evaluatethe presentconsumptionand produc-
tion patternsin order to reduce the use of energy and
national resources.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC/NG,ANDCOSTEVALUATION
7.53 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe costs
of implementing the activities of this programme in
chapter9 (Protectionof the atmosphere).
B) HUMANRESOURCE AND
DEVELOPMENI
CAPACITY-BUILDING
7.54 ln orderto enhancethe skills of energyserviceand
60
transport professionalsand institutions, all countries
should,as appropriate:
(a) Provide on-the-joband other training of govern-
ment officials,planners,traffic engineersand managers
involved in the energy-service and transportsection:
(b) Raise public awarenessof the environmentalim-
pacts of transport and travel behaviour through mass
media campaignsand supportfor non-governmentaland
community initiatives promoting the use of non-mo-
torized transport, shared driving and improved traffic
safetymeasures;
(c) Strengthenregional,national,state/provincial, and
private sector institutionsthat provide educationand
training on energyserviceand urbantransportplanning
and management.
F) PROMOTINGHUMAN SETTTEMENT PIANNING
IN DISASTER.PRONE
AND 'TAANAGEIAENT AREAS
FORACTION
BASIS
7.55 Natural disasterscauseloss of life, disruptionof
economicactivitiesand urbanproductivity,particularly
for highly susceptiblelow-incomegroups,and environ-
mental damage,such as loss of fertile agriculturalland
and contaminationof water resources,and can lead to
major resettlementof populations. Over the past two
decades,they are estimatedto have causedsome3 mil-
lion deathsand affected800 million people.Global eco-
nomic losseshave been estimatedby the Office of the
United NationsDisasterRelief Coordinatorto be in the
rangeof $30 billion to $50 billion per year.
7.56 The GeneralAssembly,in resolutton441236,pro-
claimedthe I 990sasthe InternationalDecadefor Natural
DisasterRedr.rction.The goalsof the DecadeT bearrelev-
anceto the objectives01'thepresentprogrammearea.
7.57 ln addition.there is an urgentneedto addressthe
preventionand reductionof man-madedisastersand/or
disasterscausedby. inter a/ia, industries,unsafenuclear
power generationand toxic wastes(see chapter 6 of
A g e n d a2 l ) .
OBJECTIVE
7.58 The objectiveis to enableall countries,in particular
those that are disaster-prone,to mitigate the negative
impact of natural and man-madedisasterson human
settlements,nationaleconomiesand the environment.
ACTIVITIES
7.59 Three distinct areasof activity are fbreseenunder
this programmearea,namely,the developmentof a "cul-
ture of safety", pre-disasterplanning and post-disaster
reconstruction.
A CULTURE
A) DEVELOP'NG OF SAFETY
7.60 To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries.
especially those that are disaster-prone,the fclllowing
activitiesshouldbe carriedout:
(a) Completingnationaland local studieson thenature
and occurrenceof natural disasters,their impact on
peopleandeconomicactivities,the effectsof inadequate
constructionand land usein hazard-prone areas,and the
socialandeconomicadvantages of adequatepre-disaster
planning;
(b) Implementing nationwide and local awareness
campaignsthrough all availablemedia, translatingthe
above knowledge into information easily comprehen-
sible to the generalpublic and to the populationsdirectly
exposedto hazards;
(c) Strengtheningand/ordevelopingglobal, regional,
nationaland local early warning systemsto alert popu-
lationsto impendingdisasters;
(d) Identifyingindustriallybasedenvironmentaldisas-
ter areas at the national and internationallevels and
implementingstrategiesaimed at the rehabilitationof
theseareasthrough,inter alia:
(i) Restructuringof the economic activitiesand pro-
moting new job opportunitiesin environmentallysound
sectors;
(ii) Promotingclose collaborationbetweengovern-
mental and local authorities,local communitiesand
non-governmental organizationsand privatebusiness ; settlements, especiallythe reconstructionof community
(iii) Developingandenforcingstrictenvironmentalcon-
trol standards.
PRE-DTSASTER
B) DEVELOPING PT.ANNING
7.61 Pre-disasterplanning shouldform an integralpart
of human settlementplanningin all countries.The fol-
lowing shouldbe included:
(a) Undertakingcompletemulti-hazardresearchinto
risk and vulnerabilityof human settlementsand settle-
ment infrastructure,includingwaterand sewerage, com-
municationand transportationnetworks,as one type of
risk reductionmay increasevulnerabilityto another(e.g.,
an earthquake-resistanthousemadeof wood will be more
vulnerableto wind storms);
(b) Developing methodologiesfor determining risk
and vulnerabilitywithin specifichumansettlements and
incorporatingrisk and vulnerability reductioninto the
humansettlementplanningand managementprocess;
(c) Redirecting inappropriate new development and
human settlementsto areasnot prone to hazards;
(d) Preparing guidelines on location, design and
operation of potentially hazardous industries and
activities;
(e) Developingtools (legal,economicetc.) to encour-
age disaster-sensitive development,including meansof
ensuringthat limitationson developmentoptionsarenot
punitive to owners,or incorporatealternativemeansof
compensation;
(0 Further developing and disseminatinginfbrmation
on disaster-resistantbuilding materialsand construction
technologiesfor buildingsand public works in general;
(g) Developing training programmesfor contractors
and builderson disaster-resistantconstructionmethods.
Some programmes should be directed particularly to
smallenterprises, which build thegreatmajority of hous-
ing andothersmallbuildingsin thedevelopingcountries,
aswell asto the rural populations,which build their own
houses:
(h) Developing training programmes for emergency
site managers,non-governmentalorganizationsand
community groups which cover all aspectsof disaster
mitigation, including urban searchand rescue,emer-
gency comtnunications,early warning techniques,and
pre-disaster planning;
(i) Developingproceduresandpracticesto enablelocal
communities to receive information about hazardous
installationsor situationsin these areas,and facilitate
their participationin early warning and disasterabate-
ment and responseproceduresand plans;
0) Preparing action plans fbr the reconstructionof
lifelines.
c) TN|T|ATTNG
POSI-DTSASTER
RECONSTRUCT/ON
AND REHABILITATION
PTANN'NG
1.62 The internationalcommunity,as a major partnerin
post-reconstruction andrehabilitation.should ensurethat
the countriesinvolvedderivethe greatestbenefitsfrom the
funds allocatedby undertakingthe following activities:
(a) Carrying out researchon past experienceson the
socialand economicaspectsof post-disaster reconstruc-
tion and adoptingeffectivestrategiesand guidelinesfor
post-disasterreconstruction,with particularemphasison
development-focused strategiesin the allocation of
scarcereconstructionresources,andon the opportunities
that post-disasterreconstructionprovides to introduce
sustainablesettlementpatterns;
(b) Preparingand disserninatinginternationalguide-
lines for adaptationto nationaland local needs;
6l
(c) Supportingeffclrtsof nationalGovernmentsto initiate
contingencyplanning,with pafiicipationof affectedcom-
munities.for post-drsasterreconstmctioneurdrehabilitation.
OFIMPLEMENTATION
MEANS
AI FINANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
the achievementof the nationalsocio-econornic devel-
opment goals of providing shelter,infrastructureand
employment.However. they can be a ma.iorsourceof
environmentaldarnagethroughdepietionof'the natural
resourcebase,degradationof fragileec-o-zones,
chemical
pollution and the use of building materialsharmful to
humanhealth.

7.63 The Conf'erence secretariathasestimatedthe aver- OBJECTIVES

(
age total annualcost 1993-2000)of implementingthe
7.68 The objectivesare,first, to adoptpoliciesandtech-
activitiesof this programmeto be about$50 rnillion from
nologiesand to exchangeinformationon them in order
the internationalcotnmunity on grant or concessional
to enablethe constructionsectorto meet human settle-
terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-magnitude esti-
ment developmentgoals,while avoiding harmful side-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
effects on human health and on the biosphere,and,
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are
second,to enhancetheemployment-generation capacity
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
of the constructionsector.Governmentsshouldwork in
specificstrategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecide
close collaborationwith the private sectorin achievins
upon for implenrentation.
theseobjectives.

8/ 5C/ E N IF tCAN D T EC H N O T .OG\C

MEALA N S ACTIVITIES
7.69 All countriesshould,as appropriateand in accord-
7.64 Scientists
andengineers specializing
in thisfield rn ancewith nationalplans,objectivesand priorities:
both developingand developedcountriesshould col- (a) Establishand strengthenthe indigenousbuilding
laboratewith urban and regional plannersin order to materialsindustry,based,as much as possible,on inputs
providethebasicknowledgeandmeansto mitigatelosses of locallyavailablenaturalresources;
owing to disastersas well as environmentallyinappro- (b) Formulateprogrammesto enhancethe utilization
priatedevelopment. of localmaterialsby theconstructionsectorbyexpanding
technicalsuppoftand incentiveschernesfor increasing
thecapabilitiesandeconomicviability of small-scaleand
C) HUM A NR E SOU R CDEE VE L O P M EN
A ND
I informal operativeswhich make use of thesematerials
CA P A CI TY-B U IL D IN G and traditionalconstructiontechniques;
(c) Adopt standardsand other regulatory measures
7.65 Developingcountriesshouldconducttrainingpro- which promote the increaseduse of energy-efficient
grammeson disaster-rcsistant constructionmethodsfor designsand technologiesand sustainableutilization of
contractors andbuilders,who buildthe majorityof hous- natural resourcesin an economicallvand environmen-
ing in the developingcountries. This shouldfocuson the tally appropriateway,
sn-rallbusinessenterprises which build the majority of (d) Formulateappropriateland-usepoliciesandintroduce
housingin the developingcountries. planning regulationsspeciallyaimed at the protectionof
1. 66 T r ain i n g p ro g ra mme ss h o u l d b e extendedto eco-sensitive zonesagainstphysicaldisruptionby construc-
governmentofficials and plannersand contmunityand tion and cons0uction-related activities;
non-govemmental organizations to cover all aspectsof (e) Promotethe use of labour-intensiveconstruction
disasterrnitigation,such as early warning techniques, and maintenancetechnologieswhich generateemploy-
pr e- dis as tepr l a n n i n ga n c lc o n s tru c ti o n,post-di saster ment in the constructionsectorfor the underemployed
constnrctron and rehabilitation. labourforce found in mostlargecities,while at the same
time promotingthedeveloplnentof skills in theconstruc-
tion sector:
G) PROMOTTNGSUSTATNABTE
CONSTRUCTTON (f) Developpoliciesandpracticesto reachtheintormal
INDUSTRYACTIVITIES
sector and sel f-hel p housi ng bui l ders by adopt ing
measuresto increasetheaffordabilityol-buildingmateri-
BASISFORACTION als on the part of the urbanandrural poor,through,inler
7.67 The activities of the construction sector are vital tcr uliu, credit schemesand bulk procurementof buildins

62
materialsfor sale to small-scalebuilders and com-
rnunities.
7.70 All countriesshould:
(a) Promotethe free exchangeof information on the
entirerangeof environmentalandhealthaspectsof con-
struction,including the developmentand dissemination
of databaseson the adverse environmental effects of
buildingmaterialsthroughthecollaborativeeffortsof the
privateand public sectors;
(b) Promotethe developmentand disseminationof
databasesc-rnthe adverseenvironmentaland health ef-
fectsof building materialsand introducelegislationand
financial incentivesto promote recycling of energy-
intensivematerialsin the constructionindustryand con-
servationof wasteenergyin building-materialsproduc-
tion methods;
(c) Promotethe use of economicinstruments,such as
product charges,to discouragethe use of construction
materialsand productsthat createpollution during their
life cycle;
(d) Promote information exchangeand appropriate
technologytransferamongall countries.with particular
attentionto developingcountries,for resourcemanage-
ment in construction,particularly for non-renewable
resources:
(e) Promote researchin constructionindustriesand
relatedactivities,and establishand strengtheninstitu-
tions in this sector.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
Ai F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
7.7| The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-2000)of implementing the
activities of this prograrnmeto be about $40 billion,
including about $4 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany thatarenon-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grarnmesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
B) HUMANRESOURCE AND
DEVELOPMENI
CAPACITY.BUILDING
d i nter-
7. 72 Der elopin gc o u n tri e ss h o u l db e a s s i s te b,v
nationalsupportandfundingagenciesin upgradingthe
technicaland managerialcapacitiesof the smallentre-
preneur and the vocational skills of operativesand
supervisorsin the building materialsindustry,using a
. h e s ec o u n t r i e ss h o u l d
v a r i e t yo f t r a i n i n gm e t h o d sT
a l s o b e a s s i s t e di n d e v e l o p i n gp r o g r a m r n e tso e n -
c o L l r a gteh e u s eo f n o n - w a s t ca n dc l e a nt ec h n o l c l g i e s
through appropri atetransferof technol ogl ,.
7 . 7 3 G e n e r a l e d t r c a t i o np r o g r a m n r e ss h o u l d b e
developedin all countries,as appropriate,to increase
builderawareness of availablesustainable technologies.
1.14 Local authoritiesare called upon to play a pio-
neeringrole in promoting the increaseduse of envi-
ronmental l ysoundbui l di ngmateri al sandconstruct ion
technol ogi es, c.g.,by pursui ngan i nnovati veprocur e-
ment pol i cy.
H) PROMOTTNGHUrylAN RESOURCE
DEVETOPMENT
AND CAPACITY.BUILDING
FOR HUMAN
NTs DEVELOPMENT
SETTTEME
FORACTION
BASIS
7.75 Most countries,in additionto shortcomings in the
availabilityof specialized expertisein the areasof hous-
ing, settlementmanagement, land management, infra-
structure.construction,energy.transport,and pre-disas-
ter planningandreconstruction, facethreecross-sectoral
human resolrrcedevelopmentand capacity-building
shortfalls. First is the absenceof an enablingpolicy
environmentcapableof integratingthe resourcesand
activitiesof the public sector,the privatesectorand the
community,or socialsector:secondis the weaknessof
specialized trainingand researchinstitutions;and third
is the insufficientcapacityfor technicaltraining a:rd
assistance for low-incomecclmmunities. both urbanand
rural.
OBJECTIVE
'fhe
I .16 objective is to irnprove hurnan resourcedevel-
opment and capacity-building in all countriesby enhanc-
ing the personal and institutional capacity of all actors,
parlicularly indigenous people and women, involved in
human settlement development. In this regard, account
should be taken of traditional cultural practicesof indigen-
ous people and their relationshipto the environment.
ACTIVITIES
7 . 7 1 S p e c i f i c h u m a n r e s o u r c ed e v e l o p r n e n at n d
capacity-building activitieshavebeenbuilt into eachof
the programmeareasof this chapter. More gencrally,
however,additionalstepsshouldbe takento reinforce
those activities. In order to do so, all countries,as
appropriate, shouldtakethe follor.ving action:
63
(a) Strengtheningthe developmentof human resources ME
B J sC /E N i l FtCA N D TE C H N OT.OG| C A LA NS
and of capacitiesof public sector institutionsthrough
technicalassistance and internationalcooperationso as 7.80 Both formal trainingand non-formaltypesof human
to achieveby the year 2000 substantialimprovementin resourcedevelopmentand capacity-buildingprograrnmes
the efficiencyof governmentalactivities; should be combined,and use should be made of user-
(b) Creatingan enablingpolicy environmentsuppor- orientedtrainingmethods,up-to-datetrainingmaterialseurd
tive of the partnershipbetween the public, private and modernaudio-visual communicationsystems.
communitysectors;
(c) Providing enhancedtraining and technicalassist-
I
'No or
oggregotefiguresore ovoilobleon internolexpenditure
ance to institutionsproviding training for technicians, officioldevelopment ossistonce on humonsettlements. However,
professionals and administrators, and appointed,elected doto ovoiioblein the World Development Report,1991, for 16
low-income developing countries showthotthepercentoge of centrol
and professionalmembers of local govemmentsand government expenditure on housing,omenities ond sociolsecurity
strengtheningtheir capacityto addresspriority training .|5.1
ond welforefor l9B9 overoged 5.6 percent,witho highof
needs,particularly in regard to social, economic and percentin thecoseof SriLonko,whichhosemborked on o vigorous
environmentalaspectsof human settlementsdevelop- housing progromme. InOECDindushiolized countries, duringthesome
ment; yeor,the percentoge of centrolgovernment expenditure on housing,
omenities ond sociolsecurity ond welforerongedfromo minimum of
(d) Providing direct assistancefor human settlement
29.3 per centto o moximum of 49.4 per cent,withon overogeof
developmentat the communitylevel, inter alia,by: 39 per cent {World Bonk, World Development Report,1991, World
(i) Strengtheningand promoting prograrnmesfor social Development Indicotors, tobleI 1 iWoshington, D.C.,l99l)1.
mobilizationandraisingawareness of thepotentialof women 2See
the report of the Director-Generol for Development ond
andyouth in humansettlementsactivities; Internotionol Economic Cooperotion contoiningpreliminory sto-
(ii) Facilitatingcoordinationof the activitiesof women, tisticoldotoon operotionol octivities of theUnitedNotionssystem
youth, community groupsand non-govemmentalorgani- for I 988 lA/ 44/324-E/ 1989/ 106/ Add.4,onnex).
zationsin humansettlements development; 3world
Bonk,Annual Report,I 99 I (Woshington, D.C., I 99.l).
(iii) Promotingresearchon women's programmesand aUNOp,"Reported
investment commitments relotedto UNDPas-
other groups,and evaluatingprogressmadewith a view
sistedproiects, 1988", tobleI , "sectorol distribution of investment
to identifyingbottlenecksand neededassistance; c o m m i t m e innt I 9 8 8 - l9 8 9 " .
(e) Promotingthe inclusionof integratedenvironmen- 'A
5
pilotprogromme of thlstype,theCiiy DotoProgromme (CDP),
tal management into generallocal governmentactivities.
is olreodyin operoiionin the UnitedNotionsCentreon Humon
7.78 Both internationalorgamzationsand non-govern- Settlements (Hobitot), oimedot theproduction ond disseminotion
mentalorganizationsshouldsupportthe aboveactivities to porticipotingcitiesof microcomputer opplicotionsoftwore
by, inter alia, stengtheningsubregionaltraining institu- designed to store,process ond retrieve citydotofor locol,notionol
tions,providingupdatedraining materialsanddisseminat- o n d i n t e r n o t i o neoxl c h o n g o
en dd i s s e m i n o t i o n .
ing the resultsof successfulhumanresourceand capacity- 6This policies, which
collsforintegroted lond+esource monogement
building activities, programmesand projects. ore olso oddressedin chopterl0 of Agendo 2 1 (lntegroted
opproochto plonningond monogement of londresources).
ZTh"
gool, of the Internotionol Decodefor Noturol Disoster
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION Reduction, setout in ihe onnexto GenerolAssembiyresolution
44/236, ore os follows:
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON (o)Toimprovethecopocityof eochcountryto mitigotetheeffects of
noturoldisosters expeditiously ond effectively, poyingspeciolotten-
tion to ossisting developing countries in the ossessment of disoster
7.79 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
domogepotentiol ond in theestoblishment of eorlyworningsystems
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe ond disosier-resisiont structures whenond whereneeded;
activitiesof this programmeto be about$65 million from (b)To deviseoppropriote guidelines ond strotegies for opplying
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional existingscientific ond technicolknowledge,tokinginto occount
terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of--magnitude esti- theculturolond economicdiversity omongnotions;
(c) Tofosterscientific ond engineering endeovours oimedot closing
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
criticolgops in knowledge in orderto reducelossof lifeondproperty;
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are (d)Todisseminote existingond new technicol informotion reloted
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the to meosures fortheossessment, prediction ondmitigotion of noturol
specificstrategiesandprogranunesGovernmentsdecide disosters;
upon for implementation. (e)Todevelopmeosures forthecssessment, prediction, prevention
ond mitigotion of noturoldisosiers throughprogrommes of techni-
col ossistonce ond technology tronsfer, demonstrotion proiects,
ond educotionond troining,toiloredto specificdisosters ond
locotions, ond io evoluote theeffectiveness of thoseprogrommes.

64
 ond development
environment
Integroting
in decision-moking
INTRODUCTION
8.1 This chaptercontainsthefollowing programmeareas:
(a) lntegrating environmentand developmentat the
policy, planningand managementlevels;
( b) P r ov iding a n e ffe c ti v e l e g a l a n d re g ul atory
framework,
(c) Making eftectiveuseof economicinstrumentsand
marketand otherincentives;
(d) Establishingsystemsfor integratedenvironmental
and economicaccountine.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) TNTEGRATINGENVIRONI ENTAND
AT THE POLICY,PTANNING AND
DEVETOPfrIENT
ftTANAGEMENTLEVETS
BASIS FORACTION
8.2 Prevailing systemsfor decision-makingin many
countriestend to separateeconomic.socialand environ-
mental factorsat the policy, planningand management
levels.This influencestheactionsof all groupsin society,
including Governments,industry and individuals,and
hasimportantimplicationsfor the efficiencyandsustain-
ability of development.An adjustmentor even a fun-
damentalreshapingof decision-making,in the light of
country-specificconditions,may be necessaryif envi-
ronment and developmentis to be put at the centreof
ec onom ic and p o l i ti c a l d e c i s i o n -m a k i n g i, n effect
achieving a full integrationof thesefactors.In recent
years,someGovemmentshave alsobegunto make sig-
nificantchangesin the institutionalstructuresof govern-
mentin orderto enablemore systematicconsiderationof
the environmentwhen decisionsaremadeon economic,
social, fiscal, energy,agricultural,transpoftation,trade
and otherpolicies,aswell asthe implicationsof policies
in theseareasfor the environment. New torms of dia-
logue arealsobeingdevelopedfor achievingbetterinte-
grationamongnationaland local government,industry,
science,environmentalgroups and the public in the
processof developingeffectiveapproachesto environ-
ment and development.The responsibilityfor bringing
aboutchangeslies with Governmentsin partnershipwith
the private sectorand local authorities,and in collabo-
ration with national.regionaland internationalorganiz-
ations, including in particular UNEP, UNDP and the
World Bank. Exchangeof experiencebetweencountries
can alsobe significant.Nationalplans,goalsand objec-
tives,nationalrules,regulationsandlaw, andthe specific
situationsin which difl-erentcountriesare placedare the
overallframeworkin which suchintegrationtakesplace.
In this context,it mustbe bornein mind thatenvironmen-
tal standards may posesevereeconomicand socialcosts
if they are uniformly appliedin developingcountries.
OBJECIMES
8.3 The overall objectiveis to improve or restructure
the decision-makingprocessso that considerationof
socio-economicand environmentalissuesis fully inte-
grated and a broaderrange of public participationas-
sured.With theunderstanding thatcountrieswill develop
their own priorities in accordancewith their prevailing
conditions, needs,national plans, policies and pro-
grammes,the following objectivesare proposed:
(a) To conducta nationalreview of economic,sectoral
andenvironmentalpolicies,strategies andplansto ensure
the progressi vei ntegrati on of envi ronmentaland
developmental issues;
65
(b) To strengtheninstitutional structuresto allow the
full integrationof environmentaland developmentalis-
sues,at all levelsof decision-making;
(c) To developor improve mechanismsto facilitate the
involvementof concernedindividuals,groupsandorgan-
izationsin decision-makingat all levels;
(d) To establishdomesticallydeterminedprocedures
int egr at e e n v i ro n m e n t a n d d e v e l o p m e nti ssues i n
decision-making.
ACTIVITIES
-MAKINGPROCESSES
DECISiON
A) IMPROYING
8.4 The primary needis to integrateenvironrnentaland
developmentaldecision-makingprocesses.To do this,
Governmentsshould conduct a national review and,
where appropriate,improve the processesof decision-
making so as to achieve the progressiveintegration of
economic,scrcialandenvironmentalissuesin the pursuit
of developmentthat is economicallyefficient, socially
equitable and responsibleand environmentally sound.
Countrieswill developtheir own prioritiesin accordance
with their national plans, policies and programmesfor
the following activities:
(a) Ensuring the integration of economic, social and
environmentalconsiderationsin decision-makingat all
levelsand in all ministries;
(b) Adopting a domesticallyformulated policy frame-
work that reflectsa long-termperspectiveand cross-sec-
toral approachas the basisfor decisions,taking account
of the linkagesbetweenand within the variouspolitical,
economic,social and environmentalissuesinvolved in
the developmentprocess;
(c) Establishingdomestically determinedways and
meansto ensurethe coherenceof sectoral,economic,
social and environmentalpolicies,plans and policy in-
struments,including fiscal measuresand the budget:
these mechanismsshould apply at various levels and
bring together those interested in the development
process;
(d) Monitoring and evaluatingthe developmentprocess
systematicallyand conductingregularreviewsof the state
of human resourcesdevelopment,economic and social
conditionsand trendsand the stateof the environmentand
naturalresources:this could be complementedby annual
environmentand developmentreviews, with a view to
assessingsustainabledevelopmentachievementsby the
varioussectorsand departments of govemment;
(e) Ensuringtransparencyof, and accountabilityfor,
theenvironmentalimplicationsof economicandsectoral
policies;
66
(0 Ensuringaccessby the public to relevantinfbrma-
tion, facilitatingthe receptionof public viewsandallow-
ing for effective participation.
SYSIEMS
PI.ANN'NGAND MANAGEMENI
B) IMPROVING
to
8.5 To supporta more integratedapproachto decision-
making,the datasystemsand analyticalmethodsusedto
supportsuchdecision-makingprocesses may needto be
improved. Governments,in collaboration,whereappro-
priate, with national and international orgamzations,
shouldreview the statusof their planningand manage-
ment systems and, w here necessary,modif , t "and
strengthenproceduresso as to facilitate the integrated
considerationof social, economic and environmental
issues.Countrieswill develop their own priorities in
accordancewith their national plans, policies and
programmesfor the following activities:
(a) Improving the use of data and information at all
stagesof planningand management, making systematic
and simultaneoususeof social,economic,developnien-
tal, ecologicaland environmentaldata;analysisshoulcl
stressinteractionsand synergisms;a broad range of
analyticalmethodsshouldbe encouraged soasto provide
variouspointsof view;
(b) Adopting comprehensive analyticalproceduresfor
prior and simultaneousassessmentof the impacts of
decisions,including the impactswithin and among the
economic,socialand environmentalspheres;thesepro-
ceduresshouldextendbeyondthe projectlevelto policies
and programmes;analysisshould also include assess-
ment of costs,benefitsand risks;
(c) Adopting flexible and integrativeplanning ap-
proachesthat allow the considerationof rnultiplegcials
and enable adjustmentof changing needs;integrative
areaapproaches at the ecosystemor watershedlevel can
assistin this approach:
(d) Adoptingintegrated management systenrs. parlicu-
larly for the management of naturalresources:traditional
or indigenousmethodsshouldbe studiedand considered
wherever they have proved effective: \ /omen's tradi-
tionalrolesshouldnot be marginalized as a resultof the
introductionof new managementsystems;
(e) Adopting integratedapproachesto sustainablede-
velopmentat theregionallevel,includingtransbclundarv
areas,subjectto the requirementsof particularcircunr-
stancesand necds;
(D Using policy instruments(legal/r"egulatorl' and
economic)asa tool for planningandmanagement. seek-
ing incorporationof efficiencycriteriain decisions:in-
strumentsshouldbe regularlyreviewedand adaptedto
ensurethat they continueto be effective;
(g) Delegating planning and managementresponsi-
bilities to the lowestlevel of public authorityconsistent
with el'fectiveaction; irt peuticularthe advantagesof
cff'ectiveandequitableopportunitiesfor participationby
wornenshouldbe discussed;
(h) Estatrlishingproceduresfor involving local com-
rnunitiesin contingencyplanningfor environmentaland
industrialaccidents,and maintainingan open exchange
clf informationon local hazards.
c) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
8.6 Countriescould developsystemsfor monitoringand
evalr.rationof progresstowards achieving sustainable
developmentby adoptingindicatorsthat measurechanges
acrosseconomic,socialandenvironmentaldimensions.
D) ADOFTING FOR
A NAnONAL STRATEGY
BLE DEVELOPMENT
SUSIA/NA
8.7 Governments"in cooperation,where appropriate,
with internationalorgamzations, shouldadopta national
strategyfor sustainable developmentbasedon,inter alia,
the irnplenrcntation of decisionstakenat theConf'erence,
particularlyin respectof Agenda2 I . This strategyshould
build uponandharmonizethevarioussectoraleconomic,
social and environmentalpolicies and plans that are
opcratingin thecountry. The experiencegainedthrough
eristing planningexercisessuchas nationalreportsfor
the Conf-crence, nationalconservationstrategiesanden-
vininnrentaction plans shouldbe fully usedand incor-
poratedinto a country-drivensustainabledevelopment
strategy.Its goals shouldbe to ensuresociallyrespon-
sible economic developmentwhile protectingthe re-
sourcrcbaseand the environmentfor the benefit of future
gcnerations.It shouldbe developedthroughthe widest
possibleparticipation.It shouldbe basedon a thorough
assessme nt of the currentsituationand initiatives.
OFIMPLEMENTATION
MEANS
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
l{.E Thc Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (199:l-2000)of implementingthe
actir iiit's of thisprogrammeto be about$50million from
thc-irrternationalconrmunityon grant or concessional
esti-
ternls.Theseareindicativeand order-of-magnitude
matesonlv andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specificstrategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecide
upon for implementation.
B] RESEARCH'NG AND
ENY'RONMENI
CI'ONS
DEVELOPMENI INTERA
8.9 Governments,in collaborationwith thenationaland
international scientific community and in cooperation
with internationalorganizations,as appropriate,should
intensify efforts to clarify the interactionsbetweenand
within social, economic and environmental consider-
ations. Researchshouldbe undertakenwith the explicit
objective of assistingpolicy decisionsand providing
reconunendationson improving managementpractices.
AND IRA'N/NG
C' ENHANC'NGEDUCATION
8.10 Countries,in cooperation,whereappropriate,with
national, regional or internationalorganizations,should
ensurethat essentialhurnanresourcesexist, or are de-
veloped,to undertakethe integrationof environmentand
developmentat various stagesof the decision-making
and implementation process. To do this, they should
improve.educationand technical training, particularly for
womenandgirls,by includinginterdisciplinary approaches.
asappropriate, in trchnical,vocational,universityandother
curricula. They should also undertakesystematictraining
of governmentpersonnel,plannersand managerson a
regular basis.giving priority to the requisiteintegrative
approaches and planningand management techniquesthat
are suitedto country-specificconditions.
AWARENESS
D) PROMOIINGPUBLIC
8.1I Countries,in cooperationwith nationalinstitutions
and groups,the media and the internationalcommunity,
should promote awarenessin the public at large, as well
asin specializedcircles,of the importanceof considering
environmentanddevelopmentin anintegratedmanner,and
should establishmechanismsfor facilitating a direct ex-
changeof informationand views with the public. Priority
should be given to highlighting the responsibilitiesand
potentialcontributionsof dift-erentsocialgroups.
E/ SIRENGIHEN'NGNAI'ONAI.
INSI'IUi/ONAL C APAC
ITY
8.12 Governments,in cooperation,where appropriate.
with intemationalorganizations,should strengthenna-
67
tional institutional capability and capacity to integrate
social, economic,developmentaland environmental
issuesat all levels of developmentdecision-making
and implementation. Attention should be given to
moving away from narrow sectoral approachesand
progressingtowards full cross-sectoralcoordination
and cooperation.
Bl PROVIDING AN EFFECTTVE
rEGAL AND
REGUTATORYFRAMSWOR,K
BASIS
FORACTION
8.13 Laws and regulationssuited to country-specific
conditionsareamongthe most importantinstrumentsfor
transformingenvironmentanddevelopmentpoliciesinto
action, not only through "command and control" meth-
ods, but also as a normative framework for economic
planningand marketinstruments.Yet, althoughthe vol-
umeof legaltextsin thisfield is steadilyincreasing,much
of the law-makingin many countriesseemsto be ad hoc
and piecemeal,or hasnot beenendowedwith the neces-
sary institutional machinery and authonty for enforce-
ment and timely adjustment.
8.14 While there is continuousneed for law improve-
ment in all countries,many developingcountrieshave
been affectedby shortcomingsof laws and regulations.
To effectivelyintegrateenvironmentanddevelopmentin
the policiesand practicesof eachcountry,it is essential
to develop and implement integrated,enforceableand
effectivelaws and regulationsthat arebasedupon sound
social,ecological,economicand scientificprinciples.It
is equally critical to develop workable programmesto
reviewandenforcecompliancewith thelaws,regulations
and standardsthat are adopted. Technical support may
be neededfor many countriesto accomplishthesegoals.
Technicalcooperationrequirementsin this field include
legal information, advisory services and specialized
trainingand institutionalcapacity-building.
8.15 The enactmentand enforcementof laws and regu-
lations (at the regional, national, state/provincialor
local/municipal level) are also essentialfor the im-
plementationof most internationalagreementsin the
field of environmentand development.as illustratedby
the frequent treaty obligation to report on legislative
measures.The surveyof existingagreements undertaken
in the contextof conferencepreparationshas indicated
problemsof compliancein this respect.and the needfor
improvednationalimplementationand,whereappropri-
ate, related technical assistance. In developing their
nationalpriorities,countriesshouldtakeaccounto1'their
internationalobligations.
68
OBJECTIVES
8.16 The overall objectiveis to promote,in the light of
country-specificconditions,the integrationof environ-
ment and developmentpoliciesthroughappropriatelegal
and regulatory policies, instruments and enforcement
mechanismsat the national,state,provincial and local
levels.With theunderstanding thatcountrieswill develop
their own priorities in accordancewith their needsand
nationaland,whereappropriate,regionalplans,policies
and prograrunes,the following objectivesare proposed:
(a) To disseminateinformation on effective legal and
regulatory innovations in the field of environment and
development, including appropriate instruments and
complianceincentives,with a view to encouragingtheir
wider use and adoptionat the national,state,provincial
and local levels;
(b) To supportcountriesthat requestit in their national
efforts to modernize and strengthenthe policy and legal
framework of governancefor sustainabledevelopment,
having due regardfor local social valuesand infrastruc-
tures;
(c) To encouragethe developmentand implementation
of national, state,provincial and local programmesthat
assessand promote compliance and respond appropri-
ately to non-compliance.
ACTIVITIES
A) MAKTNGLAWSAND REGUTAT/ONS
MOREEFFECTTVE
8.17 Governments,with the support,where appropri-
ate, of competentinternationalorganizations,should
regularly assessthe laws and regulationsenactedand
the relatedinstitutional/administrative machineryes-
tablishedat the national/stateand local/municipallev-
els in the field of environmentand sustainabledevel-
opment, with a view to renderingthem effective in
practice.Programmesfor this purposecould include
the promotion of public awareness,preparationand
di stri buti on of gui dancemateri al , and spe cialized
training, including workshops, seminars,education
programmesand conferences, for public officials who
desi gn, i mpl ement, moni tor and enforce l aws and
regul ati ons.
B) ESTABL/SH/NGJUD\C\ALAND
A DM/NIsTRAT
IVE PROCEDURES
8.18 Governments and legislators,with the support,
where appropriate,of competent international organi-
zations,shouldestablishjudicial and administrativepro-
ceduresfor legal reclressand remedyof actionsaffecting to maximize compliancewith its laws and regulations
environmentand developmentthat may be unlawful or relatingto sustainabledevelopment,with assistance from
infringe on rights unclerthe law. and should provide intemationalorganizationsand other countriesas appro-
accessto individuals,groupsand organizationswith a priate. The strategiescould include:
recognizediegal interest" (a) Enforceable,effective laws, regulationsand stand-
ards that are basedon soundeconomic,social and envi-
ronmental principles and appropriaterisk assessment,
AND
LEGATREFERENCE
C) PROVIDING incorporatingsanctionsdesignedto punish violations,
SUPPORTSERY/CES obtain redressand deterfuture violations;
(b) Mechanismsfor promotingcompliance;
8.19 Competentintergovernmentaiand non-govern- (c) Institutional capacityfor collecting compliancedata,
mentalorganizationscould cooperateto provide Gov- regularlyreviewing compliance,detectingviolations,es-
ernmentsand legislators,upon request,with an inte- tablishingenforcement priori ties,undertakingeffectiveen-
grated programmeof environmentand development forcement,and conductingperiodic evaluationsof the ef-
law (sustainable developmentlaw) services,carefully fectivenessof complianceand enforcementprogrammes;
adapted to the specific requirementsof the recipient (d) Mechanismsfor appropriateinvolvementof individ-
legal and administrative systems.Suchsystemscould ualsandgroupsin thedevelopmentandenforcementof laws
usefully include assistance in the preparationof com- and regulationson environmentand development.
prehensiveinventoriesand reviews of national legal
systems.Pastexperiencehasdemonstrated the useful-
nessof combining specializedlegalinformation ser- F/ NAnONAL MONTTOR/NG TO
TOLLOW'UP
OF LEGAL
vices with legal expert advice.Within the United Na- I. /NSIRUMENIS
,NTERNAIIONA
tions system,closer cooperationarnongall agencies
concerriedwould avoid duplicationof databasesand 8.22 Contractingpartiesto internationalagreements, in
f ac ilit at e div is i o n o f l a b o u r. T h e s e a g e n c i e scoul d consultationwith the appropriatesecretariatsof relevant
ex am ine t he po s s i b i l i ty a n d me ri t o f p e rformi ng intemationalconventionsasappropriate,shouldimprove
r ev iewsof s ele c te dn a ti o n a l e g a l s v s te m s . practicesand proceduresfor coliecting information on
legal andregulatorymeasurestaken. Contractingparties
to internationalagreementscould undertakesamplesur-
IRA/N/NG
A COOPERATIVE
D) ESTABL'SH/NG
veys of domesticfollow-up action subjectto agreement
DEVELOPMENT
NEIWORKFORSUSIAINAEI.E LAW
by the sovereignStatesconcerned.
8.20 Competentinternationaland academicinstitutions
could, within agreedfratneworks,cooperateto provide,
especiallyfor traineesfrom developingcountries,post- MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
graduateprogrammesandin-servicetrainingfacilitiesin
environmentanddevelopmentlaw. Suchtrainingshould Ai F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
addressboththeeffectiveapplicationandtheprogressive
improvementof applicablelaws, the related skills of 8.23 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
negotiating,drafting and mediation,and the training of age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
trainers. Intergovernmental and non-governmentalor- activitiesof this programmeto be about $6 million from
ganizationsalreadyactive in this field could cooperate the international community on grant or concessional
with relateduniversity programmesto harmonizecur- terms. Theseare indicative and order-of-magnitudees-
riculum planningandto ol r an optimalrangeof options timatesonly and have not been reviewed by Govern-
to interestedGovernrnentsand potentialsponsors. ments. ,A.ctualcostsand financial terms,including any
that are non-concessional,will dependupon, inter alia,
the specific strategiesand programmes Governments
NATIONAI
EFFECTIVE
E) DEVELaP'NG decideupon for implementation.
PROGRAMMES AND
FORREVIEWING
ENFORC/NG WITHNAI/ONAI,
COMPLIANCE
STATE, AND LOCALI.AWSON
PROY/NCIAT B/ SCIENI/F/C MEANS
AND IECHNOI.OGICAL
ENYIRONMFNIAND DEVELOPMENT
8.24 The prograrnmereliesessentiallyon a continuation
8.21 Each country shoLrlddevelopintegratedstrategies of ongoingwork for legaldatacollection,translationand

69
 assessment. Closercooperationbetweenexistingdata-
basesmay be expectedto leadto betterdivisionof labour
(e.9., in geographicalcoverageof nationallegislative
gazettesand other rel'erencesources)and to irnproved
standardizationandcompatibilityof data,asappropriate.
C) HUM A NR ES O U R CDEEV EL OP M F N I
8.25 Participation in trainingis expectedto benefitprac-
titionersfrom developingcountriesandto enhance train-
ing opportunities for women. Demandfor this type of
postgraduate andin-servicetrainingis knor.vn to be high.
The senrinars. workshopsandconferences on reviewand
enforcementthat havebeenheld to datehavebeenvery
successfuland well attended.The purposeof theseef-
forts is to developresources(both human and institu-
tional)to designandimplementeffectiveprogrammes
continuously reviervarrdenforcenationalandloc:allaws,
regulations and standards on sustainabledevelopment.
D/ S T RE N GT H F N /N
IEGG A rAN D
/NSI/IUIlONALCAPACITY
8.26 A mitjor part of the programmeshouldhe oriented
tow'ardsintprovingthe legal-institutional capacitiesof
conntriesto copewith nationalproblemsof governance
and effectivelaw-makingand law-applyingin the field
of environmentand sustainable development.Regional
centreso1't-'xcellencecouldbe designatcd and supported
to build up specialized databases and rrainingtacilities
for linguistic/cultural
groupsof legalsystems.
c) ,uAKrNG EFFECTTVEUSEOF ECONOMTC
INSTRUMENTS AND IYIARKET
AND OTHERINCENTIVES
economic context and given the necessarylegal and
regulatory framework, economic and market-oriented
approaches can in many casesenhancecapacityto deal
with the issuesof environmentand development.This
wouldbeachievedbyprovi di ngcost-eftectivesolutions,
appl yi ngi ntegratedpol l uti onpreventi onco nt r ol,pr o-
rnoting technologicalinnovationand influencingen-
vironmentalbehaviour,as well as providing financial
resources to meetsustainable development objectives.
8.30 What is neededis an appropriateeffort to explore
and make more effective and widespreaduse of eco-
nomic and market-oriented approaches within a broad
framework of developmentpolicies,law and regula-
tion suitedto country-specificconditionsas part of a
general transition to economic and environmental
policiesthat are supportiveand mutually reinforcing.
to
OBJECTIVES
8.31 While it is understoodthat counrrieswill develop
their own prioritiesin accordancewith their needsand
nationalplans,policies and prograffrfiles,the c-hallenge
is to achievesignificantprogressin the yearsaheadin
meetingthreefundamentalobjectives:
(a) To incorporateenvironmentalcostsin thedecisions
of producersand consumersand to reversethe tendency
to treattheenvironmentasa "freegood" andto passthese
costson to otherpafisof society,othercountriesorfuture
generations:
(b) To move more fully towardsintegrationof social
andenvironmental costsintoeconomicactivities.so that
priceswill appropriatelyreflectthe relativescarcityand
total value of resourcesand contribute towards ttre
preventionof environmentaldegradation;
(c) To include,whereverappropriate,the useof mar-
ket principlesin the framing of economicinstruments
and pol i ci esto pursuesustai nabldevel
e opm ent .

BASISFORACTION
i1.27 Environmental law and regulation are important but ACTIVITIES
cannot alone be expected to deal with the problenrs of
A) tMPROylNG OR REOR/ENI/NG
environnrent and development. Prices. markets and
G O V E R N M E N I A TP O L I C I E S
e ( r V er r r n l e n t a lf l s c a l a n d e c o n o r n i c p o l t c i c s a l s ( )p l a v a
conrplr-nrelttarvrole in shaping attitudes and behaviour
towards the environment. 8.32 ln the near term, Govemments should consider
8.28 During the past several years, many Governments, gradually building on experience with economic instru-
p r i m a r i l y i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e dc c l u n t r i e sb u t a l s o i n C e n t r a l ments and market mechanisms by undertaking to reorient
and Eastern Europe and in developing cctirntries,have their policies, keeping in mind national plans, priorities
been making increasing use of economic approaches. and objectives. in order to:
including those that are market-oriented. txarnples in- (a) Establish effbctive combinations of economic.
clude lhe polluter-pays principle and the ntore recent regulatory and voluntary (self'-regulatory) approaches;
natural-resource-user-pays concept. (b) Remove or reduce those subsidiesthat tJo not cron-
8.29 Within a supportive international and national form with sustainable development objectives;

70

(c) Reform or recastexisting structuresof economic
and fiscal incentivesto meet environmentand develop-
ment objectives;
(cl) Establisha policy lramework that encouragesthe
creationof new marketsin pollutioncontrolandenviron-
mentally sclunderresourcemanagement;
(e) Move towardspricing consistentwith sustainable
developmentobjectives.
8.33 In particular,Governmentsshould explore,in co-
operationwith businessandindustry,asappropriate'how
effectiveusecan be madeof economicinstrumentsand
marketmechanismsin the following areas:
(a) Issuesrelatedto energy,transportation,agriculture
and forestry,water,wastes,health,tourism and tertiary
serv'ices;
(b) Global and transboundarvissues;
(c) Thedevelopmentandintroductionofenvironmentally
soundtechnologyand its adaptation,diftusionand transfer
to developingcountriesin conformitywith chaptet34.
D/ /NCREAS/NG UNDERSIAND/NG OF THEROI.E
AND
OF E C ON OMIC/N S IR U ME N IS
MARKET MECHANIS/I4S
8.36 Governmentsshoul d encourageresearchand
analysison effectiveusesof economicinstrumentsand
andsupportof regionaland
incentiveswith the assistance
international econornic and environmental organrza-
tions, as well as non-governmentalresearchinstitutes,
with a focuson suchkey issuesas:
(a) The role of environmentaltaxation suited to na-
tional conditions:
(b) The implicationsof econornicinstrumentsand in-
centivesfor competitiveness and internationaltrade,and
potential needs for appropriatefuture international
cooperationand coordination;
(c) The possiblesocialanddistributiveirnplications of
using various instruments"

E) ESTABLISH'NG A PROCESS FOR

BJ IAKINGACCOUNIOF THEPARTICULAR ON
FOC U S /N G P R /C IN G
CIRCUMSTANCFS COUNIR/FS
OF DEVELOPING
WITHECONOM/ES 8.37 Thetheoretical advantages of usingpricingpolicies-
AND COUNIR/ES
where appropriate, need to be better understood,and
/N IRANS/I'ON
accompanied by greatcr understanding of what it means
to takesignificantsteps in this direction.Processes should
8.-14A specialeflbrt shouldbe madeto developapplica-
thereforebe initiated, in cooperation with business. in-
tions of the use of economic instrumentsand market
dustry,large enterprises and transnational ctlrporations,
mechanismsgearedto theparticularneedsof developing
countries and countrieswith economiesin transition, as well asother socialgroups,as appropriate,at both the
with the assistanceof regional and internationaleco- nationaland internationallevels,to examine:
nomic andenvironmental organizationsand,asappropri- (a) The practical implications of moving towards
ate,non-governmental research by:
institutes, greaterrelianceon pricing policiesthat intemalizeenvi-
(a) Providing technicalsupportto thosecountrieson ronmentalcostsappropriateti.rhelp achievesustainable
issuesrelatingto the applicationof economicinstruments development objectivcs:
(b) The implicationstor resourcepricingin the caseof
and marketmechanisms;
(b) Encouragingregionalseminarsatld,possibly,the resource-exporting counfries. IncIu<ling the i rnpli cations
of suchpri ci ngpol i ci esfor dn' el opi ngcountri es.
developrnentof regionalcentresof expertise' 'Ihe
(c) methodologiesusedin valuing environmental
costs.

c) :REATINGAN /NyENTORY OF EFFECTIVE

US E SO F E CO N O MIC AND
/N SIR U ME N IS
M A RK EM T E CH AN /SM5 G S U S IA /NA8I - E
F/ FN H A N C /N GU N D E R S IA N D /NOF
D E V E LOP ME FC
N I ON OMIC S
8.35 Given the recognitionthat the use of economic
8.38 lncreasedinterestin economicinstrtrments,includ-
i n s t r u m e n t sa n d m a r k e t m e c h a n i s m si s r e l a t i v e l y
r e c e n t . e x c h a n g eo f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t d i f f e r e n t ing marketmechanisms,alsorequiresa concertedeffort
c ount r iesex ' pe ri e n c ews i th s u c ha p p ro a c h esshoul dbe to improve understandingof sustainabledevelopment
actively encouraged. tn this regard, Governments ecclnomics by:
(a) Encouraginginstitutionsof higher learningto re-
should encouragethe use of existing meansof infor-
sttrdiesin sustainable
view thcir cun'icuiaandstrengthen
mation exchangeto lclokat eflbctive usesof economic
ins t r um ent s . derel oprtrentcconotni cs:
(b) Encouragingregionaland internationaleconomic

71
organizationsand non-governmentalresearchinstitutes
with expertisein this area to provide training sessions
and seminarsfor governmentoffrcials;
(c) Encouragingbusinessand industry,includinglarge
industrial enterprises and transnationalcorporations with
expertisein environmentalmatters,to organizetraining
programmesfor the private sectorand other groups.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTAIION
8.39 This programmeinvolvesadjustments or reorien-
tation of policieson the part of Governments.It also
involves internationaland regional economic and en-
vironmentalorganizations and agencieswith expertise
in this area,including transnationalcorporations.
A/ F/NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATION
8.40 The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annualcost (1993-20CI0) of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$5 million
from the internationalcommunity on grant or conces-
sional terms. Theseare indicative and order-of-mag-
nitude estimatesonly and have not been reviewedby
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, in-
cluding any that are non-concessional, will depend
upon, int e r a l i a , th e s p e c i fi c s tra te g iesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecide upon for implementa-
t ion.
D) ESTABLTSHTNG FOR TNTEGRATED
SySTEryrS
ENVIRON,I,IENTAIAND ECONO,YTrc
ACCOUNTING
FORACTION
BASIS
8.41 A first step towards the integrationof sustain-
ability into economicmanagement is theestablishment
of bettermeasurement of the crucial role of the envi-
ronmentas a sourceof naturalcapitaland as a sink for
by-productsgeneratedduring the production of man-
made capital and other human activities. As sustain-
able developmentencompasses social,economicand
environmentaldimensions,it is also important that
national accountingproceduresare not restrictedto
measuringthe productionof goods and servicesthat
are conventionallyremunerated. A common
frameworkneedsto be developedwherebythe contri-
butions made by all sectorsand activitiesof society,
t hat ar e no t i n c l u d e d i n th e c o n v e n ti o nalnati onal
accounts,are included,to the extent consistentwith
soundtheory and practicability,in satelliteaccounts.
Aprogrammeto developnationalsystemsof integrated
72
environmentalandeconomicaccountinsin all countries
is proposed.
OBJECTIVES
8.42 The main objectiveis to expandexistingsystemsof
nationaleconomicaccountsin orderto integrateenviron-
ment andsocialdimensionsin theaccountingframework,
includingat leastsatellitesystemsof accountsfor natural
resourcesin all memberStates.The resultingsysternsof
integrated environmental and economic accounting
(IEEA) to be establishedin all member States at the
earliest date should be seenas a complementto, rather
than a substitutefor, traditionalnationalaccountingprac-
ticesfor the foreseeablefuture.IEEAs would be designed
to play an integral part in the national development
decision-makingprocess.National accountingagencies
shouldwork in closecollaborationwith nationalenviron-
mental statisticsas well as the geographicand natural
resourcedeparlrnents. The definition of economically
active could be expandedto include people performing
productivebut unpaidtasksin all countries.This would
enabletheir contribution to be adequatelymeasuredand
takeninto accountin decision-making.
ACTIVITIES
A/ STRENGTHEN'NG
/NTERNAI/ONAI.
COO?ERALON
8.43 The Statistical Office of the United Nations
Secretariatshould:
(a) Make available to all member States the meth-
odologiescontainedin the SNAHandbookon Integrated
Environmentaland Economic Accountingl
(b) In collaborationwith other relevantUnited Nations
organizations,further develop,test, refine and then stand-
ardizethe provisionalconceptsand methodssuchas those
proposedby the SNAHandbook,keeping member States
informed of the statusof the work throughoutthis process;
(c) Coordinate,in close cooperationwith other inter-
nationalorganizations, the trainingof nationalaccount-
ants, environmentalstatisticiansand nationaltechnical
staffin smallgroupsfor theestablishment, adaptationand
developmentof nationalIEEAs.
8.44 The Departmentof Economic and Social Develop-
ment of the U ni ted N ati ons S ecretari at .in close
collaborationwith other relevantUnited Nations organ-
izations,should:
(a) Support, in all member States,the utilization of
sustainable developmentindicatorsin nationaleconomic
and socialplanningand decision-makingpractices,with
a view to ensuringthat IEEAs are usefully integratedin
economicdeveloprnentplanningat the nationallevel;
(b) Promote improved environmentaland economic
and socialdatacollection.
SVSIEMS
NAflONAI"ACCOUNTING
B/ STRENGTHFN'NG
8.45 At thc national level, the programme could be
adoptedmainly by the agenciesdealing with national
accounts,in close cooperationwith environmentalsta-
tisticsand naturalresourcedepartments,with a view to
assistingnationaleconomicanalystsanddecisionmakers
in chargeof nationaleconomicplanning. National in-
stitutions should play a crucial role not only as the
depositaryof the systembut alsoin its adaptation,estab-
lishment and continuoususe. Unpaid productivework
suchasdomesticwork andchild careshouldbe included,
where appropriate,in satellite national accountsand
economicstatistics.Time-usesurveyscouldbea first step
in the processof developingthesesatelliteaccounts.
PROCESS
AN ASSESSMENI
C) ESTABL/SH/NG
8.46 At the internationallevel, the StatisticalCom-
mission should assembleand review experienceand
advisememberStateson technicaland methodological
issuesrelatedto the furtherdevelopmentandimplemen-
tation of IEEAs in memberStates.
8.47 Governmentsshouldseekto identify and consider
measuresto correctprice distortionsarisingfrom envi-
ronmentalprogrammes affectingland,water,energyand
other naturalresources.
8.48 Governmentsshouldencouragecorporations:
(a) To provide relevant environmental information
through transparentreporting to shareholders,creditors,
employees,govemmentalauthorities,consumersandthe
public :
(b) To developand implenrentmethodsand rules for
accountingfor sustainingdevelopment.
D/ SIRENGIHENINGDATAAND
/NFORMAIIONCOII.ECIION
8.49 NationalCiovernments could considerimplement-
ing the necessary enhancemenl in datacollectionto set
in place national IEEAs with a view to contributing
pragmaticallyto sound economicmanagement.Major
effortsshouldbe madeto augmentthe capacityto collect
and analyse'environmentaldata and informationand to
integrateit with economicdata.includinggender-disag-
gregateddata.Efforts should also be made to develop
physical environmentalaccounts.Intemationaldonor
agenciesshould considerfinancing the developmentof
intersectoral data banks to help ensure that national
planningfor sustainabledevelopmentis basedon precise,
reliableandeffectiveinformation andis suitedto national
conditions.
IECHNICALCOOPERAilON
E/ STRENGTHEN'NG
8.50 The StatisticalOffice of the United NationsSecreta-
riat, in close collaboration with relevant United Nations
organizations,should strengthenexisting mechanismsfor
technical cooperationamong countries.This should also
include exchangeof experiencein ttre establishmentof
IEEAs, particularly in connection with the valuation of
non-marketednaturalresourcesandstandardizationin data
collection. The cooperationof businessand industry, in-
cluding large industrial enterprisesand transnationalcor-
porationswith experiencein valuation of such resources,
shouldalsobe sousht.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENIATION
AND COSTEVALUATION
A/ FTNANC/NG
8.51 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about$2 million from
the international community on grant or concessional
terms. Theseare indicative and order-of-magnitudees-
timates only and have not been reviewed by Govern-
ments. Actual costsand financialterms,including any
that are non-concessional,will dependupon, inter alia,
the specific strategiesand prograrnmesGovernments
decideupon for implementation.
/NSI'IUI'ONS
8/ SIRENGIHEN'NG
8.52 To ensurethe applicationof IEEAs:
(a) Nationalinstitutionsin developingcountriescould
be strengthenedto ensure the effective integration of
environment and developmentat the planning and
decision-makinglevels;
(b) The StatisticalOffice shouldprovidethe necessary
technicalsupportto memberStates,in closecollabora-
tion with the assessment processto be establishedby
the S tati sti cal C ommi ssi on; the S tati sti cal Of f ice
should provide appropriatesupport for establishing
IEEAs, in collaborationwith relevantUnited Nations'
agenci es.
73
c/ ENHANCTNG THEUSEOF
IN FORMAIION TECHN OLOGY
8.53 Guidelinesandmechanisms couldbedevelopedand
agreedupon for the adaptationand diffusion of informa-
tion technologiesto developingcountries.State-of-the-
art datamanagenenttechnologiesshouldbe adoptedfor
the most efficient and widespreaduse of IEEAs.
capacityto collect, store,organize,assessand usedatain
decision-making. Training in all areas related to the
establishment of IEEAs,andat all levels,will berequired,
especiallyin developingcountries.This shouldinclude
technical training of those involved in economic and
environmentalanalysis,datacollectionand nationalac-
counting,as well as training decisionmakersto usesuch
information in a pragmaticand appropriateway.

D/ STRFNGTHEN'NG
NAr/ONAL CApACtTy

8.54 Governments,with the supportof the international

community, should strengthen national institutional

74
 Section2

Conservotion
ond Monogement
of Resources
for Development
 of theotmosphere
Protection

A) ADDRESSING
THEUNCERTAINTIES:
IMPROVING
INTRODUCTION THESCIENTIFIC
BASISFORDECISION-Iv1AK|NG;

B) PROMOTTNG
SUSTATNABLE
DEVELOPMENT
9.1 Protectionof the atmosphereis a broad and multi-
(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
dimensional endeavour involving various sectors of (ii) Transportation;
economic activity. The options and measuresdescribed
(iii) Industrial development;
in thepresentchapterarerecommendedfor consideration
(iv) Tenestrial and marine resource development and
and,asappropriate,implementationby Governmentsand
land use;
other bodiesin their efforts to protectthe atmosphere.
9.2 It is recognizedthat many of the issuesdiscussed
in this chapterare also addressed in suchinternational C) PREVENTING OZONEDEPLETION;
STRATOSPHERIC
agreementsas the 1985 Vienna Convention for the
Protectionof the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substancesthat Deplete the Ozone Layer D) TRANSBOUNDARY
ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTION.

as amended,the 1992United NationsFrameworkCon-

vention on Climate Change and other international,
including regional,instruments.In the caseof activ-
ities coveredby suchagreements, it is understoodthat
the recommendations containedin this chapterdo not
obligeany Governmentto takemeasures which exceed
the provisionsof these legal instruments. However,
within the framework of this chapter,Governmentsare
free to caffy out additional measureswhich are con-
sistentwith thoselegal instruments.
9.3 It is also recognizedthat activities that may be
undertakenin pursuit of the objectivesof this chapter
shouldbe coordinatedwith socialand economicdevel-
opmentin an integratedmannerwith a view to avoiding
adverseimpactson the latter,taking into full accountthe
legitimatepriority needsof developingcountriesfor the
achievementof sustainedeconomic growth and the
eradicationof poverty.
9.4 In this contextparticularreferenceis also madeto
programmeareaAof chapter2 of Agenda2l (Promoting
sustainabledevelopmentthroughtrade).
9.5 The presentchapterincludes the following fbur
programmeareas:
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) ADDRESSTNG THEUNCERTATNTIES:
BASIS FOR
IfrIPROVING THE SCIENTIFIC
DECISION.'VIAKING
BASIS
FORACTION
9.6 Concern about climate change and climate vari-
ability,air pollutionandozonedepletionhascreatednew
demandsfor scientific,economicand socialinformation
to reduce the remaining uncertaintiesin these fields.
Better understandingand prediction of the various
propertiesof the atmosphereand of the affectedecosys-
tems,aswell ashealthimpactsandtheirinteractionswith
socio-economicfactors.are needed.
OBJECTIVES
9.7 The basic objective of this programmearea is to

77
 improve the understandingof processesthat influence B) PROMOTING SUSTA|NABTEDEVETOPfrIENT
and are influenced by the Earth's atmosphereon a
global, regionaland local scale,including,inter alia,
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, I ) ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT,
EFFtCtENCY
ANDCONSUMPTTON
hydrological,economicand socialprocesses; to build
capacityand enhanceinternationalcooperation;andto
BASIS
FORACTION
improve understandingof the economic and social
9.9 Energy is essentialto economicand social devel-
consequences of atmosphericchangesand of mitiga-
opmentandimprovedqualityof life. Much of theworld's
tion and responsemeasuresaddressingsuchchanges.
energy,however,is currentlyproducedandconsumedin
ways that could not be sustainedif technologywere to
ACTIVITIES remainconstantandif overallquantitieswereto increase
substantially.The needto controlatmospheric emissions
9.8 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
of greenhouseand other gasesand substanceswill in-
cooperationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodiesand,
creasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy
asappropriate,i ntergovernmentalandnon-governmental
production,transmissi on, di stributionand consumption,
organizations, and the privatesector,should:
(a) Promote researchrelated to the natural processes and on growing relianceon environmentallysounden-
ergy systems,particularlynew and renewablesourcesof
affectingand being affectedby the atmosphere,as well
energy.' All energysourceswill needto be usedin ways
asthecritical linkagesbetweensustainable development
that respectthe atmosphere, humanhealthand the envi-
and atmosphericchanges,including impactson human
ronmentas a whole.
health,ecosystems, economicsectorsand society;
(b) Ensurea more balancedgeographicalcoverageof 9.10 The existingconstraintsto increasingthe environ-
mentallysoundenergysuppliesrequiredfor pursuingthe
the Global Climate ObservingSystemand its compo-
path towards sustainabledevelopment,particularly in
nents, including the Global AtmosphereWatch, by
developingcountries,needto be removed.
facilitating, inter alia. theestablishment andoperationof
additionalsystematicobservationstations,and by con-
tributingto thedevelopment,utilizationandaccessibility
OBJECTIVES
of thesedatabases;
(c) Promotecooperationin: 9.11 The basicand ultimateobjectiveof thisprogramme
(i) The developmentof early detectionsystemscon- areais to reduceadverseeffectson the atmospherefrom
the energy sectorby promoting policies or prograffrmes,
cerningchangesand fluctuationsin the atmosphere;
(ii) The establishment as appropriate,to increasethe contributionof environ-
and improvementof capabilities
mentally soundand cost-effectiveenergysystems,par-
to predictsuchchangesandfluctuationsand to assess the
ticularly new andrenewableones,throughlesspolluting
resultingenvironmentaland socio-economicimpacts;
(d) Cooperatein researchto developmethodologies and more efficientenergyproduction,transmission, dis-
tribution and use.This objectiveshouldreflecf the need
and identify threshold levels of atmosphericpollu-
for equity,adequateenergysuppliesand increasingen-
tants,as well as atmosphericlevelsof greenhousegas
ergy consumptionin developingcountries,and should
concentrations, that would causedangerousanthropogenic
takeinto consideration the situationso{'countriesthatare
interferencewith the climate systemand the environment
highly dependenton incomegeneratedfrom the produc-
as a whole, and the associated ratesof changethat would
tion, processingandexport,and./orconsumptionof fcrssil
not allow ecosystems to adaptnaturally;
(e) Promote,and cooperatein the building of scien- fuelsandassociated energy-intensive productsand/orthe
useof fbssilfuels fbr which countrieshaveseriousdiffi-
tific capacitiesfor, the exchangeof scientificdataand
cultiesin switchingto alternatives, and the situationsclf
information, and the facilitation of the participation
countrieshighly vulnerableto adverseeffectsof climate
and trainingof expertsand technicalstaff,particularly
change.
of developingcountries,in the fields of research,data
assembly,collection and assessment, and systematic
observationrelatedto the atmosphere.
ACTIVITIES
9.12 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
cooperationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodies_and,
as appropriate,
intergovernmental andnon-governmental
organizations,and the private sector,should:
(a) Cooperatein identifying and developingeconom-

78
icalty viablc, environmentallysoundenergysourcesto
promotethe availabilityof increasedenergysuppliesto
supportsustainable developmentefforts,in particularin
r ler elopingc ou n tri e s :
(b) Promotethe developmentat the nationallevel of
appropriatemethodologiesfor making integratedenergy,
environmentand economicpolicy decisionsfor sustain-
abledevelopment,inter alia, throughenvironmentalim-
pactassessments,
(c) Promote the research,development,transferand
useof improvedenergy-efficienttechnologiesand prac-
tices,includingendogenoustechnologiesin all relevant
sectors,giving specialattentionto the rehabilitationand
modernizationof power systems,with particularatten-
tion to developingcountries;
(d) Promotethe research,development,transferand use
of technologiesand practicesfor environmentallysound
energysystems,includingnew and renewableenergysys-
tems.with particularattentionto developingcountries;
(e) Promcrte thedevelopmentof institutional,scientific,
planningand managementcapacities,particularlyin de-
velopingcountries.to develop,produceand useincreas-
ingiy efficientand lesspolluting forms of energy;
(f) Review currentenergysupply mixes to determine
how the contributionof environmentallysoundenergy
systernsas a whole. particularly new and renewable
energvsystems,could be increasedin an economically
efficient manner,taking into accountrespectivecoun-
tries' unique social, physical,economicand political
characteristics, andexaminingand implementing,where
appropriate,measuresto overcomeany barriersto their
development and use;
(g) Coordinateenergyplansregionallyand subregion-
ally, where applicable,and study the feasibility of effi-
cient distributionof environmentallysoundenergyfrom
new and renewableenergysources;
(h) ln accordance with nationalsocio-economic devel-
opmentand environmentpriorities,evaluateand, as ap-
pr opr iat e, pr o mo te c o s t-e ffe c ti v ep o l i c i e s or pro-
srarnmes,includingadministrative,socialandeconomic
nrcilsLlres,in order to improveenergyefficiency;
(i) Build capacityfor energyplanningand progralnme
nranagementin energy efficiency, as well as for the
devekrprnent.introduction,and promotion of new and
rcnewahlesourcesof energy;
(-i) Promoteappropriateenergyefficiencyandemission
stanciiirdsor recommendationsat the national level,2
airneclat the developmentand use of technologiesthat
mininrizeadverseimpactson the environmentl
(k) Encourageeducationand awareness-raising pro-
granrrnesat the local. national,subregionaland regional
levelsconcerning energyefficiencyandenvironmentally
s c lundener gYs v s te m s :
(l) Establishor enhance,asappropriate,in cooperation
with the private sector,labelling programmesfor prod-
ucts to provide decision makers and consumerswith
information on opportunitiesfor energyefficiency.
2) TRANSPORTATION
BASIS
FORACTION
9.13 The transportsectorhas an essentialand positive
role to play in economicand social development,and
transportationneedswill undoubtedlyincrease. How-
ever,sincethe transportsectoris alsoa sourceof atmos-
pheric emissions,there is need for a review of existing
transport systems and for more effective design and
managementof traffic and transportsystems.
OBJECTIVES
9.14 The basic objective of this programmearea is to
develop and promote cost-effectivepolicies or pro-
grammes,as appropriate,to limit, reduceor control, as
appropriate,harmful emissionsinto the atmosphereand
other adverseenvironmentaleffectsof the transportsec-
tor, taking into accountdevelopmentprioritiesaswell as
the specificlocal and nationalcircumstances and safety
aspects.
ACTIVITIES
9.15 Govemmentsat the appropriate level,with the co-
operationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodiesand, as
appropriate,intergovernmentaland non-governmental
organizations, and the privatesector,should:
(a) Develop and promote,as appropriate,cost-effec-
tive, more efficient, less polluting and safer transport
systems,particularly integratedrural and urban mass
transit,as well asenvironmentallysoundroad networks,
taking into account the needs for sustainablesocial,
economic and developmentpriorities, particularly in
developingcountries;
(b) Facilitateat the international,regional,subregional
andnationallevelsaccessto andtransferof safe,efficient,
includingresource-efticient, and lesspolluting transport
technologies,particularlyto the developingcountries,
including the implementationof appropriatetraining
programmes;
(c) Strengthen,as appropriate,their effortsat collect-
ing, analysingand exchangingrelevantinformationon
the relation betweenenvironmentand transport,with
particularemphasison the systematicobservation'of
emissionsand the developmentof a transportdatabase;
(d) In accordance with nationalsocio-econornic devel-
79
opmentand environmentpriorities,evaluateand, as ap-
pr opr iat e, p ro m o te c o s t-e ffe c ti v ep o l i ci es or pro-
grammes,includingadministrative,socialandeconomic
measures,in order to encourageuse of transportation
modesthatminimizeadverseimpactson theatmosphere;
(e) Developor enhance,asappropriate,mechanisms to
integratetransporl planning strategies and urban and
regional settlementplanning strategies,with a view to
reducingthe environmentalimpactsof transport;
(0 Study,within the frameworkof the United Nations
andits regionalcommissiotts, thefeasibilityof convening
regionalconferenceson transportand the environment.
DEVELOPMENT
3) TNDUSTRTAL
FORACTION
BASIS
9.16 Industryis essentialfor theproductionof goodsand
servicesand is a major sourceof employmentand in-
come,andindustrialdevelopmentas suchis essentialfor
economicgrowth. At the sametime, industryis a major
resourceand materialsuser and consequentlyindustrial
activitiesresultin emissionsinto the atmosphereandthe
environmentas a whole. Protectionof the atmosphere
can be enhanced.inter ctlia,by increasingresourceand
materialsefficiency in industry,installingor improving
p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n tt e c h n o l o g i e sa n d r e p l a c i n g
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting
substanceswith appropriatesubstitutes,as well as by
reducingwastesand by-products.
OBJECTIVES
9.17 The basic objective of this programmearea is to
encourageindustrialdevelopmentin waysthatminimize
adverseinrpactson the atmosphereby,inter alia, rncteas-
ing efficiency in the production and consumptionby
industry of all resourcesand materials,by improving
pollution-abatement technologiesand by developing
new,environmentally soundtechnologies.
ACTIVITIES
9.18 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
cooperationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodiesand.
asappropriate.intergovernmental andnon-governmental
organizations. and the privatesector.should:
(a) In accordance with nationalsocio-economic devel-
opmentand enl'ironmentpriorities,evaluateand.as ap-
pr opr iat e, p ro m o te c o s t-e ffe c ti v ep o l i ci cs or pro-
grammes,includingadministrative, socialandeconomic
measures,in order to minirnizeindustrialpollution and
adverseimpactson the atntosphere;
80
(b) Encourageindustry to increaseand strengthenits
capacityto developtechnologies, productsandprocesses
that are safe,are lesspolluting and make more efficient
useof all resourcesand materials,includingenergy;
(c) Cooperatein the developmentand transferof such
industrialtechncllogies and in the developmentof capac-
ities to manageand use suchtechnologies,particularly
with respectto developingcountries;
(d) f)evelop,improveandapply environmentalimpact
assessments to fostersustainableindustrialdevelopment;
(e) Promoteefficient use of materialsand resources,
taking into accountthe life cyclesof products,in order
to realize the economicand environmentalbenefitsof
using resourcesmore efficiently and producing fewer
wastes;
(0 Supportthe promotion of less polluting and more
efficienttechnologiesand processes in industries,taking
into accountarea-specificaccessiblepotentialsfor en-
ergy.particularlysafeand renewablesourcesof energy,
with a view to limiting industrialpollution and adverse
impactson the atmosphere.
ANDMARINE
4) TERRESTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
RESOURCE
ANDIANDUSE
FORACTION
BASIS
9.19 Land-useand resoutcepolicieswill both affectand
be affectedby changesin the atmosphere.Certainprac-
ticesrelatedto terrestrialand marineresourcesand land
use can decreasegreenhouseqas sinks and increase
atmosphericemissions.The lossof biologicaldiversity
may reduce the resilienceof ecosystemsto climatic
vari ati ons and ai r pol l uti on damage.A tmospher ic
changescanhaveimportantimpactson forests,biodiver-
sity, and treshwaterand marine ecosystems,as well as
on economicactivities, suchasagriculture.Policy objec-
tives in diffbrentsectorsmay often divergeandwill need
to be handledin an intesratedmanner.
OBJECTIVES
9.20 The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To promoteterrestrialand marineresourceutiliza-
tion andappropriateliind-usepracticesthatcontributeto:
(i) The reductionof atmosphericpollution and/orthe
limitation of anthrcpogenicemissionsof greenhouse
gases:
(ii) The conservation, management
surstainable anden-
hancement.u,hcre appropriate, of all sinks for green-
house gases:
(iii) The conservationand sustainable use of natural
and environntentalresources:
(b) To ensurethat actual and potential atmospheric
changesand their socio-economicand ecologicalim-
pacts are fully taken into account in planning and
implementing policies and programmes concerning
terrestrial and marine resourcesutilization and land-
use practices.
ACTIVITIES
9.21 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
cooperationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodiesand,
asappropriate,intergovefflmentalandnon-governmental
organizations, and the privatesector,should:
( a) I n ac c o rd a n c ew i th n a ti o n a l s o c i o -e conomi c
developmentand environmentpriorities,evaluateand,
as appr opr ia te ,p ro mo te c o s t-e ffe c ti v ep o li ci es or
pr ogr am m es ,i n c l u d i n g a d mi n i s tra ti v e ,s oci al and
economicmeasures,in order to encourageenvironmen-
tally soundland-usepractices:
(b) Implementpoliciesand programmesthat will dis-
courageinappropriateand polluting land-usepractices
and promote sustainableutilization of terrestrial and
marineresources;
(c) Considerpromoting the developmentand use of
terrestrial and marine resourcesand land-usepractices
that will be more resilientto atmosphericchangesand
fluctuations;
(d) Promotesustainablemanagementand cooperation
in the conservationand enhancement,as appropriate,of
sinks and reservoirs of greenhousegases,including
biomass,forestsand oceans,as well as other terrestrial,
coastaland marineecosystems.
OZONE DEPEnON
cl PRTENT|NG STRATOSPHERIC
BASISFORACTION
9.22 Analysisof recentscientific datahasconfirmed the
growing concernabout the continuingdepletionof the
ozonelayerby reactivechlorineand
Earth'sstratospheric
brominefrom man-madeCFCs.halonsand relatedsub-
stances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the
Protectionof the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal
Protocolon Substances that Depletethe OzoneLayer (as
amendedin London in 1990) were important stepsin
internationalaction, the total chlorine loading of the
substanceshascontin-
atmospherewith ozone-depleting
uedto rise.This canbe changedthroughcompliancewith
the control measuresidentifiedwithin the Protocol.
OBJECTIVES
9.23 The objectivesof this progralruneareaare:
(a) To realize the objectivesdefined in the Vienna
Convention and the Montreal Protocol and its 1990
amendments, includingthe considerationin thoseinstru-
mentsof the specialneedsandconditionsof the develop-
ing countriesand the availabilityto them of alternatives
to substances that depletethe ozonelayer.Technologies
and naturalproductsthat reducedemandfor thesesub-
stancesshouldbe encouraged;
(b) To develop strategiesaimed at mitigating the ad-
verseeffectsof ultravioletradiationreachingthe Earth's
surfaceas a consequence of depletionand modification
of the stratosphericozone layer.
ACTIVITIES
9.24 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
cooperationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodiesand,
asappropriate,i ntergovernmentalandnon-governmental
orgamzations,and the private sector,should:
(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol
and its 1990 amendments;pay their contributionsto-
wards the Vienna/Montrealtrust funds and the interim
multilateralozone fund promptly; and contribute,as
a p p r o p r i a t e ,t o w a r d s o n g o i n g e f f o r t s u n d e r t h e
Montreal Protocoland its implementingmechanisms,
including making availablesubstitutesfor CFCs and
other ozone-depletingsubstances and facilitating the
transferof the correspondingtechnologiesto develop-
ing countriesin order to enablethem to comply with
the obligationsof the Protocol;
(b) Support further expansionof the Global Ozone
ObservingSystemby facilitating- throughbilateraland
multilateralfunding - the establishment and operation
of additionalsystematicobservationstations,especially
in the tropicalbelt in the southernhemisphere;
(c) Participateactivelyin thecontinttousassessment of
scientificinformationand the healthand environmental
effects,as well as of the technological/economic impli-
cations of stratosphericozone depletion;and consider
further actionsthat prove warrantedand feasibleon the
basisof theseassessments,
(d) Basedon the resultsof researchon the effectsof the
additionalultravioletradiationreachingthe Earth'ssur-
face. considertaking appropriateremedialmeasuresin
the fields of humanhealth.agricultureand marineenvi-
ronment;
(e) R epl aceC FC s and other ozone-depl etingsub-
s t a n c e s ,c o n s i s t e n tw i t h t h e M o n t r e a l P r o t o c o l ,
r e c o g n i z i n gt h a t a r e p l a c e m e n t ' s u i t a b i l i t ys h o u l d
be eval uatedhol i sti cal l yand not si mpl y base don it s
contri buti onto sol vi ng one atmospheri cor en vir on-
mental probl em.
8l
D) TRANSBOUNDARYATMOSPHERTC
POUUnON organizations, the private sectorand financialinstitu-
ti ons,shoul d:
BASIS
FORACTION (a) Establishand/orstrengthen regionalagreements for
transboundaryair pollution control and cooperate,par-
9.25 Transboundary air pollutionhasadversehealthim-
ticularlywith developingcountries,in the areasof sys-
pactson humansand other detrimentalenvironmental
tematicobservationand assessment, modellingand the
impacts,suchas treeandforestlossand the acidification
development andexchangeof emissioncontroltechnol-
of waterbodies.The geographical distributionof atmos-
ogiesfor mobileand stationarysourcesof air pollution.
phericpollutionmonitoringnetworksis uneven,with the
In this context,greateremphasisshouldbe put on ad-
developingcountriesseverelyunderrepresented. The
dressingthe extent,causes,healthand socio-economic
lackof reliableemissions dataoutsideEuropeandNorth
impactsof ultravioletradiation.acidificationof the en-
Americais a majorconstraintto measuringtransbound-
vironmentandphoto-oxidantdamage to forestsandother
ary air pollution.Thereis also insufficientinformation
vegetation;
on the environmental and healtheffectsof air pollution
(b) Establishor strengthen early warningsystemsand
in otherregions.
responsemechanismsfor transboundaryair pollution
9.26 The 1979Conventionon Long-rangeTransbound-
resultingfrom industrialaccidentsand naturaldisasters
ary Air Pollution,and its protocols,haveestablished a
regionalregimein Europeand North America,basedon andthedeliberateand/oraccidentaldestructionof natural
resources;
a review process and cooperativeprogrammesfor
(c) Facilitatetraining opportunitiesand exchangeof
systematic observationof air pollution,assessment and
data, information and national and/or regional experi-
inforrnationexchange. Theseprogrammesneed to be
ences:
continuedanclenhanced,and their experienceneedsto
(d) Cooperateon regional, multilateral and bilateral
be sharedwith other resionsof the world.
basesto assess transboundary air pollution,andelaborate
and implementprogrammesidentifyingspecificactions
OBJECTIVES to reduce atmosphericemissionsand to addresstheir
environmental,economic,socialand othereffects.
9.27 The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To developand apply pollution control and meas-
urementtechnologiesfor stationaryand mobile sources
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
of air pollution and to developalternativeenvironmen-
tally soundtechnologies;
(b) To observeand assesssystematicallythe sources
and extentof transboundary air pollution resultingfrom 9.29 Existinglegalinstruments havecreatedinstitutional
naturalprocesses and anthropogenicactivities: structureswhich relate to the purposesof theseinstru-
(c) To strengthenthe capabilities,particularlyof de- ments,and relevantwork shouldprimarily continuein
velopingcountries,to measure,modelandassess thefate those contexts. Governmentsshould continue to co-
andimpactsof transboundary airpollution,through,inter operateandenhancetheircooperationat theregionaland
alia, exchangeof information and training of experts; global levels, including cooperationwithin the United
(d) To develop capabilitiesto assessand mitigate Nationssystem.In this contextreferenceis madeto the
transboundary air pollutionresultingfrom industrialand recommendations in chapter38 of Agenda21 (Interna-
nuclear accidents,natural disastersand the deliberate tionalinstitutionalarrangements).
and/oraccidentaldestructionof naturalresources;
(e) To encouragethe establishmentof new and the
i mplenientati on of existingregionalagreements for limir
ing transboundary air pollution; 9.30 Countries,in cooperationwith the relevantUnited
(0 To develop strategiesaiming at the reduction of Nations bodies, internationaldonors and non-govern-
emissionscausingtransboundary air pollution and their mental organizations,should mobilize technicaland fi-
effects. nancial resourcesand facilitate technical cooperation
with developingcountriesto reinforce their technical,
managerial,planning and administrativecapacitiesto
ACTIVITIES promotesustainabledevelopmentand the protectionof
9.28 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the the atmosphere,in all relevantsectors.
cooperationof the relevantUnited Nationsbodiesand,
asappropriate,i ntergovernmental
andnon-govemmental

82
HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
9.3i Educationand awareness-raising programmescon-
cerning the promotion of sustainabledevelopmentand
the protection of the atmosphereneed to be introduced
and strengthened at the local, nationaland intemational
levelsin all relevantsectors.
FINANC/AtAND COSI EVALUATION
9.32 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities under programmearea A to be about $640
million from the internationalcommunity on grant or
concessionalterms.These are indicative and order-of-
magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenotbeenreviewedby
Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,including
any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter
alia, the specific strategiesand prograffrnes Govern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
9.33 The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the acti vi ti es of the four-part programme u nder
prograrnme area B to be about $20 billion from the
internationalcommunityon grantor concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitudeestimates
only andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments. Actual
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-
concessional,will dependupon, inter alia, the specific
strategiesandprogrammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor
implementation.
9.34 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesunderprogrammeareaC to be in the rangeof
$160 million to $590 million on grant or concessional
terms.Theseareindicativeand order-of-magnitude esti-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecide
uponfor implementation.
9.35 The Conferencesecretariat hasincludedcostingfor
technical assistanceand pilot programmesunder para-
graphs9.32 and9.33.
'New
ond renewobleenergysourcesore solorthermol,solor
photovoltoic,
wind, hydro,biomoss, geothermol, oceon,onimol
ond humonpower,os referredto in the reportsof the Committee
on the Development ond Utilizotionof New ond Renewoble
Sourcesof Energy,preporedspecificollyfor the Conference(see
A/CONF.| 51/PC/ 1 I 9 ond A/ AC.218/1992/ 5l,.
2Thi, promotedby
includesstondordsor recommendotions
regionoleconomicintegrotion
orgonizotions.
83
 10 opproochto theplonning
Integroted
ond monogementof londresources
INTRODUCTION
l0.l Land is normallydefinedas a physicalentity in
terms of its topographyand spatial nature; a broader
integrative view alsoincludesnaturalresources: thesoils,
minerals,waterandbiotathatthe landcomprises.These
components areorganizedin ecosystems which provide
a varietyof servicesessentialto the maintenance of the
integrity of lif-e-supportsystemsand the productive
capacityof the environntent.Landresources areusedin
ways that take advantageof all thesecharacteristics.
Land is a finite resource,while the naturalresources it
supportscan vary over time and accordingto manage-
ment conditionsand uses. Expandinghuman require-
mentsandeconomicactivitiesareplacingeverincreasing
pressureson land resources,creatingcompetitionand
conflictsandresultingin suboptimaluseof both landand
land resources.If, in the future,humanrequirements are
manner,it is now essentialto
to be met in a sustainable
resolvetheseconflictsand move towardsmore effective
and efficientuseof landand its naturalresources.Inte-
gratedphysicaland land-useplanningand tnanagement
is an eminentlypracticalway to achievethis.By exam-
ining all usesof land in an integratedmanner,it makesit
possibleto minimizeconflicts,to makethemostefficient
trade-offsand to link socialand economicdevelopment
with environmentalprotectionand enhancement,thus
helpingto achievethe objectivesof sustainable develop-
ment. The essenceof the integratedapproachfinds
expressionin the coordinationof the sectoralplanning
and management activitiesconcernedwith the various
aspectsof land useand land resources.
10.2 The presentchapterconsistsof one programme
area,the integratedapproachto the planningand man-
agementof landresources, which dealswith the reorgan-
izationand, wherenecessary, somestrengthening of the
84
decision-making structure,includingexistingpolicies,
planningand managementproceduresand methodsthat
can assistin putting in placean integratedapproachto
land resources.It does not deal with the operational
aspectsof planning and management,which are nlore
appropriatelydealtwith underthe relevantsectoralpro-
grammes.Sincethe programmedealswith an important
cross-sectoralaspectof decision-making for sustainable
development, it is closelyrelatedto a number of other
programmesthat deal with that issue directly.
P R O G R A M MAER E A
APPROACHTO THE PLANNING
A) TNTEGRATED
AND MANAGEMENTOF LAND RESOURCES
FORACTION
BASIS
10.3 Land resourcesare usedfor a variety of purposes
which interactandmay competewith oneanother;there-
fore. it is desirableto plan and manageall usesin an
integratedmanner.Integrationshouldtake placeat two
levels,considering,on the one hand,all environmental,
social and economic factors (including, for example,
impactsof the variouseconomicandsocialsectorson the
environmentand naturalresources) and,on the other,all
environmentaland resourcecomponentstogether(i.e..
air, water, biota, land and geological and natural re-
sources). Integratedconsiderationfacil itatesappropriate
choices and trade-offs, thus maximizing sustainable
productivity and use. Opportunitiesto aliocateland to
differentusesarisein the courseof major settlementor
development projectsor in a sequential fashionas lands
becomeavailableon the market.This in turn provides
opportunitiesto supporttraditionalpatternsof sustain-
able land managementor to assignprotectedstatusfor
conservation of biologicaldiversityor criticalecological
services.
10.4 A number of techniques,franteworksand pro-
cessescan be combinedto facilitatean integratedap-
proach. They arethe indispensable supportfor the plan-
ning and management process,at the nationaland local
levelsandecosystem or arealevels,andfor the develop-
mentof specificplansof action.Many of itselementsare
already in place but need to be more widely applied,
further developedand strengthened.This programme
areais concernedprimarily with providinga fratnework
that will coordinatedecision-making; the contentand
operationalfunctionsarethereforenot includedherebut
are dealt with in the relevantsectoralprogrammesof
A e e n d a2 1 .
OBJECTIVES
10.5 The broadobjectiveis to facilitateallocationof
land to the uses that provide the greatestsustainable
benefitsandto promotethe transitionto a sustainable and
integratedmanagementof land resources.In doing so,
environmental,social and economicissuesshould be
t ak en int o c on s i d e ra ti o n .P ro te c te da re a s , pri vate
property rights,the rightsof indigenouspeopleand their
communitiesand otherlocal communitiesand the eco-
nomic role of women in agricultureand rural develclp-
ment, amongotherissues,shoulclbe takeninto account.
In more specificterms,the objectivesare as follows:
(a) To review and developpoliciesto supportthe best
possibleuseof land and the sustainablemanagementof'
landresources, by not laterthan 19961
(b) To improveand strengthen planning.management
and evaluationsystemsfor land and land resources,by
not later than 2000;
(c) To strengtheninstitutionsand soordinatingn'rech-
anismsforlandandlandresources, by notlaterthan1998;
(d) To createmechanismsto facilitatethe active in-
volvement and participationof all concerned,parti-
cularly communitiesand peopleat the local level, in
decision-making on land use and management, by not
later than 1996.
ACTIVITIES
E L AT EAC
A ) M A NA G E M EN I-R D TIVITIE S
> Developingsupportivepoliciesond policy instruments
10.6 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel. with the
support of regional and internationalorganizations.
shouldensurethat policiesand policy instruments sup-
port the bestpossibleland use and sustainablemanage-
ment of land resources.Particularattentionshould be
given to the role of agriculturalland. To do this, they
should:
(a) Develop integratedgoal-settingand policy formu-
lation at the national,regionaland local levelsthattakes
into account environmental,social, demographicand
economicissues;
(b) Develop policies that encouragesustainableland
useand managementof land resourcesand takethe land
resourcebase,demographicissuesand the interestsof
the localpopulationinto account:
(c) Review the regulatoryframework,includinglaws,
regulationsand enforcementprocedures,in order to
identify improvementsneededto support sustainable
land useand managementof land resourcesand restrict
the transferof productivearableland to other uses;
(d) Apply economicinstrumentsand developinstitu-
tional mechanismsand incentivesto encouragethe best
possibleland use and sustainablemanagementof land
resources;
(e) Encouragethe principleof delegatingpolicy-mak-
ing to the lowestlevel of public authorityconsistentwith
effectiveactionand a locally driven approach.
> Sfrengfhening sysfems
planningond monogemenl
10.7 Governmentsat the appropnatelevel, with the
support of regional and internationalorganizations,
should review and, if appropriate,revise planningand
management systemsto facilitateanintegratedapproach.
To do this, they should:
(a) Adopt planning and managementsystemsthat
facilitate the integrationof environmentalcomponents
suchasair, water,landandothernaturalresources, using
landscapeecologicalplanning (LANDEP) or other ap-
proachesthat focus on, for example,an ecosystemor a
watershed;
(b) Adopt strategicframeworksthat allow the integra-
tion of both developmentaland environmentalgoals;
exampl esof these framew orksi ncl ude sustainable
l i vel i hood systems,rural devel opment,the Wor ld
ConservationStrategy/Caringfor the Earth, primary
environmentalcare (PEC) and others;
(c) Establisha general fiamework for land-useand
physical planning within which specializedand more
detailedsectoralplans(e.g.,for protectedareas,agricul-
ture,forests,humansettlements, rural development)can
be developed;establishintersectoralconsultativebodigs
to streamlineprojectplanningand implementation;
(d) Strengthenmanagementsystemsfor land and
naturalresources by includingappropriatetraditionaland
85
indigenousmethods;examplesof thesepracticesinclude
pastoralism,Hema reserves(traditional Islamic land
reserves)and terracedagriculture;
(e) Examineand,if necessary, establishinnovativeand
flexible approachesto programmefunding;
(f) Compile detailed land capability inventoriesto
guidesustainable landresourcesallocation,management
and useat the nationaland local levels.
> Promotingopplicotionof oppropriote toolsfor plonning
ond monogement
10.8 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of national and international organizations,
should promotethe improvement,further development
andwidespreadapplicationof planningandmanagement
tools that facilitate an integratedand sustainableap-
proachto land and resources. To do this, they should:
(a) Adopt improvedsystemsfor the interpretationand
integratedanalysisof dataon landuseandlandresources;
(b) Systematically applytechniquesandprocedures for
assessingthe environmental,social and economicim-
pacts,risks,costsand benefitsof specificactions;
(c) Analyse and test methods to include land and
ecosystemfunctionsandlandresources valuesin national
accounts.
> Roisingoworeness
10.9 Governmentsat theappropriatelevel,in collabora-
tion with national institutionsand interestgroups and
with the supportof regionaland internationalorganiza-
tions, should launch awareness-raising campaignsto
alert and educatepeopleconcerningthe importanceof
integratedland and land resourcesmanagementand the
role that individualsandsocialgroupscanplay in it. This
should be accompaniedby provision of the meansto
adopt improved practicesfor land use and sustainable
management.
> Promoting
public porticipotion
10.10Governments level,in collabora-
at the appropriate
tion with national organizationsand with the supportof
regionaland intemationalorganizations,should establish
innovative procedure s. programmes,projectsand services
thatfacilitateandencourage theactiveparticipationof those
affected in the decision-makingand implementation
process,especiallyof groupsthat havehithertooften been
excluded,such as women, youth, indigenouspeopleand
theircommunitiesandotherlocalcommunities.
86
Bl DATAAND 'NFORMAT/ON
> StrengfAening informotionsystems
10.I I Governmentsattheappropriatelevel,in collabora-
tion with nationalinstitutionsand the privatesectorand
with thesupportof regionalandinternationalorganizations,
should strengthenthe information systemsnecessauy fclr
makingdecisionsandevaluatingfuturechangeson landuse
andmanagement.The needsofbothmenandwomenshould
be takeninto account.To do this,they should:
(a) Strengthen information,systematicobservationand
assessmentsystemsfor environmental,economic and
social data related to land resourcesat the global,
regional,nationaland local levelsandfor land capability
and land-useand managementpatterns;
(b) Strengthencoordinationbetweenexistingsectorai
data systemson land and land resourcesand strengthen
nationalcapacityto gatherand assessdata;
(c) Provide the appropriatetechnical information
necessaryfor informeddecision-makingon land useand
managementin an accessibleform to all sectorsof the
population,especiallyto local communitiesand women;
(d) Support low-cost, community-managedsystems
for the collection of comparableinformation on the status
and processesof change of land resources,including
soils,forestcover,wildlife, climateand otherelements.
C) /NIERNAI/ONAI.
AND REG/ONAT
COORD/NATION AND COOPERAIION
> Estoblishingregionol mochinery
10.12Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of regional and internationalorganizations,
shouldstrengthenregionalcooperationand exchangeof
informationon land resources.To do this, they should:
(a) Study and design regional policies to support
prograrnmesfor land-useand physicalplanning;
(b) Promotethe developmentof land-useandphysical
plansin the countriesof the region;
(c) Designinformationsystemsand promotetraining;
(d) Exchange,through networks and other appropriate
means,informationon experienceswith the processand
resultsof integratedand participatoryplanningand man-
agementof land resourcesat the nationaland local levels.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ FIN,ANC/NGAND COST EVALUATTON
10.13 The Conference secretariathas estimated the aver-
age total annualcost ( 1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof thisprogrammeto beabout$50million fiom
the internationalcommunityon grant or concessional
terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-magnitude esti-
matesonly andhavenot been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costsand financialterms,includingany that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specificstrategies programmesGovernmentsdecide
and
upon for implementation.
MFANS
B) SC'ENI/F/CAND TECHNOIOGICAT
> Enhoncingscientificunderstonding
of the
lond resourcessyslem
10.l4 Governments at theappropriatelevel,in collabora-
tion with thc'national and international
scientificcom-
munity and with the supportof appropriatenationaland
internationalorganizations, shouldpromoteand support
research,tailored to local environments,on the land
resourcessystem and the implicationsfor sustainable
practices.Priority should
developmentandmanagement
be given,as appropriate,to:
(a) Assessment of landpotentialcapabilityandecosys-
tem functions;
(b) Ecosystemic interactions and interactionsbetween
land resources and social.economicand environmental
systems;
(c) Developingindicatorsof sustainabilityfor land
resources,taking into accountenvironmental,economic,
social,demographic,culturaland political factors.
> Testingresqrch findingsthroughpilot proixts
10.l 5 Governments at theappropriatelevel,in collabora-
tion with the nationaland internationalscientificcom-
munity and with the supportof the relevantintemational
organizations,should researchand test, through pilot
projects,the applicabilityof improvedapproaches to the
integratedplanningand managementof land resources,
includingtechnical,socialand institutionalfactors.
C) HUM A NRE S O U R CDEEV EL OP M EN T
> Enhoncingeducationond troining
10.16Govemmentsat the appropriate level,in collabora-
tion with theappropriate
localauthorities.
non-govemmen-
tal orsanizationsand internationalinstitutions.should
promotethe developmentof the humanresourcesthat are
required to plan and manage land and land resources
sustainably. This shouldbe done by providingincentives
fbr local initiativesand by enhancinglocal management
capacity,particularly of women, through:
(a) Emphasizinginterdisciplinary and integrativeap-
proachesin the curriculaof schoolsand technical,voca-
tionaland universitytraining;
(b) Trainingall relevantsectorsconcernedto dealwith
land resourcesin an integratedand sustainablemannerl
(c) Trainingcommunities, relevantextensionservices,
community-based groups and non-govemmental organ-
izationson land management techniquesand approaches
appliedsuccessfully elsewhere.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
> StrengtAening technologicolcopacity
10.17Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, in cooper-
ation with other Governmentsand with the supportof
relevant internationalorganizations,should promote
focusedand concertedeffortsfor educationand training
and the transfer of techniquesand technologiesthat
supportthe various aspectsof the sustainableplanning
and management processat the national,state/provincial
and local levels.
> Strength
ening in stitutions
10.18Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of appropriate international organizations,
should:
(a) Reviewand,whereappropriate, revisethemandates
of institutionsthat deal with land and naturalresources
to include explicitly the interdisciplinaryintegrationof
environmental,socialand economicissues;
(b) Strengthencoordinatingmechanismsbetweenin-
stitutionsthat deal with land-useandresourcesmanage-
ment to facilitate integrationof sectoralconcemsand
strategies;
(c) Strengthenlocal decision-makingcapacityand im-
prove coordinationwith higherlevels.
8'7
 ll ng deforestotion
Comboti
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) SUSTAININGTHEMUITIPIE ROTESAND
FUNCTIONSOF AtL TYPESOF FORESTS,
FORESTLANDS AND WOODLANDS
BASIS FORACTION
1l. l T he re a re ma j o r w e a k n e s s e si n the pol i ci es,
methods and mechanismsadopted to support and
developthe multiple ecological,economic,socialand
cultural roles of trees,forestsand forest lands. Many
developedcountriesare confrontedwith the effectsof
air pollution and fire damageon their forests.More
effectivemeasuresand approachesare often required
at the nationallevel to improve attdharmonizepolicy
formulation, planning and programming;legislative
measuresand instruments;developmentpatterns:par-
ticipationof the generalpublic, especiallywomen and
indigenouspeople;involvementof youth; rolesof the
private sector,local organizations,non-governmental
organizationsand cooperatives;developmentof tech-
nical and multidisciplinaryskills and quality of human
resources:forestry extensionand public education;re-
searchcapabilityand support;administrativestructures
includingintersectcralcoordination,
and mechanisms.
decentralization responsibilityand incentivesys-
and
tems;and dissemination of informationand publicrela-
tions. This is especiallyimportantto eitsurea rational
andholisticapproachto the sustainable andenvironmen-
tally sounddevelopmentof forests.The needfor secur-
ing the multiple roles of forestsand l'orestlandsthrough
adequateand appropriateinstitutional strengtheninghas
been repeatedlyemphasizedin rrrany of the reports,
decisionsandrecommendations of FAO,ITTO, UNEP the
World Bank.IUCN andotherorsanizations.
88
OBJECTIVES
11.2 The objectivesof this programmeareaare as fol-
l ow s:
(a) To strengthenforest-related nationalinstitutions,to
enhancethe scopeand effectiveness of activitiesrelated
devel-
to the management, conservationand sustainable
opmentof forests,and to effectivelyensurethe sustain-
able utilization and production of forests' goods and
servicesin both the developedand the developing
countries;by the year 2000,to strengthenthe capacities
and capabilitiesof nationalinstitutionsto enablethemto
acquirethe necessaryknowledge for the protectionand
conservationof forests,as well as to expandtheir scope
and, correspondingly,enhancethe effectivenessof
programmesandactivitiesrelatedto themanagement and
developmentof forests;
(b) To strengthenand improve human, technicaland
professionalskills, as well as expertiseand capabilities
to effectively formulateand implementpolicies,plans,
programmes.researchandprojectson management, con-
servationand sustainabledevelopmentof all types of
forestsand forest-basedresources,and forest lands in-
clusive,as well as otherareasfrom which forestbenefits
canbe derived.
ACTIVITIES
ATEDACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI.REI
I 1.3 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof regional,subregionaland internationalorgan-
izations,should,where necessary, enhanceinstitutional
capabilityto promote the multiple roles andfunctionsof
all types of forests and vegetationinclusive of other
relatedlands and forest-basedresourcesin supporting
sustainabledevelopmentand environmentalconserya-
tion in all sectors.This shouldbe done,whereverpossible
and necessary,by strengtheningand/or modifying the
existing structuresand arrangements,and by improving
cooperationand coordination of their respectiveroles.
Someof the major activitiesin this regardare asfollows:
(a) Rationalizing and strengtheningadministrative
str uc t ur esand m e c h a n i s ms i,n c l u d i n g p ro v i s i on of
adequatelevels of staff and allocationof responsibil-
ities, decentralizationof decision-making,provision
of infrastructuralfacilities and equipment,intersec-
toral coordination and an effective system of com-
m unic at ion;
(b) Promotingparticipationof the privatesector,labour
unions,rural cooperatives,local communities,indigen-
ous people,youth,women,usergroupsand non-govern-
mental organizationsin forest-relatedactivities, and ac-
cessto information and training prograrnmeswithin the
national context;
(c) Reviewing and,if necessary,revising measuresand
programmesrelevant to all types of forestsand vegeta-
tion, inclusive of other related lands and forest-based
resources,and relating them to other land usesand de-
velopment policies and legislation; and promoting ade-
quate legislation and other measuresas a basis against
uncontrolledconversionto other types of land uses;
(d) Developing and implementing plans and pro-
grammes,including definition of national and, if neces-
sary, regional and subregionalgoals, programmesand
criteria for their implementation and subsequentim-
provement;
(e) Establishing,developing and sustainingan effec-
tive system of forest extensionand public educationto
ensurebetter awareness,appreciationand management
of forestswith regardto the multiple roles and valuesof
trees.forestsand forest lands;
(0 Establishing and/or strengtheninginstitutions for
forest educationand training, as well as forestry indus-
tries, to developan adequatecadreof trained and skilled
staff at the professional,technicaland vocational levels,
with emphasison youth and women;
(g) Establishingand strengtheningcapabilitiesfor re-
searchrelatedto the different aspectsof forestsandforest
products,for example,on the sustainablemanagementof
forests,on biodiversity,on the effectsof airbornepollu-
tants, on traditional uses of forest resourcesby local
populationsand indigenouspeople, and on improving
market returns and other non-market values from the
managementof forests.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMAI'ON
ll.4 Governments at the appropriate level, with the
assistanceand cooperation of international, regional,
subregional and bilateral agencies, where relevant,
should develop adequatedatabasesand baselineinfor-
mation necessaryfor planning and programme evalu-
ation. Some of the more specific activities include the
following:
(a) Collecting, compiling and regularly updating and
distributing information on land classificationand land
use, including data on forest cover, areas suitable for
afforestation, endangeredspecies, ecological values,
traditional/indigenousland- usevalues,biomassandpro-
ductivity, correlatingdemographic,socio-economicand
forest resourcesinformation at the micro- and macro-
levels, and undertaking periodic analyses of forest
prograrnmes;
(b) Establishinglinkages with other data systemsand
sourcesrelevantto supportingforest management,con-
servationand development,while further developingor
reinforcing existingsystemssuchasgeographicinforma-
tion systems,as appropriate;
(c) Creatingmechanismsto ensurepublic accessto this
information.
cJ tNrERN,AilON,AtAND REG'ONAI.
COOPERAI'ONAND COORD'NAI'ON
I1.5 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel and institu-
tions should cooperatein the provision of expertiseand
other supportand the promotion of international research
efforts, in particularwith a view to enhancingtransferof
technologyand specializedtraining and ensuringaccess
to experiencesand researchresults. There is need for
strengtheningcoordinationand improving the perform-
anceof exi sting forest-relatedi nternationalorganizations
in providing technicalcooperationand supportto inter-
ested countries for the management,conservationand
sustainabledevelopmentof forests.
MEANSOF IMPTEMENTATION
A' F'NANC|ALAND COSI EVALUATTON
I L6 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programme to be about $2.5 billion,
including about$860 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ative andorder-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot
been reviewed by Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms, including any that are non-concessional,will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific sftategies and pro-
grammesGovemmentsdecideupon for implementation.
89
 MEANS
8' SC'FNilF'CAND TECHNOLOGICAL Bl ENHANCING rHE PROTECnON,SUSTAINABLE
,UIANAGEMENTAND CONSERVATIONOF AtL
ll.7 The planning,researchandtrainingactivitiesspec- FORESTIS,AND THEGREENINGOF DEGRADED
AREAS,THROUGH FOR,EST REHABITITATION,
ified will form the scientific and technologicalmeansfor
AFFORESTATION,REFORESTATIONAND
implementingthe programme,as well as its output. The
OI}IER REHABIUTATIVETEANS
systems,methodologyand know-how generatedby the
programme will help improve efficiency. Some of the
specificstepsinvolved shouldinclude: FORACNON
BASIS
(a) Analysingachievements, constraintsand socialis-
I I .10 Forestsworldwide havebeenand arebeing threat-
sues for supporting programme formulation and im-
enedby uncontrolleddegradationandconversionto other
plementation;
typesoflanduses,influencedbyincreasinghumanneeds;
(b) Analysing researchproblems and researchneeds,
agricultural expansion;and environmentallyharmful
researchplanning and implementation of specific re-
mismanagement,including, for example, lack of ade-
searchprojects;
quate forest-fire control and anti-poaching measures,
(c) Assessingneedsfor humanresources,skill devel-
unsustainablecommerciallogging, overgrazingand un-
opmentand training;
regulated browsing, harmful effects of airborne pollu-
(d) Developing, testing and applying appropriate
tants,economicincentivesand other measurestaken by
methodologies/approaches in implementing forest
other sectorsof the economy.The impacts of loss and
programmesand plans.
degradationof forestsare in the form of soil erosion,loss
of biological diversity, damage to wildlife habitats and
degradationof watershedareas,deteriorationof the quality
c) DEVELOPMENT
HUMANRESOURCE of life and reductionof the optionsfor development.
I I .l I The presentsituationcallsfor urgentandconsistent
I1.8 The specificcomponentsof foresteducationand action for conserving and sustaining forest resources.
training will effectively contribute to human resource The greening of suitable areas, in all its component
development.Theseinclude: activities,is an effective way of increasingpublic aware-
(a) Launching of graduateand post-graduatedegree, nessand participationin protectingand managingforest
specializationand researchprogrammes; resources.It shouldincludetheconsideration of landuse
(b) Strengtheningof pre-service,in-serviceand ex- and tenurepatternsand local needsand should spell out
tensionservicetraining programmesat the technical and clarify the specific objectivesof the different types
a n d v o c a t i o n a ll e v e l s , i n c l u d i n g t r a i n i n g o f of greeningactivities.
t r ainer s / te a c h e rsa, n d d e v e l o p i n g c u rr i cul um and
teachingmaterials/methods;
(c) Specialtraining for staff of national forest-related OBJECTIVES
organizations in aspectssuch as project formulation, I l.l2 The objectivesof this programmeareaare as fol-
evaluationand periodicalevaluations. lows:
(a) To maintainexistingforeststhroughconservation
and management,and sustainand expandareasunder
D) CAPACTTY-BUlLD'NG forest and tree cover, in appropriate areas of both de-
velopedanddevelopingcountries,throughtheconserya-
ll.9 This prograffrmearea is specifically concerned tion of natural forests,protection, forest rehabilitation,
with capacity-buildingin the forest sector and all regeneration,afforestation,reforestationand tree plant-
progranrmeactivitiesspecifiedcontributeto thatend. In ing, with a view to maintainingor restoringtheecological
buildingnew andstrengthened full advantage
capacities, balance and expanding the contribution of forests to
shouldbe takenof the existingsystemsand experience. human needsand welfare;
(b) To prepareand implement,as appropriate,national
forestryactionprogrammesand/orplansfor the manage-
ment, conservation and sustainabledevelopment of
forests. These programmesand/or plans should be
i ntegrated w i th other l and uses. In thi s cent ext ,
country-drivennational forestry action programmes
and/or plans under the Tropical Forestry Action
Programmearecurrentlybeing implementedin more

90
than 80 countries, with the supportof the intemational
community;
(c) To ensuresustainablemanagementand, whereap-
propriate, conservationof existing and future forest
resources;
(d) To maintainandincreasethe ecological,biological,
climatic, socio-culturaland economiccontributionsof
forestresources;
(e) To facilitate and supportthe effective implementa-
tion of the non-legally binding authoritativestatement
of principlesfor a globalconsensus on the management,
conservationand sustainable developmentof all typesof
forests,adoptedby the United Nations Conferenceon
Environmentand Development,and on the basisof the
implementationof theseprinciplesto considerthe need
for andthefeasibilityof all kindsof appropriateintemation-
ally agreedarrangements to promoteinternationalcooper-
ation on forestmanagement, conservationand sustainable
developmentof all typesof fbrests,includingafforestation,
reforestationand rehabiIitation.
ACTIVITIES
A) M A NA G E M EN I-R E IATAECDT IV IT IES
11.13 Governmentsshouldrecognizethe importanceof
categorizingtorests,within the frameworkof long-term
forest conservationand managementpolicies,into dif-
ferent forest types and setting up sustainableunits in
every region/watershed with a view to securingthe con-
servationof forests.Governments, with theparticipation
of the private sector,non-governrnental organizations,
local community groups,indigenouspeople,women,
local governmentunitsandthe public at large,shouldact
to maintain and expand the existing vegetativecover
whereverecologically,socially and economicallyfeas-
ible, through technicalcooperationand other forms of
support.Major activitiesto be consideredinclude:
(a) Ensuringthe sustainablemanagementof all forest
ecosystemsand woodlands,through improved proper
planning. managementand timely implementationof
silviculturaloperations,includinginventoryandrelevant
research,as well as rehabilitationof degradednatural
foreststo restoreproductivity and environmentalcon-
tributions,giving particularattentionto humanneedsfor
economicand ecologicalservices,wood-basedenergy,
agroforestry,non-timber forest productsand services,
watershedand soil protection,wildlife management, and
forestgeneticresources,
(b) Establishing,expandingand managing,as appro-
priate to eachnationalcontext,protectedareasystems,
which include systemsof conservationunits for their
environmental,socialand spiritualfunctionsandvalues,
including conservationof forestsin representative eco-
logical systems and landscapes,primary old-growth
forests,conservationandmanagement of wildlife, nomi-
nationof World HeritageSitesunderthe World Heritage
Convention,asappropriate, conservation of geneticresour-
ces,involvrngin sint andex situmeasures, andundertaking
supportivemeasuresto ensuresustainableutilization of
biologicalresourcesand conservationof biologicaldiver-
sity andthetraditionalforesthabitatsof indigenouspeople,
forestdwellersand local communities;
(c) Undertaking and promoting buffer and transition
zone management;
(d) Carryingout revegetationin appropnatemountain
areas,highlands,bare lands,degradedfarm lands,arid
and semi-arid lands and coastal areasfor combating
desertificationand preventingerosionproblemsand for
other protective functions and national programmesfor
rehabilitationof degradedlands,including community
forestry, social forestry, agroforestry and silvipasture,
while also taking into account the role of forests as
nationalcarbonreservoirsand sinks;
(e) Developing industrial and non-industrialplanted
forestsin orderto supportand promotenationalecologi-
cally soundafforestaticln and reforestation/regeneration
programmesin suitable sites, including upgrading of
existingplantedforestsof both industrialandnon-indus-
trial and commercialpurposeto increasetheir contribu-
tion to human needsand to offset pressureon primary
old-growthforests.Measuresshouldbetakento promote
and provideintermediateyields and to improve the rate
of returns on investmentsin planted forests,through
interplantingand underplantingvaluablecrops;
(0 Developing/strengthening a nationaland/ormaster
planfor plantedforestsasa priority,indicating, inter alia,
the location,scopeand species,and specifyingareasof
existing plantedforestsrequiring rehabilitation,taking
into accounttheeconomicaspectfor futureplantedforest
development,giving emphasisto nativespecies;
(g) Increasingthe protectionof forestsfrom pollutants,
fire, pestsand diseasesand other human-madeinterfer-
encessuchasforestpoaching,mining, unmitigatedshift-
ing cultivation and the uncontrolledintroductionof
exotic plant and animal species,as well as developing
and acceleratingresearchfor a betterunderstandingof
problemsrelating to fhe managementand regeneration
of all types of forests;and strengtheningand/or estab-
lishingappropnatemeasures to assessand/orcheckinter-
bordermovementof plantsand relatedmaterials;
(h) Stimulatingdevelopmenrof urbanforestryfor the
greeningof urban, peri-urbanand rural human settle:
ments for amenity,recreationand productionpurposes
and for protectingtreesand groves;
9l
(i) Launchingor improving opportunitiesfor participa-
tion of all people,including youth, women, indigenous
peopleand local communities,in the formulation,devel-
opment and implementation of forest-relatedpro-
grarnmesand other activities,taking due accountof the
local needsand cultural values;
0) Limiting and aiming to halt destructive shifting
cultivation by addressingthe underlying social and
ecologicalcauses.
B) DATAAND INFORMAIION
I l.l4 Management-related activitiesshouldinvolvecol-
lection, compilation and analysisof data/information,
including baselinesurveys.Someof the specificactiv-
ities includethe following:
(a) Carrying out surveys and developing and imple-
menting land-useplans for appropriategreening/plant-
ing/afforestation/reforestation/forest rehabilitation;
(b) Consolidatingand updating land-useand forest
inventory and managementinformation for management
andland-useplanningof wood andnon-woodresources,
includingdataon shiftingcultivationandotheragentsof
forest destruction;
(c) Consolidatinginformationon geneticresources and
relatedbiotechnology,including surveysand studies,as
necessary;
(d) Carrying out surveysand researchon local/indige-
nous knowledge of trees and forests and their uses to
improvethe planningandimplementationof sustainable
forest management;
(e) Compiling andanalysingresearchdataon species/site
interactionof speciesusedin plantedforestsand assessing
the potentialimpact on forestsof climatic change,as well
as effects of forests on climate, and initiating in-depth
studieson the carboncycle relatingto different foresttypes
to provide scientific advice and technicalsupport;
(0 Establishinglinkages with other data/information
sourcesthat relateto sustainablemanagementand useof
forestsand improving accessto data and information;
(g) Developingand intensifyingresearchto improve
knowledge and understandingof problems and natural
mechanismsrelated to the managementand rehabilita-
tion of forests,includingresearchon faunaand its inter-
relation with forests;
(h) Consolidatinginformationon forestconditionsand
site-influencingimmissionsand emissions.
C/ /NIERNAI/ONAI.AND REG'ONAI.
COOPERAIIONAND COORD'NAI'ON
I L l5 The greeningof appropriateareasis ataskof global
92
importance and impact. The international and regional
community should provide technical cooperationand
other meansfor this progratnmearea. Specific activities
of an intemationalnature,in supportof national efforts,
shouldincludethe following:
(a) Increasingcooperativeactionsto reducepollutants
and transboundaryimpacts affecting the health of trees
and forestsand conservationof representative ecosys-
tems;
(b) Coordinatingregional and subregionalresearchon
carbon sequestration, air pollution and other environ-
mentalissues;
(c) Documentingand exchanginginformation/experi-
ence for the benefit of countries with similar problems
and prospects;
(d) Strengtheningthe coordinationand improving the
capacity and ability of intergovernmentalorganizations
such as FAO, ITTO, UNEP and UNESCO to provide
technicalsupportfor the management, conservationand
sustainabledevelopmentof forests,includingsupportfor
the negotiation of the InternationalTropical Timber
Agreementof 1983,due in 1992193.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
AND COSI EVALUATION
A) FINANCIAT
I 1.16The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $10 billion,
includingabout$3.7 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseare indic-
estimatesonly and have
ative and order-of-magnitude
not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and
financialterms,includingany thatarenon-concessional,
will dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand
prograrnmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementa-
tion.
MEANS
8/ SC/ENilFtCAND TECHNOT.OGtCAL
I l.l7 Data analysis,planning,research,transfer/devel-
opment of technologyand/or training activities form an
integralpart of the programmeactivities,providing the
scientific and technologicalmeansof implementation.
Nationalinstitutionsshould:
(a) Develop feasibility studiesand operationalplan-
ning relatedto major forestactivities;
(b) Developandapplyenvironmentallysoundteehnol-
ogy relevantto the variousactivitieslisted;
(c) Increaseactionrelatedto geneticimprovementand
applicationof biotechnologyfor improving productivity
and toleranceto environmentalstressand including,for
example, tree breeding,seedtechnology,seedprocure-
ment networks,germ-plasmbanks,in vitro techniques,
and in situ and ex situ conservation.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
I l.l8 Essentialmeansfor effectivelyimplementingthe
activitiesincludetrainingand developmentof appropri-
ate skills,working facilitiesand conditions,public moti-
vation and awareness. Specificactivitiesinclude:
(a) Providing specializedtraining in planning,manage-
ment,environmentalconservation, biotechnologyetc.;
(b) Establishingdemonstration areasto serveasmodels
and trainingfacilities;
(c) Supportinglocal organizations, corrmunities,non-
governmentalorganizationsand privateland owners,in
particular women, youth, farmers and indigenous
people/shifting cultivators, through extension and
provisionof inputsand training.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
ll.l9 National Governments,the private sector,local
organizations/communities, indigenouspeople, labour
unions and non-governmentalorganizationsshouldde-
velopcapacities,
duly supporledby relevantinternational
organrzatrons,to implement the prograrune activities.
Suchcapacitiesshouldbe developedandstrengthened in
harmony with the programmeactivities. Capacity-
building activities include policy and legal
f r am ewor k s , n a ti o n a l i n s ti tu ti o n b u i l d i n g , human
resourcedevelopment,developmentof researchand
technology,developmentof infrastructure,enhance-
ment of public awarenessetc.
c) PROMOnNG EFFTqENT UTITZATTONAND
ASSESSMENT TO RECOVERTHE FUtt VATUATIONOF
I}IE GOODS AND SERVICESPROVIDEDBY FORESTS,
FORESTTANDSAND WOODLANDS
BASIS FORACTION
11.20 The vastpotentialof forestsand forestlandsas a
major resourcefor developmentis not yet fully realized.
The improved managementof forestscan increasethe
productionof goodsand servicesand, in particular,the
yield of wood and non-wood forest products, thus
helping to generateadditionalemploymentand income,
additional value through processingand trade of forest
products, increasedcontribution to foreign exchange
earnings,and increasedreturn on investment.Forest
resources, beingrenewable,can be sustainablymanaged
in a manner that is comphtible with environmental
conservation. The implicationsof theharvestingof forest
resourcesfor the othervaluesof theforestshouldbe taken
fully into considerationin the developmentof forest
policies.It is alsopossibleto increasethe valueof forests
throughnon-damagingusessuchas eco-tourismand the
managedsupply of geneticmaterials.Concertedaction
is neededin order to increasepeople'sperceptionof the
value of forests and of the benefits they provide. The
survival of forests and their continued contribution to
humanwelfaredependto a greatextenton succeeding in
this endeavour.
OBJECTIVES
11.21The objectivesof this prograrnmeareaare as fol-
lows:
(a) To improverecognitionof the social,economicand
ecologicalvaluesof trees,forestsand forest lands.in-
cluding the consequences of the damagecausedby the
lack of forests;to promotemethodologieswith a view to
incorporatingsocial,economicand ecologicalvaluesof
trees,forestsand forest lands into the nationaleconomic
accounting systems; and to ensure their sustainable
managementin a way that is consistentwith land use,
environmentalconsiderations and developmentneeds;
(b) To promote efficient, rational and sustainable
utilization of all types of forests and vegetationin-
clusiveof otherrelatedlandsand forest-based resour-
ces,throughthe developmentof efficientforest-based
processingindustries, value-adding secondarypro-
cessingand tradein forestproducts,basedon sustain-
ably managedforest resourcesand in accordancewith
plans that integrateall wood and non-woodvaluesof
forests;
(c) To promote more efficient and sustainableuse of
forestsand treesfor fuelwood and energysupplies;
(d) To promote more comprehensiveuse and econ-
omic contributions of forest areas by incorporating
eco-tourisminto forestmanagementand planning.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELAT
EDACTIVITIES
11.22Governments, with the supportof theprivatesector,
scientific institutions,indigenouspeople, non-gove{n-
mental organizations,cooperativesand entrepreneurs,
whereappropriate,shouldundertakethe following activ-
ities, properly coordinatedat the national level, with
93
financialand techtricalcooperatiollfrom itttetrtational enterprises lor suppo(ing rural developttrcnt and ltlcal
organizittions: entrepreneurship;
(a) Canying out detailedinvestruc-nt studies.supply- 0l Itttprovingandprottroting rtrethodtlltlgieslor a cotn-
d e r n a n dh a r n r o n i z a t i o na n d e t t v i t ' o n n t e n t ai nl r p a c t prehensive assessment thatwill capturethe l'ull valueo1'
analysisto rationalizeand intprovetreesattdtilrestutili- w i th a vi ew to i ncl udi ngthatval uei n th et nar kel-
forests,
zationandto developandestablish appropriate incentive basedpricing structureof wood and non-woodbased
schemes and regulatorynleasures. includingtenurialar- products;
rangements. to providea favourableitrvesttnent clirnate (k) Harmonizingsustainable developmentof forests
and promotebetterltlanageluent; with nationaldevelopnrent needsand tradepoliciesthat
(b) Fonrrulating scientiticallysoundcriteriaandguide- arecompatiblewith theecologicallysounduseof forest
linesfor the tnanagenlent. conservation and sustainable resources, using,fbr example,the ITTO Guidelinesfor
developrnent of all typesof forests: Sustainable Management of TropicalForests;
(c) Improving envit'onntentally sound methodsand (l) Developing,adoptingand strengthening national
practicesof fbrest harvesting.which are ecologically accountingprogrammes for assessingthe economicand
s oundand e c o n o m i c a l lvyi a b l e ,rn c l u d i n gpl anni ngand non-economic valueof forests.
management andimproveduseof equipment, storage and
transportation to reduce,and, if possible,maximizethe
useof, wasteand improvethe valueof both wood and B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
non-woodfbrestproducts:
(d) Promotingthe betteruseanddevelopment of natu- l 1.23The objectivesand management-related activities
ral forestsand woodlands,including planted fbrests, presupposedata and informationanalysis,feasibility
whereverpossible,throughappropriateandenvironmen- studies,marketsurveysand review of technologicalinfor-
tally soundandeconomicallyviableactivities,including mation. Someof therelevantactivitiesinclude:
silviculturalpractices andmanagement of otherplantand (a) Undertakinganalysisof supply and demandfor
animalspecies; forestproductsand services,to ensureefficiencyin their
(e) Promotingandsupportingthedownstreamprocess- utilization,wherevernecessary;
ing of forestproductsto increase retainedvalueandother (b) Carrying out investmentanalysisand feasibility
benefits: studies,includingenvironmental impacIassessment, for
(0 Promoting/popularizing non-wood forest products establishingfbrest-basedprocessingenterprises;
and other forms of forestresources,apartfrom fuelwood (c) Conductingresearchon the propertiesof currently
(e.g.,medicinalplants.dyes,fibres,gums.resins,fodder, underutilizedspeciesfor their promotion and commer-
culturalproducts,rattan,bamboo)throughprogrammes and cialization;
socialforestry/participatory forestactivities,includingre- (d) Supportingmarket surveysof forest productsfor
searchon their processingand uses; tradepromotionand intelligence;
(g) Developing,expandingand/orimprovingtheeffec- (e) Facilitatingthe provisionof adequatetechnological
tivenessandefficiencyof forest-based processingindust- informationas a measureto promotebetterutilizationof
ries, both wood and non-woodbased.involving such forestresources.
aspects asefficientconversiontechnologyandimproved
sustainable utilizationof harvesting andprocess residues:
pr om ot in g u n d e ru ti l i z e ds p e c i e si n n a tural forests c) /NTERNAT/ONAL
AND REG/ONAI
through research,demonstration andcommercialization; AND COORD/NAIION
COOPERAIION
promoting value-addingsecondaryprocessingfor im-
proved employment,income and retained value; and 11.24Cooperationandassistance of internationalorgan-
promoting/improvingrnarketsfor, and trade in, forest izationsand the internationalcommunityin technology
pr oduc t sth ro u g h re l e v a n ti n s ti tu ti o n s ,pol i ci es and transfer,specializationand promotion of fair terms of
facilities; trade,without resortingto unilateralrestrictionsand/or
(h) Promoting and supportingthe managementof bans on forest products contrary to GATT and other
wildlif e, a s w e l l a s e c o -to u ri s m.i n c l u di ng farmi ng, multilateral trade agreements,and the application of
and encouragingand supportingthe husbandryand cul- appropriatemarketmechanismsand incentiveswill help
tivation of wild species,for improvedrural incomeand in addressingglobal environmentalconcerns.Strength-
employment,ensuringeconomic and social benefits ening the coordinationand performanceof existing in-
without harmful ecologicalimpacts; ternationalorganizations,in particular FAO, UNIDO,
(i) Promoting appropriatesmall-scaleforest-based UNESCO, UNEP,ITC/UNCTAD/GATT, ITTO andILO,

94
f br pr ov idingt e c h n i c aal s s i s ta n caen d g u i d a n c ei n thi s courses,i ncl udi ngfel l ow shi psandstudytours,to updat e
programmeareais ancltherspecificactivity. s ki l l sa n d t e c h n o l o g i ckanlo w - h o wa n di m p r o v ep r o d u c -
tivity;
(c) Strengtheningcapability for research,planning,
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION economicanalysis,periodicalevaluationsand evalu-
ation,relevantto improvedutilizationof forestresources;
A/ F/NANC/AI.
AND COSTEVALUATION
(d) Promotingefficiencyand capabilityof privateand
cooperativesectorsthroughprovisionof facilitiesand
11. 25T he Confe re n c es e c re ta ri aht a s e s ti matedthe
i ncenti ves.
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$ l8 billion,
includingabout$880million from theinternationalcom-
munityon grantor concessional D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimates only andhavenot
I l . 2 t l C a p a c i t y - b u i l d i n gi n, c l u d i n gs t r e n g t h e n i nogf
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actualcostsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that arenon-concessional, existingcapacity,is implicitin theprogrammeactivities.
will
Improvi ngadmi ni strati on, pol i cy and pl ans,nat ional
dependupon,in te r a l i a , th e s p e c i fi c s tra te gi esand
p r o g r a m m e sG o v e r n m e n t sd e c i d e u p o n f o r i m - i nsti tuti ons,humanresources, researchand sci e nt if ic
plementation. capabilities,technologydevelopment,and penodical
evaluations andevaluationareimportantcomponents of
capacity-building,

8/ sC/ENIIFICAND IECHNOI.OGICAL
MEANS
11. 26T he pr og ra m m ea c ti v i ti e sp re s u p p o sm e a j or re-
searchefforts and studies,as well as improvementof
t ec hnology T. hi s s h o u l d b e c o o rd i n a te db y n ati onal
G ov er nm ent sin, c o l l a b o ra ti o nw i th a n d s u p p o rtedby
r elev antint er na ti o n aol rg a n i z a ti o n a
s n d i n s ti tuti ons.
Someof the specificcomponentsinclude:
(a) Researchon propertiesof wood and non-wood
productsandtheir uses,to promoteimprovedutilization;
(b) Developmentand applicationof environmentally
soundandless-polluting technologyfor forestutilization;
(c) Models and techniquesof outlook analysis and
development planning;
(d) Scientific investigationson the developmentand
utilizationof non-timberforestproducts;
(e) Appropriatemethodologiesto assessthe value of
forestsin a comprehensive manner.
C ) HUM A NRE S O U R CDEE VE L O P M EN I
11.27The successand effectivenessof the programme
area depend on the availability of skilled personnel.
Specializedtrainingis an importantfactorin this regard.
New emphasisshould be given to the incorporationof
women. Human resourcedevelopmentfor prografflme
implementation,in quantitativeand qualitativeterms,
shouldinclude:
(a) Developingrequiredspecializedskills to imple-
ment the programme,including establishingspecial
trainingfacilitiesat all levels;
( b ) I n t r o d u c i n g / s t r e n g t h e n i nrge f r e s h e rt r a i n i n g
Dl ESTABUSHTNG AND/OR STRENGTHENTNG
CAPACITIESFORTHEPIANNING, ASSESSMENT
AND SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONS OF FORESTS
AND RETATED PROGRAA/IftIES,
PROJECTSAND
ACTIVITIES,
INCLUDINGCOMMERCIATTRADE
AND PROCESSES
BASIS
FORACTION
l l .29 Assessmentandsystematicobservations areessen-
tial componentsof long-termplanning,for evaluating
effects,quantitativelyandqualitatively,andfor rectifying
inadequacies.This mechanism,however,is one of the
oftenneglectedaspectsof forestresources, management,
conservation and development. In manycases,eventhe
basicinformationrelatedto the areaand type of forests,
exi sti ngpotenti alandvol umeof harvesti s l acki ng. I n
many developingcountries,thereis a lack of structures
and mechanismsto carry out thesefunctions. Thereis
an urgent need to rectify this situation for a better
understanding of therole andimportanceof forestsand
to realisticallyplan for their effective conservation,
management,regenerati on,and sustai nabl ede vel-
opment.
OBJECTIVES
I L30 The objectivesof this programmeareaare as fol-
l ow s:
(a) To strengthenor establishsystemsfor the assess-
ment and systematicobservationsof forestsand forest

95
lands with a view to assessingthe impacts of pro-
grarunes,projectsandactivitieson thequalityandextent
of forestresources,land availablefor afforestation,and
land tenure,and to integratethe systemsin a continuing
processof researchandin-depthanalysis,while ensuring
necessary modificationsand improvementsfor planning
anddecision-making. Specificemphasisshouldbe given
to the participationof rural peoplein theseprocesses;
(b) To provide economists,planners,decisionmakers
and local communitieswith soundandadequateupdated
informationon forestsand forestland resources.
ACTIVITIES
tES
ACT|V|T
ELATED
A) MANAGEMFNT-R
I l.3l Governmentsand institutions,in collaboration,
wherenecessary,with appropriateinternationalagencies
and organizations,universitiesand non-govemmental
and sys-
organizations,should undertakeassessments
tematic observationsof forestsand relatedprogrammes
andprocesses with a view to theircontinuousimprovement.
This shouldbe linked to relatedactivitiesof researchand
management and,whereverpossible,be built uponexisting
systems.Major activitiesto be consideredare:
(a) Assessingandcarryingout systematicobservations
of the quantitativeand qualitativesituationand changes
of forestcoverandforestresourcesendowments,includ-
ing land classification.land useand updatesof its status,
at the appropriatenationallevel,and linking this activity,
as appropriate,with planning as a basisfor policy and
programmeformulation;
(b) Establishingnationalassessment and systematicob-
servation systems and evaluation of programmesand
processes, includingestablishment of defrnitions,standards,
norrnsand intercalibrationmethods,and the capability for
initiating correctiveactionsaswell asimproving theformu-
lation and implementationof programmesand projects;
(c) Making estimatesof impactsof activitiesaffecting
forestry developmentsand conservationproposals,in
terms of key variables such as developmentalgoals,
benefitsand costs,contributionsof foreststo other sec-
tors, community welfare,environmentalconditionsand
biological diversity and their impacts at the local, re-
gionaland globallevels,whereappropriate,to assess the
changingtechnologicaland financialneedsof countries;
(d) Developingnationalsystemsof forestresourceas-
sessment andvaluation,includingnecessary researchand
dataanalysis,which accountfor, wherepossible,the full
range of wood and non-wood forest productsand ser-
vices, and incorporatingresultsin plans and strategies
and.wherefeasible,in nationalsystemsof accountsand
planning;
96
( e ) E s t a b l i s h i n gn e c e s s a r yi n t e r s e c t o r a la n d
programme linkages, including improved accessto
information,in order to supporta holistic approachto
planningand programming.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
11.32Reliable data and information are vital to this
programme area. National Governments,in collabora-
tion, where necessary.with relevantinternationalorgan-
izations,should, as appropriate,undertaketo improve
dataand informationcontinuouslyand to ensureits ex-
change.Major activitiesto be consideredareasfollows:
(a) Collecting,consolidatingand exchangingexisting
information and establishing baseline information on
aspectsrelevantto this programmearea;
(b) Harmonizing the methodologiesfor programmes
involving dataandinformationactivitiesto ensureaccu-
racy and consistency;
(c) Undertakingspecialsurveyson, for example,land
capabilityand suitabilityfor afforestationaction;
(d) Enhancingresearchsupportand improvingaccess
to and exchangeof researchresults.
AND REG/ONAI
c/ TNIERNAT/ONAI
COOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
11.33The internationalcommunityshouldextendto the
Governmentsconcernednecessarytechnicaland finan-
cial supportfor implementingthisprogrammearea,includ-
ing considerationof the following activities:
(a) Establishinga conceptualframeworkandformulating
acceptablecriteria, norrns and definitions for systematic
observations and assessment of forestresources;
(b) Establishing and strengtheningnational institu-
tional coordinationmechanismsfor forest assessment
and systematicobservationactivities;
(c) Strengtheningexisting regional and global net-
works for the exchangeof relevantinformation;
(d) Strengthening the capacityand ability and improv-
ing the performanceof existing international organiza-
tions, such as the ConsultativeGroup on International
Agricultural Research(CGIAR), FAO, ITTO, UNEP,
UNESCO and UNIDO, to providetechnicalsupportand
guidancein this programmearea.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ FINAN CIAL AND COSI EVALUATION
I 1.34 The Conference secretariathas estimated the aver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-2000)of implementing the
activitiesof this programmeto be about $750 million,
including about$230million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
gfturrmesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
I1.35 Acceleratingdevelopmentconsistsof implement-
ing the management-relatedand data/information ac-
tivities cited above. Activitiesrelatedto global environ-
mental issuesare those that will contributeto global
information for assessing/evaluating/addressing envi-
ronmentalissueson a world-wide basis.Strengthening
the capacityof internationalinstitutionsconsistsof en-
hancingthe technicalstaffand the executingcapacityof
severalinternationalorganizationsin order to meet the
requirementsof countries.
8/ SC/ENI/F/C
AND TECHNOT.OG\CAL
MEANS
11.36Assessment and systematicobservation activities
involve major researchefforts,statisticalmodellingand
technologicalinnovation.Thesehave been internalized
into the management-related activities.The activitiesin
tum will improve the technologicaland scientificcontent
of assessment and periodical evaluations. Some of the
specificscientificand technologicalcomponentsincluded
undertheseactivitiesare:
(a) Developing technical, ecological and economic
methodsand modelsrelatedto periodicalevaluationsand
evaluation;
(b) Developingdata systems,dataprocessingand sta-
tisticalmodelling;
(c) Remotesensingand groundsurveys;
(d) Developinggeographicinformationsystems;
(e) Assessingand improving technology.
I 1.37 Theseareto be linkedandharmonizedwith similar
activitiesandcomponentsin the otherprogrammeareas.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
11.38The programmeactivities foreseethe need and
include provision for human resourcedevelopmentin
termsof specialization(e.g.,the useof remote-sensing,
mappingand statisticalmodelling),training,technology
transfer,fellowships and field demonstrations.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
11.39National Governments,in collaborationwith ap-
propriate international organizationsand institutions,
shoulddevelopthe necessary capacityfor implementing
this prograrune area.This should be harmonized with
capacity-buildingfor other programmeareas.Capacity-
building should cover such aspectsas policies,public
admi ni strati on,nati onal -l evel i nsti tuti ons, hum an
resourceandskill development, researchcapability,tech-
nology development,information systems,programme
evaluation. intersectoralcoordination and international
cooperation.
E/ FUND/NGOF /NTERNAnONAI
AND
REG/ONAL COOPERAIION
I I .40 The secretariatof theConferencehasestimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$750million,
includingabout$530million from theinternationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ative andorder-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
97
 'lt) Monogingfrogileecosystems:
I z- Comboting ond drought
desertificotion
INTRODUCTION
l2.l Fragile ecosystemsare important ecosystems,
with uniquefeaturesand resources.Fragileecosystems
include desefts,semi-aridlands, mountains,wetlands,
small islandsand certain coastalareas. Most of these
ecosystemsare regionalin scope,as they transcendna-
tional boundaries.This chapteraddresses land resource
issuesin deserts,as well as arid, semi-arid and dry
sub-humidareas.Sustainable mountaindevelopmentis
addressed in chapterl3; small islandsand coastalareas
are discussedin chapter17.
12.2 Desertificationis land degradationin arid, semi-
arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human ac-
tivities. Desertificationaffectsabout one sixth of the
world's population,70 per centof all drylands,amount-
ing to 3.6 billion hectares,and one quarterof the total
land area of the world. The most obvious impact of
desertification,in additionto widespreadpoverty,is the
degradationof 3.3 billion hectaresof the total areaof
rangeland,constituting73 per centof the rangelandwith
a low potentialfor humanand animalcarryingcapacity;
declinein soil fertility and soil structureon about47 per
cent of the dryland areasconstituting marginal rainfed
cropland; and the degradationof inigated cropland,
amountingto 30 per centof the drylandareaswith a high
populationdensityand agriculturalpotential.
12.3 The priority in combatingdesertificationshouldbe
the implementationof preventivemeasuresfor landsthat
are not yet degraded,or which are only slightly degraded.
However,the severelydegradedareasshouldnot be neg-
lected. In combatingdesertificationand drought,the par-
ticipation of local communities,rural organizations,na-
tional Governments,non-governmental organizationsand
intemationalandregionalorganizationsis essential.
98
12.4 The following programlne areasare included in
this chapter:
(a) Strengthening the knowledgebaseand developing
information and monitoring systemsfor regionsproneto
desertificationand drought,includingthe economicand
socialaspectsof theseecosystems;
(b) Combating land degradationthrough, inter alia,
i ntensified soil conservation. afforestationand reforesta-
tion activities;
(c) Developingand sfrengttrening integrateddevelopment
programmesfor theeradicationof povertyandpromotionof
altemativelivelihoodsystemsin areasproneto desertification;
(d) Developing comprehensiveanti-desertification
programmesand integratingthem into nationaldevelop-
ment plansand nationalenvironmentalplanning;
(e) Developingcomprehensivedrought preparedness
and droughrrelief schemes,includingself-helpaffange-
ments, for drought-prone areas and designing pro-
grammesto cope with environmentalrefugees;
(0 Encouragingand promoting popular participation
andenvironmentaleducation,focusingon desertification
control and managementof the effectsof drought.
P R O GR A M ME A R E A S
Al STRENGTHENINGTHEKNOWTEDGEBASE
AND DEVELOPINGINFORMATIONAND
MONITORING SYSTEMSFOR REGIONSPRONE
AND DROUGH' INCTUDING
TO DESERTIFICATION
THEECONOMICAND SOCIATASPECTS OF
THESEECOSYSTETAS
FORACTION
BASIS
12.5 The global assessments of the statusand rate of
conductedby theUnitedNationsEnviron-
desertification
mentProgramme(UNEP) rn 1977,1984and 1991have
revealedinsufficient basic knowledge of desertification
processes.Adequateworld-widesystematicobservation
systemsare helpful for the developmentand implemen-
tation of effective anti-desertificationprograrnmes.The
capacity of existing international,regional and national
institutions, particularly in developing countries, to
generateand exchangerelevant information is limited.
An integrated and coordinated information and sys-
tematic observationsystem basedon appropriatetech-
nologyandembracingglobal,regional,nationalandlocal
levels is essentialfor understandingthe dynamics of
desertificationanddroughtprocesses. It is alsoimportant
for developingadequatemeasuresto dealwith desertifi-
cation and droughtand improving socio-economiccon-
ditions.
OBJECTIVES
12.6 The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To promotethe establishmentand/or strengthening
of national environmental information coordination
centresthat will act as focal points within Governments
for sectoralministriesand provide the necessarystand-
ardizationand back-upservices;and also to ensurethat
national environmentalinformation systemson deserti-
fication and drought are linked together through a net-
work at subregional,regionaland interregionallevels;
(b) To strengthenregionalandglobal systematicobser-
vation networks linked to the developmentof national
systemsfor the observationof land degradationand
desertificationcausedboth by climate fluctuationsand
by humanimpact,andto identify priority areasfor action;
(c) To establisha permanentsystemat both national
and international levels for monitoring desertification
and land degradationwith the aim of improving living
conditionsin the affectedareas.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGFMENI.R ACTIVITIES
ELATED
12.1 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations.should:
(a) Establishand/orstrengthenenvironmental informa-
tion systemsat the nationallevel;
(b) Strengthennational,state/provincialand local as-
sessmentand ensurecooperation/networking between
existingenvironmentalinformationand monitoringsys-
tems, such as Earthwatch and the Saharaand Sahel
Observatory;
(c) Strengthenthe capacityof nationalinstitutionsto
analyseenvironmentaldatasothat ecologicalchangecan
be monitored and environmentalinformation obtained
on a continuingbasisat the nationallevel.
B) DATAAND TNFORMAnON
12.8 Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Review and study the means for measuring the
ecological,economicand socialconsequences of deser-
tification and land degradationand introducethe results
of these studies internationally into desertificationand
land degradationassessment practices;
(b) Review and study the interactions between the
socio-economicimpactsof climate, droughtand deserti-
fication and utilize the resultsof thesestudiesto secure
concreteaction.
l2.g Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Supportthe integrateddatacollection and research
work of programmes related to desertification and
drought problems;
(b) Supportnational,regional and global programmes
for integrateddatacollection and researchnetworkscar-
rying out assessment of soil and land degradation;
(c) Strengthennational and regional meteorological
and hydrologicalnetworks and monitoring systemsto
ensureadequatecollectionof basicinfbrmation andcom-
munication among national, regional and international
centres.
AND RFG/ONAI
C) /NIERNATIONAL
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAT/ON
12.10Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Strengthenregional programmesand international
cooperation,suchas the PermanentInter-StateCommit-
tee on Drought Control in the Sahel(CILSS),the Inter-
governmentalAuthority for Drought and Development
(IGADD), the SouthernAfrican DevelopmentCoordina-
tionConference(SADCC),theArab MaghrebUnion and
other regional organizations,as well as such organiza-
tions as the Saharaand SahelObservatory;
(b) Establishand/or develop a comprehensivedeserti-
fication,landdegradationandhumanconditiondatabase
component that incorporatesboth physical and socio-
economicparameters.This shouldbe basedon existing
99
and, where necessary,additionalfacilities, such as those
of Earthwatchand other information systemsof interna-
tional, regionaland nationalinstitutionsstrengthenedfor
this purpose;
(c) Determine benchmarks and define indicators of
progressthat facilitate the work of local and regional
organizationsin tracking progressin the fight for anti-
desertification. Particular attention should be paid to
indicatorsof local participation.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A' F'NANCTNG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
12.11The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
theactivitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$350million,
includingabout$175million fromthe internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessionalterms.Theseare indica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,
will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand
programmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implemen-
tation.
B/ SC'ENilFtCAND TECHNOLOG\CAL
MEANS
12.12Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations working on the issue of desertificationand
drought,should:
(a) Undertake and update existing inventories of
naturalresources, suchas energy,water,soil, minerals
and plant and animal accessto food, as well as other
resources,suchas housing,employment,health,edu-
cationanddemographicdistributionin time and space;
(b) Develop integratedinformation systemsfor envi-
ronmental monitoring, accountingand impact assess-
ment;
(c) Cooperatewith internationalbodiesto facilitatethe
acquisitionand developmentof appropriatetechnology
for monitoring and combating drought and deserti-
fication.
c ) HUM A NR ES O U R CDEE VE L O P M EN T
12.13Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations working on the issue of desertificationand
drought,shoulddevelopthe technicaland professional
r 00
skills of peopleengagedin monitoringand assessing
the
issueof desertificationand drousht.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
12.14 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations working on the issue of desertificationand
drought,should:
(a) Strengthennational and local institutions by pro-
viding adequate staffequipmentandfinanceforassessins
desertification;
(b) Promotethe involvementof the local population,
panicularly women and youth, in the collection and
utilizationof environmentalinformationthroueheduca-
tion and awareness-buildine.
B) COTVIBAT|NGLAND DEGRADATTON THROUGH,
,NTER ALTA,INTENSIFIEDSOII CONSERVANON,
AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION ACTIVITIES
BASIS
FORACTION
12.15Desertification affects about 3.6 billion hec-
tares,which is about70 per cent of the total areaof the
world's drylandsor nearly one quarter of the global
land area.In combatingdesertificationon rangeland,
rainfed cropland and irrigated land, preventive
measuresshould be launchedin areaswhich arenot yet
affectedor are only slightly affectedby desertification;
correctivemeasuresshould be implementedto sustain
the productivity of moderately desertifiedland; and
rehabilitative measuresshould be taken to recover
severelyor very severelydesertifieddrylands.
12.16An increasingvegetationcover would promote
andstabilizethehydrologicalbalancein thedrylandareas
and maintainland quality and land productivity.Protec-
tion of not yet degradedland, applicationof corrective
measuresand rehabilitationof moderateand severely
degradeddrylands,including areasaffectedby sanddune
movements,throughthe introductionof environmentally
sound, soci al l y acceptabl e,fai r and econom ically
feasibleland-usesystemswill enhancethe land-carrying
capacityand maintenanceof biotic resourcesin fragile
ecosystems.
OBJECTIVES
12.17The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) As regardsareasnot yet affected or only slightly
affected by desertification, to ensure appropriate
managementof existing natural formations(including
forests) for the conservationof biodiversity, watershed
protection,sustainabilityof their productionandagricul-
tural development,and other purposes,with the full
participationof indigenouspeople;
(b) To rehabilitatemoderately to severely desertified
drylands for productive utilization and sustain their
productivity for agropastoraVagroforestry development
through,inter alia, soil and waterconservation;
(c) To increasethe vegetationcover and supportman-
agementof biotic resourcesin regionsaffectedor prone
to desertificationand drought, notably through suchac-
tivities as afforestation/reforestation,agroforestry, com-
munity forestryand vegetationretentionschemes;
(d) To improve managementof forest resources,in-
cluding woodfuel,and to reducewoodfuelconsumption
throughmore efficient utilization,conseryationand en-
hancement,developmentand use of other sourcesof
energy,includingalternativesourcesof energy.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R
12.18Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Implement urgent direct preventivemeasuresin
drylandsthat are vulnerablebut not yet affected,or only
slightlydesertifieddrylands,by introducing(i) improved
land-usepoliciesandpracticesfor moresustainable land
productivity;(ii) appropriate,
environmentallysoundand
economicallyfeasibleagriculturaland pastoraltechno-
logies;and (iii) improvedmanagementof soil and water
resources;
(b) Carry out acceleratedafforestationand reforesta-
tion programmes,using drought-resistant, fast-growing
species,in particularnativeones,includinglegumesand
other species,combined with community-basedagro-
forestry schemes.In this regard,creation of large-scale
reforestationand afforestation schemes,particularly
throughthe establishment of greenbelts,shouldbe con-
sidered,bearingin mind the multiple benefitsof such
measures;
(c) Implementurgently direct correctivemeasuresin
moderatelyto severelydesertifieddrylands,in addition
to the measureslisted in paragraphl8 (a) above,with a
view to restoringand sustainingtheir productivity;
(d) Promote improved land/water/crop-management
systems,making it possibleto combat salinizationin
existingirrigatedcroplands;and stabilizerainfed crop-
lands and introduce improved soiVcrop-management
systemsinto land-usepractice:
(e) Promote participatory managementof natural
resources,including rangeland,to meetboth the needsof
rural populations and conservationpurposes,basedon
innovativeor adaptedindigenoustechnologies;
(0 Promotein situ protectionand conservationof spe-
cial ecologicalareasthroughlegislationand othermeans
for the purposeof combatingdesertificationwhile ensur-
ing the protectionof biodiversity;
(g) Promote and encourageinvestment in forestry
developmentin drylandsthrough variousincentives,in-
cluding legislativemeasures;
(h) Promote the development and use of sourcesof
energywhich will lessenpressureon ligneousresources,
including alternative sourcesof energy and improved
stoves.
B) DATAAND TNFORMAT/ON
12.19Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Develop land-usemodelsbasedon local practices
for the improvementof such practices,with a focus on
preventing land degradation. The models should give a
better understandingof the variety of natural and human-
induced factors that may contribute to desertification.
Models shouldincorporatethe interactionof both new and
traditionalpracticesto preventland degradationand reflect
the resilienceof the whole ecologicaland socialsystem;
(b) Develop, test and introduce, with due regard to
environmental security considerations,drought-resistant,
fast-growingand productiveplant speciesappropriateto
the environmentof the resionsconcerned.
ci /NIERNAT/ONAL
AND REG/ONAI
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION
12.20The appropriateUnitedNationsagencies,intema-
tional and regional organizations,non-governmental
organizationsand bilateralagenciesshould:
(a) Coordinatetheir roles in combating land degrada-
tion and promoting reforestation,agroforestryand land-
managementsystemsin affectedcountries;
(b) Supportregionaland subregionalactivitiesin tech-
nologydevelopmentanddissemination, trainingandpro-
grammeimplementationto arrestdryland degradation.
12.21The national Governmentsconcerned,the appro-
priate United Nations agenciesand bilateral agencies
shouldstrengthenthe coordinatingrole in dryland deg-
radationof subregionalintergovemmentalorganizations
setup to cover theseactivities,suchas CILSS, IGADD,
SADCC and the Arab MaehrebUnion.
l0l
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
12.22The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about $6 billion,
including about $3 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,including any that are non-concessional,
will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
B/ SC/ENI|FtC
AND TECHNOTOG\CAL
MEANS
12.23Governmentsat the appropriatelevel and local
communities,with the supportof the relevantinterna-
tional and regionalorganizations,should:
(a) Integrateindigenousknowledgerelatedto forests,
forest lands. rangelandand natural vegetationinto re-
searchactivitieson desertificationand drought;
(b) Promote integratedresearchprogrammeson the
protection,restorationandconservation of waterandland
resourcesand land-usemanagementbasedon traditional
approaches, wherefeasible.
C) HUM A NR E SOU R CDFEV EL OP M EN T
12.24Governmentsat the appropriatelevel and local
communities,with the supportof the relevantinterna-
tional and regionalorgamzations,should:
(a) Establishmechanismsto ensurethat land users,
particularlywomen,arethe main actorsin implementing
improved land use, including agroforestrysystems,in
combatingland degradation;
(b) Promote efficient extension-service facilities in
areasprone to desertificationand drought,particularly
for training farmers and pastoralistsin the improved
managementof land and water resourcesin drvlands.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
12.25Governmentsat the appropriatelevel and local
communities,with the supportof the relevantinterna-
tional and regionalorganizations,should:
(a) Develop and adopt, through appropriatenational
legislation,and introduceinstitutionally,new and envi-
r onm ent all y s o u n d d e v e l o p me n t-o ri e n ted
l and-use
polic ies :
102
(b) Supportcommunity-based people'sorganizations,
especiallyfarmersand pastoralists.
c) DEVETOPTNGAND STRENGTHENTNG
INTEGRATEDDEVEIOPMENTPROGRAMMESFOR
THE ERADICATIONOF POVERW AND PROMOTION
OF ATTERNATIVELIVETIHOODSYSTEMSIN AREAS
PRONETO DESERTIFICATION
BASIS
FORACTION
12.26In areasprone to desertificationand drought,cur-
rent livelihood and resource-use systemsare not able to
maintainliving standards. In most of the arid and semi-
arid areas,the traditionallivelihood systemsbasedon
agropastoralsystemsareoften inadequateandunsustain-
able, particularly in view of the effects of drought and
increasingdemographicpressure.Poverty is a major
factor in acceleratingthe rate of degradationand deser-
tification. Action is thereforeneededto rehabilitateand
improve the agropastoral systems for sustainable
managementof rangelands,as well as alternative
livelihood systems.
OBJECTIVES
12.27The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To createthe capacityof village communitiesand
pastoralgroupsto take chargeof their developmentand
the managementof their land resourceson a socially
equitableand ecologicallysoundbasis;
(b) To i mprove producti on systems i n o r der t o
achieve greater productivity within approved
programmesfor conservationof nationalresourcesand
in the framework of an integrated approachto rural
development;
(c) To provideopportunitiesfor alternativelivelihoods
as a basisfor reducingpressureon land resourceswhile
at the sametime providingadditionalsourcesof income,
particularly for rural populations,thereby improving
their standardof livins.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELAT
EDACTIVITIES
12.28Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
suppoftof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Adopt policies at the national level regarding a
decentralizedapproachto land-resourcemanagement,
delegatingresponsibilityto rural organizations;
(b) Createor strengthenrural organizatronsin charge
of village and pastoralland management;
(c) Establishand developlocal, nationaland intersec-
toral mechanismsto handleenvironmentaland develop-
mental consequences of land tenure expressedin terms
of land useandland ownership. Particularattentionshould
be given to protecting the property righs of women and
pastoraland nomadicgroupsliving in rural arezn;
(d) Createor strengthenvillage associationsfocusedon
economicactivitiesof commonpastoralinterest(market
gardening,transformationof agriculturalproducts,live-
stock,herdingetc.);
(e) Promote rural credit and mobilization of rural
savings through the establishmentof rural bankino
systems;
(l) Develop infrastructure,as well as local production
and marketingcapacity,by involving the local people
to promotealternativelivelihoodsystemsand alleviate
poverty;
(g) Establisha revolvingfund for credit to rural entre-
preneursand local groupsto facilitatethe establishment
of cottage industries/business venturesand credit for
input to agropastoralactivities.
B) DATAAND INFORMAT/ON
12.29 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Conductsocio-economicbaselinestudiesin order
to have a good understandingof the situation in the
programme area regarding, particularly, resource and
land tenure issues,traditional land-management prac-
ticesand characteristicsof productionsystems;
(b) Conduct inventoriesof natural resources(soil,
water and vegetation)and their state of degradation,
basedprimarilyon theknowledgeof thelocalpopulation
(e.9.,rapid rural appraisal);
(c) Disseminateinformation on technical packages
adaptedto thesocial,economicandecologicalconditions
of each;
(d) Promoteexchangeand sharingof information con-
cerningthe developmentof alternativelivelihoodswith
other agro-ecological regions.
AND REG/ONAI.
C/ /NIFRNATIONAL
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION
12.30Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations.should:
(a) Promotecooperationand exchangeof information
among the arid and semi-arid land researchinstitutions
concerningtechniquesandtechnologiesto improveland
and labour productivity, as well as viable production
systems;
(b) Coordinateand harmonizethe implementationof
programmes and projects funded by the international
organizationcorrununities andnon-governmental organ-
izations that are directedtowards the alleviation of pov-
erty and promotion of an alternativelivelihood system.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
12.31The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe costs
for this programmeareain chapter3 (Combatingpoverty)
and chapter 14 (Promotingsustainableagricultureand
rural development).
O G|CALMEANS
8/ SC/ENIFtC AND TECHNOI
12.32 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, and with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Undertakeapplied researchin land use with the
supportof local researchinstitutions;
(b) Facilitateregularnational,regionaland interregional
communicationon andexchangeof informationandexperi-
encebetweenextensionofficersandresearchers;
(c) Supportand encouragethe introductionand useof
technologiesfor the generationof alternativesourcesof
incomes.
C) HUMANRFSOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
12.33Governmentsat the appropnatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations.should:
(a) Train membersof rural orgamzationsin manage-
ment skills and train agropastoralists in such special
techniquesassoil andwaterconservation, waterharvest-
ing, agroforestryand small-scaleirrigation;
(b) Trainextensionagentsandofficersin the participa-
tory approachto integratedland management.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
12.34Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
r03
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organiza-
tions,shouldestablishandmaintainmechanismsto ensure
theintegrationinto sectoralandnationaldevelopmentplans
andprogrammesof strategiesforpoverty alleviationamong
the inhabitantsof landsproneto desertification.
D) DEVETOPTNGCOMPREHENSTVE
ANN-DESERTIFICATIONPROGRA'YTMES
AND INTEGRATINGTHEM INTO NATIONAT
DEVETOPftTENT
P1ANS AND NATIONAT
NTAI PIANNING
ENVIRON'VIE
BASIS
FORACTION
12.35In a numberof developingcountriesaffectedby
desertification, the natural resource base is the main
resourceuponwhich the developmentprocessmustrely.
The socialsystemsinteractingwith land resourcesmake
the problemmuch more complex,requiringan integrated
approachto the planning and managementof land re-
sources.Action plans to combat desertificationand
droughtshouldincludemanagementaspectsof environ-
ment and development,thus conforming with the ap-
proach of integratingnational developmentplans and
nationalenvironmentalactionplans.
OBJECTIVES
12.36The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To strengthennationalinstitutionalcapabilitiesto
develop appropriate anti-desertificationprogrammes
and to integratethem into nationaldevelopmentplan-
ning;
(b) To develop strategicplanning frameworks for the
development,protectionand managementof naturalre-
sourcesin drylandareasand integratetheminto national
developmentplans,including nationalplans to combat
desertification,and environmental action plans in
countriesmost proneto desertification;
(c) To initiate a long-term processfor implementing
and monitoring strategiesrelated to natural resources
management;
(d) To strengthenregional and internationalcoopera-
tion for combatingdesertificationthrough,inter alia,the
adoptionof legal and otherinstruments.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELATED
ACTIVITIES
12.37Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations.should:
104
(a) Establish, or strengthen,national and local anti-
desertificationauthoritieswithin governmentand local
executive bodies, as well as local committees/associ-
ations of land users,in all rural communities affected,
with a view to organizingworking cooperationbetween
all actorsconcerned,from the grass-rootslevel (farmers
and pastoralists)to the higher levels of government;
(b) Develop national plans of action to combat deser-
tification and, as appropriate,make them integral parts
of nationaldevelopmentplansand nationalenvironmen-
tal actionplans;
(c) Implement policies directed towards improving
land use,managingcommonlandsappropriately,provid-
ing incentivesto smallfarmersandpastoralists,involving
women and encouraging private investment in the
developmentof drylands;
(d) Ensurecoordinationamong ministries and institu-
tions working on anti-desertificationprogrammesat na-
tional and local levels.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
12.38Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations, should promote information exchange and
cooperation with respect to national planning and
programming among affected countries,inter alin, tlvough
networking.
C/ /NIERNAI'ONAI.AND REG/ONAI.
COOPERATION AND COORD/NAI/ON
12.39The relevantinternationalorganizations, multi-
I ateralfinancial i n stitutions, non- governmentalorgan-
izationsand bilateralagenciesshouldstrengthentheir
cooperationin assistingwith the preparationof deserti-
fication control programmesand their integration into
nationalplanning strategies,with the establishmentof
nati onal coordi nati ng and systemati cobs er vat ion
mechanisms andwith theregionalandglobalnetworking
of theseplansand mechanisms.
12.40TheGeneralAssembly,atits forty-seventhsession,
shouldbe requestedto establish,under the aegisof the
General Assembly, an intergovernmentalnegotiating
committeeforthe elaborationof an internationalconven-
tion to combatdesertificationin thosecountriesexperi-
encing seriousdroughtand/ordesertification,particular-
ly in Africa, with a view to finalizing sucha convention
by June 1994.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
12.41The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof thisprograrnmeto be about$ 180million,
including about $90 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ative andorder-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewed by Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms, including any that are non-concessional,will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
gftunmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B/ sC/ENTIFIC
AND IECHNOTOGICAL
MEANS
12.42Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Develop and introduce appropriate improved
sustainableagriculturalandpastoraltechnologiesthatare
socially and environmentallyacceptableand economi-
cally feasible;
(b) Undertakeapplied study on the integrationof envi-
ronmental and developmentalactivities into national
developmentplans.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
12.43Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldundertakenationwidemajor anti-deser-
campaignswithin countries
tificationawareness/training
affectedthroughexistingnationalmassmediafacilities,
educationalnetworksand newly createdor strengthened
extensionservices.This shouldensurepeople'saccessto
knowledgeof deserlificationand droughtand to national
plansof actionto combatdesertification.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
12.44 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should establishand maintainmechanismsto
ensure coordination of sectoral ministries and institu-
tions, including local-levelinstitutionsand appropriate
non-governmentalorganizations,in integrating anti-
desertifrcationprograrrunesinto national development
plansand nationalenvironmentalactionplans.
El DEVETOPTNGCOTVIPREHENSIVE
DROUGHT
PREPAREDNESSAND DROUGHT-REUEF
SCHE'YTES,
INCLUDINGSELF.HEIP
ARRANGETIENTS,FOR DROUGHT-PRONE
AREASAND DESIGNING PROGRAM'YIES
TO
COPEWIIH ENVIRONMENTATREFUGEES
BASIS
FORACTION
12.45Drought, in differing degreesof frequency and
severity,is a recurringphenomenonthroughoutmuch of
the developingworld, especiallyAfrica. Apart from the
human toll - an estimated3 million people died in the
mid-1980sbecauseof droughtin sub-Saharan Africa -
the economiccostsof drought-relateddisastersare also
high in terms of lost production, misused inputs and
diversion of developmentresources.
12.46 Early-warningsystemsto forecastdroughtwill make
possible the implementation of drought-preparedness
schemes.Integratedpackagesat the farm and watershed
level, suchasalternativecropping strategies,soil and water
conservationandpromotionof waterharvestingtechniques,
could enhancethe capacityof landto copewith droughtand
provide basic necessities,therebyminimizing the number
of environmental refugees and the need for emergency
droughtrelief. At the sametime, contingencyarrangements
for relief are neededfor periodsof acutescarcity.
OBJECTIVES
12.47The objectivesof this prograrnmeareaare:
(a) To developnationalstrategiesfordroughtprepared-
nessin both the short and long term, aimed at reducing
the vulnerability of production systemsto drought;
(b) To strengthenthe flow of early-waming informa-
tion to decision makersand land usersto enablenations
to implement strategiesfor drought intervention;
(c) To develop drought-relief schemesand means of
coping with environmentalrefugeesand integratethem
into national and regional developmentplanning.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGFMENI-R
ELATED
ACTIVITIES
12.48In drought-proneareas,Governmentsat the appro-
priate level, with the supportof the relevantinternational
and regionalorganizations, should:
(a) Design strategiesto deal with national food
deficiencies in periods of production shortfall. These
strategiesshould deal with issuesof storageand stocks,
imports, port facilities, food storage,transportand dis-
tribution;
r05
(b) Improve nationaland regionalcapacityfor agro-
meteorologyand contingencycrop planning. Agrome-
teorology links the frequency,content and regional
coverageof weatherforecastswith the requirementsof
crop planningand agriculturalextension;
(c) Prepareruralprojectsfor providingshort-termrural
employmentto drought-affected households. The lossof
income and entitlementto food is a common sourceof
distressin timesof drought.Rural workshelp to generate
the incomerequiredto buy food for poor households;
(d) Establishcontingencyarrangements, whereneces-
sary,for food and fodderdistributionand water supply;
(e) Establishbudgetarymechanismsfor providing,at
shortnotice,resourcesfor droughtrelief;
(f) Establish safety nets for the most vulnerable
households.
B) DATAAND INFORMAI/ON
12.49 Governmentsof affectedcountries,at the appro-
priatelevel,with the supportof therelevantinternational
and regionalorganizations, should:
(a) Implement researchon seasonalforecaststo im-
prove contingencyplanning and relief operationsand
allow preventivemeasuresto be takenat the farm level,
suchasthe selectionof appropriatevarietiesandfarmins
practices,in timesof drought;
(b) Supportappliedresearchon waysof reducingwater
lossfrom soils,on ways of increasingthe water absorp-
tion capacitiesof soils and on water harvestingtech-
niquesin drought-proneareas:
(c) Strengthennational early-warningsystems,with
particularemphasison the areaof risk-mapping,remote-
l o d e l l i n g , i ntegrated
s ens ing,ag ro me te o ro l o g i c am
multidisciplinarycrop-forecasting techniquesand com-
puterized food supply/demand analysis.
AND REG/ONAI.
c/ /NTERNAT/ONAL
COOPERAI/ONAND COORD/NAI'ON
12.50Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Establisha systemof stand-bycapacitiesin terms
of foodstock,logisticalsupport,personneland finance
for a speedyinternationalresponseto drought-related
emergencies;
(b) Supportprogrammesof the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) on agrohydrology and agro-
meteorology,the Programmeof the Regional Training
Centrefor AgrometeorologyandOperationalHydrology
106
a n d t h e i r A p p l i c a t i o n s( A G R H Y M E T ) , d r o u g h t -
monitoring centresand the African Centre of
M e t e o r o l o g i c a lA p p l i c a t i o n s f o r D e v e l o p m e n t
(ACMAD), as well as the effortsof the PermanentInter-
State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel
(C ILS S ) and the IntergovernmentalA utho r it y f or
Drought and Development(IGADD);
(c) SupportFAO programmesand other programmes
for the developmentof nationalearly-warningsystems
and food securityassistance schemes;
(d) S trengthenand expand the scope of exist ing
regionalprogrammesand the activitiesof appropriate
United Nationsorgansand organizations,suchas the
World Food Programme (WFP), the Office of the
U ni tedN ati onsD i sasterR el i efC oordi nator(UNDRO )
andthe UnitedNationsSudano-Sahelian Office aswell
as of non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o nsa
, imed at
mitigatingthe effectsof drought and emergencies.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ FINANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
12.51The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $1.2 billion,
includingabout$ l. I billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter clia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
gruunmes Governmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
MEANS
AND TECHNOLOG\CAL
8/ SC/ENr/F/C
12.52Governments atthe appropriatelevel anddrought-
prone communities,with the support of the relevant
intemationaland regionalorganizations, should:
(a) Use traditionalmechanismsto copewith hungeras
a meansof channellingrelief and developmentassist-
ance;
(b) Strengthenanddevelopnational,regionalandlocal
interdisciplinaryresearchand training capabilitiesfor
droughrpreventionstrategies.
DEVELOPMENT
C) HUMANRESOURCE
12.53Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationalandregionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Promotethe training of decisionmakersand land
users in the effective utilization of information from
early-warningsystems ; (c) To ensurethatthepartnersunderstand
( b ) S t r e n g t h e nr e s e a r c ha n d n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g
capabilitiesto assess theimpactof droughtandto develop
methodologiesto forecastdrought.
D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG
12.54Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations.should:
(a) Improve and maintain mechanismswith adequate
staff, equipmentand financesfor monitoring drought
parametersto take preventivemeasuresat regional,na-
tionaland local levels;
(b) Establishinterministeriallinkagesandcoordinating
units for drought monitoring, impact assessmentand
managementof drought-reliefschemes.
F) ENCOURAGTNGAND PROTVTOTINGPOPU1AR
AND ENVIRON'YIENTAI
PARTICIPATION
EDUCATION,FOCUSINGON DESERTIFICATION
CONTROLAND MANAGE}IENT OF THE EFFECTS
OF DROUGHT
BASIS
FORACTION
12.55The experienceto date on the successesand
failures of programmesand projects points to the need
for popularsupportto sustainactivitiesrelatedto deserti-
fication and drought control. But it is necessaryto go
beyondthe theoreticalidealof popularparticipationand
to focuson obtainingactualactivepopularinvolvement,
rooted in the conceptof partnership.This implies the
sharingof responsibilities andthe mutualinvolvementof
all parties. In this context,this programmeareashould
be consideredan essentialsupportingcomponentof all
desertification-control activities.
and droueht-related
OBJECTIVES
12.-56The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To develop and increasepublic awarenessand
knowledgeconcerningdesertificationand drought,in-
cludingthe integrationof environmentaleducationin the
curriculumof primary and secondaryschools;
(b) To establishand promotetrue partnershipbetween
governmentauthorities,at both the national and local
levels, other executing agencies,non-governmental
orgamzatronsand land users stricken by drought and
giving landusersa responsiblerole in the
desertification,
planningandexecutionprocesses in orderto benefitfully
from developmentprojects;
oneanother's
needs,objectivesand points of view by providing a
varietyof meanssuchas training,public awareness and
opendialogue;
(d) To supportlocal communitiesin their own effortsin
combatingdesertification,and to draw on the knowledge
and experienceof ttrepopulationsconcemed,ensuringthe
full participationof womenand indigenouspopulations.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENT-R
ELAT
EDACTtvtTtES
12.57Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Adopt policies and establishadministrativestruc-
tures for more decentralizeddecision-makingand im-
plementation;
( b ) E s t a b l i s h a n d u t i l i z e m e c h a n i s m sf o r t h e
consul tati onand i nvol vementof l and usersand f or
enhancingcapabilityat the grass-roots level to identify
and/or contri buteto the i denti fi cati onand pl ann ing
of acti on;
(c) Define specific programme/projectobjectives in
cooperationwith local communities;and design local
management plansto includesuchmeasures of progress,
therebyproviding a meansof alteringprojectdesignor
changingmanagementpractices,as appropriate;
(d) Introduce legislative, institutionaVorganizational
and financial measuresto secureuser involvementand
accessto land resources;
(e) Establishand/or expand favourableconditions for
the provision of services,such as credit facilities and
marketing outlets for rural populations;
(0 Develop training programmesto increasethe level
of education and participation of people, particularly
women and indigenousgroups, through, inter alia, bt-
eracyand the developmentof technicalskills;
(g) Createrural bankingsystemsto facilitateaccessto
credit for rural populations,particularlywomen and in-
digenousgroups,and to promoterural savings;
(h) Adopt appropriatepoliciesto stimulateprivateand
public investment.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMAI/ON
12.58Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
107
(a) Review,developand disseminate gender-disaggre-
gatedinformation,skills and know-how at all levelson
ways of organizingand promotingpopularparticipation;
(b) Acceleratethedevelopmentof technologicalknow-
how, focusing on appropriateand intermediatetechnol-
o8y;
(c) Disseminate knowledge about applied research
results on soil and water issues,appropriatespecies,
agriculturaltechniquesand technologicalknow-how.
C/ INIERNAI/ONAI.
AND REG'ONAT
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON
12.59Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Developprogrammesof supportto regionalorgan-
izationssuchas CILSS. IGADD. SADCC and the Arab
Maghreb Union and other intergovernmentalorganiza-
tionsin Africa andotherpartsof the world, to strengthen
outreachprogrammesand increasethe participation of
non-governmentalorganizationstogether with rural
populations;
(b) Developmechanisms forfacilitatingcooperationin
technologyand promotesuchcooperationasan element
of all externalassistanceandactivitiesrelatedto technical
assistance projectsin the public or privatesector;
(c) Promote collaborationamong different actors in
environmentand developmentprogrammes;
(d) Encouragethe emergenceof representative organ-
izational structuresto foster and sustaininterorganrza-
tional cooperation.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
AI FINANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
12.60The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-2000)of implementing the
108
activities of this prograrnme to be about $1 billion,
including about$500million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseare indic-
ative and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have
not been reviewed by Govemments.Actual costs and
financialferms,includingany thatarenon-concessional,
will dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand
prograrnmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementa-
tion.
8/ SC'ENilFtCAND TECHNOTOG\CAL
MEANS
12.61Governmentsatthe appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldpromote the developmentof indigenous
know-how and technologytransfer.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
12.62 Governments,at the appropriatelevel, and with
the support of the relevant international and regional
organizations,should:
(a) Supportand/or strengtheninstitutionsinvolved in
public education,includingthe local media,schoolsand
communitygoups;
(b) Increasethe level of public education.
D) CAPACTTY-BUILD|NG
12.63 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, and with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations, should promote membersof local rural organ-
izations and train and appoint more extension officers
working at the local level.
 1? Monogingfrogileecosystems:
I vt mountoin
Sustoinoble development
I N TR OD UC T I O N
13.1 Mountains are an important source of water,
energyand biological diversity. Furthermore,they are
a source of such key resourcesas minerals, forest
products and agricultural products and of recreation.
As a major ecosystemrepresentingthe complex and
interrelatedecology of our planet,mountainenviron-
ments are essentialto the survival of the global eco-
system.Mountain ecosystemsare, however,rapidly
changing. They are susceptibleto acceleratedsoil
erosion,landslidesandrapidlossof habitatandgenetic
diversity. On the human side, there is widespread
poverty among mountain inhabitants and loss of
indigenous k no w l e d g e . As a re s u l t, m o s t gl obal
mountain areasare experiencingenvironmentaldeg-
radation.Hence, the proper managementof mountain
resourcesand socio-economicdevelopment of the
peopledeservesimmediateaction.
13.2 About 10 per cent of the world's population
dependsdirectly on mountain resources.A much larger
percentagedrawson mountainresources,including and
especiallywater.Mountains are a storehouseof biologi-
cal diversityand endangeredspecies.
13.3 Two programmeareasare includedin this chap-
ter to further elaborate the problem of fragile eco-
systemswith regard to all mountainsof the world.
Theseare:
(a) Generatingand strengthening knowledgeaboutthe
ecology and sustainabledevelopmentof mountain
ecosystems;
(b) Promoting integratedwatersheddevelopmentand
alternativelivelihoodopportunities.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) GENERATINGAND STRENGTHENING
KNOWTEDGEABOUT THE ECOTOGYAND
SUSTAINABLEDEVETOPftTENT
OF }TOUNTAIN
ECOSYSTEMS
FORACTION
BASIS
13.4 Mountains are highly vulnerable to human and
natural ecological imbalance. Mountains are the areas
most sensitiveto all climatic changesin the atmosphere.
Specific information on ecology, natural resource
potential and socio-economicactivities is essential.
Mountain and hillside areas hold a rich variety of
ecologicalsystems. Becauseof their vertical dimen-
sions, mountains create gradients of temperature,
precipitationand insolation. A given mountainslope
may includeseveralclimatic systems- suchas tropi-
cal, subtropical,temperateand alpine- eachof which
representsa microcosm of a larger habitat diversity.
There is, however,a lack of knowledgeof mountain
e c o s y s t e m s .T h e c r e a t i o n o f a g l o b a l m o u n t a i n
databaseis thereforevital for launching programmes
that contribute to the sustainabledevelopment of
mountainecosystems.
OBJECTIVES
13.5 The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To undertakea surveyof the differentforms of soils,
forest, water use, crop, plant and animal resourcesof
mountain ecosystems,taking into accountthe work of
existinginternationaland regionalorganizations;
(b) To maintain and generatedatabaseand information
systemsto facilitatetheintegratedmanagement andenvi-
ronmentalassessment of mountain ecosystems,taking
r09
into account the work of existing international and
regionalorganizations ;
(c) To improveandbuild theexistingland/waterecologi-
cal knowledgebaseregardingtechnologiesandagricultural
and conservationpracticesin the mountainregionsof the
world, with the participationof local communities;
(d) To createand strengthenthe communicationsnet-
work and information clearing-housefor existing organ-
izationsconcernedwith mountainissues;
(e) To improve coordination of regional efforts to
protect fragile mountain ecosystemsthrough the con-
siderationof appropriatemechanisms, includingregional
legal and other instruments;
(0 To generateinformation to establishdatabasesand
information systemsto facilitate an evaluationof environ-
mentalrisksandnaturaldisastersin mountainecosystems.
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
13.6 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Strengthenexisting institutionsor establishnew
onesat local, nationaland regionallevels to generatea
multidisciplinaryland/waterecologicalknowledgebase
on mountainecosystems;
(b) Promotenationalpoliciesthatwould provideincen-
tives to local peoplefor the useand transferof environ-
ment-friendlytechnologiesand farming and conserva-
tion practices;
(c) Build up the knowledgebaseand understanding by
creating mechanismsfor cooperation and information
exchangeamongnationalandregionalinstitutionswork-
ing on fragile ecosystems;
(d) Encouragepolicies that would provide incentives
to farmers and local people to undertakeconservation
and regenerativemeasures;
(e) Diversifymountaineconomies,inter alia,by creat-
ing and/or strengtheningtourism, in accordancewith
integratedmanagementof mountainareas;
(0 Integrateall forest,rangelandand wildlife activitiesin
suchaway thatspecificmountainecosystems aremaintained;
(g) Establish appropriatenatural reservesin repre-
sentativespecies-richsitesand areas.
B) DATAAND /NFORMATTON
13.7 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
i10
(a) Maintain and establishmeteorological,hydrologr-
cal andphysicalmonitoringanalysisandcapabilitiesthat
would encompassthe climatic diversityas well as water
distributionof variousmountainregionsof the world;
(b) Build an inventory of different forms of soils,
forests,water use, and crop, plant and animal genetic
resources, giving priority to thoseunderthreatof extinc-
tion. . Geneticresourcesshouldbe protectedin situ by
maintainingandestablishing protectedareasandimprov-
ing traditional farming and animal husbandryactivities
andestablishingprogrammesforevaluatingthe potential
valueof the resources;
(c) Identify hazardousareasthat aremost vulnerableto
erosion, floods, landslides,earthquakes,snow ava-
lanchesand othernaturalhazards;
(d) Identify mountainareasthreatenedby air pollution
from neighbouringindustrialand urbanareas.
c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL
AND REGIONAICOOPERAnON
13.8 National Governmentsand intersovernmental
organizationsshould:
(a) Coordinateregional and internationalcooperation
and facilitate an exchangeof information andexperience
among the specializedagencies,the World Bank, IFAD
and other international and regional orgamzations,na-
tional Governments,researchinstitutionsand non-gov-
ernmentalorganizationsworking on mountaindevelop-
ment;
(b) Encourageregional,nationaland internationalnet-
working of people'sinitiativesandthe activitiesof inter-
national,regional and local non-governmentalorganiza-
tions working on mountain development,such as the
United NationsUniversity(UNU), the WoodlandMoun-
tain Institutes(WMI), the InternationalCenterfor Inte-
gratedMountain Development(ICIMOD), the Interna-
tional Mountain Society (IMS), the African Mountain
Associationand the Andean Mountain Association,
besidessupportingthose organrzatrons in the exchange
of information and experience;
(c) Protect fragile mountain ecosystemsthrough the
considerationof appropriatemechanismsincluding
regionallegal and otherinstruments.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
13.9 The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implemeniingthe
activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$50million from
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-magnitude estr-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financialterms,including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specificstrategiesand prograffrmesGovernmentsdecide
upon for implementation.
8/ SC/ENIIF/C
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
MEANS
13.10Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldstrengthenscientificresearchand tech-
nologicaldevelopmentprogrammes,includingdiffusion
throughnationalandregionalinstitutions,particularlyin
meteorology,hydrology,forestry,soil sciencesandplant
sciences.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
13.11 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Launchtrainingandextensionprograffunes in envi-
ronmentally appropriatetechnologiesand practicesthat
would be suitableto mountainecosystems;
(b) Supporthigher educationthroughfellowshipsand
researchgrants for environmentalstudiesin mountains
and hill areas,particularly for candidatesfrom indige-
nous mountainpopulations;
(c) Undertakeenvironmentaleducationfor farmers,in
particularfor women, to help the rural populationbetter
understandthe ecological issuesregarding the sustain-
able developmentof mountainecosystems.
D ) CA P A CI T Y - BU tL D tN G
13.12Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should build up nationaland regionalinstitu-
tional basesthat could carry out research,training and
dissemination of informationon the sustainabledevelop-
ment of the economiesof frasile ecosvstems.
B) PROwIOTTNGTNTEGRATED
WATERSHED
DEVETOPMENT AND ATTERNATIVE
TIVETIHOODOPPORTUNITIES
BASISFORACTION
I 3.l3 Nearly half of the world's population is affected in
various ways by mountain ecology and the degradation
of watershedareas.About 10 per cent of the Earth's
populationlives in mountainareaswith higher slopes,
while about40 per cent occupiesthe adjacentmedium-
and lower-watershedareas.There are seriousproblems
of ecologicaldeteriorationin thesewatershedareas.For
example,in the hillside areasof the Andeancountriesof
South America a largeportion of the farming population
is now faced with a rapid deteriorationof land resources.
Similarly, the mountainand uplandareasof the Himalayas,
South-EastAsia and Eastand CentralAfrica, which make
vital contributionsto agriculturalproduction,arethreatened
by cultivation of marginal landsdue to expandingpopula-
tion. In many areasthis is accompaniedby excessive
livestock grazing,deforestationand lossof biomasscover.
13.14Soil erosioncan havea devastatingimpacton the
vast numbers of rural people who depend on rainfed
agriculture in the mountain and hillside areas. Poverty,
unemployment, poor health and bad sanitation are
widespread.Promoting integrated watersheddevelop-
mentprogranilnesthrougheffectiveparticipationof local
people is a key to preventingfurther ecological imbal-
ance. An integratedapproachis neededfor conserving,
upgrading and using the natural resourcebase of land,
water, plant, animal and human resources.In addition,
promoting alternativelivelihood opportunities,particu-
larly throughdevelopmentof employmentschemesthat
increasethe productivebase,will havea significantrole
in improvingthe standardof living amongthe largerural
populationliving in mountainecosystems.
OBJECTIVES
13.15The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) By theyear2000,to developappropriateland-useplan-
ning and managementfor both arableand non-arableland in
mountain-fedwatenhedareasto preventsoil erosion,increase
biomassproductionand maintainthe ecologicalbalance;
(b) To promote income-generating activities,such as
sustainabletourism,fisheriesandenvironmentallysound
mining,andto improveinfrastructure andsocialservices,
in particular to protect the livelihoods of local com-
munitiesand indigenouspeople;
(c) To developtechnicalandinstitutionalarrangements for
affectedcounries to mitigatethe effectsof nanral disasters
through hazard-preventionmeasures,risk zoning, early-
waming systems,evacuationplansandemergencysupplies.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-RELATEDACTIVITIES
1 3 . 1 6G o v e r n m e n t s a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l , w i t h t h e
lil
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalor-
ganizations,should:
(a) Undertake measuresto prevent soil erosion and
promoteerosion-controlactivitiesin all sectors;
(b) Establish task forces or watersheddevelopment
committees,complementingexisting institutions,to
coordinateintegratedservicesto supportlocal initiatives
in animal husbandry, forestry, horticulture and rural
developmentat all administrativelevels;
(c) Enhancepopularparticipationin the management
of local resourcesthroughappropriatelegislation;
(d) Supportnon-governmental organizations andother
private groups assistinglocal organizationsand com-
munitiesin thepreparationof projectsthat would enhance
participatorydevelopmentof local people;
(e) Provide mechanismsto preservethreatenedareas
that could protectwildlife, conservebiologicaldiversity
or serveas nationalparks;
(0 Develop nationalpoliciesthat would provide incen-
tives to farmersand local peopleto undertakeconservation
measuresandto useenvironment-friendly technologies;
(g) Undertakeincome-generating activitiesin cottage
and agro-processing industries,such as the cultivation
and processingof medicinaland aromaticplants;
(h) Undertaketheaboveactivities,takinginto accountthe
needfor full participationof women,includingindigenous
peopleandlocal communities,in development.
BJ DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
13.17Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Maintain and establishsystematicobservationand
evaluationcapacitiesat thenational,stateor provinciallevel
to generateinformation for daily operationsand to assess
theenvironmentalandsocio-economic impactsof projects;
(b) Generatedataon alternativelivelihoodsand diver-
sified productionsystemsat the village level on annual
and treecrops,livestock,poultry,beekeeping,fisheries,
vil lageindustries,markets,transportandincome-earning
opportunities,taking fully into accountthe role of women
and integratingthem into the planningand implementa-
tion process.
c/ /NTERNATTONAL
AND REG/ONAI.
COOPERAIION
13.18Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations.should:
(a) Strengthenthe role of appropriateinternationalre-
112
searchand training institutes such as the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural ResearchCenters
(CGIAR) and the InternationalBoard for Soil Research
and Management(IBSRAM), as well as regional re-
searchcentres,suchastheWoodlandMountainInstitutes
and the IntemationalCenter for IntegratedMountain
Development,in undertakingappliedresearchrelevant
to watersheddevelopment;
(b) Promoteregionalcooperationand exchangeof data
andinformationamongcountriessharingthesamemoun-
tain rangesand river basins,particularlythoseaffected
by mountaindisastersand floods;
(c) Maintain and establishpartnershipswith non-gov-
ernmentalorganizationsand other private groupswork-
ing in watersheddevelopment.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC|ALAND COSI EVALUATTON
13.19The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $13 billion,
includingabout$ 1.9billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
13.20Fi nanci ng for the promoti on of al t er nat ive
livelihoodsin mountainecosystems shouldbe viewedas
part of a country'santi-povertyor alternativelivelihoods
programme,which is also discussedin chapter3 (Com-
bating poverty) and chapter 14 (Promotingsustainable
agricultureand rural development)of Agenda21.
B/ SC/ENI/F/C
AND TECHNICAI.
MEANS
13.21Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Considerundertakingpilot projectsthat combine
environmentalprotection and developmentfunctions
with particularemphasison someof the traditionalenvi-
ronmentalmanagementpracticesor systemsthat have a
good impacton the environment;
(b) Generatetechnologiesfor specificwatershedand
farm conditionsthrougha participatoryapproachinvolv-
ing local men and women, researchersand extension
agentswho will carry out experimentsand trials on farm
conditions;
(c) Promote technologiesof vegetative conservation
measuresfor erosion prevention, in .ritu moisture
management, improved cropping technology, fodder
productionand agroforestrythat arelow-cost,simpleand
easily adoptedby local people.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
13.22 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Promotea multidisciplinary and cross-sectoralap-
proach in training and the disseminationof knowledge
to local peopleon a wide rangeof issues,suchas house-
hold productionsystems,conservationand utilizationof
arable and non-arableland, treatmentof drainagelines
and rechargingof groundwater,livestock management,
fisheries,agroforestryand horticulture;
(b) Develop human resourcesby providing accessto
education,health,energyand infrastructure;
(c) Promotelocal awarenessand preparedness for dis-
asterpreventionand mitigation, combinedwith the latest
availabletechnologyfor early waming and forecasting.
D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG
13.23Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regional orgwiza-
tions, should develop and strengthennational centresfor
watershedmanagementto encouragea comprehensiveap-
proachto ttreenvironmental,socio-economic, technologi-
cal, legislative,financialand administrativeaspectsand
provide support to policy makers,administrators,field
staff and farmersfor watersheddevelopment.
13.24The private sector and local communities, in
cooperationwith nationalGovernments,shouldpromote
local infrastructuredevelopment,includingcommunica-
tion networks, mini- or micro-hydro development to
supportcottageindustries,and accessto markets.
il3
 14 Promoting sustoinoble
ogriculture
ond ruroldevelopment
INTRODUCTION
l4.l By the year 2025. 83 per cent of the expected
g l o b a l p o p u l a t i o no f 8 . 5 b i l l i o n w i l l b e l i v i n g i n
developing countries.Yet the capacity of available
resourcesand technologiesto satisfythe demandsof
this growing populationfor food andotheragricultural
commoditiesremains uncertain. Agriculture has to
m eet t his c h a l l e n g ema , i n l y b y i n c re a s i ngproducti on
on land already in use and by avoiding further
encroachmenton land that is onlv mareinallvsuitable
for cultivation.
14.2 Major adjustrnentsare neededin agricultural,
environmentaland macroeconomicpolicy, at both na-
tional and internationallevels,in developedas well as
dev elopin g c o u n tri e s ,to c re a te th e c o n di ti ons for
s u s t a i n a b l ea g r i c u l t u r e a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t
(SARD). The major objectiveof SARD is to increase
food productionin a sustainable way andenhancefood
s e c u r i t y . T h i s w i l l i n v o l v e e d u c a t i o ni n i t i a t i v e s ,
utilization of economic incentivesand the develop-
mentof appropriateandnew technologies. thusensuring
s t ables up p l i e so f n u tri ti o n a l l ya d e q u a tef ood, access
to thosesuppliesby vulnerablegroups,and production
for markets; employment and income generationto
alleviate poverty; and natural resourcemanagement
and environmentalprotection.
1-1.3 The priority mustbe on maintainingand improv-
ing the capacity of the higher potential agricultural
lands to supportan expandingpopulation.However,
c ons er v in ga n d re h a b i l i ta ti n g th e n a tu ra lr esources on
lower pot e n ti a l a n d si n o rd e rto m a i n ta i nsustai nabl e
m an/ landra ti o si s a l s o n e c e s s a ryT. h e m ai n tool s of
SARD are policy and agrarianreform, participation,
inc om e div e rs i fi c a ti o n ,l a n d c o n s e rv a t i onand i m-
pr ov edm a n a g e m e not f i n p u ts .T h e s u c c e ssof S A R D
114
will dependlargely on the supportand participationof
rural people, national Governments,the private sector
and internationalcooperation,including technicaland
scientific cooperation.
14.4 The following programmeareasare included in
this chapter:
(a) Agriculturalpolicy review,planningandintegrated
programmingin the light of the multifunctionalaspectof
agriculture,particularly with regardto food securityand
sustainabledevelopment;
(b) Ensuring people's participationand promoting
human resourcedevelopmentfor sustainableagricul-
ture;
(c) Improving farm production and farming systems
through diversification of farm and non-farm employ-
ment and infrastructuredevelopment;
(d) Land-resource planninginformationandeducation
for agriculture;
(e) Land conservationand rehabilitation;
(0 Water for sustainablefood productionand sustain-
able rural development;
( g ) C o n s e r v a t i o na n d s u s t a i n a b l eu t i l i z a t i o n o f
pl ant geneti c resourcesfor food and sust ainable
agri cul ture;
(h) Conservationand sustainableutilizationof animal
geneticresourcesfor sustainableagriculture,
(i) Integratedpestmanagementand control in agricul-
ture;
0) Sustainable plant nutritionto increasefood produc-
tion;
(k) Rural energytransitionto enhanceproductivity;
(l) Evaluationof the effectsof ultravioletradiationon
plantsand animalscausedby the depletionof the strato-
sphericozonelayer.

P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) AGRTCULTURATPOUCYREVTEWPTANNTNGAND
INTEGRAIEDPROGRATYIMESIN IHE UGHTOF IHE
MUTTIFUNCTIONATASPECTOF AGRICULruRE,
PARTICUTARTY
WITH R,EGARDTO FOOD SECURITY
DEVETOPMENT
AND SUSTAINABI.E
BASIS
FORACTION
14.5 There is a needto integratesustainabledevelop-
mentconsiderations with agriculturalpolicy analysisand
planning in all countries, particularly in developing
countries.Recommendations shouldcontributedirectly
to developmentof realisticand operationalmedium- to
long-termplans and programmes,and thus to concrete
actions. Supportto and monitoring of implementation
shouldfollow.
14.6 The absenceof a coherentnationalpolicy frame-
work for sustainableagriculture and rural development
(SARD) is widespreadand is not limited to the develop-
ing countries.In particularthe economiesin transition
from plannedto market-orientedsystemsneed such a
framework to incorporateenvironmentalconsiderations
into economic activities, including agriculture. All
countriesneedto assesscomprehensively the impacts
o f s u c h p o l i c i e s o n f o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r es e c t o r
performance,food security,rural welfare and interna-
tional trading relations as a means for identifying
appropriateoffsettingmeasures.The major thrust of
food securityin this caseis to bring abouta significant
increasein agriculturalproductionin a sustainable way
and to achievea substantialimprovementin people's
entitlementto adequatefood andculturallyappropriate
food supplies.
11.1 Soundpolicy decisionspertainingto international
trade and capital flows also necessitate action to over-
come: (a) a lack of awareness of the environmentalcosts
incurred by sectoraland macroeconomicpolicies and
hencetheir threatto sustainability;(b) insufficientskills
and experiencein incorporatingissuesof sustainability
into policies and programmes;and (c) inadequacyof
tools of analysisand monitoring.'
OBJECTIVES
14.8 The objectivesof this Programmeareaare:
(a) By 1995,to review and, where appropriate,estab-
lish a programmeto integrateenvironmentalandsustain-
able developmentwith policy analysisfor the food and
agriculturesectorand relevant macroeconomicpolicy
analysis,formulationand implementation;
(b) To maintain and develop, as appropriate,oper-
ational multisectoral plans, programmes and policy
measures,including programmesand measuresto en-
hance sustainablefood production and food security
within the framework of sustainabledevelopment,not
later than 1998;
(c) To maintainand enhancethe ability of developing
countries,particularlythe leastdevelopedones.to them-
selvesmanagepolicy,programmingand planningactiv-
ities,not later than 2005.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELAT
EDACTIVITI
ES
14.9 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationalandregionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Carry out national policy reviews relatedto food
security,including adequatelevels and stabilityof food
supplyand accessto food by all households;
(b) Reviewnationalandregionalagriculturalpolicy in
relation, inter alia, to foreign trade, price policy, ex-
changerate policies,agriculturalsubsidiesand taxes,as
well as organization for regionaleconomicintegration:
(c) Implement policies to influence land tenure and
property rights positively with due recognitionof the
minimum size of land-holdingrequired to maintain
production and check further fragmentation;
(d) Consider demographic trends and population
movementsand identify critical areasfor asricultural
production;
(e) Formulate,introduceandmonitorpolicies,lawsand
regulationsandincentivesleadingto sustainable agricul-
tural and rural developmentand irnprovedfood security
and to the developmentand transferof appropriatefarm
technologies,including, where appropriate,low-input
sustainableagricultural(LISA) systems;
(0 Supportnational and regional early waming sys-
tems through food-securityassistanceschemesthat
monitor food supply and demand and factors af-fbctins
householdaccessto food;
(g) Reviewpolicieswith respectto improvingharvest-
ing, storage,processing,distributionand marketingof
productsat the local, nationaland regionallevels;
(h) Formulate and implement integratedagricultural
projects that include other natural resourceactivities,
suchasmanagement of rangelands,forests,and wildlife,
as appropriate;
(i) Promotesocialand economicresearchand policies
that encourage sustainableagriculture development,
particularlyin fragileecosystems and denselypopulated
areas;
ll5
C) Identify storageand distributionproblemsaffecting MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
food availability; supportresearch,where necessary,to
A/ F'NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATION
overcometheseproblemsand cooperatewith producers
and distributors to implement improved practicesand
14.12The Conference secretariathas estimated the
systems.
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)on implementing
the activities of this prograrrme to be about $3 billion,
including about$450 million from the internationalcom-
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not
14.10Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
been reviewed by Governments.Actual costsand financial
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
terms,including any that are non-concessional, will depend
izations,should:
ulnn, inter alin, the specific stategies and progfttrnmes
(a) Cooperateactively to expand and improve the in-
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
formation on early waming systemson food and agricul-
ture at both regionaland nationallevels;
(b) Examine and undertake surveys and researchto
MEANS
8/ SC'ENnF'CAND TECHNOLOGTCAL
establishbaseline information on the status of natural
resourcesrelatingto food andagriculturalproductionand
14.13Governmentsat the appropriatelevel and with the
planningin orderto assess the impactsof varioususeson
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
theseresources,and developmethodologiesand tools of
izations should assist farming householdsand com-
analysis,suchas environmentalaccounting.
munities to apply technologiesrelatedto improved food
productionand security,including storage,monitoring of
production and distribution.
AND REG'ONAL
c/ ,NTERNAT/ONAr.
COOPERAI'ONAND COORD/NAIION
c) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
14.11UnitedNationsagencies,suchasFAO, theWorld
Bank, IFAD and GATT, and regional organizations, 14.14Governments at the appropriate level, with the
bilateraldonoragenciesand otherbodiesshould,with- supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
in their respectivemandates,assumea role in working izations,should:
with nationalGovernmentsin the following activities: (a) Involve and train local economists, planners and
(a) Inrplementintegratedand sustainableagricultural analyststo initiate nationalandintemationalpolicy reviews
development and food security strategiesat the sub- and developframeworksfor sustainableagriculture;
regional level that use regional production and trade (b) Establish legal measuresto promote accessof
potentials,including organizationsfor regionaleconomic women to land and remove biasesin their involvement
integration,to promotefood security; in rural development.
(b) Encourage,in the context of achieving sustain-
able agricultural development and consistent with
relevantinternationallyagreedprincipleson tradeand D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
environment, a more open and non-discriminatory
tradingsystemand the avoidanceof unjustifiabletrade 14.15Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
b a r r i e r s w h i c h t o g e t h e rw i t h o t h e r p o l i c i e s w i l l supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
facilitate the further integration of agricultural and izations, should strengthen ministries for agriculture,
environmentalpolicies so as to make them mutually natural resourcesand planning.
supportive;
(c) Strengthenand establishnational,regionaland in-
ternationalsystemsand networks to increasethe under- Bl ENSURTNGPEOPIE',SPART|C|PAnON
standingof the interactionbetween agriculture and the AND PROMOTING HU'YIAN RESOURCE
state of the environment,identify ecologically sound DEVETOPIIENTFOR SUSTAINABTE AGRICUTruRE
technologiesand facilitate the exchangeof information
on data sources,policies, and techniquesand tools of
BASIS
FORACTION
analysis.
14.16This component bridges policy and integrated

I16
resourcemanagement.The greater the degreeof com-
munity control over the resourceson which it relies,the
greaterwill be the incentivefor economicand human
resourcesdevelopment.At the sametime, policy instru-
mentsto reconcilelong-runand short-runrequirements
must be set by nationalGovernments.The approaches
focus on fosteringself-relianceand cooperation,provid-
ing informationandsupportinguser-based organizations.
Emphasisshouldbe on managementpractices,building
agreementsfor changesin resourceutilization, the rights
and dutiesassociated with useof land,waterand fbrests,
the functioning of markets,prices, and the accessto
information, capital and inputs.This would requiretrain-
ing and capacity-buildingto assumegreaterresponsi-
bilities in sustainable
developmentefforts.'
OBJECTIVES
14.17The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To promote greaterpublic awarenessof the role of
people'sparticipationand people'sorganizations,espe-
cially women's groups,youth, indigenouspeople,local
communitiesand small farmers,in sustainableagricul-
ture and rural development;
(b) To ensureequitableaccessof rural people,particu-
larly women, small farmers, landlessand indigenous
people,to land, water and forest resourcesand to tech-
nologies,financing,marketing,processingand distribu-
tion;
(c) To strengthenand developthe managementand the
internal capacitiesof rural people'sorganizationsand
extensionservicesand to decentralizedecision-makine
to the lowestcommunitylevel.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENT-R
ELATED
ACTtVtTtES
14.18Governmentsat the apprclpriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Developandimproveintegratedagriculturalexten-
sion servicesand facilities and rural organizatronsand
undertake natural resource managementand food
securityactivities,takinginto accountthe differentneeds
of subsistenceagriculture as well as market-oriented
crops;
(b) Review and refocusexisting measuresto achieve
wider accessto land, water and forest resourcesand
ensureequal rights of women and other disadvantaged
groups,with particularemphasison rural populations,
indigenouspeopleand local communities;
(c) Assign clear titles, rights and responsibilitiesfor
land and for individuals or conununities to encourage
investmentin land resources,
(d) Developguidelinesfordecentralization policiesfor
rural developmentthrough reorganizationand strength-
ening of rural institutions;
(e) Develop policies in extension,training, pricing,
input distribution,creditandtaxationto ensurenecessary
incentives and equitable accessby the poor to produc-
tion-supportservices;
(0 Providesupportservicesand training,recognizing
the variationin agriculturalcircumstances and practices
by location; the optimal use of on-farm inputs and the
minimal use of external inputs; optimal use of local
natural resourcesand managementof renewableenergy
sources;andtheestablishment of networksthatdealwith
the exchange of information on alternative forms of
agriculture.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMAT/ON
14.19Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,andwith the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldcollect,analyse,and disseminateinfor-
mation on human resources,the role of Governments,
local communities and non-govemmental or ganizations
in socialinnovationandstrategiesfor rural development.
C/ /NIERNATIONAL
AND REG/ONAICOOPERAIION
AND COORD'NAIION
14.20Appropriate internationaland regional agencies
should:
(a) Reinforce their work with non-governmental
organizationsin collecting and disseminatinginforma-
tion on people'sparticipationandpeople'sorganizations,
testingparticipatorydevelopmentmethods,training and
e d u c a t i o n f o r h u m a n r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p m e n ta n d
strengtheningthe managementstructuresof rural organ-
izations;
(b) Help developinformation availablethrough non-
governmental organizations and promote an interna-
tional ecological agricultural network to acceleratethe
developmentand implementationof ecologicalagricul-
ture practices.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
AI FINANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
14.21The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
117
the activities of this prograrnmeto be about $4.4 billion,
including about$650million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costsand financial
terms,including any that are non-concessional,will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand progftlrnmes
Govemmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
8/ SCTENTFtC MEANS
AND TECHNOT.OG|CAL
14.22 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Encouragepeople'sparticipationon farm technol-
ogy developmentand transfer,incorporatingindigenous
ecologicalknowledgeand practices;
( b ) L a u n c h a p p l i e d r e s e a r c ho n p a r t i c i p a t o r y
methodologies, managementstrategiesand local organ-
izations.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
14.23Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of the relevant international and regional
organizations,should provide managementand tech-
nical trainingto governmentadministratorsand mem-
groupsin the principles,practice
bersof resource-user
and benefitsof people'sparticipationin rural develop-
ment.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
14.24 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations, should introducemanagementstrategiesand
mechanisms,such as accountingand audit servicesfor
rural people'sorganizationsand institutionsfor human
resourcedevelopment,and delegateadministrativeand
financial responsibilitiesto local levels for decision-
making, revenue-raising and expenditure.
cl rfripRovrNc FARr/lpRoDUcfloN AND
FARftIINGSYSTEMSTHROUGH DIVERSIFICATION
OF FARM AND NON.FAR'YIEMPTOY'VIENT AND
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
BASISFORACTION
14.25 Agriculture needs to be intensified to meet future
il8
demandsfor commoditiesandto avoid further expansion
on to marginal lands and encroachmenton fragile eco-
systems. Increaseduseof externalinputs and develop-
ment of specializedproductionandfarming systemstend
to increasevulnerability to environmentalstressesand
market fluctuations. There is, therefore,a needto inten-
sify agriculture by diversifying the production systems
for maximum efficiency in the utilization of local re-
sources,while minimizing environmentaland economic
risks. Where intensification of farming systemsis not
possible,otheron-farm andoff-farm employmentoppor-
tunities should be identified and developed, such as
cottageindustries,wildlife utilization, aquacultureand
fisheries,non-farmactivities,suchaslight village-based
manufacturing, farm commodity processing,agri-
business,recreationand tourism,etc.
OBJEC-TVES
14.26The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To improve farm productivity in a sustainableman-
ner,aswell asto increasediversification,efficiency,food
security and rural incomes,while ensuringthat risks to
the ecosystemare minimized;
(b) To enhancethe self-relianceof farmersin develop-
ing and improving rural infrastructure,and to facilitate
the transferof environmentallysound technologiesfor
integratedproduction and farming systems.including
indigenoustechnologiesand the sustainableuse of bio-
logical and ecologicalprocesses, includingagroforestry,
sustainablewildlife conservationand management,
aquaculture,inland fisheriesand animal husbandry;
(c) To create farm and non-farm employment oppor-
tunities,particularlyamongthe poor and thoseliving in
marginal areas,taking into account the alternative
livelihood proposalinter alia in drylandareas.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
ELATED
14.27 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Develop and disseminateto farming households
integrated farm managementtechnologies,such as crop
rotation,organicmanuringand othertechniquesinvolving
reduceduseof agriculnrralchemicals,multiple techniques
for sources of nutrients and the efficient utilization of
extemalinputs,while enhancingtechniquesfor wasteand
by-productutilization and preventionof pre- and post-
harvestlosses,takingparticularnoteof the role of women;
( b) Cr eat e no n -fa rm e m p l o y m e n t o p p o rtuni ti es
throughprivate small-scaleagro-processing units, rural
servicecentres andrelatedi nfrastructurali mprovements;
(c) Promoteand improve rural financial networks that
utilize investmentcapitalresourcesraisedlocally;
(d) Providethe essentialrural infrastructurefor access
to agriculturalinputsand services,as well as to national
and local markets,and reducefood losses;
(e) Initiate and maintain farm surveys.on-farm testing
of appropriatetechnologiesand dialoguewith rural com-
munitiesto identify constraintsand bottlenecksand find
solutions;
(0 Analyseandidentifypossibilitiesforeconomicinte-
grationof agriculturaland forestryactivities,as well as
water and fisheries. and to take effective measuresto
encourageforest managementand growing of trees by
farmers(farm forestry)asanoption forresourcedevelop-
ment.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAnON
14.28Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Analyse the effects of technical innovationsand
incentiveson farm-householdincomeand well-being;
( b) I nit iat e an d ma i n ta i n o n -fa rm a n d o ff-farm
programmes to collectandrecordindigenousknowledge.
c/ /NTFRNATIONAL
AND REG'ONAI.
COOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
14.29Intemationalinstitutions,suchas FAO and IFAD,
international agricultural researchcentres,such as
CGIAR, andregionalcentresshoulddiagnosetheworld's
major agro-ecosystems, their extension,ecologicaland
socio-economiccharacteristics,their susceptibilityto
deteriorationand their productivepotential. This could
form the basisfor technologydevelopmentandexchange
and for regionalresearchcollaboration.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
14.30The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2W0)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$10 billion,
including about$1.5 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,
will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand
programmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implemen-
tation.
8/ SCTENilFtC
AND TECHNOIOG\CAL
MEANS
14.31Governments at the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should strengthenresearchon agriculturalpro-
duction systemsin areaswith different endowmentsand
agro-ecological zones,includingcomparativeanalysisof
the intensification,diversificationand different levels of
extemal and internal inputs.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
14.32 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Promote educational and vocational training for
farmers and rural communitiesthrough formal and non-
formal education;
(b) Launch awarenessand training programmes for
entrepreneurs,managers,bankers and traders in rural
servicingand small-scaleagro-processing techniques.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
14.33Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Improve their organizationalcapacityto deal with
issuesrelated to off-farm activities and rural industry
development;
(b) Expandcredit facilities and rural infrastructurere-
lated to processing,transportationand marketing.
ptANNtNc, |NFORftIAT|ON
Dl IAND-RESOURCE
AND EDUCATIONFORAGRICUTTURE
BASIS
FORACTION
14.34Inappropriate and uncontrolled land uses are a
major causeof degradationand depletion of land re-
sources.Presentland use often disregardsthe actual
potentials,carrying capacitiesand limitations of land
resources,as well as their diversity in space.It is esti-
il9
matedthat the world's population,now at5.4 billion, will
be 6.25 billion by the tum of the century. The need to
increasefood productionto meet the expandingneedsof
the populationwill put enormouspressureon all natural
resources,including land.
14.35Poverty and malnutrition are already endemic in
many regions. The destruction and degradation of
agriculturalandenvironmentalresources i s a major i ssue.
Techniquesfor increasingproductionandconservingsoil
and water resourcesare already available but are not
widely or systematicallyapplied.A systematicapproach
is neededfor identifying land usesand production sys-
tems that are sustainablein each land and climate zone,
including the economic,social and institutional mecha-
nisms necessaryfor their implementation.3
OBJECTIVES
14.36The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To harmonizeplanningprocedures,involve farmers
in theplanningprocess,collectland-resource data,design
and establishdatabases,define land areas of similar
capability,identify resourceproblemsand values that
needto be takeninto accountto establishmechanismsto
encourageefficient and environtnentally sound use of
resources:
(b) To establishagriculturalplanningbodiesat national
and local levels to decide priorities,channelresources
and irnplementprogrammes.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIE5
ELATED
14.37 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Establishand strengthenagricultural land-useand
land-resource planning,management, educationand in-
formation at national and local levels;
(b) Initiateandmaintaindistrictandvillageagricultural
land-resourceplanning, managementand conservation
groupsto assistin problem identification,development
of technicaland managementsolutions,and project im-
plementation.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
14.38Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Collect,continuouslymonitor,updateanddissemi-
120
nate information, wheneverpossible,on the utilization
of naturalresourcesand living conditions,climate,water
and soil factors,and on land use,distribution of vegeta-
tion cover and animal species,utilization of wild plants,
production systems and yields, costs and prices, and
social and cultural considerationsthat affect agricultural
and adjacentland use;
(b) Establish programmes to provide information,
promote discussion and encourage the formation of
managementgroups.
C/ INIERNAI'ONAI.AND REGION,AI.
COOPERAI'ON AND COORD/NAIION
14.39The appropriate United Nations agenciesand
regional organizationsshould:
(a) Strengthenor establishinternational,regional and
subregionaltechnicalworking groupswith specificterms
of referenceand budgetsto promotethe integrateduseof
land resourcesfor agriculture,planning, data collection
and diffusion of simulation models of production and
information di ssemination:
(b) Develop internationallyacceptablemethodologies
for the establishmentof databases,description of land
usesand multiple goal optimization.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
14.40The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$ 1.7billion,
including about$250 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ative andorder-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,including any that are non-concessional,will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
MEANS
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
BJ SC/ENI/F'C
14.41Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Develop databasesand geographicalinformation
systemsto store and display physical,social and eco-
nomic information pertaining to agriculture, and the
definition of ecological zonesand developmentareas;
(b) Selectcombinationsof land usesand production
systemsappropriateto land units throughmultiple goal
optimization procedures,and strengthendelivery sys-
tems and local communityparticipation;
(c) Encourageintegratedplanningat the watershedand
landscapelevelto reducesoil lossandprotectsurfaceand
groundwaterresourcesfrom chemicalpollution.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
14.42Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Trainprofessionals andplanninggroupsat national,
district and village levels throughformal and informal
instructionalcourses,travel and interaction;
(b) Generatediscussionat all levelson policy,develop-
ment and environmentalissuesrelated to agricultural
land use and management,through media programmes,
conferencesand seminars.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
14.43Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Establishland-resource mappingandplanningunits
at national,districtandvillagelevelsto actasfocal points
and links betweeninstitutionsand disciplines,and be-
tween Govemmentsand people;
(b) Establishor strengthenGovemmentsand interna-
tional institutions with responsibilityfor agricultural
resourcesurvey,managementand development;ration-
alize and strengthenlegal frameworks; and provide
equipmentand technicalassistance.
E) rAND CONSERVATTON
AND REHABIL|TAT|ON
BASIS
FORACTION
14.44Land degradationis the most important environ-
mentalproblemaffectingextensiveareasof land in both
developedanddevelopingcountries.The problemof soil
erosion is particularly acute in developing countries,
while problemsof salinization,waterlogging,soil pollu-
tion andlossof soil fertility areincreasingin all countries.
Land degradationis seriousbecausethe productivityof
hugeareasof land is decliningjust when populationsare
increasingrapidlyandthedemandon the landis growing
to produce more food, fibre and fuel. Efforts to control
land degradation,particularlyin developingcountries,
havehadlimited success to date.Well planned,long-term
national and regional land conservationand rehabilita-
tion programmes,with strongpolitical supportand ade-
quatefunding,arenow needed.While land-useplanning
andlandzoning,combinedwith betterlandmanagement,
shouldprovide long-termsolutions,it is urgentto arrest
land degradationand launch conservationand rehabili-
tation programmesin the most critically affected and
vulnerableareas.
OBJECTIVES
14.45The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) By the year 2000,to review and initiate,as appro-
priate,nationalland-resource surveys,detailingtheloca-
tion, extentand severityof land degradation;
(b) To prepareand implementcomprehensive policies
and prograrrunesleading to the reclamationof degraded
lands and the conservationof areasat risk, as well as
improve the generalplanning,managelnentand utiliza-
tion of land resourcesand preserve soil fertility for
sustainableagriculturaldevelopment.
ACTIVITIES
A) MA,NAGEMENI-R
ELATED
ACTtVtTt
ES
14.46 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Developandimplementprogrammestoremoveand
resolvethe physical,socialand economiccausesof land
degradation, such as land tenure, appropriate trading
systemsand agriculturalpricing structures,which lead
to inappropriateland-usemanagement;
(b) Provide incentivesand, where appropriateand
possible, resourcesfor the participationof local com-
munities in the planning,implementationand maintenance
of their own conservationand reclamationprogrammes;
(c) Develop and implement programmesfor the reha-
bilitationof landdegradedbywater-loggingand salinity;
(d) Develop and implement programmes for the
progressiveuseof non-cultivatedland with agricultural
potentialin a sustainableway.
B) DATAAND /NFORMATTON
14.47 Governments,at the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Conductperiodic surveysto assessthe extentand
stateof its land resources:
121
(b) Strengthenand establish national land-resource
databanks,including identificationof the location,extent
and severityof existingland degradation,aswell asareas
at risk, and evaluatethe progressof the conservationand
rehabilitationprogralruneslaunchedin this regard;
(c) Collect and record information on indigenouscon-
servation and rehabilitation practicesand farming sys-
tems as a basisfor researchand extensionprogrammes.
AND REG/ONAI.
C,| INIERN,AIIONAI.
COOPERAI'ON AND COORD'NAIION
14.48The appropriateUnited Nationsagencies,regional
organizations and non-governmental organizations
should:
(a) Develop priority conservation and rehabilitation
programmeswith advisory servicesto Governmentsand
regionalorganizations
; to theexistingsocio-economic
(b) Establish regional and subregional networks for
scientistsand techniciansto exchangeexperiences,
developjoint programmesandspreadsuccessfultechnol-
ogieson land conservationand rehabilitation.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
14.49The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about $5 billion,
including about$800million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand
programmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementa-
tion.
8/ SC/ENI,FtC MEANS
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
14.50Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldhelp farming householdcommunitiesto
investigateand promote site-specifictechnologiesand
farming systems that conserve and rehabilitate land,
while increasingagriculturalproduction,includingcon-
servationtillage agroforestry,terracingand mixed crop-
ping.
122
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
14.51Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations, should train field staff and land users in in-
digenousand moderntechniquesof conservationand
rehabi l i tati onand shoul destabl i shtrai ni ngf acilit ies
for extensionstaff and land users.
D] CAPACITY.BUILDING
14.52 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Develop and strengthennational researchinstitu-
tional capacity to identify and implement effective con-
servationandrehabilitationpracticesthat areappropriate
physicalconditionsof the
land users;
(b) Coordinateall land conservationandrehabilitation
policies,strategiesandprogralnmeswith relatedongoing
prograrnmes, suchas nationalenvironmentactionplans,
the Tropical ForestryAction Plan and national develop-
ment prograrnmes.
F) WATERFOR SUSTAINABLEFOOD PRODUCTION
AND SUSTAINABTERURATDEVELOP}IENT
14.53This programmearea is included in chapter 18
(Protectionof thequality andsupplyof freshwaterresour-
ces).prograffuneareaF.
c) coNsERvATloN AND SUSTAINABII t TltlZATloN
FORFOOD AND
OF PIANT C#NETrcRESOI.|RCES
SUSTANABTEAGR,rcUtruRE
BASIS FORACTION
14.54Plant geneticresourcesfor agriculture(PGRFA)
are an essentialresourceto meet future needsfor food.
Threats to the security of theseresourcesare growing,
andefforts to conserve,developand usegeneticdiversity
are underfundedand understaffed.Many existing gene
banksprovideinadequatesecurityand,in someinstances,
the lossof plantgeneticdiversityin genebanksis asgreat
as it is in the field.
14.55The primary objectiveis to safeguardthe world's
geneticresourceswhile preservingthem to use sustain-
ably. This includes the developmentof measuresto
facilitate the conservationand use of plant genetic re-
sources,networksof in situ conservationareasand use
of tools suchas ex situ collecticlnsand germ plasma
banks. Specialemphasiscould be placedon the building
of endogenous capacityfor characterization, evaluation
and utilization of PGRFA, particularly for the minor
crops and other underutilizedor non-utilizedspecies
of food and agriculture,including tree speciesfor
agro-forestry. Subsequentaction could be aimed at
consolidationand efficient managementof networks
of in situ conservationareasand use of tools such as
ex situ collectionsand germ plasmabanks.
14.56Major gaps and weaknesses exist in the capacity
of existing national and internationalmechanismsto
assess, study,monitor and useplant geneticresourcesto
increasefood production.Existinginstitutionalcapacity,
structuresand programmesare generallyinadequateand
largely underfunded.There is geneticerosionof inval-
uablecrop species.Existingdiversity in crop speciesis
not usedto theextentpossiblefor increasedfood produc-
tion in a sustainablewav"*
OBJECTIVES
14.57The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To completethe first regeneration and safeduplica-
tion of existingex situ collectionson a world-widebasis
as soonas possible;
(b) To collect and study plants useful for increasing
food productionthroughjoint activities,includingtrain-
ing, within the frameworkof networksof collaboratins
institutions;
(c) Not later than the year 2000, to adoptpoliciesand
strengthenor establishprogrammesfor in situ on-farm
and e.r silr.rconservationand sustainableuse of plant
geneticresources for food andagriculture,integratedinto
strategiesand programrnesfor sustainableagriculture;
(d) To take appropriatemeasuresfor the fair and equi-
table sharing of benefits and results of researchand
developmentin plant breedingbetweenthe sourcesand
usersof plant geneticresources.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R
14.58Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations.should:
(a) Develop and strengtheninstitutional capacity,
structuresand progranunesfor conservationand use of
PGRFA:
(b) Strengthenand establishresearchin the public
domain on PGRFA evaluationand utilization.with the
objectivesof sustainableagricultureand rural develop-
ment in view;
(c) Develop multiplication/propagation,exchange
and disseminationfacilities for PGRFAs (seedsand
p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l s ) ,p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e v e l o p i n g
countriesandmonitor,controlandevaluateplantintro-
ducti ons;
(d) Prepareplans or programmesof priority action on
conservationand sustainableuse of PGRFA, based,as
appropriate,on country studiesof PGRFA;
(e) Promotecropdiversificationin agriculturalsystems
where appropriate,including new plantswith potential
value as food crops;
(f) Promoteutilization as well as researchon poorly
known, but potentiallyuseful, plants and crops, where
appropriate;
(g) Strengthennational capabilitiesfor utilization of
PGRFA, plant breedingand seedproductioncapabilities,
both by specializedinstitutionsand farmingcommunities.
B) DATAAND /NFORMATION
14.59Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Develop strategiesfor networksof in situ conser-
vation areasand use of tools such as on-f'armex situ
collections,germplasmbanksand relatedtechnologies;
(b) Establishex situ basecollectionnetworks;
(c) Review periodicallyand reporton the situationon
PGRFA, usingexistingsystemsand procedures;
(d) Characterrzeand evaluate PGRFA material col-
lected,disseminateinformation to tacilitate the use of
PGRFA collectionsand assesseeneticvariationin col-
lections.
c/ /NTFRNAT/ONAI.
AND REGIONAI
COOPERAI/ONAND COCRDINAI/ON
14.60The appropriateUnited Nations agenciesand
regionalorganizationsshould:
(a) Strengthenthe Global Systemon the Conserva-
tion and SustainableUse of PGRFA by, inter alia,
acceleratingthe developmentof the Global Informa-
tion and Early WarningSystemto facilitatetheexchange
of information;developingways to promotethe transfer
of environmentallysoundtechnologies,in particularto
developingcountries;and taking further stepsto realize
farmers' ri ghts:
(b) Developsubregional, regionalandglobalnetworks
of PGRFAin situ in protectedareas:
123
(c) Prepare periodic state of the world reports on
PGRFA;
(d) Preparea rolling global cooperativeplan of action
on PGRFA:
(e) Promote,for l994,the Fourth InternationalTechni-
cal Conferenceon the Conservationand SustainableUse
of PGRFA, which is to adopt the first stateof the world
report and the first global plan of action on the conserva-
tion and sustainableuse of PGRFA;
(0 Adjust the Global Systemfor the Conservationand
SustainableUse of PGRFA in line with the outcome of
the negotiationsof a conventionon biological diversity'
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
14.61The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$600 million,
including about$300million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ativeand order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Govemments.Actual costsand financial
terms,including any that are non-concessional, will depend
upofl, inter ali.a, ttre specific sfategies and programmes
Govemmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
MEANS
ANDTECHNOI.OGICAL
8' SC'ENTIFIC
14.62 Governments,at the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Develop basic science researchin such areas as
plant taxonomy and phytogeography,utilizing recent
developments,such as computer sciences,molecular
geneticsand in vitro cryopreservation;
(b) Develop major collaborativeprojects betweenre-
s ear c h pro g ra m m e si n d e v e l o p e d a n d devel opi ng
countries, particularly for the enhancementof poorly
known or neglectedcrops;
(c) Promote cost-effective technologies for keeping
duplicatesetsof ex situ collections(which can also be
usedby local communities);
(d) Developfurtherconservation sciencesin relationto
in situ conservationand technicalmeansto link it with
ex situ conservationefforts.
DEVELOPMENT
C) HUMANRESOURCE
14.63Governmentsat the appropriatelevel and with the
124
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izationsshould:
(a) Promote training programmesat both undergrad-
uateandpost-graduate for
levelsin conservationsciences
running PGRFA facilities and for the design and im-
plementationof national programmesin PGRFA;
(b) Raisethe awarenessof agriculturalextensionser-
vices in order to link PGRFA activitieswith user com-
munities;
(c) Developtraining materialsto promoteconservation
and utilizationof PGRFAat the local level.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
14.64Governmentsat the appropriatelevel,with the sup-
port of therelevantinternationalandregional organizations,
shouldestablishnationalpoliciesto providelegalstatusfor
andstrengthen legalaspects of PGRFA,includinglong-term
financialcommitmentsfbr germplasmcollectionsand im-
plementationof activitiesin PGRFA.
H) CONSERVATIONAND zuSTAINABU UnUZATION
FOR
OF ANIMAT GENETICRESOURCES
SUSTAINABLEAGRICUTTURE
FORACTION
BASIS
14.65The need for increasedquantity and quality of
animalproductsandfor draughtanimalscallsfor conser-
vation of the existingdiversityof animalbreedsto meet
future requirements,including thosefor use in biotech-
nology. Some local animal breeds,in additionto their
socio-culturalvalue, have unique attributesfor adapta-
tion, diseaseresistanceand specificusesand shouldbe
preserved.Theselocal breedsare threatenedby extinc-
tion as a result of the introductionof exotic breedsand
of changesin livestockproductionsystems.
OBJECTIVES
14.66The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To enumerateand describeall breedsof livestock
usedin animalagriculturein as broada way as possible
and begin a 1O-yearprogrammeof action;
(b) To establishand implementaction programmesto
identify breedsat risk, togetherwith the natureof the risk
and appropriatepreservationmeasures ;
(c) To establish and implement development pro-
grammesfor indigenousbreedsin orderto guaranteetheir
survival, avoiding the risk of their being replacedby
breedsubstitutionor cross-breeding prograrnmes.
ACTMTES
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
ELATED
14.67 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regional organ-
izations, should:
(a) Draw up breed preservationplans, for endangered
populations, including semen/embryo collection and
storage,farm-basedconservationof indigenousstock or
in situ preservation;
(b) Plan and initiate breeddevelopmentstrategies;
(c) Select indigenous populations on the basis of
regional importanceand geneticuniqueness,for a 1O-year
programme,followed by selectionof an additionalcohort
of indigenousbreedsfor development.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMATTON
14.68Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations, should prepare and complete national inven-
tories of availableanimal geneticresources.Cryogenic
storagecould be given priority over characterizationand
evaluation. Training of nationals in conservationand
assessment techniqueswould be given specialattention.
AND REG/ONAI.
C) 'NIERN,AI/ON,AI.
COOPERAI'ONAND COORD'NAIION
14.69The appropriateUnited Nations and other interna-
tional and regional agenciesshould:
(a) Promotethe establishmentof regional gene banks
to the extent that they are justified, basedon principles
of technicalcooperationamong developingcountries;
(b) Process,store and analyseanimal genetic data at
the global level, including the establishmentof a world
watch list and an early warning systemfor endangered
breeds;global assessment of scientific and intergovern-
mental guidance of the programme and review of
r egional and n a ti o n a l a c ti v i ti e s ; d e v e l o p ment of
methodologies,norms and standards(including interna-
tional agreements);monitoring of their implementation;
and relatedtechnicaland financial assistance;
(c) Prepareand publish a comprehensivedatabaseof
animal genetic resources,describing each breed, its
derivation, its relationship with other breeds,effective
population size and a concise set of biological and
production characteristics ; izations,should:
(d) Prepareand publish a world watch list on farm
animal speciesat risk to enablenationalGovernmentsto
take action to preserveendangeredbreedsand to seek
technical assistance,where necessary.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
14.70The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this prograrnmeto be about$200million,
including about $100 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessionalterms. Theseareindicative
and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financial
terms,includingany thatarenon-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific sftategiesand programmes
Govemmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B/ SC/ENilFrC
AND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MEANS
14J1 Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Use computer-baseddatabanksand questionnaires
to preparea global inventory/world watch list;
(b) Using cryogenic storageof germplasm,preserve
breedsat seriousrisk andothermaterialfrom which senes
can be reconstructed.
DEVELOPMENI
C) HUMANRFSOURCE
14.72 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Sponsortraining coursesfor nationalsto obtain the
necessaryexpertisefor data collection and handling and
for the sampling of geneticmaterial;
(b) Enable scientistsand managersto establishan in-
formation base for indigenous livestock breeds and
promote programmesto develop and conserveessential
livestockgeneticmaterial.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
14,73Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
(a) Establishin-country facilities for artificial insemi-
nation centresand in situbreedingfarms;
125
(b) Promotein-country programmesand relatedphyst-
cal infrastructurefor animal livestock conservationand
breeddevelopment,aswell as for strengthening national
capacities to take preventive action when breeds are
endangered.
PESTftTANAGEfrlENT
rl TNTEGRATED
AND CONTROLIN AGRICUTTURE
FORACTION
BASIS
14.14World food demand projections indicate an in-
creaseof 50 per cent by the year 2000 which will more
thandoubleagainby 2050.Conservativeestimatesput
pre-harvestand post-harvestlossescausedby pests
between 25 and 50 per cent. Pests affecting animal
health also cause heavy losses and in many areas
preventlivestockdevelopment. Chemical control of
agricultural pests has dominated the scene,but its
overusehas adverseeffects on farm budgets,human
healthand the environment,as well as on international
trade. New pest problemscontinueto develop. Inte-
gratedpest management,which combinesbiological
control, host plant resistanceand appropriatefarming
practicesand minimizes the use of pesticides,is the
best option for the future, as it guaranteesyields,
reducescosts, is environmentallyfriendly and con-
tributesto the sustainabilityof agriculture.Integrated
pest managementshouldgo hand in hand with appro-
priate pesticide managementto allow for pesticide
regulationand control,includingtrade,andfor the safe
handlingand disposalof pesticides,particularlythose
t hat ar e t oxi c a n d p e rs i s te n t.
OBJECTIVES
14.75The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) Not later than the year 2000, to improve and
implementplantprotectionandanimalhealthservices,
including mechanismsto control the distributionand
use of pesticides,and to implementthe International
Code of C o n d u c t o n th e D i s tri b u ti o n and U se of
P es t ic ide s :
(b) To improve and implement programmes to put
integratedpest-management practiceswithin the reach
of farmers through farmer networks,extensionservices
and researchinstitutions;
(c) Not laterthantheyear 1998,to establishoperational
and interactivenetworksamongfarmers,researchersand
extensionservicesto promoteanddevelopintegratedpest
management.
126
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGFMENI-R
14.76Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Review and reform national policies and the
mechanismsthat would ensurethe safe and appropriate
use of pesticides- for example,pesticidepricing, pest
controlbrigades,price-structureof inputsandoutputsand
integratedpest-management policies and action plans;
(b) Develop and adopt efficient managementsystems
to control and monitor the incidenceof pestsand disease
in agriculture and the distribution and use of pesticides
at the country level;
(q) Encourage research and development into pest-
icides that are target-specificand readily degradeinto
harmlessconstituentparts after use;
(d) Ensure that pesticide labels provide farmers with
understandableinformation about safe handling, appli-
cation and disposal.
B) DATAAND TNFORMAT/ON
14J7 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Consolidateand harmonize existing information
and programmeson the useof pesticidesthat havebeen
bannedor severelyrestrictedin differentcountries;
(b) Consolidate,documentand disseminateinforma-
tion on biologicalcontrol agentsand organicpesticides,
as well as on traditionaland other relevantknowledge
and skills regardingalternativenon-chemicalways of
controllingpests;
(c) Undertakenational surveys to establishbaseline
information on the useof pesticidesin eachcountry and
the side-effectson human health and environment,and
also undertakeappropriateeducation.
AND REG/ONAL
c/ ,NTERNAilONAT.
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON
14.78AppropriateUnitedNationsagenciesandregional
organizationsshould:
(a) Establisha system for collecting, analysingand
disseminatingdata on the quantity and quality of pest-
icides usedevery year and their impact on humairhealth
and the environment;
(b) Strengthenregional interdisciplinary projects and
establishintegratedpestmanagement(IPM) networksto
demonstratethe social, economic and environmental
benefitsof IPM for food and cashcrops in agriculture;
(c) Develop proper IPM, comprisingthe selectionof
the variety of biological,physicaland culturalcontrols,
as well as chemicalcontrols,taking into accountspecific
regionalconditions.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
14.79The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$ 1.9billion,
includingabout$285million from theinternationalqom-
munity on grantor concessionalterms.Theseare indica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ SC'ENilFrCAND TECHNOTOG\CAL
MEANS
14.80Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regionalorgan-
izations,shouldlaunch on-farm researchin the develop-
ment of non-chemicalalternativepestmanagementtech-
nologies.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
14.81Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regional organ-
izations.should:
(a) Prepare and conduct training programmes on ap-
proachesand techniquesfor integratedpest management
and control of pesticideuse, to inform policy makers,
researchers,non-govemmentalorganizations and farmers;
(b) Train extensionagentsand involve farmers and
women's groups in crop health and altemative non-
chemicalways of controllingpestsin agriculture.
D) CAPACITY.BUILDING
14.82Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should strengthennationalpublic administra-
tions and regulatorybodiesin the control of pesticides
and the transferof technologyfor integratedpestman-
agement.
PrANT NUTRTTTON
J) SUSTATNABTE TO
INCREASEFOOD PRODUCTION
BASIS
FORACTION
14.83P l ant nutri ent depl eti oni s a seri ousproblem
resulting in loss of soil fertility, particularlyin
devel opi ngcountri es.To mai ntai nsoi l productivit y,
t h e F A O s u s t a i n a b l ep l a n t n u t r i t i o n p r o g r a m m e s
coul d be hel pful . In sub-S aharanA fri ca, nutrient
output from al l sourcescurrentl yexceedsi nputs by
a factor of three or four, the net loss being estimated
a t s o m e l 0 m i l l i o n m e t r i ct o n sp e r y e a r .A s a r e s u l t ,
more margi nall andsand fragi l e naturalecosyst em s
are put under agri cul turaluse, thus creati ngfurt her
l and degradati onand otherenvi ronmentalprobl em s.
The i ntegratedpl ant nutri ti on approachai ms at en-
suri ng a sustai nabl esuppl y of pl ant nutri ents t o
i ncreasefuture yi el ds w i thout harmi ng the envir on-
ment and soi l producti vi ty.
14.84In many developingcountries,populationgrowth
ratesexceed3 per cent a year,and nationalagricultural
production has fallen behind food demand. ln these
countries the goal should be to increaseagricultural
productionby at least4 percenta year,withoutdestroying
the soil fertility. This will requireincreasingagricultural
productionin high-potentialareasthroughefficiencyin
the useof inputs. Trainedlabour,energysupply,adapted
tools and technologies,plant nutrientsand soil enrich-
ment will all be essential.
OBJECTIVES
14.85The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) Not later than the year 2000,to developand main-
tain in all countriesthe integratedplant nutrition ap-
proach,andto optimizeavailabilityof fertilizerandother
plant nutrientsources;
(b) N ot l ater than the year 2000, to establ i shand
mai ntai n i nsti tuti onaland human i nfrastructur et o
enhanceeffecti ve deci si on-maki ngon soi l prod uc-
tivity;
(c) To developandmakeavailablenationalandintema-
tional know-how to farmers,extensionagents,planners
and policy makerscln envirclnmentallysound new and
existing technologiesand soil-fertility management
strategi esfor appl i cati oni n promoti ng sustai nable
agriculture.
127
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENT-R
ELATED
ACTIVIT
IES
14.86Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Formulate and apply strategiesthat will enhance
soil fertility maintenanceto meetsustainableagricultural
production and adjust the relevant agricultural policy
instrumentsaccordingly;
(b) Integrate organic and inorganic sourcesof plant
nutrientsin a systemto sustainsoil fertility anddetermine
mineral fertilizer needs;
(c) Determine plant nutrient requirementsand supply
strategiesand optimize the use of both organic and
inorganic sources,as appropriate,to increasefarming
effi ciency and production;
(d) Develop andencourageprocessesfor the recyclingof
organicand inorganicwasteinto the soil structure,without
harming the environment,plant growth and humanhealth.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
14.87Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Assess"national accounts"for plant nutrients,in-
cludingsupplies(inputs)andlosses(outputs)andprepare
balancesheetsand projectionsby cropping systems;
(b) Review technicaland economicpotentialsof plant
nutrient sources,including nationaldeposits,improved or-
ganic supplies,recycling, wastes,topsoil produced from
discardedorganicmatterand biological nitrogen fixation.
C/ /NTERNAI'ONAT
AND REGIONAI.
COOPERAI/ON,AND COORD/NAI/ON
14.88The appropriateUnited Nations agencies,such as
FAO, the internationalagriculturalresearchinstitutes,and
non-governmentalorganizationsshouldcollaboratein car-
rying out information and publicity campaignsabout the
integrated plant nutrients approach,efficiency of soil
productivity and their relationshipto the environment.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A) F'NANCING AND COSI EVALUATTON
14.89The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
128
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$3.2 billion,
including about$475 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ativeandorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
been reviewedby Gclvernments. Actual costsand fi-
nancialterms,includingany thatarenon-concessional,
will dependupon,inter alia,the specificstrategies and
programmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implemen-
tation.
B/ SC/EN|FICAND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MEANS
14.90Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations.should:
(a) Develop site-specifictechnologiesat benchmark
sites and farmers' fields that fit prevailing socio-econ-
omic and ecological conditions through researchthat
involvesthe full collaborationof local populations;
(b) Reinforce interdisciplinary international research
and transferof technologyin cropping and farming sys-
temsresearch,improvedin sirabiomassproductiontech-
niques, organic residue managementand agroforestry
technologies.
c) HUTAAN
RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
14.91Governments at the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regionalorgan-
izations,should:
(a) Train extensionofficers and researchersin plant
nutrientmanagement, croppingsystemsandfarmingsys-
tems, and in economicevaluationof plant nutrientim-
pact;
(b) Trainfarmersandwomen'sgroupsin plantnutrition
management, with specialemphasison topsoilconserva-
tion and production.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
14.92 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Develop suitable institutional mechanismsfor
policy formulationto monitor andguidethe implementa-
tion of integratedplant nutritionprogrammesthroughan
interactiveprocessinvolving farmers,research,.exten-
sion servicesand other sectorsof society;
(b) Where appropriate, strengthenexisting advisory
servicesandtrainstaff,developandtestnewtechnologies
and facilitatethe adoptionof practicesto upgradeand (b) Initiate and promoterural energyprogrammessup-
maintainfull productivityof theland. ported by technical training, banking and relatedinfra-
structure;
(c) Intensify researchand the development,diversifica-
K) RURArENERGY TO
TRANSTTTON tion andconservationof energy,takinginto accounttheneed
ENHANCEPRODUCTIVITY for efficient useand environmentallysoundtechnology.

FORACTION
BASIS
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
14.93 Energy suppliesin many countries are not com-
mensuratewith their developmentneedsand are highly
14.96Governments at the appropriate level, with the
priced and unstable. In rural areasof the developing
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
countries,the chief sourcesof energyarefuelwood, crop
izations,should:
residuesand manure, together with animal and human
(a) Collect and disseminatedataon rural energysupply
energy. More intensive energy inputs are required for
and demand patterns related to energy needs for
increasedproductivity of human labour and for income-
households,agricultureand agro-industry;
generation. To thisend,ruralenergypoliciesandtechnol-
(b) Analyse sectoral energy and production data in
ogies shouldpromotea mix of cost-effectivefossil and
order to identify rural energyrequirements.
renewableenergy sourcesthat is itself sustainableand
ensures sustainableagricultural development.Rural
areasprovide energy suppliesin the form of wood. The
full potential of agricultureand agroforestry,as well as AND REG'ONAL
c/ /NTERNAT/ONAI
common property resources,as sourcesof renewable COOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
energy, is far from being realized. The attainment of
sustainablerural developmentis intimately linked with 14.97The appropriate United Nations agenciesand
energy demandand supply patterns.) regionalorganizations should,drawingon theexperience
and available information of non-governmentalorgan-
izations in this field. exchangecountry and regional
OBJECTIVES experienceon rural energy planning methodologiesin
14.94The objectivesof this programmeareaare: order to promoteefficient planningand selectcost-effec-
(a) Not later than the year 2000,to initiate andencourage tive technologies.
a processof environmentallysoundenergytransitionin rural
communities,from unsustainable energysources,to struc-
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
tured and diversified energy sources by making available
alternativenew and renewable sources of energy; A/ F/NANCINGAND COSTEVALUATION
(b) To increasethe energy inputs available for rural
householdand agro-industrialneedsthrough planning 14.98The Conference secretariathas estimated the
and appropriatetechnologytransferand development; averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
(c) To implementself-reliantruralprogrammesfavouring the activitiesof this programmeto be about$ 1.8billion,
sustainable developmentof renewableenergysourcesand includingabout$265million from theinternationalcom-
improved energyefficiency. munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
ACTIVITIES
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R depend upon, inter alict,the specificsfrategiesand pro-
grafflmesGovemmentsdecideupon for implementation.
14.95Governmentsat the appropriatelevel. with the
supportof the relevantintemationaland regionalorgan-
izations.should: MEANs
AND TECHNOLOGTCAL
8/ SC/ENr/F'C
(a) Promotepilot plansandprojectsconsistingof elec-
trical,mechanicalandthermalpower(gasifiers,biomass, 14.99Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
solar driers.wind-pumpsand combustionsystems)that supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
are appropriateand likely to be adequatelymaintained; izations,should:

129
(a) Intensify public and private sector researchin
developingand industrializedcountrieson renewable
sourcesof energyfor agriculture;
(b) Undertakeresearchand transferof energytechnol-
ogiesin biomassand solarenergyto agriculturalproduc-
tion and post-harvestactivities.
DEVELOPMENT
c) HUMANRESOURCE
14.100Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldenhancepublic awarenessof rural energy
problems,stressingthe economicand environmentalad-
vantagesof renewableenergy sources.
D) CAPACITY-BUtLD\NG
l4.l0l Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
supportof the relevantinternationaland regional organ-
izations,should:
(a) Establish national institutional mechanismsfor
rural energy planning and managementthat would im-
prove efficiency in agricultural productivity and reach
the village and householdlevel;
(b) Strengthenextension services and local organ-
izationsto implementplansandprogrammes fornew and
renewablesourcesof energy at the village level.
tl EvAruATloN oF rHE EFFECTSOF UITRAVIOLET
RADIATIONON PtANNi AND ANIMATS CAUSED
BY THE DEPTETIONOF ITIE STRATOSPHERIC
OZONE IAYER
BASIS FORACTION
14.102The increaseof ultraviolet radiation as a conse-
quenceof the depletionof the stratosphericozone layer
is a phenomenonthat has been recorded in different
regions of the world, particularly in the southernhemi-
sphere.Consequently,it is important to evaluateits ef-
fects on plant and animal life, as well as on sustainable
agriculturaldevelopment.
OBJECTIVE
14.103The objectiveof this programmeareais to under-
take research to determine the effects of increased
ultraviolet radiation resulting from stratosphericozone
layer depletion on the Earth's surface,and on plant and
r30
animal life in affectedregions,as well as its impact on
agriculture, and to develop, as appropriate, strategies
aimed at mitigating its adverseeffects.
ACTIVITIES
ATED ACTIVITIES
MANAGEMENI-RET
14.104In affectedregions,Govemmentsat the appropri-
ate level, with the support of the relevant international
and regional organizations,should take the necessary
measures,through institutionalcooperation,to facilitate
the implementationof researchand evaluationregarding
the effectsof enhancedultraviolet radiationon plant and
animal life, as well as on agricultural activities, and
considertaking appropriateremedialmeasures.
'Some
1
of the issuesin this progrommeoreo ore presented
in
chopter3 (Combotingpoverty).
2sor"
of theissuesin thisprogromme oreoore discussedin chopter8
(lntegrotingenvironmeni ond development ond in
in decision-moking)
chopter32 (Notionolmechonisms cooperotionfor
ond internoiionol
copocity$uilding in developing countries).
3sor"
of the issuesore presentedin chopter lO (lntegroted
opproochto lhe plonningond monogementof londresources).
4The
octivitiesof thisprogrommeoreo ore relotedto someof the
octivitiesin chopter15 (Conservotion
of biologicoldiversity).
5The
octivitiesof thisprogrommeoreo ore reloiedto someof the
ociivitiesin chopter9 (Protection
of the otmosphere).
 t5 of biologicoldiversity
Conservotion
INTRODUCTION
15.1 The objectivesand activities in this chapter of
Agenda 2l are intendedto improve the conservationof
biologicaldiversityand the sustainable useof biological
resources,as well as to supportthe Conventionon Bio-
logical Diversity.
15.2 Our planet'sessentialgoodsand servicesdepend
on the variety and variability of genes,species,popula-
tions and ecosystems.Biological resourcesfeed and
clothe us and provide housing,medicinesand spiritual
nourishment.The naturalecosystemsof forests,savan-
nahs,pasturesand rangelands,deserts,tundras,rivers,
lakes and seascontain most of the Earth's biodiversity.
Farmers'fields and gardensare also of greatimportance
asrepositories,while genebanks,botanicalgardens,zoos
and other germplasmrepositoriesmake a small but sig-
nificant contribution. The currentdeclinein biodiversity
is largely the result of human activity and representsa
seriousthreatto human development.
P R C G R A M MAER E A
CONSERVATIONOF BIOTOGICALD]VERSITY
BASIS
FORACTION
15.3 Despitemounting efforts over the past 20 years,
the lossof the world's biologicaldiversity,mainly from
habitat destruction,over-harvesting,pollution and the
inappropriateintroductionof foreignplantsand animals,
hascontinued. Biologicalresourcesconstitutea capital
asset with great potential for yielding sustainable
benefits.Urgentanddecisiveactionis neededto conserve
andmaintaingenes,speciesandecosystems, with a view
to the sustainablemanagementand use of biological
resources.Capacitiesforthe assessment, studyandsyste-
matic observationand evaluationof biodiversity needto
be reinforced at national and internationallevels.Effec-
tive national action and internationalcooperationis re-
quired for the in situ protectionof ecosystems,for the ex
situ conservationof biological and geneticresourcesand
for the enhancementof ecosystemfunctions.The partici-
pation and support of local communities are elements
essential to the successof such an approach. Recent
advancesin biotechnology have pointed up the likely
potential for agriculture,health and welfare and for the
environmentalpurposesof the geneticmaterialcontained
in plants,animalsandmicro-organisms.At the sametime,
it is particularly important in this context to stressthat
States have the sovereign right to exploit their own
biological resources pursuant to their environmental
policies.as well as the responsibilityto conservetheir
biodiversityand use their biological resourcessustain-
ably,and to ensurethat activitieswithin their jurisdiction
or control do not causedamageto the biological diversity
of other Statesor of areasbeyond the limits of national
jurisdiction.
OBJECTIVES
15.4 Governments at the appropriate level, with the
cooperationof the relevant United Nations bodies and
regional, intergovernmentaland non-governmental
organizations,the private sector and financial institu-
tions, and taking into considerationindigenouspeople
and their communities, as well as social and economic
factors,should:
(a) Pressforthe early entry into force of the Convention
on BiologicalDiversity,with the widestpossiblepartici-
pation;
r3r
 (b) Develop national strategiesfor the conservationof
biologicaldiversityand the sustainable useof biological
resources;
(c) Integratestrategiesfor the conservationof biologi-
cal diversity and the sustainableuse of biological re-
sources into national development strategiesand/or
plans;
(d) Takeappropriatemeasuresfor the fair andequitable
sharing of benefits derived from researchand develop-
ment anduseof biologicalandgeneticresources, includ-
ing biotechnology,between the sourcesof those re-
sourcesand thosewho usethem;
(e) Carry out country studies,as appropriate,on the
conservationof biological diversity and the sustainable
useof biologicalresources, includinganalysesof relevant
costs and benefits,with particularreferenceto socio-
economicaspects;
( 0 P r odu c e re g u l a rl y u p d a te d w o rl d reports on
biodiversitybasedupon nationalassessments;
(g) Recognizeand foster the traditional methods and
the knowledge of indigenouspeople and their com-
munities, emphasizingthe particular role of women,
relevantto the conservationof biological diversity and
the sustainableuse of biological resources,and ensure
the opportunity for the participation of those groups in
the economicand commercial benefitsderived from the
useof suchtraditionalmethodsand knowledgell
(h) Implement mechanismsfor the improvement,
generation,developmentand sustainable useof biotech-
nology and its safe transfer,particularlyto developing
countries, taking account the potential contribution of
biotechnologyto theconservationof biologicaldiversity
and the sustainableuseof biologicalresources;2
(i) Promotebroaderinternationaland regionalcooper-
ation in furtheringscientificandeconomicunderstanding
of the importanceof biodiversity and its functions in
ecosystems;
() Develop measuresand arrangements to implement
the rights of countriesof origin of geneticresourcesor
countriesproviding geneticresources,as definedin the
Conventionon Biological Diversity, particularly
developingcountries,to benefitfrom the biotechnologi-
cal developmentand the commercial utilization of
productsderivedfrom suchresources.2'3
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGFMENT-R
ELATED
ACTtVtTtE
S
15.5 Governmentsat the appropriatelevels.consistent
with nationalpoliciesandpractices,with the cooperation
of therelevantUnitedNationsbodiesand,asappropriate,
intergovernmentalorganizationsand,with the supportof
132
indigenouspeople and their communities,non-govern-
mental organizations and other groups, including the
businessand scientificcommunities,andconsistentwith
the requirementsclf internationallaw, should, as appro-
priate:
(a) Developnewor strengthen existingstrategies,plans
or programmesof action for the conservationof biologi-
cal diversity and the sustainableuse of biological re-
sources,taking accountof educationand trainingneeds;a
(b) Integratestrategiesfor the conservationof biologi-
cal diversity and the sustainableuse of biological and
geneticresourcesinto relevantsectoralor cross-sectoral
plans,programmesandpolicies,with particularreference
to the special importanceof terrestrialand aquatic bio-
logical and geneticresourcesfor food and agriculture;s
(c) Undertakecountry studiesor use other methodsto
identify componentsof biological diversity importantfor
its conservationand for the sustainableuseof biological
.resources,ascribevalues to biological and geneticre-
sources,identify processes andactivitieswith significant
impactsupon biological diversity,evaluatethe potential
economicimplicationsof the conservationof biological
diversityandthe sustainable useof biologicalandgenetic
resources,and suggestpriority action;
(d) Takeeffectiveeconomic,socialandotherappropri-
ate incentive measuresto encouragethe conservationof
biologicaldiversityand the sustainable useof biological
resources,including the promotion of sustainablepro-
duction systems,suchas traditionalmethodsof agricul-
ture, agroforestry,forestry, range and wildlife manage-
ment,which use,maintainor increasebiodiversity;s
(e) Subject to national legislation, take action to
respect,record,protectandpromotethe widerapplication
of the knowledge,innovationsand practicesof indige-
nous and local communitiesembodyingtraditional life-
stylesfor the conservationof biologicaldiversityandthe
sustainable useof biologicalresources, with a view to the
fair and equitablesharing of the benefitsarising, and
promotemechanismsto involve thosecommunities,in-
cluding women,in the conservationand managementof
ecosystems; '
(0 Undertakelong-term researchinto the importance
of biodiversityfor the functioningof ecosystems and the
role of ecosystemsin producing goods, environmental
servicesandothervaluessuppoftingsustainabledevelop-
ment, with particular reference to the biology and
reproductive capacities of key terrestrial and aquatic
species, includingnative,cultivatedandculturedspecies;
new observationand inventory techniques;ecological
conditionsnecessaryfor biodiversityconservationand
continuedevolution;and socialbehaviourand nutrition
habits dependenton natural ecosystems,where women
play key roles. The work should be undertakenwith the
widest possibleparticipation,especiallyof indigenous
peopleand their communities,includingwomen;l
(g) Take action where necessaryfor the conservation
of biological diversity through the in silu conservationof
ecosystemsand natural habitats,as well as primitive
cultivars and their wild relatives,and the maintenance
and recovery of viable populationsof speciesin their
naturalsurroundings,and implementex situ measures,
preferablyin the sourcecountry.In situ measuresshould
include the reinforcementof terrestrial,marineand aquatic
protectedareasystemsand embrace,inter alia, vulnerable
freshwaterandotherwetlandsandcoastalecosystems, such
as estuaries,coral reefsand mangroves;o
(h) Promote the rehabilitation and restoration of
damagedecosystemsand the recoveryof threatenedand
endangeredspecies;
(i) Develop policiesto encouragethe conservationof
biodiversity and the sustainableuse of biological and
geneticresourceson privatelands;
0) Promote environmentally sound attd sustainable
developmentin areasadjacentto protectedareaswith a
view to furtheringprotectionof theseareas;
( k ) I nt r oduc e a p p ro p ri a tee n v i ro n me n ta li mpact
assessment proceduresfbr proposedprojectslikely to
have significant impacts upon biological diversity,
providing fbr suitableinformation to be made widely
availableandfor publi c participation,whereappropriate,
and encouragethe assessment of the impactsof relevant
policiesand programmeson biologicaldiversity;
(l) Promote,where appropriate,the establishmentand
strengtheningof national inventory, regulation or
managementand control systemsrelatedto biological
resources,at the appropnatelevel;
(m) Take measuresto encourage a greater under-
standing and appreciationof the value of biological
diversity, as manifestedboth in its componentparts and
in the ecosystemservicesprovided.
B) DATAAND INFORMAI/ON
15.6 Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, consistent
with nationalpoliciesandpractices,with the cooperation
of therelevantUnitedNationsbodiesand,asappropriate,
intergovernmental organizations, andwith the supportof
indigenouspeopleand their cclmmunities,non-govern-
mental organrzatronsand other groups, including the
businessandscientificcommunities,andconsistentwith
the requirementsof internationallaw, should,as appro-
priate:7
(a) Regularly'collate, evaluateand exchangeinforma-
tion on the conserl'ationof bioiogical diversity and the
sustainable useof bioloeicalresources:
(b) Develop methodologieswith a view to undertaking
systematicsampling and evaluationon a national basis
of the componentsof biological diversity identified by
meansof country studies;
(c) Initiate or further developmethodologiesandbegin
or continue work on surveysat the appropriatelevel on
the statusof ecosystemsand establishbaselineinforma-
tion on biological and geneticresources,including those
in terrestrial,aquatic,coastaland marine ecosystems,as
well as inventoriesundertakenwith the participationof
local and indigenouspeopleand their communities;
(d) Identify and evaluatethe potential economic and
social implications and benefitsof the conservationand
sustainableuse of terrestrialand aquaticspeciesin each
country,building upon the resultsof country studies;
(e) Undertakethe updating,analysisand interpretation
of data derived from the identification, sampling and
evaluationactivities describedabove;
(0 Collect, assessand make available relevant and
reliable information in a timely manner and in a form
suitable for decision-makingat all levels, with the full
suppoftand participationof local and indigenouspeople
and their communities.
CI /NIERNAIIONAI.AND REG'ONAI.
COOPERAI'ONA ND COORDINAIION
15.7 Governments at the appropriate level, with the
cooperationof the relevant United Nations bodies and,
as appropriate, intergovemmental organizations,and,
with the suppofi of indigenous people and their com-
munities, non-governmentalorganizationsand other
groups, including the businessand scientific com-
munities,and consistentwith the requirementsof inter-
nationallaw, should,as appropriate:
(a) Considerthe establishment or strengthening of na-
tional or internationalcapabilitiesand networks for the
exchange of data and information of relevanceto the
conservationof biological diversity and the sustainable
use of biological and geneticresources;7
(b) Produceregularlyupdatedworld reportson biodiver-
sity baseduponnationalassessments in all counties;
(c) Promotetechnicaland scientific cooperationin the
field of conservationof biological diversity and the
sustainableuse of biological and genetic resources.
Specialattentionshouldbe given to the developmentand
strengtheningof nationalcapabilitiesby meansof human
resourcedevelopmentandinstitution-building, including
the transfer of technology and/or development of re-
search and managementfacilities, such as herbaria,
museums,gene banks, and laboratories,related to the
conservationof biodiversitv:8
r33
(d) Without prejudiceto the relevantprovisionsof the
Conventionon Biological Diversity, facilitate for this
chapterthe transferof technologiesrelevantto the con-
servationof biologicaldiversityand the sustainableuse
of biologicalresourcesor technologiesthat makeuseof
geneticresourcesandcauseno significantdamageto the
environment,in conformity with chapter34, and recog-
nizing that technologyincludesbiotechnology,2' 8
(e) Promotecooperationbetweenthepartiesto relevant
internationalconventionsand action plans rn'iththe aim
of strengtheningand coordinating efforts to conserve
biologicaldiversityand the sustainable useof biological
resources:
(0 Strengthensupport for international and regional
instruments,programmesand action plans concerned
with the conservationof biological diversity and'the
sustainableuseof biologicalresources;
(g) Promote irnproved internationalcoordinationof
measures fclrthe effectiveconservationandmanagement
of endangered/non-pest migratory species,including
appropriatelevels of supportfor the establishmentand
managementof protectedareasin transboundaryloca-
t ions :
(h) Promotenational efforts with respectto surveys,
datacollection,samplingand evaluation,and the main-
tenanceof genebanks.
OFIMPLEMENTATION
MEANS
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
15.8 The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost ( 1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this chapterto be about$3.5 billion, includ-
ing aboutS1.75billion from the internationalcommunity
on grantor concessional terms. Theseareindicativeand
order-of-rnagnitude estimatesonly and have not been
reviewedby Governments. Actual costsand financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
8/ S C' F N IF tCA N D T EC H N O T .OG\C
MFA
AL N S
l-5.9 Specificaspectsto be addressed includethe need
to develop:
(a) Efficient methodologiesfor baselinesurveysand
inventories,as well as for the systematicsamplingand
evaluationof biologicalresources;
(b) Methodsand technologiesfor the conservationof
biologicaldiversityandthe sustainableuseof biological
resources:
134
(c) Improved and diversified methodsfor ex situ con-
servationwith a view to the long-term conservationof
genetic resources of importance for research and
development.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
15.10Thereis a need,whereappropriate,to:
(a) Increasethe numberand/ormakemore efficient use
of trainedpersonnelin scientificand technologicalfields
relevant to the conservationof biological diversity and
the sustainableuseof biologicalresources;
(b) Maintain or establishprogrammesfor scientificand
technicaleducationand training of managersandprofes-
sionals,especiallyin developingcountries,on measures
of biologicaldi versity
for theidentification,conservation
and the sustainable useof biologicalresources;
(c) Promote and encourageunderstandingof the im-
portanceof the measuresrequired for the conservation
of biologicaldiversityandthe sustainable useof biologi-
cal resourcesat all policy-making and decision-making
levelsin Governments,businessente{prises and lending
institutions,and promoteandencouragethe inclusionof
thesetopicsin educationalprogrammes.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
15.11Thereis a need,whereappropriate,to:
(a) Strengthenexisting institutions and/or establish
new onesresponsiblefor the conservationof biological
diversityandto considerthedevelopmentof mechanisms
suchas nationalbiodiversityinstitutesor centres;
(b) Continueto build capacityfor the conservationof
biologicaldiversityand the sustainableuseof biological
resourcesin all relevantsectors;
(c) Build capacity, especially within Governments,
business enterprisesand bilateral and multilateral
developmentagencies,for integratingbiodiversitycon-
cerns,potentialbenefitsandopportunitycostcalculations
into project design, implementationand evaluation
processesr aswell asfor evaluatingtheimpacton biologi-
cal diversityof proposeddevelopmentprojects;
(d) Enhancethe capacity of governmentaland private
institutions, at the appropriatelevel, responsiblefor
protected area planning and managementto undertake
intersectoralcoordination and planning with other
governmental institutions, non-governmentalorgan-
izationsand, where appropriate,indigenouspeopleand
their communities.
rsee 4See
chopter26 (Recognizing ond strengtheningthe role of chopter36 {Promoting
educotion,publicoworeness
ond
indigenous ondchopter24 (Globol
peopleondtheircommunities) troining).
oction for women towords sustoinobleond equilobledevelop
ment). 5See
chopter14 (Promoting ogriculture
sustoinoble ond rurol
ond chopter1 I (Combotingdeforestotion).
development)
2See
soundmonogement
choptrr16 {Environmentolly of biotech-
nology). 6See
chopter17 {Protectionof the oceons,oll kindsof seos,
includingenclosedond semi-enclosed seos,ond coostoloreos
3Arti.l" ond the protection, of theirliving
2 (Useof terms)of theConvention on BiologicolDiversity rotionoluseond development
includesthefollowingdefinitions: resources).
"Countryof originof geneticresources" meonsthecountrywhich
possesses thosegeneticresources in in situconditions. ZSee
chopter40 (lnformotion
for decision-moking).
"Countryprovidinggeneticresources" meonsthecountrysupply-
ing geneiic resourcescollectedfrom in sifu sources,including SSee
choprer34 (Tronsfer soundtechnology,
of environmentolly
populotions of bothwild ond domesticoted species,or tokenfrom ond copocity-building).
cooperotion
ex situsources,which moy or moy not hove originotedin thot
country.

i35
 1A soundmonogement
Environmentolly
I \,, of biotechnology
INTRODUCTION
l6.l Biotechnologyis the integrationof the new tech-
niquesemergingfrom modern biotechnologywith the
well-establishedapproachesof traditional biotechnol-
ogy.Biotechnology,an emergingknowledge-intensive
field, is a set of enablingtechniquesfor bringing about
specific man-madechangesin deoxyribonucleicacid
(DNA), or genetic material, in plants, animals and
microbial systems,leadingto useful productsand tech-
nologies.By itself, biotechnologycannot resolveall
the fundamental problems of environment and
development,so expectationsneed to be temperedby
realism.Nevertheless, it promisesto makea significant
contribution in enabling the development of, for
example, better health care, enhancedfood security
through sustainableagricultural practices, improved
supplies of potable water, more efficient industrial
d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s e sf o r t r a n s f o r m i n g r a w
materials,supportfor sustainablemethodsof afforesta-
tion and reforestation,and detoxification of hazardous
wastes.Biotechnology also offers new opportunities
f o r g l o b a l p a r t n e r s h i p s ,e s p e c i a l l y b e t w e e n t h e
countriesrich in biological resources(which include
geneticresources) but lackingthe expertiseandinvest-
mentsneededto apply suchresourcesthroughbiotech-
nology and the countriesthat have developedthe tech-
nological expertiseto transformbiological resources
so thatthey servethe needsof sustainable development.l
Biotechnologycan assistin the conservationof those
resourcesthrough,for example,ex sitr.rtechniques.The
programmeareassetout below seekto fosterinternation-
ally agreedprinciplesto be appliedto ensurethe envi-
ronmentally sound managementof biotechnology,to
engenderpublic trust and confidence,to promote the
developmentof sustainableapplicationsof biotechnol-
r36
ogy and to establishappropriateenabling mechanisms,
especiallywithin developingcountries,through the fol-
lowing activities:
(a) Increasingthe availability of food, feed and renew-
able raw materials:
(b) Improving human health;
(c) Enhancingprotectionof the environment;
(d) Enhancing safety and developing international
mechanismsfor cooperation;
(e) Establishingenablingmechanismsfor the develop-
ment and the environmentally sound application of
biotechnology.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
Al TNGREASTNG
THEAVAttABtUW OF FOOD,
FEEDAND RENEWABTERAW }IATERIALIi
BASIS
FORACTION
16.2 To meet the growing consumption needs of the
global population, the challengeis not only to increase
food supply,but also to improve food distribution signi-
ficantly while simultaneouslydevelopingmore sustaina-
ble agriculturalsystems.Much of this increasedproduc-
tivity will need to take place in developingcountries.It
will require the successful and environmentally safe
applicationof biotechnologyin agriculture,in the envi-
ronmentandinhumanhealthcare.Mostof theinvestment
in modern biotechnologyhas been in the industrialized
world. Significantnew investmentsand human resource
development will be required in biotechnology, espe-
cially in the developingworld.
OBJECTIVES
16.3 The following objectivesareproposed,keepingin
mind the need to promote the use of appropriatesafety
measuresbasedon programmeareaD:
(a) To increaseto the optimumpossibleextenttheyield
of major crops, livestock,and aquaculturespecies,by
using the combinedresourcesof modernbiotechnology
and conventional plant/animal/micro-organismim-
provement,including the more diverseuse of genetic
material resources,both hybrid and original.' Forest
product yields should similarly be increased,to ensure
the sustainableuseof forests;'
(b) To reducethe need for volume increasesof food,
feed and raw materials by improving the nutritional
value (composition)of the sourcecrops,animalsand
micro-organisms,and to reducepost-harvestlossesof
plant and animalproducts;
(c) To increasethe use of integratedpest,diseaseand
crop managementtechniquesto eliminate overdepen-
denceon agrochemicals, therebyencouragingenviron-
mentaily sustainableagricultural practices;
(d) To evaluatethe agricultural potential of marginal
lands in comparison with other potential uses and to
develop, where appropriate,systems allowing for
sustainable productivityincreases;
(e) To expand the applicationsof biotechnologyin
forestry, both for increasing yields and more efficient
utilization of forestproductsandfor improving afforesta-
tion and reforestationtechniques.Efforts shouldbe con-
centratedon speciesand productsthat are grown in and
are of value particularly for developingcountries;
(0 To increasethe efficiency of nitrogen fixation and
mineralabsorptionby the symbiosisof higherplantswith
micro-organisms;
(g) To improve capabilitiesin basic and applied sci-
encesand in the managementof complex interdiscipli-
nary researchprojects.
ACNVMES
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
ELATED
16.4 Governmentsatthe appropriatelevel,with theassis-
tanceof internationaland regionalorganizationsand with
the supportof non-govemmental the private
organizations,
sectorand academicand scientificinstitutions,shouldim-
proveboth plant and animalbreedingand micro-organisms
throughthe useof traditionalandmodernbiotechnologies,
to enhancesustainable agriculturaloutputto achievefood
securiry,particularly in developingcountries,with due
regardto the prior identification of desiredcharacteristics
before modification, taking into account the needs of
farmers.the socio-economic. culturalandenvironmental
impactsof modificationsandtheneedtopromotesustain-
able socialandeconomicdevelopment,payingparticular
attentionto how the useof biotechnologywill impact on
the maintenanceof environmentalintegrity.
16.5 More specifically,theseentitiesshould:
(a) Improve productivity,nutritional quality and shelf-
life of food and animal feed products,with effortsinclud-
ing work on pre- and post-harvestlosses;
(b) Furtherdevelopresistanceto diseasesand pests;
(c) Develop plant cultivars tolerant and/or resistantto
stressfrom factors such as pestsand diseasesand from
abioticcauses;
(d) Promotethe use of underutilizedcrops of possible
future importance for human nutrition and industrial
supply of raw materials;
(e) Increasethe efficiency of symbiotic processesthat
assistsustainableagriculturalproduction;
(0 Facilitate the conservationand safe exchange of
plant, animal and microbial germ plasmby applying risk
assessmentand managementprocedures,including im-
proved diagnostictechniquesfor detectionof pestsand
diseasesby better methodsof rapid propagation;
(g) Develop improved diagnostictechniquesand vac-
cines for the prevention and spreadof diseasesand for
rapid assessmentof toxins or infectious organismsin
productsfor human use or livestock feed;
(h) Identify more productive strains of fast-growing
trees,especiallyfor fuel wood, and developrapid propa-
gation methodsto aid their wider disseminationand use;
(i) Evaluate the use of various biotechnology tech-
niques to improve the yields of fish, algal and other
aquaticspecies;
0 ) Promotesustainable agriculturaloutputby sfengthening
and broadeningthe capacityand scopeof existingresearch
centresto achievethenecessary criticalmassthroughencour-
agementandmonitoringof researchinto the developmentof
biologicalproductsandprocesses of productiveandenviron-
mentalvaluettratareeconomicallyandsociallyfeasible,while
taking safetyconsiderationsinto account;
(k) Promote the integration of appropriateand tradi-
tional biotechnologiesfor the purposesof cultivating
geneticallymodified plants,rearinghealthy animalsand
protectingforest geneticresources;
(l) Develop processesto increasethe availability of
materials derived from biotechnology for use in food,
feed and renewableraw materialsproduction.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
16.6 The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Considerationof comparative assessmentsof the
potential of the different technologiesfor food produc-
137
tion, togetherwith a systemfor assessingthe possible
effects of biotechnologies on international trade in
agriculturalproducts;
(b) Examinationof the implicationsof the withdrawal
of subsidiesand the possible use of other economic
instrumentsto reflectthe environmentalcostsassociated
with the unsustainable use of agrochemicals;
(c) Maintenance and development of data banks of
information on environmental and health impacts of
organismsto facilitaterisk assessment;
(d) Acceleration of technology acquisition,transfer
and adaptationby developing countries to support na-
tional activities fhat promote food security.
AND REGTONAT.
c/ TNTERNAT/ONAr.
COOPERATIONAND COORDINAI/ON
16.7 Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of relevant international and regional organ-
izations, should promote the following activities in
conformity with international agreementsor illrange-
mentson biologicaldiversity,as appropriate:
(a) Cooperationon issuesrelatedto conservationof,
accessto and exchangeof germ plasm;rights associated
with intellectual property and informal innovations,in-
cluding farmers' and breeders'rights; accessto the
benefitsof biotechnology;and bio-safety;
(b) Promotion of collaborative researchprogrammes,
especiallyin developingcountries,to supportactivities
outlinedin this programmearea,with particularreference
to cooperationwith local andindigenouspeopleandtheir
communitiesin the conservationof biological diversity
and sustainable useof biologicalresources,aswell asthe
fostering of traditional methodsand knowledge of such
groupsin connectionwith theseactivities;
(c) Accelerationof technologyacquisition,transferand
adaptationby developingcountriesto supportnational
activities that promote food security, through the
developmentof systemsfor substantialand sustainable
productivity increasesthat do not damageor endanger
a measureswill be neededto build up technical,manage-
localccosystems:
(d) Development of appropriate safety procedures
basedon programmearea D, taking accountof ethical
considerations.
OFIMPLEMENTATION
MEANS
AND COSTEVALUATTON
A/ FTNANC/NG
16.8 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about $5 billion,
138
including about $50 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovemmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B/ SC/ENI/F/C MEANS'
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
16.9 Training of competentprofessionalsin the basic
and applied sciencesat all levels (including scientific
personnel,technicalstaff and extensionworkers)is one
of the most essentialcomponentsof any programmeof
this kind. Creatingawarenessof the benefitsand risks of
biotechnologyis essential.Given the importanceof good
managementof research resourcesfor the successful
completion of large multidisciplinary projects, contin-
uing programmesof formal training for scientistsshould
include managerial training. Training programmes
shouldalsobe developed,within the contextof specific
projects,to meetregionalor nationalneedsfor compre-
hensivelytrainedpersonnelcapableof using advanced
technologyto reducethe "brain drain" trom developing
to developedcountries.Emphasisshould be given to
encouragingcollaborationbetweenandtrainingof scien-
tists,extensionworkersand usersto produceintegrated
systems. Additionally"specialconsiderationshouldbe
given to the execution of programmesfor training and
exchangeof knowledgeon traditionalbiotechnologies
and for training on safetyprocedures.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
16.10Insti tuti onal upgradi ng or other appr opr iat e
rial. planningandadministrativecapacitiesatthenational
level to supportthe activitiesin this programmearea.
Such measuresshould be backed up by intemational,
scientific,technicaland t'inancialassistance
adequateto
facilitate technicalcooperationand raise the capacities
of the developingcountries.ProgrammeareaE contains
further details.
* S e ep o r o g r o p h1s6 . 6 o n d 1 6 . 7 .
B) tfrIPROVrNGHUMAN HEALTH
BASIS FORACTION
16.ll The improvementof human health is one of the
most important objectivesof development.The deterio-
ration of environmentalquality, notably air, water and
soil pollution owing to toxic chemicals,hazardouswas-
tes, radiation and other sources,is a matter of growing
concern.This degradationof the environmentresulting
from inadequateor inappropriate development has a
direct negative effect on human health. Malnutrition,
poverty,poor human settlements,lack of good-quality
potable water and inadequatesanitationfacilities add to
the problemsof communicableand non-communicable
diseases.As a consequence, the healthand well-being
of peopleare exposedto increasingpressures.
OBJECTIVES
16.12The main objective of this programmearea is to
contribute,through the environmentallysoundapplic_ation
of biotechnologyto an overall healthprogramme,to:)
(a) Reinforce or inaugurate (as a matter of urgency)
programmesto helpcombatmajorcommunicable diseases;
(b) Promotegoodgeneralhealthamongpeople of all ages;
(c) Develop and improve programmesto assist in
speci fic treatmentof andprotectionfrom major non-com-
municablediseases;
(d) Develop and strengthenappropriatesafety proce-
dures basedon programmearea D, taking into account
ethicalconsiderations ;
(e) Createenhancedcapabilitiesfor carryingout basic
and appliedresearchand for managinginterdisciplinary
research.
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R IES
ACTIVIT
16.13Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
assistanceof intemationaland regional organizations,
academicand scientificinstitutions,and the pharmaceu-
tical industry,should, taking into accountappropriate
safetyand ethicalconsiderations:
(a) Developnationalandinternationalprogrammesfor
identifying and targetingthosepopulationsof the world
most in need of improvement in general health and
protectionfrom diseases;
(b) Develop criteria for evaluatingthe effectiveness
and the benefitsand risks of the proposedactivities;
(c) Establishandenforcescreening,systematicsampling
and evaluationproceduresfor drugsand medicaltechnol-
ogies, with a view to baning the use of those that are
unsafe for the purposesof experimentation;ensure that
drugs and technologiesrelating to reproductivehealth are
safe and effective and take account of ethical consider-
ations;
(d) Improve, systematically sample and evaluate
drinking-water quality by introducing appropriate
specific measures,including diagnosisof water-borne
pathogensand pollutants;
(e) Develop and make widely availablenew and im-
proved vaccines against major communicablediseases
that are efficient and safe and offer protection with a
minimum numberof doses,including intensifyingefforts
directedat the vaccinesneededto combat common dis-
easesof children;
(0 Develop biodegradabledelivery systemsfor vac-
cines that eliminate the need for presentmultiple-dose
schedules,facilitatebettercoverageof thepopulationand
reducethe costsof immunization;
(g) Develop effective biological control agentsagainst
disease-transmittingvectors, such as mosquitoes and
resistant variants, taking account of environmental
protectionconsiderations ;
(h) Usingthetoolsprovidedby modembiotechnology,
develop,inter alia,improveddiagnostics, new drugsand
improved treatmentsand delivery systems;
(i) Develop the improvement and more effective
utilizationof medicinalplantsand otherrelatedsources;
0) Develop processesto increasethe availability of
materialsderivedfrom biotechnology,for usein improv-
ing humanhealth.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
16.14The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Researchto assess the comparativesocial,environ-
mentaland financialcostsand benefitsof differenttech-
nologiesfor basicand reproductivehealthcarewithin a
frameworkof universalsafetyandethicalconsiderations;
(b) Development of public education programmes
directed at decision makers and the general public to
encourageawarenessand understandingof the relative
benefitsandrisksof modernbiotechnology,accordingto
ethicaland culturalconsiderations.
AND REGTONAI
cl ,NTERNAT/ONAI
COOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
16.l 5 Governmentsattheappropriatelevels,with thesupport
of relevantinternationalandregionalorganizations,should:
(a) Develop and strengthenappropriatesafety proce-
r39
dures basedon programmearea D, taking into account
ethicalconsiderations ;
(b) Supportthe developmentof nationalprogrammes,
particularlyin developingcountries,for improvements
in generalhealth,especiallyprotectionfrom major com-
municablediseases,common diseasesof children and
disease-transmittins factors.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
16.16To achievethe abovegoals,the activitiesneedto
be implementedwith urgency if progresstowards the
controlof majorcommunicablediseases is to be achieved
by the beginningof thenext century.The spreadof some
diseasesto all regions of the world calls for global
measures.For more localizeddiseases,regionalor na-
tionalpolicieswill bemoreappropriate. The achievement
of goalscalls for:
(a) Continuousinternationalcommitment;
(b) Nationalprioritieswith a definedtime-frame;
(c) Scientificand financialinput at globalandnational
levels.
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
l6.ll The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost(1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$ 14 billion,
including about $130 million from the international
communityon grant or concessionalterms.Theseare
indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and
havenot beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costs
and financialterms,includingany thatarenon-conces-
s ional, wi l l d e p e n d u p o n , i n te r a l i a , the speci fi c
strategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecide upon
for implementation.
B/ SC/ENilFtCAND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MEANS
1 6 . 1 8W e l l - c o o r d i n a t e d m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y e f f o r t s
involving cooperationbetweenscientists,financialin-
stitutionsand industrieswill be required.At the global
level. this may mean collaborationbetweenresearch
institutionsin differentcountries,with funding at the
intergovernmental level,possiblysupportedby similar
c ollabor a ti o n a t th e n a ti o n a l l e v e l . R esearchand
developmentsupportwill alsoneedto be strengthened.
togetherwith the mechanismsfor providing the trans-
fer of relevanttechnology.
140
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
16.19Training and technologytransferis neededat the
globallevel,with regionsandcountrieshavingaccessto,
and participationin exchangeof, information and exper-
tise,particularlyindigenousor traditionalknowledgeand
relatedbiotechnology.It is essentialto createor enhance
endogenouscapabilitiesin developing countries to
enable them to participate actively in the processesof
biotechnology production. The training of personnel
could be undertakenat threelevels:
(a) That of scientistsrequired for basic and product-
orientedresearch;
(b) That of health personnel(to be trained in the safe
use of new products)and of sciencemanagersrequired
for complexintermultidisciplinaryresearch;
(c) That of tertiary-leveltechnical workersrequiredfor
delivery in the field.
D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG',
cl ENHANCTNGPROTECnONOF rHE ENURONMEM
BASIS
FORACTION
16.20Environmentalprotectionis anintegralcomponent
of sustai nabl edevel opment. The envi r onm entis
threatenedin all its biotic and abiotic components:
animals, plants, microbes and ecosystemscomprising
biological diversity;water,soil and air, which form the
physicalcomponentsof habitatsandecosystems; and all
the interactionsbetweenthe componentsof biodiversity
and their sustaininghabitatsand ecosystems.With the
continued increasein the use of chemicals,energy and
noffenewableresourcesby an expandingglobal popula-
tion, associatedenvironmentalproblems will also in-
crease.Despite increasingefforts to prevent waste
accumulationand to promoterecycling,the amountof
environmentaldamagecausedby overconsumption, the
quantitiesof wastegenerated andthedegreeof unsustain-
able land useappearlikely to continuegrowing.
16.21The needfor a diversegeneticpool of plant,animal
and microbial germ plasm for sustainabledevelopment
is well established.Biotechnologyis one of many tools
that can play an importantrole in supportingthe rehabili-
tation of degradedecosystems andlandscapes.This may
be done throughthe developmentof new techniquesfor
reforestation and afforest ation,germplasmconservation,
andcultivationof new plantvarieties.Biotechnol,ogy can
*Seeprogromme
oreo E
also contributeto the study of the effects exertedon the
remaining organismsand on other organismsby organ-
isms introducedinto ecosvstems.
OBJECTIVES
16.22The aim of this programmeis to prevent,halt and
reverseenvironmentaldegradationthroughthe appropri-
ate useof biotechnologyin conjunctionwith othertech-
nologies,while supportingsafetyproceduresas an inte-
gral componentof the programme.Specific objectives
include the inaugurationas soon as possibleof specific
programmeswith specific targets:
(a) To adoptproductionprocesses making optimal use
of natural resources,by recycling biomass,recovering
energyand minimizingwastegeneration;6
(b) To promote the use of biotechnologies,with em-
phasison bio-remediationof land and water,wastetreat-
ment, soil conservation,reforestation,afforestationand
8
land rehabilitation;7'
(c) To apply biotechnologiesand their products to
protectenvironmentalintegritywith a view to long-term
ecologicalsecurity.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENT.R
16.23Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of relevant international and regional organ-
izations, the private sector, non-governmentalorgan-
izationsandacademicand scientificinstitutions,should:
(a) Develop environmentallysound alternativesand
i mprovementsfor environmentallydamaging production
processes;
(b) Developapplicationsto minimizetherequirement for
unsustainablesyntheticchemicalinput andto maximize ttre
use of environmentally appropriate products, including
naturalproducts(seeprografirmeareaA);
(c) Developprocesses to reducewastegeneration,treat
waste before disposal and make use of biodegradable
materials;
(d) Develop processesto recoverenergyand provide
renewableenergysources,animal feedandraw materials
from recyclingorganicwasteand biomass;
(e) Develop processesto remove pollutantsfrom the
environment,including accidentaloil spills,rvherecon-
ventionaltechniquesare not availableor are expensive,
inefficientor inadequate;
(0 Develop processesto increasethe availability of
plantingmaterjals,particularlyindigenousvarieties,for
use in affcrrestationand reforestation and to improve
sustainableyieldsfrom forests;
(g) Developapplicationsto increasethe availabilityof
stress-tolerantplanting material for land rehabilitation
and soil conservation;
(h) Promote the use of integrated pest management
basedon thejudicious useof bio-controlagents;
(i) Promotethe appropriateuseof bio-fertilizerswithin
national feftrlizer programmes;
0) Promotethe use of biotechnologiesrelevantto the
conservationand scientificstudyof biologicaldiversity
and the sustainableuseof biologicalresources;
(k) Develop easily applicable technologiesfor the
treatmentof sewageand organicwaste;
(l) Develop new technologiesfor rapid screeningof
organismsfor usefulbiologicalproperties;
(m) Promotenew biotechnologies for tappingrnineral
resourcesin an environmentallvsustainable manner.
B) DATAAND INFORMAI/ON
16.24Stepsshould be taken to increaseaccessboth to
existinginformationaboutbiotechnologyandto facilities
basedon global databases.
AND REG/ONAI
c/ /NIERNAilONAT
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION
16.25Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of relevant internationaland regional organ-
izations.should:
(a) Strengthenresearch,training and development
capabilities,particularly in developingcountries,to
suppoftthe activitiesoutlinedin this programmearea;
(b) Develop mechanismsfor scalingup and dissemi-
nating environmentallysound biotechnologiesof high
environmentalimportance,especiallyin the shortterm,
even though those biotechnologiesmay have limited
commercialpotential;
(c) Enhancecooperation,includingtransferofbiotech-
nology, between participatingcountries for capacity-
building;
(d) Develop appropriate safety proceduresbased on
programme area D, taking accountof ethical consider-
ations.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATION
16.26The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about $ I billion,
141
includingabout$10 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grant or concessionalterms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grarnmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
A N D T EC H N O L OGICME
8/ S C/ E N IIF IC AL A N S '
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
16.21The activities for this programme area will in-
creasethe demand for trained personnel. Support for
existingtrainingprogrammesneedsto be increased,for
example,at the universityand technicalinstitutelevel,
as well as the exchangeof trained personnelbetween
countries and regions. New and additional training
programmesalsoneedto be developed,for example,for
technicalandsupportpersonnel. Thereis alsoanurgentneed
to improvethe level of understanding of biologicalprinci-
ples and their policy implicationsamongdecisionmakers
in Governmenls,andfinancialandotherinstin:tions.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
16.28Relevantinstitutionswill needto havetherespon-
sibility for undertaking,andthecapacity(political,finan-
cial and workforce)to undertake,the above-mentioned
activitiesand to be dynamicin responseto new biotech-
nologicaldevelopments(seeprogrammeareaE).
Dl ENHANCTNGSAFETYAND DEVELOPTNG
FORCOOPERATION
INTERNATIONAT'VIECHANISMS
BASIS
FORACTION
16.29There is a need for further developmentof inter-
nationallyagreedprincipleson risk assessment andman-
agementof all aspectsof biotechnology,which should
build upon thosedevelopedat the nationallevel. Only
when adequateandtransparent saf-ety
andborder-control
proceduresare in place will the community at large be
able to derive maximumbenefitfrom. and be in a much
betterpositionto, acceptthe potentialbenefltsand risks
of biotechnology.Severalfundamentalprinciplescould
underlie many of these safety procedures,including
* S e ep o r o g r o p h1s6 . 2 3o n d 1 6 . 2 5o b o v e
t42
primary considerationof the organism,building on the
principle of familiarity, appliedin a flexible framework,
taking into accountnationalrequirementsand recogniz-
ing that the logicalprogressionis to startwith a step-by-
stepandcase-by-case approach,but alsorecognizingthat
experiencehas shown that in many instancesa more
comprehensiveapproachshould be used,basedon the
experiencesof the first period, leading, inter alia, to
streamliningandcategorizing;complementary consider-
ationof risk assessment andrisk management; andclassi-
ficationinto containeduseor releaseto theenvironment.
OBJECTIVES
16.30The aim of this programmeareais to ensuresafety
in biotechnologydevelopment,application,exchange
and transfer through intemational agreementon princi-
ples to be appliedon risk assessment and management,
with particular reference to health and environmental
considerations, includingthe widestpossiblepublic par-
ticipationand taking accountof ethicalconsiderations.
ACTIVITIES
16.31The proposedactivitiesfor this programmearea
call for close internationalcooperation. They should
build uponplannedor existingactivitiesto accelerate
the
environmentally sound application of biotechnology,
especiallyin developingcountries.*"
A) MANAGEMENT-R EDACTtVtTlES
ELAT
16.32Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
support of relevant internationaland regional organ-
izations, the private sector, non-governmentalorgan-
izationsand academicand scientificinstitutions,should:
(a) Make the existingsafetyprocedureswidely avail-
able by collectingthe existinginformationand adapting
it to the specificneedsof differentcountriesandregions;
(b) Furtherdevelop,as necessary, the existingsafety
proceduresto promote sci enti fi c devel o pm entand
categori zati oni n the areasof ri sk assessm entand
r i s k m a n a g e m e n t( i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s ;
See reseorchpoper No. 55, entitled"Environmentolly sound
monogement of biotechnology: sofetyin biotechnology---cssess-
mentond monogement of risk"(Februory 19921,preporedby the
UnitedNotionsConference on Environment ond Development
secretoriot to tokeoccountof comments modeot thethirdsession
of the Preporotory Committeefor the UnitedNotionsConference
o n E n v i r o n m e notn d D e v e l o o m e not n o o r t l l o f d o c u m e n t
A/CONF.151/PC/67, whichincorporoted thefindingsof theod
hocworkshopof Senior-level Experts on Assessing ond Monoging
Biotechnology Risks, heldin Londonin Junel99l .
databases; procedures for assessing
ri sksandconditions
ofrele ase;establ i shmentofsafetycondi t ion s;moni tori ng
and inspections,taking account of ongoing national,
regional and international initiatives and avoiding
duplicationwhereverpossible);
(c) Compile, update and develop compatible safety
proceduresinto a framework of internationally agreed
principlesasa basisfor guidelinesto be appliedon safety
in biotechnology, includingconsideration of the needfor
and feasibility of an international agreement,and
promote information exchange as a basis for further
development,drawing on the work already undertaken
by internationalor otherexpertbodies;
(d) Undertaketraining prograrnmesat the nationaland
regionallevelson the applicationof the proposedtech-
nical guidelines;
(e) Assist in exchanginginformationaboutthe proce-
dures required for saf'ehandling and risk management
and about the conditionsof releaseof the productsof
biotechnology,and cooperatein providing immediate
assistancein casesof emergenciesthat may arise in
conjunctionwith the useof biotechnologyproducts.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAilON'
c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL
AND REG/ONAI
COOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
16.33Governmentsat the appropriatelevel, with the
slrpportof the relevantintemationaland regional organ-
izations,shouldraise awarenessof the relativebenefits
and risks of biotechnology.
16.34Furtheractivitiesshouldincludethefollowing (see
alsopara. 16.32):
(a) Organizingoneor moreregionalmeetingsbetween
countries to identify further practical stepsto facilitate
internationalcooperationin bio-safety;
(b) Establishingan internationalnetwork incorpora-
ting national.regionaland global contactpoints;
(c) Providing direct assistanceupon requestthrough
the internationalnetwork, using information networks,
databasesand information procedures;
(d) Consideringthe needfor and feasibilityof interna-
tionally agreedguidelineson safety in biotechnology
releases,includingrisk assessment andrisk management,
and consideringstudying the feasibility of guidelines
whichcouldfacilitatenationallesislationon liabilitvand
c om pens at ion.
S e ep o r o g r o p h1s6 . 3 2o n d I 6 . 3 3 .
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANCINGAND COSTEVALUATTON
16.35The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this prograrnmesto be about$2 million from
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms.Theseare indicative and order-of-magnitudeesti-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are
non-concessional,will depend upon, inter alia, the
specificstrategiesand programmesGovemmentsdecide
uponfor implementation.
8/ SCtENnFrc AND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MEANS
C) HUMANRESOURC
E DEVELOPMFNI
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
16.36Adequateinternationaltechnicaland financial
assistanceshould be provided and technicalcooper-
ation to developingcountriesfacilitated in order to
build up technical,managerial,planningand adminis-
trative capacitiesat the national level to support the
activitiesin this programmearea(seealsoprogramme
areaE).
El ESTABLTSHTNG
ENABUNG MECHAN|STVISFOR
THE DEVETOP'VIENT
AND THE ENVIRON}IENTALIY
SOUND APPLICATIONOF BIOTECHNOLOGY
BASIS FORACTION
16.37The accelerateddevelopmentand applicationof
biotechnologies,particularly in developing countries,
will require a major effort to build up institutionalca-
pacitiesat the nationalandregionallevels.In developing
countries,enabling factors such as training capacity,
know-how, researchand development facilities and
funds, industrial building capacity,capital (including
venturecapital)protectionof intellectualpropertyrights,
and expertisein areas including marketing research,
technologyassessment, socio-economicassessment and
safetyassessment arefrequentlyinadequate. Efforts will
S e ep o r o g r o p h1 6 . 3 2 .
143
 thereforeneedto be madeto build up capacitiesin these
andotherareasandto matchsucheffortswith appropriate
levels of financial support.There is thereforea need to
strengthenthe endogenouscapacitiesof developing
countriesby means of new internationalinitiatives to
support reseerchin order to speedup the developrnent
and applicationof both new andconventionalbiotechno-
logies to servethe needsof sustainabledevelopmentat
t he loc a l , n a ti o n a l a n d re g i o n a l l e v el s. N ati onal
mechanisms to allow forinformedcommentbythepublic
with regard to biotechnology researchand application
shouldbe part of the process.
16.38Someactivitiesat the national,regionalandglobal
levelsalreadyaddressthe issuesoutlinedin programme
areasA, B, C and D, as well asthe provisionof adviceto
individuai countries on the developmentof national
guidelinesand systemsfor the implementationof those
guidelines.Theseactivitiesaregenerallyuncoordinated,
howev er, i n v o l v i n g ma n y d i ffe re n t organi zati ons,
priorities. constituencies,time-scales,funding sources
andresourceconstraints.
Thereis a needfor a muchmore
cohesiveand coordinatedapproachto harnessavailable
resourcesin the most effective manner. As with most
new technologies.researchin biotechnologyand the
applicationof its findingscould havesignificantpositive
andnegativesocio-economic
aswell asculturalimpacts.
Theseimpactsshouldbe carefullyidentifiedin the earl-
iestphasesof the developmentof biotechnologyin order
to enableappropriatemanagementof the consequences
of transferringbiotechnology.
OBJECTIVES
16.39The objectivesare as follows:
(a) To promote the development and application of
biotechnologies,with specialemphasison developing
countries,by:
(i) Enhancingexistingefforts at the national,regional
and globallevels;
(ii) Providingthe necessarysupportfor biotechnology,
particularly researchand product development,at the
national.regionaland internationallevels;
(iii) Raising public awarenessregardingthe relative
beneficialaspectsof and risks relatedto biotechnology,
to contributeto sustainabledevelopment;
(iv) Helping to createa favourableclimate for invest-
m e n t s , i n d u s t r i a l c a p a c i t y - b u i l d i n ga n d d i s t r i b u -
tion/marketing;
(v) Encouragingthe exchangeof scientistsamong all
countriesand discouragingthe "brain drain";
(vi) Recognizingand fosteringthe traditionalmethods
and know'leclgeof indigenouspeoplesand their com-
munitiesand ensuringthe opportunityfor their partici-
144
pation in the economic and commercialbenefitsarisine
from developmentsin biotechnology;n
(b) To identify ways and meansof enhancingcurrent
efforts,building whereverpossibleon existingenabling
mechanisms,particularly regional, to determine the
precise nature of the needs for additional initiatives,
particularly in respectof developing countries, and to
develop appropriate response strategies,including
proposalsfor any new internationalmechanisms;
(c) To establishor adapt appropriatemechanismsfor
safetyappraisalandrisk assessment at the local,regional
and internationallevels,as appropriate.
ACTIVITIES
Al MANAGEA4ENT-R
ELATED
ACTtVtTt
ES
16.40Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of internationaland regional organizations,the
private sector, non-governmentalorganizations and
academicand scientific institutions,should:
(a) Developpoliciesand mobilizeadditionalresources
to facilitate greateraccessto the new biotechnologies,
particularlyby and amongdevelopingcountries;
(b) Implementprogrammesto creategreaterawareness
of the potential and relative benefits and risks of the
environmentally sound application of biotechnology
amongthe public and key decisionmakers;
(c) Undertakean urgent review of existing enabling
mechanisms,programmesand activitiesat the national,
regional and global levels to identify strengths,weak-
nessesand gaps, and to assessthe priority needs of
developingcountries;
(d) U ndertake an urgent fol l ow -up and cr it ical
review to identify ways and means of strengthening
endogenouscapacitieswithin and among developing
countriesfor the environmentallysoundapplicationof
biotechnology,including,asafirst step,waysto improve
existing mechanisms,particularlyat the regional level
and, as a subsequentstep,the considerationof possible
new internationalmechanisms, suchasregionalbiotech-
nology centres,
(e) Develop strategic plans for overcoming targeted
constraintsby means of appropriateresearch,product
developmentand marketing;
(0 Establish additional quality-assurancestandardsfor
biotechnologyapplicationsandproducts,wherenecessary.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
16.41The following activities should be undertaken:
facilitation of accessto existine information dissemina-
tion systems,especiallyamong developingcountries;
improvement of such accesswhere appropriate;and
considerationof the development of a directory of
information.
AND REGIONAI.
C/ /NIERNATIONAL
COOPERAI'ON AND COORDINAI/ON
16.42 Governmentsat the appropriate level, with the
assistanceof intemationaland regional organizations,
should develop appropriatenew initiatives to identify
priority areasfor researchbasedon specificproblemsand
facilitateaccessto new biotechnologies, particularlyby
and amongdevelopingcountries, among relevant under-
takings within those countries, in order to strengthen
endogenouscapacitiesand to support the building of
researchand institutionalcapacityin thosecountries.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
AND COSTEVALUATION
A/ FTNANC'NG
16.43The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about$5 million from
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-magnitude esti-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specificstrategies andprogrammesGovernmentsdecide
upon for implementation.
A N D T EC H N O L OGICME
B ' S C/ F NI I F I C AL AN S
16.44Workshops,symposia, seminarsand other ex-
changesamongthe scientificcommunityat the regional
and global levels,on specificpriority themes,will need
to be organized,makingfull useof the existingscientific
andtechnologicalmanpowerin eachcountryfor bringing
aboutsuchexchanges.
C) HUM A NRE S OU R CDEEV EL OP M EN T
16.45Personneldevelopmentneeds will need to be
identifiedandadditionaltrainingprograrnmes developed
at the national,regionaland global levels,especiallyin
developing countries.These should be supportedby
increasedtraining at all levels, graduate,postgraduate
andpost-doctoral,aswell asby the trainingof technicians
and supportstaff, with particularreferenceto the genera-
tion of trainedmanpowerin consultantservices,design,
engineering and marketing research. Training pro-
grammesfor lecturerstraining scientistsand technolo-
gists in advanced researchinstitutions in different
countries throughout the world will also need to be
developed, and systemsgiving appropriaterewards,
incentivesandrecognitionto scientistsandtechnologists
will needto be instituted(seepara. 16.44). Conditions
of servicewill also need to be improved at the national
level in developingcountriesto encourageand nurture
trainedmanpowerwith a view to retainingthatmanpower
locally. Society should be informed of the social and
cultural impact of the developmentand applicationof
biotechnology.
D) CAPACITY-BUtLDtNG
16.46Biotechnology research and development is
undertakenboth under highly sophisticatedconditions
and at the practicallevel in many countries. Efforts will
be needed to ensure that the necessaryinfrastructure
facilities for research,extensionand technologyacti-
vities areavailableon a decentralized basis. Global and
regionalcollaborationfor basicandappliedresearchand
developmentwill also needto be further enhancedand
every effort should be made to ensurethat existing na-
tional and regional facilities are fully utilized. Such
institutionsalreadyexist in somecountriesand it should
be possibleto makeuseof themfor trainingpurposesand
joint researchprojects. Strengtheningof universities,
technicalschoolsand local researchinstitutionsfor the
developmentof biotechnologiesand extensionservices
for theirapplicationwill needto be developed,especially
in developingcountries.
I
Seechopter15 (Conservotion
of biologicoldiversity).
2See
chopter14 (Promoting
sustoinoble ond rurol
ogriculture
development).
3See
chopterI i (Comboting
deforestotion).
4See
chopter34 (Tronsfer soundtechnology,
of environmentolly
ond copocity-building).
cooperotion
sSee
chopter6 (Protecting
ond promotinghumonheolthcondi-
tions).
6See
of solid
soundmonogement
chopter21 {Environmentolly
issues!.
wostesond sewoge+eloted
145
'See
chopler l0 (lntegroted
opproochto the plonningond
monogement
of londresources).

SSee
chopterI B (Protection
of thequolityond supplyof freshwoter
resources:
opplicotionof integrotedopproochesto the develop
ment,monogement ond useof woter resources).

9See
chopter26 (Recognizingond strengthening
the role of
indigenous
peopleond theircommunities).

146
 17 Protection
of theoceons,oll kindsof seos,
includingenclosedond semi-enclosed seos,
ond coostoloreosond theprotection, rotionol
useond development of theirlivingresources
INTRODUCTION
17.1The marine environment- including the oceans
and all seas and adjacent coastal areas - forms an
integratedwhole that is an essentialcomponent of the
global life-supportsystemand a positiveassetthat pre-
sentsopportunitiesfor sustainabledevelopment.Interna-
tional law, as reflected in the provisions of the United
NationsConventionon the Law of the Seal'2referredto
in this chapterof Agenda 21, setsforth rights and obli-
gations of States and provides the international basis
upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable
developmentof the marine and coastalenvironmentand
This requiresnewapproaches
its resources. to marineand
coastal area managementand development,at the na-
tional, subregional,regional and global levels, ap-
proachesthat are integratedin content and are precau-
tionary and anticipatory in ^ambit, as reflected in the
following programmeareas:'
(a) Integrated managementand sustainabledevelop-
ment of coastal areas,including exclusive economic
ZONCS;
(b) Marine environmentalprotection;
(c) Sustainableuse and conservationof marine livins
resourcesof the high seas;
(d) Sustainableuse and conservationof marineliving
resourcesundernationaljurisdiction;
(e) Addressingcritical uncertaintiesfor the manage-
ment of the marineenvironmentand climatechange;
(f) Strengtheninginternational,including regional,
cooperationand coordination;
(g) Sustainable developmentof small islands.
17.2 The implementationby developingcountriesof
with
the activitiessetforth below shallbe commensurate
their individual technologicaland financial capacities
and priorities in allocatingresourcesfor development
needsand ultimately dependson the technologytransfer
and financial resourcesrequired and made available to
them.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A} INTEGRATEDMANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABTE
DEVETOPftIENT
OF COASTATAND MARINE AR.EAS,
rNcruDrNG
ExctustvE
EcoNolilczoNEs
BASIS
FORACI-ION
17.3 The coastal areacontainsdiverse and productive
habitatsimportant for human settlements,development
and local subsistence.More than half the world's popu-
lation lives within 60 km of the shoreline,and this could
rise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the
world's poor are crowded in coastal areas.Coastal re-
sourcesare vital for many local communities and in-
digenouspeople.The exclusiveeconomiczone(EEZ) is
also an important marine area where the Statesmanage
the developmentand conservationof natural resources
for the benefit of their people.For small island Statesor
countries,theseare the areasmost availablefor develop-
ment activities.
17.4 Despitenational,subregional,regionaland global
efforts,currentapproachesto the managementof marine
and coastalresourceshavenot alwaysproved capableof
achieving sustainabledevelopment, and coastal re-
sourcesand the coastal environment are being rapidly
degradedand erodedin many parts of the world.
OBJECNVES
17.5 Coastal Statescommit themselvesto integrated
1 47
management and sustainabledevelopment of coastal
areasand the marine environment under their national
jurisdiction.To this end,it is necessaryto, inter alia:
(a) Providefor an integratedpolicy and decision-mak-
ing process,including all involved sectors,to promote
compatibilityand a balanceof uses;
(b) Identify existingand projectedusesof coastalareas
and their interactions;
(c) Concentrateon well-defined issues concernins
coastalmanagement;
(d) Apply preventiveand precautionaryapproachesin
project planning and implementation,including prior
assessment and systematicobservationof the impactsof
major projects;
(e) Promote the development and application of
methods, such as national resourceand environmental
accounting,that reflect changesin value resultingfrom
usesof coastaland marine areas,including pollution,
marineerosion,lossof resources andhabitatdestruction;
(0 Provide access,as far as possible,fbr concerned
individuals.groupsand organizationsto relevantinfor-
mation and opportunitiesfor consultationand participa-
tion in planning and decision-makingat appropriate
levels.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R
l7 .6 EachcoastalStateshouldconsiderestablishing,
wherenecessarystrengthenin g, appropriatecoordinating
mechanisms(suchas a high-levelpolicy planningbody)
for integratedmanagementand sustainable
of coastaland marine areasand their resources,at both
the local and nationallevels. Such mechanismsshould
include consultation,as appropriate,with the academic
and private sectors,non-governmentalorganizations,
local communities,resourceusergroups,andindigenous
people. Such nationalcoordinatingmechanismscould
provide,inter alia, for:
(a) Preparationand implementationof land and water
useand sitingpolicies;
(b) Implementationof integratedcoastaland marine
managementand sustainabledevelopmentplans and
programmesat appropriatelevels;
(c) Preparationof coastalprofiles identifying critical
ar eas ,in c l u d i n g e ro d e d z o n e s ,p h y s i cal processes,
dev elop m e n tp a tte rn s ,u s e r c o n fl i c ts and speci fi c
priorities for management,
(d) Prior environmentalimpact assessment,
observationandfollow-up of majorprojec8,includingthe
systematicincorporationof resultsin decision-making;
(e) Contingencyplansfor humaninducedand natural
148
disasters,including likely effects of potential climate
changeand sea-levelrise, as well as contingencyplans
for degradationand pollution of antllopogenic origin,
including spills of oil and othermaterials;
(0 Improvement of coastal human settlements,espe-
cially in housing,drinking water and treatmentand dis-
posalof sewage,solid wastesand industrialeffluents;
(g) Periodicassessment of the impactsof externalfac-
tors and phenomenato ensure that the objectives of
integratedmanagementand sustainabledevelopmentof
coastalareasand the marine environmentare met;
(h) Conservationand restoration of altered critical
habitats;
(i) Integration of sectoralprogrammeson sustainable
developmentfor settlements, agriculture,tourism,fish-
ing, ports and industriesaffecting the coastalarea;
0) Infrastructure adaptationand alternative employ-
ment;
(k) Human resourcedevelopmentand training;
(l ) P ubl i c educati on,aw arenessand inf or m at ion
programmes;
(m) Promotingenvironmentallysoundtechnologyand
sustainablepractices ;
(n) Developmentand simultaneous implementationof
environmentalquality criteria.
l7.7 CoastalStates,with the supportof international
organizations, upon request,shouldundertakemeasures
to maintain biological diversity and productivity of
marine speciesand habitatsunder nationaljurisdiction.
Inter alia, these measuresmight include: surveys of
or
marine biodiversity,inventoriesof endangeredspecies
and critical coastaland marine habitats;establishment
and managementof protectedareas;and supportof scien-
development
tific researchand disseminationof its results.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
17.8 CoastalStates,where necessary, shouldimprove
their capacityto collect,analyse,assessanduseinforma-
tion for sustainableuseof resources,includingenviron-
mental impacts of activities affecting the coastal and
marine areas. Information for managementpurposes
shouldreceivepriority supportin view of the intensity
and magnitude of the changesoccurring in the coastal
andmarineareas.To thisend,it is necessary to,inter alia:
(a) Developandmaintaindatabases for assessment and
managementof coastal areasand all seasand their re-
sources;
systematic (b) Develop socio-economicand environmentalindi-
cators;
(c) Conductregularenvironmentalassessment of the
stateof the environtnentof coastaland marineareas;
(d) Prepareand maintain profiles of coastal area re-
sources, activities, uses, habitats and protected areas
basedon the criteriaof sustainabledevelopment;
(e) Exchangeinformation and data.
17.9 Cooperation with developing countries, and,
whereapplicable,subregionalandregionalmechanisms,
should be strengthenedto improve their capacities to
achievethe above.
C' 'NTERNATIONAL
AND REG'ONAI.
COOPERATIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
17.10The role of internationalcooperationand coordi-
nation on a bilateral basisand, where applicable,within
a s u b r e g i o n a l ,i n t e r r e g i o n a l , r e g i o n a l o r g l o b a l
framework,is to supportand supplementnationalefforts
of coastalStatesto promote integratedmanagementand
sustainabledevelopmentof coastaland marine areas.
l7.ll States should cooperate,as appropriate,in the
preparationof national guidelinesfor integratedcoastal
zonemanagementanddevelopment,drawing on existing
experience.Aglobal conferenceto exchangeexperience
in the field could be held before 1994.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
17.12The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$6 billion includ-
ing about $50 million from the internationalcommunity
on grantor concessional terms.Theseare indicativeand
order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
reviewed by Govemments.Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional,will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B/ SC/ENIIFIC
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
MEANs
17.13States should cooperatein the developmentof
necessarycoastalsystematicobservation,researchand
informationmanagementsystems.They shouldprovide
accessto and transferenvironmentallysafetechnologies
andmethodologiesfor sustainabledevelopmentof coast-
al and marineareasto developingcountries.They should
alsodeveloptechnologies andendogenous scientificand
technological capacities.
17.14Internationalorganizations,whethersubregional,
regionalor global, asappropriate,shouldsupportcoastal
States,upon request,in theseefforts, asindicatedabove,
devotingspecialattentionto developingcountries.
C) HUMA,NRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
17.15CoastalStatesshould promote and facilitate the
organization of education and training in integrated
coastaland marine managementand sustainabledevel-
opmentfor scientists,technologists,managers(including
community-basedmanagers)and users,leaders,indige-
nous peoples,fisherfolk, women and youth, amongothers.
Managementand development,aswell asenvironmental
protectionconcernsand local planningissues.shouldbe
incorporatedin educationalcurricula and public aware-
nesscampaigns,with dueregardto traditionalecological
knowledgeand socio-culturalvalues.
17.16Internationalorganizations,whethersubregional,
regionalor global, asappropriate,shouldsupportcoastal
States,upon request,in the areasindicatedabove,devot-
ing specialattentionto developingcountries.
D) CAPACITY.BUILDING
17.17Full cooperationshouldbe extended,uponrequest,
to coastal Statesin their capacity-building efforts and,
whereappropriate,capacity-buildingshouldbe included
in bilateral and multilateral developmentcooperation.
CoastalStatesmay consider,inter alia:
(a) Ensuringcapacity-buildingat the local level;
(b) Consultingon coastaland marineissueswith local
administrations,the businesscommunity,the academic
sector,resourceusergroupsand the generalpublic;
(c) Coordinatingsectoralprogrammeswhile buildins
capacity;
(d) Identifying existing and potential capabilities,
facilities and needs for human resourcesdevelopment
and scientific and technologicalinfrastructure,
(e) Developingscientificandtechnologicalmeansand
research;
(0 Promotingand facilitating human resourcedevei-
opment and education;
(g) Supporting"centresof excellence"in integrated
coastaland marine resourcemanagement;
(h) Supportingpilot demonstrationprogrammesand
projectsin integratedcoastaland marine management.
B) r anrnE ENV|RoNMENTATPROTECTTON
BASISFORACTION
17.18 Degradation of the marine environment can result
149
from a wide range of sources.Land-basedsourcescon-
tribute 70 per cent of marine pollution. while maritime
t r ans por t a n d d u mp i n g -a t-s e aa c ti v i ti es contri bute
l0 per centeach.The contaminantsthatposethe greatest
threatto the marineenvironmentare,in variableorderof
importance apd depending on differing national or
regionalsituations,sewage,nutrients,syntheticorganic
c om pound s ,s e d i me n ts ,l i tte r a n d p l a s ti cs,metal s,
radionuclides,oil/hydrocarbons andpolycyclicaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the polluting substances
originating from land-based sources are of particular
concernto the marineenvironmentsincethey exhibit at
the sametime toxicity,persistenceandbioaccumulation
in the food chain. There is currentlyno global scheme
to addressmarinepollution from land-basedsources.
17.19Degradationof the marine environmentcan also
result from a wide rangeof activitieson land. Human
settlements, land use,constructionof coastalinfrastruc-
ture, agriculture,forestry,urban development,tourism
and industry can affect the marineenvironment. Coastal
erosionand siltationare of particularconcern.
11.20Marine pollution is also causedby shipping and
sea-based activities.Approximately600,000tons of oil
enterthe oceanseachyear as a resultof normal shipping
operations,accidentsandillegaldischarges. With respect
to offshore oil and gas activities,currently machinery
space dischargesare regulated internationally and six
regionalconventionsto controlplatformdischarges have
been under consideration. The nature and extent of
environmentalimpactsfrom offshoreoil explorationand
productionactivitiesgenerallyaccountfor a very small
proportionof marinepollution.
17.21A precautionaryand anticipatory rather than a
reactiveapproachis necessary to preventthedegradation
of the marineenvironment.This requires,inter alia,the
adoptionof precautionarymeasures,environmentalim-
pact assessments, clean production techniques,recy-
cling,wasteauditsandminimization,constructionand/or
improvementof sewagetreatmentfacilities, quality
managementcriteriafor the properhandlingof hazardous
substances, and a comprehensive approachto damaging
impacts from air. land and water. Any management
framework must include the improvementof coastal
human settlementsand the integratedmanagementand
development of coastalareas.
OBJECTIVES
17.22States,in accordancewith the provisionsof the
United Nations Conventionon the Law of the Sea on
protectionand preservationof the marineenvironment,
commit themselves,in accordancewith their policies,
priorities and resources,to prevent,reduceand control
r50
degradationof the marine environmentso as to maintain
and improve its life-supportand productivecapacities.
To this end, it is necessaryto:
(a) Apply preventive, precautionaryand anticipatory
approachesso as to avoid degradationof the marine
environment,as well as tc reducethe risk of long-term
or irreversibleadverseeffectsupon it;
(b) Ensure prior assessmentof activities that may have
significant adverseimpactsupon the marine environment,
(c) Integrateprotectionof the marineenvironmentinto
relevant general environmental, social and economic
developmentpolicies;
(d) Develop economicincentives,where appropriate,
to apply clean technologiesand other meansconsistent
with the internalizationof environmentalcosts,such as
the polluter pays principle, so as to avoid degradationof
the marine environment:
(e) Improve the living standardsof coastalpopulations,
particularly in developingcountries,so as to contribute
to reducing the degradationof the coastal and marine
environment.
17.23 Statesagreethat provision of additional financial
resources,through appropriate international mecha-
nisms, as well as accessto cleaner technologiesand
relevantresearch,would be necessaryto supportaction
by developingcountriesto implementthis commitment.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELATED
ACTIVITI
ES
D Prevention,reductionand control of degrodotionof the
morine enviro nmentfrom I ond-bosedoctivities
17.24 ln carryingout their commitrnentto dealwith degra-
dationof the marineenvironmentfrom land-basedactivities,
Statesshould take action at the national level and, where
appropriate,at theregionalandsubregionallevels,in conceft
with actionto implementprogamme areaA,andshouldtake
accountof the Monffeal Guidelinesfor the Protectionof the
Marine Environmentfrom l,and-BasedSources.
17.25To this end,States,with the supportof the relevant
internationalenvironmental,scientific,technicaland fi-
nancialorganizations, shouldcooperate,inter alia, to:
(a) Considerupdating,strengthening andextendingthe
Montreal Guidelines,as appropriate;
(b) Assessthe effectiveness of existingregionalagree-
ments and action plans, where appropriate,with a view
to identifying means of strengtheningaction, where
necessary,to prevent,reduceand control marine degra-
dationcausedby land-basedactivities;
(c) Initiate and promote the developmentof new
regional agreements,where appropriate;
 (d) Developmeansof providing guidanceon technol-
ogies to deal with the major types of pollution of the
marineenvironmentfrom land-basedsources.accordins
to the bestscientificevidence;
(e) Developpolicy guidancefor relevantglobal fund-
ing mechanisms;
(f) Identify additional steps requiring international
cooperation.
17.26The UNEP GoverningCouncil is invited to con-
vene,as soonas practicable.an intergovernmentalmeet-
ing on protectionof the marine environmentfrom land-
basedactivities.
17.27As concernssewage,priority actionsto be con-
sideredby Statesmay include:
(a) Incorporatingsewageconcernswhen formulating
or reviewing coastal developmentplans, including
humansettlementplans;
( b ) B u i l d i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n gs e w a g et r e a t m e n t
facilitiesin accordancewith nationalpoliciesandcapac-
ities and internationalcooperationavailable;
(c) Locating coastaloutfalls so as to maintain an ac-
ceptablelevel of environmentalquality and to avoid
exposingshellfisheries,waterintakesand bathingareas
to pathogens;
(d) Promotingenvironmentallysoundco-treatments of
domesticand compatibleindustrialeffluents,with the
introduction,wherepracticable,of controlson the entry
of effluentsthat are not compatiblewith the system;
(e) Promotingprimary treatmentof municipalsewage
dischargedto rivers,estuariesand the sea,or othersolu-
tions appropriateto specificsites;
(0 Establishingand improving local, national, sub-
regional and regional, as necessary,regulatory and
monitoring programmesto control effluent discharge,
using minimum sewageeffluent guidelinesand water
quality criteria and giving due considerationto the
characteristics of receivins bodiesand the volume and
type of pollutants.
17.28As concernsother sourcesof pollution, priority
actionsto be consideredby Statesmay include:
(a) Establishingor improving,asnecessary, regulatory
and monitoring programmesto control effluent dis-
chargesand emissions,including the developmentand
applicationof control and recyclingtechnologies;
(b) Promotingrisk and environmentalimpact assess-
mentsto helpensureanacceptable levelof environmental
quality:
(c) Promoting assessmentand cooperationat the
regional level, where appropriate,with respectto the
input of point sourcepollutantsfrom new installations;
(d) Eliminating the emissionor dischargeof organo-
halogen compounds that threaten to accumulateto
dangerouslevelsin the marineenvironment;
(e) Reducingthe emissionor dischargeof other syn-
theticorganiccompoundsthat threatento accumulateto
dangerouslevelsin the marineenvironment;
(0 Promoting controls over anthropogenicinputs of
nitrogenand phosphorusthat entercoastalwaterswhere
such problems as eutrophicationthreatenthe marine
environmentor its resources;
(g) Cooperatingwith developingcountries,through
financialandtechnologicalsupport,to maximizethebest
practicablecontrol and reductionof substancesand
wastesthat aretoxic, persistentor liable to bio-acculnu-
late and to establishenvironmentallysoundland-based
wastedisposalalternativesto seadumping;
(h) Cooperatingin the developmentand implementa-
tion of environmentallysoundland-usetechniquesand
practicesto reducerun-offto water-courses andestuaries
which wouldcausepollutionordegradationof themarine
environment;
(i) Promotingthe useof environmentallylessharmful
pesticidesandfertilizersandalternativemethodsfor pest
control, and consideringthe prohibitionof thosefound
to be environmentallyunsound;
0) Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional
and regionallevelsfor controllingthe input of non-point
sourcepollutants,whichrequirebroadchangesin sewage
and wastemanagement,agriculturalpractices,mining,
constructionand transportation.
17.29As concernsphysical destructionof coastaland
marineareascausingdegradationof the marineenviron-
ment,priority actionsshouldincludecontrolandpreven-
tion of coastalerosionand siltationdueto anthropogenic
factorsrelatedto, inter alia,land-use and construction
techniquesand practices.Watershedmanagementprac-
tices should be promotedso as to prevent,control and
reducedegradationof the marineenvironment.
> Prevention,reductionond controlof degradotionof the
marine environment from seo-bosedactivit-t
es
17.30States,acting individually,bilaterally,regionally
or multilaterallyand within the frameworkof IMO and
other relevantinternationalorganizations,
whethersub-
regional,regionalor global,asappropriate,shouldassess
the needfor additionalmeasuresto addressdesradation
of the marineenvironment:
A) FROMSHIPPING,
BY:
(i) Supportingwiderratificationandimplementationof
relevantshippingconventionsand protocols;
(ii) Facilitatingthe processesin (i), providing support
to individualStatesupon requestto help them overcome
the obstaclesidentifiedbv them:
t5t
(iii) Cooperatingin monitoring marine pollution from
ships,especiallyfrom illegal discharges(e.g.,aerialsur-
veillance),andenforcingMARPOL di schargeprovisions
more rigorously,
(iv) Assessingthe stateof pollution causedby shipsin
particularlysensitiveareasidentihedby IMO andtaking
action to implen-rent applicablemeasures,whereneces-
sary, within such areas to ensure compliance with
generallyacceptedinternationalregulations;
(v) Takingactionto ensurerespectof areasdesignated
by coastalStates,within their exclusiveeconomiczones,
consistentwith internationallaw, in order to protectand
preserverare or fragile ecosystems,such as coral reefs
and mangroves;
(vi) Consideringthe adoptionof appropriaterules on
ballastwater dischargeto preventthe spreadof non-
indigenousorganisms;
(vii) Promotingnavigationalsafetyby adequate charting
of coastsand ship-routittg,as appropriate;
(viii) Assessingthe needfor stricterinternationalregula-
tionsto furtherreducethe risk of accidentsandpollution
from cargoships(includingbulk caniers);
(ix) EncouragingIMO and IAEA to work togetherto
complete considerationof a code on the carriage of
inadiatednuclearfuel in flaskson boarclships;
(x) Revisingand updatingthe IMO Codeof Safetyfor
Nuclear Merchant Ships and consideringhow best to
implementa revisedcode;
(xi) Supportingtheongoingactivitywithin IMO regard-
ing developmentof appropriatemeasuresfor reducins
air pollution from ships;
( x ii) S u p p o rti n gth e o n g o i n g a c ti v i ty w i thi n IMO
regarding the development of an international regime
governingthe transponationof hazardousand noxious
substances carriedby shipsandfurtherconsideringwhether
thecompensation fundssimilarto theonesestablished under
the Fund Conventionwould be appropriatein respectof
pollutiondamagecausedby substances otherttranoil;
B) FROM
DUMPING,
BY;
(i) Supportingwider ratification,implementationand
participationin relevantConventionson dumpingat sea,
including early conclusionof a future strategyfor the
London Dumping Convention;
(ii) Encouragingthe LondonDumpingConventionpar-
ties to take appropriatestepsto stopoceandumpingand
incinerationof hazardoussubstances :
C) FROM
OFFSHORE BY:
OILANDGASPI,ATFORMS,
(i) Assessingexisting regulatorymeasuresto address
discharges, the need
emissionsand safetyand assessing
for additionalmeasures:
152
D) FROM
PORTS,
BY:
(i) Facilitatingestablishment ofportreceptionfacilities
for the collection of oily and chemical residuesand
garbagefrom ships,especiallyin MARPOLspecial areas,
and promoting the establishmentof smaller scale
facilitiesin marinasand fishing harbours.
17.31IMO and as appropriate,other competentUnited
Nations organizations,when requestedby the States
concerned,shouldassess,where appropriate,the stateof
marine pollution in areasof congestedshipping,such as
heavilyusedinternationalstraits,with a view to ensuring
compliance with generally acceptedinternationalregu-
lations, particularly those related to illegal discharges
from ships,in accordancewith the provisionsof Part III
of the United NationsConventionon the Law of the Sea.
17.32Statesshouldtake measuresto reducewater pol-
lution causedby organotincompoundsused in anti-
fouling paints.
17.33StatesshouldconsiderratifyingtheConventionon
Oil PollutionPreparedness, Responseand Cooperation,
which addresses, inter alia, the developmentof contin-
gency plans on the national and internationallevel, as
appropriate,including provision of oil-spill response
rnaterialand trainingof personnel,includingits possible
extensionto chemicalspill response.
17.34Statesshould intensify internationalcooperation
to strengthenor establish,where necessary,regional
oiVchemical-spillresponsecentresand/or,as appropriate,
mechanismsin cooperationwith relevant subregional,
regionalor global intergovernmental organizationsand,
whereappropriate,industry-based organizations.
AND 'NFORMAilON
B) DATA,
17.35Statesshould,as appropriate,and in accordance
with the meansat their disposaland with due regardfor
their technical and scientific capacity and resources,
make systematicobservationson the stateof the marine
environment.To this end, Statesshould, as appropriate,
consider:
(a) Establishingsystematicobservationsystemsto
measuremarineenvironmentalquality,includingcauses
and effectsof marinedegradation,as a basisfor manage-
ment;
(b) Regularly exchanginginformation on marine deg-
radationcausedby land-basedand sea-based activities
and on actions to prevent, control and reduce such
degradation;
(c) Supporting and expanding international pro-
grammesfor systematicobservationssuchas the mussel
watch prograrnme,building on existing facilities with
specialattentionto developingcountries;
(d) Establishinga clearing-houseon marinepollution
control information, including processesand technol-
ogiesto addressmarinepollution control and to support
their transferto developingcountriesandothercountries
with demonstrated needs;
(e) Establishinga globalprofileanddatabase providing
information on the sources,types, amounts and effects
of pollutantsreachingthe marineenvironmentfrom land-
basedactivitiesin coastalareasand sea-based sources;
(f) Allocating adequatefunding for capacity-building
and training programmesto ensurethe full participation
of developingcountries,in particular,in anyintemational
schemeunderthe organsand organizationsof the United
Nationssystemfor thecollection,analysisanduseof data
and information.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
17.36The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programrleto be about$200million
from the internationalcommunity on grant or conces-
sional terms.Theseare indicative and order-of--magni-
tude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,including
any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter
alia, the specific strategiesand programrnesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
MFANS
AND TECHNOT.OG\CAL
8/ SCTENT/F/C
1 7 . 3 7N a t i o n a l , s u b r e g i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l a c t i o n
programmeswill, whereappropriate,requiretechnology
transfer,in conformity with chapter 31, and financial
resources,parlicularly where developingcountriesare
concerned. including:
(a) Assistanceto industriesin identifyingand adopting
cleanproductionor cost-eff'ective pollutioncontroltech-
nologies;
(b) Planningdevelopmentand applicationof low-cost
and low-maintenancesewageinstallationand treatment
technologiesfor developingcountries;
(c) Equipmentof laboratoriesto observesystematically
humanand otherimpactson the marineenvironment;
(d) Identificationof appropriateoil- andchemical-spill
control materials,including low-cost locally available
materialsandtechniques,suitablefor pollutionemergen-
ci esin dev elopin cg o u n tri e s .
(e) Study of the use of persistentorganohalogens
are liable to accumulatein the marine environmentto
identify those that cannot be adequatelycontrolled and
to provide a basisfor a decisionon a time schedulefor
phasingthem out as soonas practicable;
(0 Establishmentof a clearing-housefor information
on rnarine pollution control, including processesand
technologiesto addressmarine pollution control, and
support for their transfer to developing and other
countrieswith demonstratedneeds.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
17.38Statesindividually or in cooperationwith each
other and with the supportof internationalorganizations,
whether subregional,regional or global, as appropriate,
should:
(a) Provide training for critical personnelrequiredfor
the adequateprotectionof the marine environmentas
identified by training needs' surveys at the national,
regionalor subregionallevels;
(b) Promotethe introduction of marine environmental
protectiontopics into the curriculum of marine studies
programmes;
(c) Establishtraining coursesfor oil- and chemical-
spill responsepersonnel,in cooperation,whereappropri-
ate,with the oil and chemicalindustries;
(d) Conduct workshopson environmentalaspectsof
port operationsand development;
(e) Strengthenand provide securefinancing for new
and existing specializedinternationalcentresof profes-
sionalmaritimeeducation;
(0 Throughbilateralandmultilateralcooperation,sup-
port and supplementthe nationalefforts of developing
countries as regardshuman resourcedevelopmentin
relationto preventionandreductionof degradation of the
marineenvironment.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
17.39Nationalplanningandcoordinatingbodiesshould
be given the capacityand authorityto review all land-
basedactivitiesand sourcesof pollutionfor their impacts
on the marine environment and to proposeappropriate
control measures.
17.40Researchfacilities should be strengthenedor,
whereappropriate,developedin developingcountriesfor
systematicobservationof marinepollution,environmen-
tal impact assessmentand developmentof control rec-
ommendationsand should be managed and staffed by
local experts.
that 17.41Specialarrangementswill be neededto provide
adequatefinancial and technical resourcesto assist
r53
developingcountriesin preventingand solvingproblems
associatedwith activitiesthat threatenthe marineenvi-
ronment.
17.42An intemationalfunding mechanismshould be
createdfor the applicationof appropriatesewagetreat-
ment technologiesand buildittg sewage treatment
facilities,including grantsor concessionalloansfrom
international agenciesand appropriateregional funds,
replenishedat leastin part on a revolvingbasisby user
fees.
17.43ln carrying out theseprogrammeactivities,par-
ticular attention needs to be given to the problems of
developingcountriesthat would bear an unequalburden
becauseof their lack of facilities,expertiseor technical
capacities.
c) SusrArNABrE usE AND CONSERVATIONOF
OF THE I{IGH SEAS
fiTAHNE LIVING RESOURCES
FORACTION
BASIS
11.44Over the last decade,fisherieson the high seas
have considerablyexpandedand currently represent
approximately5 per cent of total world landings. The
provisionsof the United Nations Conventionon the
Law of the Sea on the marine living resourcesof the
high seassetsforth rights and obligationsof Stateswith
respect to conservationand utilization of those re-
sources.
17.45However,managementof high seasfisheries,in-
cluding the adoption, monitoring and enforcement of
effectiveconservationmeasures,is inadequatein many
areas and some resourcesare overutilized. There are
problemsof unregulatedfishing, overcapitalization, ex-
cessivefleet size, vesselreflaggingto escapecontrols,
insufficiently selectivegear, unreliabledatabasesand
lack of sufficientcooperationbetweenStates.Action by
Stateswhose nationalsand vesselsfish on the high
s eas ,as w e l l a s c o o p e ra ti o na t th e bi l ateral , sub-
regional,regional and global levels, is essentialpar-
ticularly for highly migratory speciesand straddling
stocks. Such action and cooperationshould address
inadequacies in fishing practices,aswell as in biologi-
cal knowledge,fisheriesstatisticsand improvementof
systemsfor handlingdata.Emphasisshouldalsobe on
multi-speciesmanagementand other approachesthat
take into account the relationshipsamong species,
especiallyin addressingdepletedspecies,but also in
identifyingthe potentialof underutilizedor unutilized
populations.
154
OBJECTIVES
17.46Statescommit themselvesto the conservationand
sustainableuse of marine living resourceson the high
seas.To this end,it is necessaryto:
(a) Developand increasethe potentialof marineliving
resourcesto meet human nutritional needs,as well as
social,economicand developmentgoals;
(b) Maintain or restorepopulationsof marine species
at levelsthatcanproducethe maximumsustainable yield
as qualified by relevant environmental and economic
factors, taking into considerationrelationshipsamong
species;
(c) Promotethe developmentand useof selectivefish-
ing gearand practicesthat minimize wastein the catch
of target speciesand minimrze by-catch of non-target
species;
(d) Ensureeffective monitoring and enforcementwith
respectto fishing activities;
(e) Protectand restoreendangeredmarinespecies;
(f) Preservehabitatsand other ecologicallysensitive
areas;
(g) Promote scientific researchwith respectto the
marineliving resourcesin the high seas.
17.47Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts the
right of a State or the competenceof an international
organization,asappropriate,to prohibit, limit or tegulate
the exploitation of marine mammals on the high seas
more strictly thanprovidedfor in that paragraph.States
shall cooperatewith a view to the conservationof
marine mammalsand, in the caseof cetaceans,shall
i n parti cul ar w ork through the appropr iat eint er -
nationalorganizations for their conservation,manage-
ment and study.
17.48The ability of developingcountriesto fulfil the
above objectivesis dependentupon their capabilities,
including the tinancial, scientific and technological
meansat theirdisposal.Adequatefinancial,scientificand
technologicalcooperationshouldbe providedto support
actionby them to implementtheseobjectives.
ACTIVITIES
EDACTIVlTtES
ELAT
A) MANAGEMENT-R
17.49States should take effective action, including
bilateral and multilateral cooperation,where appropriate
at the subregional,regionaland global levels,to ensure
that high seasfisheriesare managedin accordancewith
the provisionsof the United NationsConventionon the
Law of the Sea.In particular,they should:
(a) Give f'ull effect to theseprovisionswith regardto
fisheriespopulationswhoserangeslie both within and
beyondexclusiveeconomiczones(straddlingstocks);
 (b) Give full effect to theseprovisionswith regardto
highly migratoryspecies;
(c) Negotiate,where appropriate,internationalagree-
mentsfor the effective managementand conservationof
fishery stocks;
(d) Define and identify appropriatemanagementunits;
17.50Statesshould convene,as soon as possible,an
intergovernmentalconference under United Nations
auspices,taking into accountrelevantactivities at the
subregional,regionaland global levels,with a view to
promotingeffectiveimplementationof the provisionsof
the United NationsConventionon the Law of the Seaon
straddlingfish stocksand highly rnigratorylish stocks.
The conference,drau,ing,inter alia, on scientific and
technical studiesby FAO, should identify and assess
existing problems related to the conservationand
managementof suchfish stocks,and considermeansof
improving cooperationon fisheriesamong States,and
formulate appropriaterecofilrnendations.The work and
the resultsof the conferenceshould be fully consistent
with the provisionsof the United NationsConventionon
theLaw of theSea,in particulartherightsandobligations
of coastalStatesand Statesfishing on the high seas.
17.51Statesshouldensurethatfishingactivitiesby ves-
sels flying their flags on the high seastake place in a
mannerso as to minimizeincidentalcatches.
17.52Statesshouldtake effectiveactionconsistentwith
internationallaw to monitorandcontrolfishingactivities
by vesselsflying their flags on the high seasto ensure
compliancewith applicableconservationand manage-
ment rules,including full, detailed,accurateand timely
reportingof catchesand effort.
17.53Statesshouldtakeeffectiveaction,consistentwith
internationallaw, to deterreflaggingof vesselsby their
nationalsasa meansof avoidingcompliancewith applic-
able conservationand managementrules for fishing
activitieson the high seas.
17.54Statesshouldprohibitdynamiting,poisoningand
othercomparabledestructivefishing practices.
17.55Statesshouldfully implementGeneralAssembly
resofution 461215on large-scale pelagrcdrift-netfishing.
17.-56Statesshouldtake measuresto increasethe availa-
bility of marineliving resources ashumanfood by reducing
wastage,post-harvestlossesand discards,and improving
techniques of processi ng, distribution and transportation.
B ) DA T AA ND / NF O R M AT ION
17.57States.with the supporlof internationalorgan-
izations, whether subregional,regionalor global, as
appropriate,shouldcooperateto:
(a) Promoteenhancedcollectionof datanecessaryfor
the conservationand sustainableuseof the marinelivine
resourcesof the high seas;
(b) Exchangeon a regular basisup-to-datedata and
informationadequatefor fisheriesassessment;
(c) Developand shareanalyticaland predictivetools,
suchas stockassessment and bioeconomicmodels;
(d) Establishor expand appropriatenronitoring and
assessmentprogrammes.
c/ /NIERNAI/ONAL
AND REGIONAI
COOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON
17.58States,through bilateraland multilateralcooper-
ation and within the frarnewclrkof subregionaland
regional fisheriesbodies,as appropriate,and with the
supportof other intemationalintergovernmental agen-
cies, should assesshigh seasresourcepotentialsand
develop profiles of all stocks(targetand non-target).
17.59Statesshould, where and as appropriate,ensure
adequatecoordinationand cooperationin enclosedand
semi-enclosedseasand betweensubregional,regional
and global intergovemmental fisheriesbodies.
I 7.60 Effectivecooperationwithin existingsubregional,
regionalor globalfisheriesbodiesshouldbe encouraged.
Where suchorganizations do not exist,Statesshould,as
appropriate,cooperateto establishsuchorganizations.
17.61 Stateswith aninterestin ahigh seasfisheryregulated
by an existing subregionaland/or regional high seas
fisheriesorganizationof whichtheyarenot membersshould
be encouraged to join thatorganization.whereappropriate.
17.62Statesrecognize:
(a) The responsibilityof theInternationalWhalingCom-
mission fbr the conservationand marlagementof whale
stocksand the regulationof whaling pursuantto the 1946
InternationalConventiontbr the Regulationof Whaling;
(b) The work of theIntemationalWhalingCommission
Scientific Cornmitteein carrying out studiesof large
whalesin particular,as well as of othercetaceans;
(c) The work of otherorganizations,suchas the Inter-
AmericanTropicalTunaCommissionandtheAgreement
on Small Cetaceans in theBaltic andNorth Seaunderthe
Bonn Convention,in the conservation, managementand
studyof cetaceansand othermarinemammals.
17.63States should cooperatefor the conservation,
managementand studyof cetaceans.
MEANSOF I,\\PLEMENTATION
Aj F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
17.64 The Conferencesecretariat
hasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
r55
activitiesof this programmeto be about$12 million from
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms.Theseare indicative and order-of-magnitudeesti-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecide
upon for implementation.
8/ S C/ E NIF tCA N D T EC H N O L OG| CME
AL AN S
17.65States,with the supportof relevantinternational
organizations, wherenecessary, shoulddevelopcollabo-
rative technical and researchprograffImesto improve
understanding of the life cyclesandmigrationsof species
found on the high seas,including identifying critical areas
and life stages.
17.66States,with the supportof relevantinternational
organizations,whether subregional,regional or global,
as appropriate,should:
(a) Develop databaseson the high seasmarine living
resourcesand fisheries:
(b) Collect and correlatemarine environmentaldata
with high seasmarineliving resources data,includingthe
impactsof regionaland globalchangesbroughtaboutby
naturalcausesand by humanactivities;
(c) Cooperatein coordinatingresearchprogrammesto
provide the knowledge necessaryto managehigh seas
resources.
DEVELOPMENT
C) HUMANRESOURCE
17.67Humanresourcedevelopmentat the nationallevel
strouldbe targetedat both developmentand management
of high seasresources,including training in high seas
fishing techniquesand in high seasresourceassessment.
strengthening cadresof personnelto deal with high seas
resourcemanagement andconservationandrelatedenvi-
ronmentalissues,and training observersand inspectors
to be placedon fishing vessels.
D) CA P A C IT Y -BU IL D IN G
17.68States,with the support, where appropriate,of
r elev ant in te rn a ti o n a lo rg a n i z a ti o n s ,w hether sub-
regional,regionalor global,shouldcooperateto develop
or upgradesystemsand institutionalstructuresfor moni-
toring, control and surveillance,as well as the research
capacityfor assessment of marineliving resourcepopu-
lations.
156
17.69Special support, including cooperationamong
States, will be needed to enhancethe capacitiesof
developingcountriesin theareasof dataandinformation,
scientificand technologicalmeans,and humanresource
developmentin order to participateeffectively in the
conservationand sustainableutilization of high seas
marineliving resources.
Dl susrArNABtE usE AND CoNSERVATIONOF
MARINE TIVING RESOURCES UNDER
NATIONATJURISDICTION
BASIS
FORACTION
17.70Marine fisheriesyield 80 to 90 million tons of
fish and shellfishper/year,95 percentof which is taken
from waters under nationaljurisdiction. Yields have
increasednearly fivefold over the past four decades.
The provisionsof the United Nations Conventionon
the Law of the Sea on marine living resourcesof the
exclusive economic zone and other areasunder na-
tional jurisdiction set forth rights and obligationsof
Stateswith respectto conservationand utilization of
thoseresources.
17.71Marine living resourcesprovide an important
sourceof proteinin many countriesand their useis often
of majorimportanceto localcommunitiesandindigenous
people. Such resourcesprovidefood and livelihoodsto
millions of peopleand, if sustainablyutilized,offer in-
creasedpotentialto meet nutritional and social needs,
particularly in developingcountries.To realize this
potential requiresimproved knowledgeand identifica-
tion of marine living resourcestocks, particularly of
underutilizedand unutilizedstocksand species,useof
new technol ogi es,better handl i ng and pr ocessing
facilities to avoid wastage,and improvedquality and
training of skilled personnelto manageand conserve
effectivelythe marine living resourcesof the exclusive
economiczone and other areasunder nationaljurisdic-
tion. Emphasisshouldalsobe on multi-speciesmanage-
ment and other approachesthat take into account the
relationships amongspecies.
17.72Fisheriesin many areasundernationaljurisdiction
face mounting problems. including local overfishing,
unauthorizedincursionsby foreign fleets, ecosystem
degradation, overcapitalizationandexcessivefleet sizes,
underevaluationof catch. insufficiently selectivegear,
unreliable databases,and increasingcompetition be-
tween artisanal and large-scalefishing, and between
fishing and othertypesof activities.
17.73Problemsextendbeyondfisheries.Coralreef'sand
othermarineandcoastalhabitats,suchasmangrovesand
estuaries,are amongthe most highly diverse,integrated
and productive of the Earth's ecosystems. They often
serve important ecological functions, provide coastal
protection, and are critical resourcesfor food, energy,
tourism and economic development. In many parts of
the world, such marine and coastal systemsare under
stressor are threatenedfrom a varietv of sources.Lroth
human and natural.
OBJECTIVES
17.74CoastalStates,particularlydevelopingcountries
and Stateswhose economiesare overwhelminglyde-
pendenton theexploitationof themarineliving resources
of their exclusiveeconomiczones,shouldobtainthe full
socialandeconomicbenefitsfrom sustainable utilization
of marine living resourceswithin their exclusiveeco-
nomic zonesand other areasunder nationaljurisdiction.
17.75Statescommit themselvesto the conservationand
sustainable useof marineliving resources undernational
jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessaryto:
(a) Developandincreasethe potentialof marineliving
resourcesto meet human nutritional needs,as well as
social,economicand developmentgoals;
(b) Takeinto accounttraditionalknowledgeand inter-
estsof local communities,small-scaleartisanalflsheries
and indigenouspeoplein developmentandmanagernent
programmes;
(c) Maintain or restorepopulationsof marinespeciesat
levelsthat can producethe maximum sustainable yield as
qualifiedby relevantenvironmentalandeconomicfactors,
taking into considerationrelationshipsamongspecies;
(d) Promotethe developmentand useof selectivefish-
ing gear and practicesthat minimize wastein the catch
of target speciesand minimize by-catch of non-target
species;
(e) Protectand restoreendangered marinespecies;
(0 Preserverare or fragile ecosystems,as well as
habitatsand otherecologicallysensitiveareas.
17.76Nothing in paragraphI1.15 aboverestrictsthe
right of a coastalStateor the competenceof an inter-
nationalorganization,as appropriate,to prohibit,limit
or regulate the exploitation of marine marrunalsmore
strictly than providedfor in that paragraph.Statesshall
cooperatewith a view to the conservationof marine
mammalsand in the caseof cetaceansshallin particular
work throughthe appropriateinternationalorganizations
for their conservation,managementand study.
17.71The ability of developingcountriesto fulfil the
above objectivesis dependentupon their capabilities,
including the financial, scientific and technological
meansat their disposal. Adequatefinancial, scientific
and technologicalcooperationshould be provided to
supportactionby them to implementtheseobjectives.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELATED
ACTIVITIES
17.78Statesshouldensurethat marineliving resources
of the exclusiveecononriczone and other areasunder
nationaljurisdiction are conservedand managedin ac-
cordancewith the provisionsof the UnitedNationsCon-
ventionon the Law of the Sea.
17.79States,in implementingthe provisionsof the
UnitedNationsConventionon theLaw of the Sea,should
addressthe issues of straddling stocks and highly
migratory species,and, taking fully into account the
objectivesetout in paragraph17,74,accessto the surplus
of aliowablecatches.
17.80CoastalStates,individually or through bilateral
and/ormultilateralcooperationand with the support,as
appropriateof internationalorganizations, whethersub-
regional,regionalor global,shouldinter alia:
(a) Assessthe potential of marine living resources,
includingunderutilizedor unutilizedstocksand species,
by developinginventories,where necessary,for their
conservationand sustainableuse'
(b) Implement strategiesfor the sustainableuse of
marineliving resources,taking into accountthe special
needsandinterestsof small-scaleartisanalfisheries,local
communitiesand indigenouspeopleto meethuman nu-
tritional and other developmentneeds;
(c) Implement,in particularin developingcountries,
mechanismsto develop rnariculture,aquacultureand
small-scale,deep-seaand oceanicfisherieswithin areas
undernationaljurisdictionwhereassessments show that
marineliving resourcesare potentiallyavailable;
(d) Strengthentheir legal and regulatoryframeworks,
whereappropriate,including management,enforcement
andsurveillance capabilities,
to regulateactivitiesrelated
to the abovestrategies:
(e) Takemeasures to increasetheavailabilityof marine
living resourcesas human food by reducing wastage,
post-harvestlossesand discards.and improving tech-
niquesof processing,distributionand transportation;
(0 Develop and promote the use of environrnentally
sound technology under criteria compatible with the
sustainableuse of marine living resources,including
assessment of the environmentalirnpactof major new
fishery practices;
(g) Enhancethe productivity and utilization of their
marineliving resourcesfor food and income.
17.81C oastal S tates shoul d expl ore the scope f or
expandingrecreationaland tourist activities basedon
marine living resources,including those fbr providing
alternativesourcesof income.Such activitiesshouldbe
compatiblewith conservationand sustainabledevelop-
ment policiesand plans.
157
17.82CoastalStatesshouldsupportthe sustainabilityof
small-scaleartisanalfisheries.To this end, they should,
as appropriate:
(a) Integrate small-scaleartisanaltisheries develop-
ment in marineandcoastalplanning,taking into account
the interestsand, whereappropriate,encouragingrepre-
s ent at iono f fi s h e rme n , s m a l l -s c a l efi sherw orkers,
women,local communitiesand indigenouspeople;
(b) Recognizetherightsof small-scale fishworkersand
the specialsituationof indigenouspeopleandlocal com-
munities,includingtheir rights to utilizationand protec-
tion of their habitatson a sustainable basis;
(c) Developsystemsfor the acquisitionand recording
of traditionalknowledgeconcerningmarine living re-
sourcesand environmentand promotethe incorporation
of suchknowledgeinto managementsystems.
17.83CoastalStatesshouldensurethat, in the negotia-
tion and implementationof internationalagreementson
the developmentor conservationof marine living re-
sources,the interestsof local communitiesand indige-
nous people are taken into account,in particulartheir
right to subsistence.
17.84CoastalStates,with the support,asappropriate,of
internationalorganizationsshould conduct analysesof
the potentialfor aquacultureitr marineand coastalareas
under nati o n a l j u ri s d i c ti o n a n d a p p l y appropri ate
safeguards as to the introductionof new species.
17.85Statesshouldprohibitdynamiting,poisoningand
othercomparabledestructivefishing practices.
17.86Statesshouldidentifymarineecosystems exhibit-
ing high levelsof biodiversityandproductivityandother
critical habitatareasand shouldprovidenecessarylimi-
tationson use in theseareas.through,inter alia, desig-
nation of protectedareas. Priority shouldbe accorded,
as appropriate,to:
(a) Coral reef ecosystems;
(b) Estuaries;
(c) Temperateandtropicalwetlands,includingmangroves;
(d) Seagrass beds:
(e) Other spawningand nurseryareas.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
17.87States,individuallyor throughbilateralandmulti-
lateralcooperationand with the support,as appropriate,
of internationalorganizations,whether subregional,
regionalor global,should:
(a) Promoteenhancedcollectionand exchangeof data
necessaryfor the conservationand sustainableuseof the
marineliving resourcesundernationaljurisdiction;
(b) Exchangeon a regular basis up-to-datedata and
informationnecessaryfor fisheriesassessment;
r58
(c) Develop and shareanalyticaland predictivetools,
suchas stockassessment and bioeconomicmodels;
(d) Establishor expand appropriatemonitoring and
assessment programmes ;
(e) Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine
living resourceand critical habitat profiles of exclusive
economiczonesand otherareasundernationaljurisdic-
tion, taking account of changesin the environment
broughtaboutby naturalcausesand humanactivities.
c/ /NTERNAilONAT.
AND REG'ON,AI
COOPERAIION AND COORD'NAI'ON
17.88States,throughbilateraland multilateralcooper-
ation, and with the support of relevant United Nations
and other internationalorganizations,should cooperate
to:
(a) Developfinancialand technicalcooperationto en-
hance the capacitiesof developingcountriesin small-
scaleandoceanicfisheries,aswell asin coastalaquacul-
ture and mariculture;
(b) Promotethecontributionof marineliving resources
to eliminate malnutrition and to achievefood self-suffi-
ciencyin developingcountries,interalia,by minimizing
post-harvestlossesand managingstocksfor guaranteed
sustainable yields:
(c) Develop agreedcriteria for the use of selective
fishing gearand practicesto minimize wastein the catch
of target speciesand minimize by-catch of non-target
species;
(d) Promote seafoodquality, including through na-
tional quality assurancesystemsfor seafood,in order to
promote accessto markets, improve consumer con-
fidenceand maximizeeconomicreturns.
17.89Statesshould, where and as appropriate,ensure
adequatecoordinationand cooperationin enclosedand
semi-enclosedseasand between subregional,regional
and global intergovernmental fisheriesbodies.
17.90Statesrecognize:
(a) The responsibility of the InternationalWhaling
Commissionfor the conservationand managementof
whale stocks and the regulation of whaling pursuantto
the 1946InternationalConventionfor the Resulationof
Whaling;
(b) The work of the InternationalWhalingCommission
Scientific Committee in carrying out studies of large
whalesin particular,as well as of othercetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations,such as the Inter-
AmericanTropicalTunaCommissionandtheAgreement
on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic andNorth Seaunderthe
Bonn Convention,in theconservation, managementand
study of cetaceansand other marine mammals.
17.91States should cooperatefor the conservation,
managementand studyof cetaceans.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
17.92The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about $6 billion,
including about$60 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments. Actualcostswill depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ SCrENrrFtC
AND TECHNOIOG\CAL
MEANS
17.93States,with the supportof relevantintergovern-
mental organizations,as appropriate,should:
(a) Provide for the transferof environmentally sound
technologiesto develop fisheries, aquacultureand
mariculture,particularlyto developingcountries;
(b) Accord specialattentionto mechanismsfor trans-
ferring resourceinformation and improved fishing and
aquaculturetechnologiesto fishing communitiesat the
local level;
(c) Promotethe study,scientific assessment and useof
appropriatetraditional managementsystems;
(d) Considerobserving,as appropriate,the FAOACES
Codeof Practicefor Considerationof Transferand Intro-
duction of Marine and FreshwaterOrganisms;
(e) Promotescientificresearchon marineareasof par-
ticular importancefor marine living resources,such as
areasof high diversity,endemismand productivity and
migratorystopoverpoints.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
17.94Statesindividually,or throughbilateraland multi-
lateral cooperationand with the supportof relevantin-
ternationalorganizations,whethersubregional,regional
or global, as appropriate,shouldencourageand provide
supportfor developingcountrtes,inter alia, to:.
(a) Expand multidisciplinaryeducation,training and
researchon marine living resources,particularlyin the
socialand economicsciences;
(b) Create training opportunities at national and re-
gional levelsto supportartisanal(includingsubsistence)
fisheries,to develop small-scaleuse of marine living
resourcesand to encourageequitableparticipationof-
local communities,small-scalefish workers.womenand
indigenouspeople;
(c) Introduce topics relating to the importanceof
marine living resourcesin educationalcurricula at all
levels.
D) CAPACTTY-BUILD|NG
17.95CoastalStates,with the supportof relevantsub-
regional,regionaland global agencies,where appropri-
ate,should:
(a) Develop researchcapacitiesfor assessmentof
marineliving resourcepopulationsand monitoring;
(b) Provide support to local fishing communities,in
particularthosethat rely on tishing for subsistence, in-
digenouspeopleand women, including,as appropriate.
the technicaland financialassistance to organize,main-
tain, exchangeand improve traditional knowledge of
marine living resourcesand fishing techniques,and
upgradeknowledgeon marineecosystems;
(c) Establish sustainableaquaculturedevelopment
strategies,includingenvironmental management in sup-
port of rural fish-farmingcommunities;
(d) Developand strengthen, wherethe needmay arise,
institutionscapableof implementingthe objectives and
activitiesrelatedto the conseruationand manasementof
marineliving resources.
17.96S peci alsupport,i ncl udi ngcooperati onatn ong
States,will be neededto enhancetl-recapacitiesof
devel opi ngcountri esi n the areasof dataand i nfb r m a-
ti on, sci enti fi cand technol ogi calmeansand hum an
resourcedevel opmenti n cl rderto enabl e theln t o
participateeffectivelyin the conservationand sustain-
able use of marine livinc resourcesunder national
jurisdiction.
E) ADDRESSTNG
CR|T|CATUNCERTATNTTES
FOR
THE'VIANAGEMENT
OF THEMARINE
ENVIRONMENTAND CLIIAATE
CHANGE
BASIS
FORACTION
17.97The marineenvironmentis vulnerableand sensi-
tive to climate and atmosphencchanges. Rationaluse
and developmentof coastalareas,all seasand marine
resources, as well asconservationof the marineenviron-
ment, requiresthe ability to determinethe presentstate
of thesesystemsand to predict future conditions.The
high degreeof uncertaintyin presentinfbrmationinhibits
effective managementand limits the ability to make
predictionsandassess environmentalchange.Systematic
t59
collection of data on marine environmentalparameters
will be needed to apply integrated managementap-
proachesand to predict effects of global climate change
and of atmosphericphenomena,suchasozonedepletion,
on living marine resourcesand the marine environment.
In order to determinethe role of the oceansand all seas
in driving global systems and to predict natural and
human-inducedchangesin marine and coastalenviron-
ments,the mechanismsto collect, synthesizeand dis-
seminateinformation from researchand systematicob-
servationactivitiesneedto be restructuredandreinforced
considerably.
17.98T'herearemanyuncertainties aboutclimatechange
and particularlyabout sealevelrise. Small increasesin
sealevelhavethepotentialof causingsignificantdamage
to smallislandsandlow-lying coasts.Response strategies
shouldbe basedon sounddata.A long-termcooperative
researchcommitment is neededto provide the data re-
quired for global climate models and to reduce uncer-
tainty. Meanwhile, precautionarymeasuresshould be
undertakento diminish the risks and effects,particularly
on small islands and on low-lying and coastal areasof
the world.
17.99Increasedultravioletradiationderivedfrom ozone
depletionhas been reportedin some areasof the world.
An assessmentof its effects in the marine environment
is neededto reduceuncertaintyand to provide a basisfor
action.
OBJECIIVES
17.100States,in accordancewith provisions of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on
marine scientific research,commit themselvesto im-
prove the understandingof the marine environmentand
its role on global processes.To this end, it is necessary
to:
(a) Promote scientific research on and systematic
observation of the marine environment within the
limits of nationaljurisdiction and high seas,including
interactionswith atmosphericphenomena,such as
ozonedepletion;
(b) Promoteexchangeof dataandinformationresulting
from scientific researchand systematicobservationand
from traditional ecological knowledge and ensure its
availabilityto policy makersandthepublic at thenational
level;
(c) Cooperatewith a view to the developmentof stand-
ard inter-calibratedprocedures,measuring techniques,
data storageand managementcapabilitiesfor scientific
researchon and systematicobservation of the marine
environment.
r60
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENT-R EDACTIVITIES
ELAT
l7.l0l Statesshouldconsider,inter alia:
(a) Coordinating national and regional observation
programmesfor coastal and near-shorephenomenare-
lated to climate change and for researchparameters
essential for marine and coastal managementin all
regions;
(b) Providing improved forecastsof marineconditions
for the safety of inhabitantsof coastalareasand for the
efficiency of maritime operations;
(c) Cooperating with a view to adopting special
measuresto cope with and adapt to potential climate
changeand sealevelrise, including the developmentof
globally accepted methodologies for coastal vulnera-
bility assessment,modelling and responsestrategies
particularly for priority areas,such as small islandsand
low-lying and critical coastalareas;
(d) Identifying ongoing and planned programmesof
systematicobservationof the marineenvironment,with
a view to integratingactivitiesandestablishingpriorities
to addresscritical uncertaintiesfor oceansand all seas;
(e) Initiating a programmeof researchto determinethe
marinebiological effectsof increasedlevelsof ultraviolet
rays due to the depletionof the stratosphericozonelayer
and to evaluatethe possibleeffects.
17.lO2Recognizingthe importantrole that oceansand
all seasplay in attenuatingpotentialclimatechange,IOC
andotherrelevantcompetentUnitedNationsbodies,with
the supportof countrieshaving the resourcesand exper-
tise, shouldcarry out analysis,assessments and system-
atic observationof the role of oceans as a carbon sink.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMAIION
17.103Statesshouldconsider,inter alia:
(a) Increasing internationalcooperationparticulariy
with a view to strengthening nationalscientificandtech-
nol ogi cal capabi l i ti esfor anal ysi ng,asse ssingand
predictingglobal climateand environmentalchange;
(b) Supportingthe role of the IOC in cooperationwith
WMO, UNEP and other internationalorganizationsin
the collection,analysisand distributionof data and in-
formation from the oceans and all seas, including as
appropriate,through the Global Ocean Observing Sys-
tem, giving special attentionto the need for IOC to
develop fully the strategy for providing training and
technicalassistance for developingcountriesthroughits
Training, Education and Mutual Assistance(TEMA)
programme;
(c) Creating national multisectoralinformation bases,
covering the resultsof researchand systematicobserva-
tion prograrnmes;
(d) Linking these databasesto existing data and
information services and mechanisms.such as World
WeatherWatch and Earthwatch;
(e) Cooperatingwith a view to the exchangeof data
and informationand its storageand archivingthroughthe
world and regional data centres;
(0 Cooperatingto ensurefull participationof develop-
ing countries,in particular,in any internationalscheme
underthe organsand organizationsof the United Nations
systemfor the collection,analysisand use of data and
information.
Ci 'NIERNAIIONATAND REG'ONAI-
COOPERAI'ON AND COORD/NAI/ON
17.lM Statesshould considerbilaterally and multilat-
erally and in cooperation with international orgamza-
tions, whether subregional,regional, interregionalor
global, where appropriate:
(a) Providingtechnicalcooperationin developingthe
capacityof coastaland islandStatesfor marineresearch
and systematicobservationand for using its results;
(b) Strengtheningexisting national institutionsand
creating, where necessary,internationalanalysis and
predictionmechanismsin orderto prepareandexchange
regionalandglobaloceanographic analysesandforecasts
and to provide facilities for internationalresearchand
training at national, subregionaland regional levels,
whereapplicable.
17.105In recognitionofthe valueof Antarcticaasanarea
for the conduct of scientific research,in particular re-
searchessentialto understandingtheglobal environment,
Statescarryingout suchresearchactivitiesin Antarctica
should, as provided for in Article III of the Antarctic
Treaty,continueto:
(a) Ensure that data and information resulting from
such researchare freely available to the international
community;
(b) Enhanceaccessof the internationalscientificcom-
munity and specializedagenciesof the United Nations
to such data and information,including the encourage-
ment of periodicseminarsand symposia.
17.106 Statesshouldstrengthenhigh-levelinter-agency,
subregional,regionaland global coordination,as appro-
priate,and review mechanismsto developand integrate
systematicobservationnetworks.This would include:
(a) Review of existingregionaland global databases;
(b) Mechanismsto developcomparableand compatible
techniques,validatemethodologiesand measurements,
organrzeregular scientific reviews, develop options for
corrective measures,agreeon formats for presentation
and storage,and communicatethe information gathered
to potentialusers;
(c) Systematicobservationof coastal habitatsand
sealevelchanges,inventoriesof marinepollutionsources
and reviewsof fisheriesstatistics;
(d) Orgamzationof periodic assessments of oceanand
all seasand coastalareastatusand trends.
17.107Internati onalcooperati on,through rel e vant
organi zati ons w i thi n the U ni ted N ati ons syst em ,
should support countries to develop and integrate
regi onal systematiclong-termobservation programmes,
when applicable,into the RegionalSeasProgrammesin
a coordinatedfashionto implement,whereappropriate,
subregional,regional and global observing systems
basedon the principle of exchangeof data. One aim
shouldbe the predictingof the effectsof climate-related
emergencieson existing coastalphysical and socio-
economicinfrastructure.
17.108Basedon the resultsof researchon the effectsof
the additionalultravioletradiationreachingthe Earth's
surface,in the fields of human health,agricultureand
marine environment,Statesand international organiza-
ti ons shoul d consi der taki ng appropri ateremedial
measures.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
11.109The Conference secretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost ( 1993-2000) of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto LreaboutS750million,
includingabout$480million from theinternationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and havenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional,will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
l7.l l0 Developedcountriesshouldprovidethe financ-
ing for the further developmentand implementationof
the GlobalOceanObservinsSvstem.
8/ SC/ENIIFIC
AND IECHNOI.OGICAL
MEANS
l7.l1l To addresscritical uncertainties
throughsystem-
aticcoastalandmarineobservations andresearch,coastal
Statesshouldcooperate in thedevelopmentofprocedures
thatallow forcomparableanalysisandsoundness of data.
They shouldalsocooperateon a subregionalandregional
r6t
basis,through existing programmeswhere applicable,
share infrastructureand expensive and sophisticated
equipment,develop quality assuranceproceduresand
develop human resourcesjointly. Special attention
shouldbe given to transf-erof scientificandtechnological
knowledge and means to support States, particularly
developingcountries,in the developmentof endogenous
capabilities.
l7.l12 Internationalorganizationsshouldsupport,when
requested,coastal countries in implementing research
projectson the effectsof additionalultraviolet radiation.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
l7. ll3 S t a te s ,i n d i v i d u a l l y o r th ro u g h b i l ateral and
multilateral cooperation and with the support, as
appropriate,of international organizationswhether
subregional,regional or global. should develop and
implement comprehensiveprogrammes,particularly
in developing countries, for a broad and coherent
approachto meeting their core human resourceneeds
in the marine sciences.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
17.114Statesshouldstrengthen orestablishasnecessary,
andtechnological oceanographic com-
nationalscientific
or equivalent bodies to develop, support and
missions
marine scienceactivities and work closely
coordinate
with internationalorganizations.
l7.l15 Statesshould use existing subregionaland re-
gional mechanisms, whereapplicable,to developknow-
ledgeof the marine environment, exchangeinformation,
organizesystematic observations and assessments, and
make the most effective use of scientists,facilities and
equipment. They shouldalsocooperate in the promotion
of endogenousresearchcapabilities in developing
countries.
|NTERNATIONAL,INCIUDING
F) STRENGTHENTNG
REGIONAL,COOPERATIONAND COORDINATION
BASIS FORACTION
17.116It is recognizedthat the role of international
cooperationis to supportandsupplementnationalefforts.
Implementationof strategiesand activities under the
programmeareasrelativeto marineand coastalareasand
seasrequireseffective institutional arrangementsat na-
tional. subregional,regionaland global levels,as appro-
priate. There are numerous national and international,
162
including regional,institutions,both within and outside
the United Nations system,with competencein marine
issues,and thereis a needto improve coordinationand
strengthenlinks among them. It is also important to
ensurethat an integratedand multisectoralapproachto
marineissuesis pursuedat all levels.
OBJECTIVES
17.117Statescommit themselves.in accordancewith
theirpolicies,prioritiesandresources, to promoteinstitu-
tional arrangementsnecessaryto supportthe implemen-
tation of theprograrnmeareasin this chapter.To this end,
it is necessary,as appropriate,to:
(a) Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing
environment and development in marine and coastal
areasat national,subregional,regionaland global levels,
as appropriate;
(b) Promote effective information exchange and,
where appropriate, institutional linkages between
bilateral and multilateral national,regional, subregional
and interregionalinstitutions dealing with environment
and developmentin marineand coastalareas;
(c) Promotewithin the United Nations system,regular
intergovernmental review and consideration of envi-
ronment and developmentissueswith respectto marine
and coastalareas:
(d) Promote the effective operation of coordinating
mechanismsfor the componentsof the United Nations
systemdealingwith issuesof environmentand deveiop-
ment in marine and coastalareas,as well as links with
relevantinternationaldevelopmentbodies.
AC-IIVITIES
A) MANAGEA/ENI-R ED ACTIVITIES
ELAT
GLOBAL
17.1l8 The GeneralAssemblyshouldprovideforregular
consideration,within the United Nationssystem,at the
intergovernmentallevel of general marine and coastal
issues,includingenvironmentanddevelopmentmatters,
and should requestthe Secretary-Generaland executive
headsof United Nationsagenciesand organizationsto:
(a) Strengthencoordination and develop improved
arrangementsamongthe relevantUnited Nationsorgan-
izationswith major marine and coastalresponsibilities,
including their subregionaland regionalcomponents;
(b) Strengthencoordination between those organiza-
tions and otherUnited Nationsorganizations.i nstitutions
andspecialized agenciesdealingwith development, trade
and otherrelatedeconomicissues,as appropriate;
 (c) Improverepresentation of UnitedNationsagencies
dealing with the marine environmentin United Nations
system-wide coordinationefforts;
(d) Promote, where necessary,greater collaboration
betweenthe United Nations agenciesand subregional
and regional coastaland marine programmes;
(e) Develop a centralized system to provide for
informationon legislationandadviceon implementation
of legal agreementson marine environmentaland
developmentissues.
17.119States recognize that environmentalpolicies
should deal with the root causesof environmental
degradation,thus preventing environmental measures
from resultingin unnecessaryrestrictionsto trade.Trade
policy measuresfor environmentalpurposesshouldnot
constitutea meansof arbitraryor unjustifiablediscrimi-
nation or a disguisedrestrictionon internationaltrade.
Unilateralactionsto dealwith environmentalchallenges
outsidethejurisdiction of the importing country should
be avoided.Environmentalmeasuresaddressing interna-
tionalenvironmentalproblemsshould,asfar aspossible,
be based on an international consensus.Domestic
measurestargetedto achievecertain environmentalob-
jectives may need trade measuresto render them effec-
tive. Shouldtradepolicy measuresbe found necessary
for the enforcementof environmental policies, certain
principlesand rules shouldapply. Thesecould include,
inter alia, the principleof non-discrimination;the prin-
ciple that the trademeasurechosenshouldbe the least
trade-restrictive necessaryto achievethe objectives;an
obligation to ensure transparencyin the use of trade
measuresrelated to the environment and to provide ade-
quatenotificationof nationalregulations;and the needto
give considerationto the specialconditionsand develop-
ment requirementsof developingcountriesas they move
towardsintemationallyagreedenvironmentalobjectives.
SUBREGIONAL
ANDREGIONAL
17.120Statesshouldconsider,as appropriate:
(a) Strengthening, and extendingwherenecessary,
in-
tergovernmentalregionalcooperation,the RegionalSeas
Programmesof UNEP,regionaland subregionalfisheries
organizationsand regionalcommissions;
(b) Introduce,where necessary,coordinationamong
relevantUnited Nationsand othermultilateralorganiza-
tions at the subregionaland regional levels, including
considerationof co-locationof their staff;
(c) Arrangefor periodicintraregionalconsultations;
(d) Facilitateaccessto and use of expertiseand tech-
nology throughrelevantnationalbodiesto subregional
and regionalcentresand networks,suchas the Regional
Centresfor Marine Technology.
B) DATAAND 'NFORMAT/ON
l7.l2l Statesshould,whereappropriate:
(a) Promote exchangeof information on marine and
coastalissues;
(b) Strengthenthe capacity of internationalorganiza-
tions to handleinformation and supportthe development
of national,subregionaland regional data and informa-
tion systems,whereappropriate.This couldalsoinclude
networks linking countrieswith comparableenviron-
mentalproblems;
(c) Furtherdevelopexistinginternationalmechanisms
such as Earthwatchand GESAMP.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
17.122The Conference secretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcosr (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this prograinmeto be about$50 million
from the international community on grant or conces-
sional terms. These are indicative and order-of'-magni-
tude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actualcostsandflnancialterms,including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter
alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
B/ SCIENI/F/C
AND TFCHNO/OGtCALMEANS,
HUMAN
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENIAND CAPACITY.
BUILDING
ll.l23 The means of implementationoutlined in the
other programmeareason marine and coastalissues,
underthe sectionson scientificandtechnologicalmeans,
humanresourcedevelopmentand capacity-buildingare
entirelyrelevantfor this programmeareaas well. Addi-
tionally, Statesshould, through internationalcooperation,
developa comprehensiveprogrammefor meetingthe core
humanresourceneedsin marinesciencesat all levels.
Gl st sTAtNABtE DEVETOPMENT
OF SrvrAUFIANDS
BASIS FORACTION
17.124Small islanddevelopingStates,and islandssup-
porting small communitiesare a specialcase both for
environmentand development.They are ecologically
fragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited re-
sources,geographi cdi spersi onand i sol ati on fr om
markets,placethem at a disadvantageeconomicallyand
r63
preventeconomiesof scale.For small islanddeveloping
Statesthe oceanand coastalenvironmentis of strategic
importance and constitutesa valuable development
resource.
17.125Their geographicisolationhasresultedin their
habitationby a comparativelylarge number of unique
speciesof flora and fauna,giving them a very high share
of global biodiversity.They also have rich and diverse
cultureswith specialadaptationsto islandenvironments
and knowledge of the sound managementof island
resources.
llJ26 Small islanddevelopingStateshave all the envi-
ronmentalproblemsand challengesof the coastalzone
concentrated in a limited land area.They areconsidered
extremely vulnerableto global warming and sealevel
rise, with certain small low-lying islandsfacing the in-
creasingthreatof the loss of their entire nationalterri-
tories.Most tropical islandsare also now experiencing
the more immediateimpactsof increasingfrequencyof
cyclones,stormsand hurricanesassociated with climate
change.Thesearecausingmajor set-backsto their socio-
economicdevelopment.
17.127Becausesmall island developmentoptions are
limited, thereare specialchallengesto planningfor and
implementing sustainabledevelopment.Small island
developingStateswill be constrainedin meetingthese
challengeswithout the cooperationand assistance of the
internationalcommunitv.
OBJECTIVES
17J28 States commit themselvesto addressingthe
problems of sustainabledeveloprnentof small island
developingStates.To this end,it is necessary:
(a) To adoptand implementplansand programmesto
supportthe sustainabledevelopmentand utilization of
their marine and coastalresources,including meeting
essentialhumanneeds,maintainingbiodiversityand im-
proving the quality of life for islandpeople;
(b) To adopt measureswhich will enablesmall island
developing Statesto cope effectively, creatively and
sustainablywith environmentalchangeand to mitigate
impacts and reduce the threats posed to marine and
coastalresources.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGFMFNI-R
ELATED
ACTIVITIES
17.129Small islanddevelopingStates,with the assist-
anceas appropriateof the internationalcommunityand
on thebasisof existingwork of nationalandinternational
organizations,should:
164
(a) Studythe specialenvironmentalanddevelopmental
characteristics of small islands,producingan environ-
mental profile and inventory of their natural resources,
critical marinehabitatsand biodiversity;
(b) Develop techniquesfor determiningand monitor-
ing the carryingcapacityof smallislandsunderdifferent
developmentassumptions and resourceconstraints;
(c) Preparemedium- and long-termplansfor sustainable
developmentttrat emphasizemultiple use of resources,
integrateenvironmentalconsiderationswith economicand
sectoralplanningand policies,define measuresfor main-
taining cultural and biologicaldiversity and conserveen-
dangeredspeciesandcritical marinehabitats;
(d) Adapt coastalarea managementtechniques,such
as planning, siting and environmentalimpact assess-
ments,using GeographicalInformationSystems(GIS),
suitableto the specialcharacteristicsof small islands,
taking into accountthe traditionaland culturalvaluesof
indigenouspeopleof islanCcountries;
(e) Review the existinginstitutionalarrangements and
identify and undertakeappropriateinstitutional reforms
essentialto the effective implementationof sustainable
developmentplans,includingintersectoralcoordination
and communityparticipationin the planningprocess;
(f) Implementsustainabledevelopmentplans,includ-
ing thereview andmodificationof existingunsustainable
policiesand practices;
(g) Based on precautionaryand anticipatory ap-
proaches,design and implement rational response
strategiesto addressthe environmental,social and eco-
nomic impactsof climate changeand sealevelrise, and
prepareappropriatecontingencyplans;
(h) Promote environmentally sound technology for
sustainable developmentwithin small islanddeveloping
Statesand identify technologiesthat shouldbe excluded
becauseof their threatsto essentialislandecosvstems.
B) DATAAND /NFORMATTAN
17.130Additional informationon the geographic,envi-
ronmental,cultural and socio-economiccharacteristics
of islandsshouldbe compiledand assessed to assistin the
planningprocess.Existingislanddatabases shouldbe ex-
pandedandgeographicinfbrmationsystemsdevelopedand
adaptedto suit the specialcharacteristics
of islands.
c/ /NTERNATIONAL
AND REG/ONAI.
COOPERAIIONAND COORDINAI/ON
17.131Small islanddevelopingStates,with the support,
as appropriate,of international organizations,whether
subregional,regional or global, should develop and
strengtheninter-island,regional and interregionalco-
operationand informationexchange,includingperiodic
regionalandglobalmeetingson sustainable development
of small island developingStateswith the first global
conferenceon the sustainabledevelopmentof small
island developingStates,to be held in 1993.
whethersubregional,
17.132 Internationalorganizations,
regionalor global, must recognrzethe specialdevelop-
mentrequirementsof smallislanddevelopingStatesand
give adequatepriority in the provision of assistance,
particularly with respectto the developmentand im-
plementationof sustainabledevelopmentplans.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANCINGAND COSTEVALUATION
17.133The Conlerence secretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost ( 1993-2000)of implementing
theactivitieso1'thisprogrammeto be about$ 130million,
including about$50 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms, including any that are non-concessional,will
depend upon, inter aliu. ttre specific strategiesand pro-
gfturrmesGovemmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ S C/ E NI I F I A ME AN S
CN D IE C H N IC AT
17.134Centres for the developmentand diffusion of
scientificinformationand adviceon technicalmeansand
technologiesappropriateto small island developing
States,especiallywith referenceto the managementof
thecoastalzone,theexclusiveeconomiczoneandmarine
resources,should be establishedor strengthened,as
appropriate.on a regionalbasis.
C) HUM A NRE S O U R CDEEV EL OP M EN T
i7.135 Since populationsof srnall island developing
Statescannot maintain all necessaryspecializations,
trainingfor integratedcoastalmanagement anddevelop-
rnentshouldaim to producecadresof managersor scien-
tists,engineersand coastalplannersableto integratethe
manv factors that need to be consideredin integrated
coastalmanagement. Resourceusersshouldbe prepared
to executeboth managementand protectionfunctions
and to apply the polluter paysprinciple and supportthe
training of their personnel.Educationalsystemsshould
be modified to meet these needs and special training
programmesdevelopedin integratedislandmanagement
and development. Local planning should be integrated
in educationalcurriculaof all levelsandpublic awareness
campaignsdevelopedwith the assistanceof non-govern-
mentalorganizationsandindigenouscoastalpopulations.
D) CAPACTTY-BU|LDING
17.136The total capacity of small island developing
Stateswill always be limited. Existing capacity must
thereforebe restructuredto meetefficiently the immedi-
ate needs for sustainabledevelopment and integrated
management. At the same time, adequateand appro-
priate assistancefrom the internationalcommunity must
be directed at strengtheningthe full range of human
resourcesneeded on a continuous basis to implement
sustainabledevelopmentplans.
17.137 New technologies thatcanincreasetheoutputand
rangeof capabilityof the limited humanresourcesshould
be employed to increase the capacity of very small
populationsto meet their needs. The developmentand
application of traditional knowledge to improve the
capacity of countriesto implement sustainabledevelop-
ment shouldbe fostered.
'References
to the UnitedNotionsConvenlionon the Low of the
Seoin thischopterof Agendo2l do notpreiudice thepositionof
of or occession
ony Stotewith respectto signoture,rotificotion to
theConvention.
2R"f"r"n.",
to the UnitedNolionsConventionon the Low of the
Seoin thischopterof Agendo2l do not preiudicethe positionof
Stoteswhichview the Conventionos hovingo unifiedchorocler.
3Norhing
in the progrommeoreos of this choptershouldbe
interpretedos preiudicingthe rightsof the Stotesinvolvedin o
or in the delimitotion
disputeof sovereignty of the moritimeoreos
concerned.
r65
 IB Protection
of thequolityond supplyof freshwoter
resources:
Applicotionof integroted
opprooches
to thedevelopment,
monogement ond useof
woter resources
INTRODUCTION
l8.l Freshwaterresourcesarean essentialcomponentof
the Earth'shydrosphereand an indispensable part of all
terrestrialccosystems. The freshwaterenvironmentis
characterized by thehydrologicalcycle,includingfloods
and droughts,which in someregionshavebecomemore
extreme and dramatic in their consequences. Global
climate change and atmosphericpollution could also
have an impact on freshwater resourcesand their
availability and. through sea-levelrise, threatenlow-
lying coastalareasand small islandecosystems.
18.2 Water is neededin all aspectsof life. The general
objective is to make certain that adequatesuppliesof
waterof goodqualityaremaintainedfor the entirepopu-
lation of this planet,while preservingthe hydrological,
biologicaland chemicalfunctionsof ecosystems, adapt-
ing humanactivitieswithin the capacitylimits of nature
andcombatingvectorsof water-related diseases.Innovative
technologies,including the improvementof indigenous
technologies,are needed to fully utilize limited water
resourcesandto safeguardthoseresource sagainstpollution.
18.3 The widespreadscarcity,gradualdestructionand ag-
gravatedpollution of freshwaterresourcesin many world
regions.alongwith theprogressive encroachment of incom-
patibleactivities.demandintegratedwaterresourcesplan-
ningandmanagement. Suchintegrationmustcoveralltypes
of interrelatedfreshwaterbodies,including both surface
water and groundwater,and duly considerwater quantity
and quality aspects.The multisectoralnature of water
resourcesdevelopmentin the contextof socio-economic
developmentmust be recognized,as well as the multi-
interestutilizationof waterresourcesfor water supplyand
sanitation,agriculture,industryurbandevelopment,
hydro-
power generation,inland fisheries,transportation,recre-
ation.lorvandflat landsmanasementandotheractivities.
166
Rational water utilization schemesfor the development
of surface and undergroundwater-supply sourcesand
other potential sourceshave to be supportedby concur-
rent water conservation and wastage minimization
measures.Priority, however, must be accordedto flood
prevention and control measures,as well as sedimenta-
tion control, where required.
18.4 Transboundarywater resourcesand their useare of
great importance to riparian States.In this connection,
cooperation among those States may be desirable in
conformity with existing agreementsand/or other
relevant arrangements,taking into accountthe interests
of all riparian Statesconcerned.
18.5 The following programmeareasare proposedfor
the freshwatersector:
(a) Integratedw ater resourcesdevel opm entand
management;
(b) Water resourcesassessment;
(c) Protection of water resources,water quality and
aquaticecosystems;
(d) Drinking-watersupplyand sanitation;
(e) Water and sustainableurban development;
(0 Water for sustainablefood production and rural
development;
(g) Impactsof climatechangeon water resources.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) TNTEGRATED
WAIER RESOTRCESDEVELOPMENT
AND MANAGE'YIENT
BASIS
FORACTION
18.6 The extentto which water resourcesdevelopment
contributesto economic productivity and social well-
being is not usually appreciated,althoughall social and
economicactivitiesrely heavilyon thesupplyandquality
of freshwater.As populations and economic activities
grow, many countriesare rapidly reachingconditions of
waterscarcityorfacing limits to economicdevelopment.
Water demandsare increasingrapidly, with 70-80 per
cent required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for
industryand a mere6 per centfor domesticconsumption.
The holistic managementof freshwater as a finite and
vulnerableresource,and the integrationof sectoralwater
plans and prograffnneswithin the framework of national
economicand socialpolicy, areof paramountimportance
for action in the 1990sand beyond. The fragmentation
of responsibilitiesfor water resourcesdevelopment
among sectoralagenciesis proving, however, to be an
even greaterimpediment to promoting integratedwater
managementthan had been anticipated.Effective im-
plementationandcoordinationmechanismsarerequired.
OBJECTIVES
18.7 The overall objectiveis to satisfythe freshwater
needsof all countriesfor their sustainable development.
18.8 Integratedwater resourcesmanagementis based
on the perception of water as an integral part of the
ecosystem,a naturalresourceand a socialand economic
good, whose quantity and quality determinethe nature
of its utilization.To this end,water resourceshave to be
protected,taking into accountthe functioning of aquatic
ecosystemsand the perennialityof the resource,in order
to satisfy and reconcileneedsfor water in human activ-
ities. In developingand using water resources,priority
has to be given to the satisfactionof basicneedsand the
safeguarding of ecosystems. Beyondtheserequirements,
however,water usersshould be chargedappropriately.
18.9 Integratedwater resourcesmanagement, including
the integrationof land- and water-relatedaspects,should
be carried out at the level of the catchment basin or
sub-basin.Four principal objectivesshouldbe pursued,
as follows:
(a) To promote a dynamic, interactive, iterative and
multisectoralapproachto water resourcesmanagement,
including the identificationand protectionof potential
sourcesof freshwatersupply,that integratestechnologi-
cal. socio-economic.environmentaland human health
considerations;
(b) To plan for the sustainable and rationalutilization,
protection,conservationand managementof water re-
sourcesbasedon communityneedsandprioritieswithin
theframeworkof nationaleconomicdevelopmentpolicy;
(c) To design, implement and evaluateprojects and
programmes that are both economically efficient and
socially appropriatewithin clearly defined strategies,
basedon an approachof full public participation,includ-
ing that of women, youth, indigenouspeopleand local
communitiesin water managementpolicy-makingand
decision-making;
(d) To identify and strengthenor develop,as required,
in particular in developingcountries,the appropriate
institutional,legal and financial mechanismsto ensure
that water policy and its implementationare a catalyst
for sustainablesocialprogressand economicgrowth.
18.10In the caseof transboundary waterresources, there
is a needfor riparian Statesto formulate water resources
strategies,prepare water resourcesaction programmes
and consider,where appropriate,the harmonizationof
those strategiesand action prograrnmes.
18.1I All States,accordingto their capacityand available
resources,andthroughbilateralor multilateralcooperation,
including the United Nations and other relevant organiza-
tions asappropriate,could setthe following targets:
A) BYTHEYEAR
2000:
(i) To have designedand initiated costedand targeted
national action programmes,and to have put in place
appropriatein stitutionalstructures andlegal instruments;
(ii) To haveestablished efficientwater-useprogrammes
resourceutilization patterns;
to attain sl.rstainable
B) BYTHEYEAR
2025:
(i) To have achieved subsectoraltargets of all fresh-
water programmeareas.
It is understoodthat the fulfilment of the targetsquanti-
fied in (A) (i) and (ii) abovewill dependupon new and
additionalfinancialresourcesthatwill be madeavailable
to developingcountriesin accordancewith the relevant
provisionsof GeneralAssemblyresolution44/228.
ACTIVITIES
18.12All States,accordingto their capacityand avail-
able resources,and through bilateral or multilateral
cooperation,including the United Nations and other
relevantorganizationsas appropriate,could implement
the following activities to improve integrated water
resources management:
(a) Formulation of costedand targetednational action
plansand investmentprogrammes;
(b) Integrationof measures for theprotectionandconser-
vation of potentialsourcesof freshwatersupply,including
theinventoryingof waterresources, with land-useplanning,
forest resourceutilization,protectionof mountainslopes
and riverbanksand otherrelevantdevelopmentand con-
servationactivities;
\67
 (c) Developmentof interactive databases,forecasting
models, economic planning models and methods for
watermanagement andplanning,includingenvironmen-
tal impact assessment methods;
(d) Optimizationof water resourcesallocation under
physicaland socio-economicconstraints;
(e) Implementation of allocation decisions through
d e m a n d m a n a g e m e n t ,p r i c i n g m e c h a n i s m sa n d
regulatorymeasures;
(0 Flood and drought management,including risk
anaiysisand environmentaland socialimpactassessment,
(g) Promotion of schemesfor rational water use
through public awareness-raising, educationalpro-
grammesandlevyingof watertariffsandothereconomic
instruments:
(h) Mobilizationof waterresources,
particularlyin arid
and semi-aridareas:
(i) Promotion of international scientific research
cooperationon freshwaterresources;
0) Developmentof new and alternativesourcesof
water-supplysuch as seawaterdesalination,artificial
groundwater recharge, use of marginal-quality water,
waste-waterreuseand waterrecycling;
(k) Integrationof water (includingsurfaceand under-
ground water resources)quantity and quality manage-
ment:
(l) Promotionof waterconservationthroughimproved
water-useefficiencyand wastageminimizationschemes
for all users.includingthe developmentof water-saving
devices;
(m) Support to water-usergroups to optimize local
water resourcesmanagement:
(n) Development of public participatory techniques
and their implementationin decision-making,particu-
lzuly the enhancementof the role of women in water
resourcesplanningand management;
(o) Developmentand strengthening, as appropriate,of
cooperation,including mechanismswhere appropriate,
at all levelsconcerned, namely:
(i) At the lowestappropriatelevel,delegationof water
resourcesmanagement, generally,to thatlevel,in accord-
ancewith nationallegislation,includingdecentralization
of government services to local authorities, private
enterprisesand communities;
(ii) At the national level, integratedwater resources
planning and managementin the framework of the na-
tional planning processand, where appropriate,estab-
lishment of independentregulationand monitoring of
freshwater.basedon nationalleeislationand economic
measures:
(iii) At the regionallevel, consideration,where appro-
priate, of the harmonizationof national strategiesand
actionprogrammes:
168
(iv) At the global level, improved delineationof
responsibilities,division of labour and coordinationof
intemational organizationsand prograrnrnes,including
facilitating discussionsand sharing of experiencesin
areasrelatedto water resourcesmanagement;
(p) Disseminationof information, including oper-
ational guidelines,and promotion of educationfor water
users,includingthe considerationby the UnitedNations
of a World Water Day.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ FINANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
18.13The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$ I l5 million
from the international community on grant or conces-
sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-
tude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,including
any that are non-concessional,will depend upon, inter
alia, the specitlc strategiesand programmesGovern-
ments decideupon for implementation.
B/ SC/ENIIFIC
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
MFANS
1 8 . 1 4T h e d e v e l o p m e n to f i n t e r a c t i v e d a t a b a s e s ,
forecasting methods and economic planning models
appropriateto the taskof managingwaterresourcesin an
efficient and sustainablemanner will require the appli-
cation of new techniquessuchas geographicalinforma-
tion systems and expert systemsto gather, assimilate,
analyse and display multisectoral information and to
optimize decision-making.In addition,the developmentof
new and altemativesourcesof water-supplyand low-cost
watertechnologieswill requireinnovativeappliedresearch.
This will involve the transfer,adaptationand diffusion of
new techniquesand technoiogy among developing
countries, as well as the developmentof endogenous
capacity,for thepurposeof beingableto dealwith theadded
dimensionof integratingengineering,economic,environ-
mental and social aspectsof water resourcesmanagement
and predictrngthe effectsin temrsof human impact.
18.15Pursuantto the recognitionof water as a socialand
economicgood, the various availableoptions for charging
water users(including domestic,urban,industrialand agri-
cultural water-usergroups)haveto be further evaluatedand
field-tested.Furtherdevelopmentis requiredfor economic
instrumentsthat take into account opportunity costs and
environmentalexternalities.Field studieson thewillingness
to pay shouldbe conductedin rural and urban situations.
18.16Water resourcesdevelopmentand rnanagement
should be planned in an integratedmanner,taking into
accountlong-termplanningneedsas well as thosewith
nuurowerhorizons;thatis to say,they shouldincorporate
environmental,economic and social considerations
basedon the principle of sustainability,include the re-
quirementsof all usersas well as thoserelating to the
prevention and mitigation of water-relatedhazardsand
constitutean integral part of the socio-economicdevel-
opmentplanningprocess.A prerequisitefor the sustain-
ablemanagementof waterasa scarcevulnerableresource
is the obligation to acknowledgein all planning and
developmentits full costs. Planning cclnsiderations
should reflect benefitsinvestment,environmentalpro-
tection and operationcosts,as well as the opportunity
costsreflectingthemostvaluablealternativeuseof water.
Actual chargingneednot necessarilyburdenall benefi-
ciaries with the consequences of thoseconsiderations.
Chargingmechanismsshould,however,reflect as far as
possibleboth the true cost of water when used as an
economicgoodandthe ability of the communitiesto pay.
18.17The role of wateras a social,economicand life-
sustaininggood shouldbe reflectedin demandmanage-
ment mechanismsand implementedthroughwatercon-
servationand reuse.resourceassessment and financial
instruments.
18.18The setting afreshof priorities for private and
public investmentstrategiesshouldtake into account
(a) maximum utilization of existing projects,
t h r o u g h m a i n t e n a n c e r, e h a b i l i t a t i o na n d o p t i m a l
operation; (b) new or alternativecleantechnologies; and
(c) environmentallyand sociailybenignhydropower.
C) HUM A NRE S OU R C D
ESEV EL OP M EN I
l8.19 The delegationof waterresourcesmanagementto
the lowest appropriatelevel necessitates educatingand
trainingwatermanagement staffatall levelsandensuring
that women participateequally in the educationand
training programmes.Particular emphasishas to be
placedon the introductionof public participatorytech-
niques,including enhancementof the role of women.
youth,indigenouspeopleand localcommunities.Skills
relatedto variouswater managementfunctionshave to
be developedby municipal governmentand water au-
thorities,as well as in the private sector,local/national
non-governmentalorganizations. cooperative s, corpora-
tionsandotherwater-usergroups.Educationof thepublic
regardingthe importanceof water and its proper man-
agementis alsoneeded.
18.20To implementtheseprinciples,communitiesneed
to have adequatecapacities.Those who establishthe
framework for water developmentand managementat
any level, whetherintemational,nationalor local, need
to ensurethat the meansexist to build thosecapacities.
The meanswill vary from caseto case.They usually
include:
(a) Awareness-creation programmes,including mobi-
lizingcommitment and supportat all levelsand initiatins
global and local action to promote suchprograrnmes;
(b) Training of water managersat all levelsso that they
have an appropriateunderstandingof all the elements
necessaryfor their decision-making;
(c) Strengtheningof training capacitiesin developing
countries;
(d) Appropriatetrainingof the necessaryprofessionals,
includingextensionworkers;
(e) Improvementof careerstructures;
(f) Sharing of appropriateknowledge and technol-
ogy, both for the collection of data and for the im-
plementationof planneddevelopment,includingnon-
polluting technologiesand the knowledge neededto
extract the best performancefrom the existing invest-
ment system.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
I 8.21 Institutionalcapacityfor implementingintegrated
water managementshould be reviewedand developed
when there is a clear demand.Existing administrative
structureswill often be quite capableof achievinglocal
water resourcesmanagement,but the needmay arisefor
new institutionsbasedupontheperspective, forexample,
of river catchmentareas,district developmentcouncils
and local community committees.Although water is
managedat variouslevelsin the socio-politicalsystem,
demand-drivenmanagementrequires the development
of water-relatedinstitutionsat appropriatelevels, taking
into account the need for intesration with land-use
management.
18.22In creatingthe enablingenvironmentfor lowest-
appropriate-levelmanagement,the role of government
includesmobilizationof financialandhumanresources,
legislation,standard-setting and other regulatoryfunc-
tions,monitoringand assessment of the useof waterand
land resourcesand creatingof opportunitiesfor public
participation.Internationalagenciesand donorshavean
importantrole to play in providingsupportto developing
countriesin creatingthe required enablingenvironment
for integratedwater resourcesmanagement.This should
include, as appropriate,donor supportto local levels in
developing countries,including community-basedin-
stitutions,non-govemmental organizations andwomen's
groups.
169
B) WATERRESOURCES
ASSESST,IENT
BASIS
FORACTION
18.23Waterresourcesassessment, includingthe identi-
fication of potential sourcesof fieshwater supply,com-
prisesthe continuing determinationof sources,extent,
dependabilityandquality of waterresourcesand of the
human activitiesthat affect thoseresources.Such as-
sessmentconstitutesthe practicalbasisfor their sus-
tainablernanagementand a prerequisitefor evaluation
of the possibilitiesfor their development.There is,
however, growing concern that at a time when more
preciseand reliableinformationis neededaboutwater
resources,hydrologic servicesand relatedbodiesare
lessablethanbeforeto providethis information,espe-
cially informationon groundwaterand water quality.
Major impedimentsare the lack of financialresources
for water resourcesassessment, the fragmentednature
of hydrologicservicesand the insufficientnumbersof
qualified staff. At the sametime, the advancingtech-
nology for datacaptureand management is increasing-
ly difficult to accessfor developingcountries.Estab-
lishment of national databasesis, however, vital to
water resourcesassessment and to mitigation of the
effectsof floods, droughts,desertiflcationand pollu-
t ion.
OBJECTIVES
18.24Basedupon the Mar del Plata Action Plan, this
programmeareahas been extendedinto the 1990sand
beyondwith the overallobjectiveof ensuringthe assess-
ment andforecastingof the quantityand qualityof water
resources,in order to estimatethe total quantity of water
resourcesavailableand their future supplypotential,to
determinetheir currentquality status,to predictpossible
conflicts betweensupply and demandand to provide a
scientificdatabasefbr rational water resourcesutiliza-
tion.
18.25Five specificobjectiveshavebeensetaccordingly,
as follows:
(a) To make availableto all countrieswater resources
assessment technologythat is appropriateto their needs,
inespective of their level of development.including
methodsfor the impactassessment of climatechangeon
freshwater:
(b) To have all r,:ountries,accordingto their financial
means.allocateto waterresourcesassessment financial
resourcesin line with the economicand socialneedsfor
water resourcesdata;
(c) To ensurethat the assessment informationis fully
utilized in the development of water management
policies;
170
(d) To have all countriesestablishthe institutional ar-
rangementsneeded to ensure the efficient collection,
processing,storage.retrievaland disseminationto users
of information aboutthe quality and quantityof available
w ater resources at the l evel of catchrnent sand
groundwateraquifersin an integratedmanner;
(e) To have sufficient numbers of appropriately
qualified andcapablestaffrecruitedandretainedby water
resourcesassessmentagenciesand provided with the
training and retraining they will need to carry out their
responsibilitiessuccessfully.
18.26All States,accordingto theircapacityandavailable
resources,and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-
ation,includingcooperationwith theUnited Nationsand
otherrelevantorganizations, asappropriate, could setthe
following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have studied in detail the
feasibility of installing water resourcesassessment
services;
(b) As a long-term target, to have fully operational
servicesavailablebasedupon high-densityhydrometric
networks.
ACTIVITIES
I 8.27 All States,accordingto theircapacityandavailable
resources,and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-
ation. including the United Nations and other relevant
organizationsasappropriate,could undertakethe follow-
ing activities:
A) INSTITUTIONAL
FRAIvIEWORK:
(:t Establishappropriatepolicy fiameworks and na-
tional priorities;
( i i ) E s t a b l i s h a n d s t r e n g t h e nt h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
capabilities of countries, including legislative and
regulatory arrangements,that are required to ensurethe
adequateassessmentof their water resourcesand the
provisionof flood and droughtforecastingservices;
(iii) Establishand maintaineffectivecooperationat the
nationallevel betweenthe variousagenciesresponsible
forthe collection.storageandanalysisof hydrologicdata;
(iv) Cooperatein the assessment of transboundary water
resources, subjectto the prior agreementof eachriparian
Stateconcemed:
B) DATA
SYSTEMS:
(i) Reviewexistingdata-collection networksandassess
their adequacy,including those that provide real-time
datafor flood and droughtforecasting;
(ii) Improve networksto meet acceptedguidelinesfor
the provision of data on water quantity and quality for
surface and groundwater,as well as relevant land-use
data;
(iii) Apply standardsand other means to ensure data
comparibility;
(iv) Upgrade facilities and proceduresused to store,
processand analysehydrologic data and make suchdata
and the forecastsderivedfrom them availableto potential
USCTS;
(v) Establishdatabases on the availabilityof all types
of hydrologicdataat the nationallevel;
(vi) Implement"data rescue"operations,for example,
establishmentof national archivesof water resources;
(vii) Implement appropriatewell-tried techniquesfor
the processingof hydrologicdata;
(viii) Derivearea-related
estimatesfrom pointhydrologic
data:
(ix) Assimilateremotelysenseddataand the use,where
appropriate.of geographicalinformation systems;
C} DATA DISSEMINATION:
(i) Identify the needfor water resourcesdatafor various
planningpurposes;
(ii) Analyse and presentdata and information on water
resourcesin the forms requiredforplanning andmanage-
ment of countries'socio-economicdevelopmentand for
use in environmental protection strategiesand in the
design and operationof specific water-relatedprojects;
(iii) Provideforecastsand wamingsof flood anddrought
to the generalpublic and civil defence;
ANDDEVELOPMENT:
D} RESEARCH
(i) Establish or strengthenresearchand development
programmesat the national, subregional,regional and
internationallevelsin supportof waterresourcesassess-
mentactivities;
(ii) Monitor researchand developmentactivitiesto en-
sure that they make full useof local expertiseand other
local resourcesand that they areappropriateforthe needs
of the countrv or countriesconcerned.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
Ai F/NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATION
18.28The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2W0)of implementing
the activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$355million,
includingabout$145million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-masnitude estimatesonly and have not
beenreviewed by Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B' SCIENI/F/C MEANS
AND IECHNOI.OGICAL
18.29 Importantresearchneedsinclude (a) development
of global hydrologic models in supportof analysisof
climatechangeimpactandof macroscalewaterresources
assessment;(b) closing of the gap between terrestrial
hydrology and ecology at different scales,including the
critical water-related behindlossof vegetation
processes
and land degradationand its restoration;and (c) studyof
the key processesin rvater-qualitygenesis,closing the
gap between hydrologic flows and biogeochemical
processes. Theresearchmodelsshouldbuild uponhydro-
logic balancestudiesand also include the consumptive
useof water.This approachshould also, when appropri-
ate, be applied at the catchmentlevel.
18.30W ater resourcesassessmentnecessi tates t he
strengtheningof existingsystemsfor technologytransfer,
adaptationand diffusion, and the developmentof new
technologyfor useunderfield conditions,as well as the
developmentof endogenouscapacity.Prior to inaugura-
ting the above activities, it is necessaryto prepare
cataloguesof the water resourcesinformation held by
governmentservices,the private sector,educationalin-
stitutes,consultants,local water-useorganizationsand
others.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
18.31Water resourcesassessmentrequiresthe estab-
lishmentand maintenanceof a body of well-trainedand
motivated staff sufficient in number to undertake the
above activities. Education and training programmes
designedto ensurean adequatesupply of thesetrained
personnelshould be establishedor strengthenedat the
local,national,subregionalor regionallevel.In addition,
the provision of attractiveterms of employment and
career paths for professionaland technical staff should
be encouraged.Human resourceneedsshouldbe moni-
tored periodically,including all levels of employment.
Planshave to be establishedto meet thoseneedsthrough
education and training opportunities and international
programmesof coursesand conferences.
18.32Becausewell-trainedpeople are particularlyim-
portant to water resourcesassessmentand hydrologic
forecasting, personnel matters should receive special
attention in this area.The aim should be to attract and
171
retain personnelto work on water resourcesassessment
who are sufficient in number and adequatein their level
of educationto ensurethe effective implementationof
the activitiesthat are planned.Educationmay be called
for at both the nationaland the internationallevels,with
adequateterms of employmentbeing a national respon-
sibility.
I 8.33 Recommendedactionsinclude:
(a) Identifying educationand training needsgearedto
the specificrequirementsof countries;
(b) Establishingandstrengthening educationandtrain-
ing programmeson water-relatedtopics,within an envi-
ronmentaland developmentalcontext, for all categories
of staffinvolvedin waterresources assessment activities,
usingadvancededucationaltechnology,whereappropri-
ate,and involving both men and women;
(c) Developingsoundrecruitment,personneland pay
policiestor staff of nationaland local wateragencies.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLD\NG
18.34The conductof waterresourcesassessment
basisof operationalnationalhydrometricnetworksre-
quiresan enablingenvironmentat all levels.The follow-
ing national supportaction is necessaryfor enhanced
nationalcapacities:
(a) Review of the legislativeand regulatorybasisof
water resourcesassessment:
(b) Facilitation of close collaborationamong water
s ec t or age n c i e s ,p a rti c u l a rl y b e tw e e n i nformati on
producersand users;
(c) Implementationof water managementpolicies
basedupon realisticappraisalsof waterresourcescondi-
tions and trends;
(d) Strengtheningof the managerialcapabilitiesof
water-usergroups,includingwomen,youth, indigenous
people and local communities,to improve water-use
efficiencyat the local level.
cl PRoTECTTON
OF WATERRESOURCES, WATER
QUALITYAND AQUATIC ECOSYSIE'YIS
BASIS
FORACTION
18. 35F r es h w a te ri s a u n i ta ry re s o u rc e .Long-term
developmentof global freshwater requires holistic
managementof resourcesand a recognition of the
interconnectedness of the elementsrelated to fresh-
water and freshwater quality. There are f'ew regions of
the world that are still exemptfrom problemsof loss of
potentialsourcesof freshwatersupply,degradedwater
qualityandpollutionof surfaceandgroundwatersources.
172
Major problemsaffecting the water quality of rivers and
lakes arise,in variable order of importanceaccordingto
different situations,from inadequatelytreateddomestic
sewage,inadequatecontrolson the dischargesof indus-
trial waste waters, loss and destruction of catchment
areas,ill-consideredsiting of industrialplants,defore-
station, uncontrolled shifting cultivation and poor
agriculturalpractices.This givesrise to the leachingof
nutrients and pesticides.Aquatic ecosystemsare dis-
turbed and living freshwater resourcesare threatened.
Undercertaincircumstances, aquaticecosystems arealso
affectedby agriculturalwaterresourcedevelopmentpro-
jects such as dams,river diversions,water installations
and irrigation schemes.Erosion,sedimentation, defore-
stationand desertificationhave led to increasedland
degradation,and the creationof reservoirshas,in some
cases.resultedin adverseeffectson ecosystems. Many
of these problems have arisen from a development
model that is environmentallydestructiveand from a
lack of public awarenessand educationabout surf'ace
and groundwaterresourceprotection.Ecologicaland
humanhealtheff'ectsarethe measurable consequences,
on the althoughthe meansto monitor them are inadequateor
non-existentin many countries.Thereis a widespread
lack of perceptionof the linkagesbetweenthe devel-
opment, management,use and treatment of water
resourcesand aquatic ecosystems.A preventiveap-
proach, where appropriate,is crucial to the avoiding
of costlysubsequent measuresto rehabilitate,treatand
developnew water supplies.
OBJECTIVES
18.36The complex interconnectedness of freshwater
systemsdemandsthatfreshwatermanagement beholistic
(taking a catchmentmanagementapproach)and based
on a bal ancedconsi derati onof the needsof people
a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .T h e M a r d e l P l a t a A c t i o n
P l a n h a s a l r e a d yr e c o g n i z e dt h e i n t r i n s i c l i n k a g e
b e t w e e nw a t e r r e s o u r c ed e v e l o p m e n tp r o j e c t sa n d
t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n tp h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l ,
heal th and soci o-economi crepercussi ons. The over -
all environmentalhealthobjectivewas set as follows:
"to evaluatethe consequences which the varioususers
of water have on the environment,to supportmeasures
aimed at controlling water-relateddiseases,and to
protectecosystems".'
18.37The extent and severityof contaminationof un-
saturatedzonesand aquifershave long been underesti-
matedowing to therelativeinaccessibilityof aquifersand
the lack of reliableinformationon aquifersystems.The
protectionof groundwateris thereforean essentialele-
ment of water resourcemanagement.
 18.38Three objectiveswill have to be pursuedconcur-
rently to integrate water-qualityelementsinto water
resourcemanagement:
(a) Maintenanceof ecosystemintegrity, according to a
managementprinciple of preservingaquatic er-osystems,
includingliving resources, andof effectivelyprotectingthem
from any fonn of degradationon a drainagebasinba.sis;
(b) Public healthprotection,a task requiringnot only
the provision of safe drinking-waterbut also the control
of diseasevectorsin the aquaticenvironment;
(c) Human resourcesdevelopment,a key to capacity-
building and a prerequisitefor implementing water-
quality management.
18.39All States,accordingto their capacityand avail-
able resources,throughbilateralor multilateralcooper-
ation, including the United Nations and other relevant
organizationsas appropriate,could set the following
targets:
(a) To identify the surfaceand groundwaterresources
thatcouldbe developedfor useon a sustainable basisand
othermajor developablewater-dependent resourcesand,
simultaneously, to initiateprogrammesfor theprotection,
conservationand rational use of these resourceson a
sustainablebasis;
(b) To identifyall potentialsourcesof water-supplyand
prepareoutlines for their protection,conservationand
rationaluse;
(c) To initiateeffectivewaterpollution preventionand
controlprogrammes,basedon an appropriatemixture of
pollution reduction-at-source strategies,environmental
impact assessments and enforceablestandardsfor major
point-sourcedischarges andhigh-risknon-pointsources,
commensurate with their socio-economic development;
(d) To panicipate,asfar asappropriate,in international
water-qualitymonitoringand managementprogrammes
suchastheGlobalWaterQualityMonitoring Programme
(GEMSAV'ATER),the UNEP Environmentally Sound
Managementof Inland Waters (EMINWA), the FAO
regional inland fishery bodies,and the Conventionon
Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
WaterfowlHabitat(RamsarConvention);
(e) To reducethe prevalenceof water-associated dis-
eases,starting with the eradicationof dracunculiasis
(guineaworm disease)and onchocerciasis (river blind-
ness)by the year 2000;
(0 To establish,according to capacitiesand needs,
biological.health,physicaland chemicalquality criteria
for all water bodies (surfaceand groundwater),with a
view to an ongoingimprovementof waterquality:
(g) To adoptanintegratedapproachto environmentally
sustainablemanagementof water resources,including
the protection of aquatic ecosystemsand freshwater
livine resources:
(h) To put in place strategiesfor the environmentally
sound managementof fieshwater and related coastal
e c o s y s t e m s i,n c l u d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o no f f i s h e r i e s ,
aquaculture,animal grazing,agricultural activities and
biodiversity.
ACTIVITIES
18.40All States,accordingto their capacityand avail-
able resources,and through bilateral or multilateral
cooperation,includingUnitedNationsandotherrelevant
clrganizationsas appropriate,could implement the fol-
lowing activities:
A) WATER
RESOURCES
PROTECilON
ANDCONSERVATION:
(i) Establishmentand strengtheningof technicaland
institutionalcapacitiesto identify and protectpotential
sourcesof water-supplywithin all sectorsof society;
(ii) Identificationof potentialsourcesof water-supply
and preparationof national profiles;
(iii) Preparationof national plans for water resources
protectionand conseruation;
(iv) Rehabilitationof important,but degraded,catch-
ment areas,particularlyon small islands;
(v) Strengtheningof administrativeand legislative
measures to preventencroachment on existingandpoten-
tially usablecatchmentareasl
B)WATER
POLLUTTON
PREVENTION
ANDCONTROL:
(i) Applicationof the "polluter pays" principle,where
appropriate. to allkindsof sources,
includingon-siteand
off-si tesani tati onl
(ii) Promotionof the constructionof treatmentfacilities
for domestic sewageand indr"lstrialeffluents and the
developmentof appropriatetechnologies,taking into
accourltsoundtraditionaland indigenouspractices;
(iii) Establishmentof standardsfor the dischargeof
effluentsand fcrrthe receivingwaters;
(iv) Introductionof theprecautionary approachin water-
quality management, whereappropriate,with a focuson
pollution minimization and preventionthrough use of
new technologies, productandprocesschange,pollution
reduction at source and effluent reuse,recycling and
recovery.treatmentand environmentallysafedisposal;
(v) Mandatoryenvironmentalimpactassessment of all
major water resourcedevelopmentprojectspotentially
impairing water quality and aquaticecosystems,com-
bined with the delineationof appropriateremedial
measuresand a strengthened control of new industrial
installations.solid waste landfills and infrastructure
developmentprojects;
173
(vi) Use of risk assessment and risk managementrn
reachingdecisionsin this areaand ensuringcompliance
with thosedecisions;
(vii) Identificationand applicationof bestenvironmen-
tal practicesat reasonablecostto avoiddiffusepollution,
namely, through a limited, rational and planned use of
nitrogenousfertilizers and other agrochemicals(pest-
icides,herbicides)in agriculturalpractices;
(viii) Encouragementand promotion of the use of ade-
quately treatedand purified waste watersin agriculture,
aquaculture,industry and other sectors;
C} DEVELOPMENT
ANDAPPLICATION TECHNOLOGY:
OFCLEAN
(i) Control of industrial waste discharges,including
low-wasteproductiontechnologiesand water recircula-
tion, in an integratedmannerand throughapplicationof
precautionarymeasuresderivedfrom a broad-basedlife-
cycle analysis;
(ii) Treatmentof municipal wastewater for safereuse
in agricultureand aquaculture;
(iii) Developmentof biotechnology,inter alia, for waste
treatment,productionof biofertilizersand otheractivities;
(iv) Developmentof appropriatemethodsfor water pol-
lution control,taking into accountsoundtraditionaland
indigenouspractices;
D) GROUNDWATER PROTEOTON:
(i) Developmentof agriculturalpracticesthat do not
degradegroundwaters;
(ii) Application of the necessarymeasuresto mitigate
salineintrusioninto aquifersof smallislandsand coastal
plainsas a consequence of sealevelrise or overexploita-
tion of coastalaquifers;
(iii) Preventionof aquiferpollution throughthe regula-
tion of toxic substances thatpermeatethe groundandthe
es t ablis hm e n to f p ro te c ti o n z o n e s i n g r oundw ater
rechargeand abstractionareas;
(iv) Designandmanagement of landfillsbaseduponsound
hydrogeologicinformation and impact assessment,
the bestpracticableandbestavailabletechnology;
(v) Promotionof measuresto improve the safetyand
integrityof wells and well-headareasto reduceintrusion
of biological pathogensand hazardouschemicalsinto
aquifersat well sites;
(vi.; Water-qualitymonitoring,asneeded,of surfaceand
groundwaterpotentially affectedby sites storing toxic
and hazardousmaterials:
E) PROTECTON
OFAQUATIC
ECOSYSTEMS.
(i) Rehabilitationof polluted and degradedwater
bodiesto restoreaquatichabitatsand ecosystems;
174
(ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural lands
and for otherusers,takinginto accountequivalentaction
for the protection and use of groundwaterresources
important for agricultural productivity and for the
biodiversityof the tropics:
(iii) Conservationand,protection of wetlands(owing to
their ecological and habitat importance for many
species),takinginto accountsocialandeconomicfactors;
(iv) Control of noxiousaquaticspeciesthat may destroy
someother water species;
F} PROTECNON OFFRESHWATER LIVINGRESOURCES:
(i) Controlandmonitoringof waterquality to allow for
the sustainabledevelopmentof inland fisheries;
(ii) Protectionof ecosystemsfrom pollutionand degra-
dation for the development of freshwater aquaculture
projects;
G) MONITORTNG
ANDSURVETLLANCE
OFWATER
RESOURCES
ANDWATERSRECEIVING
WASTES:
(i) Establishmentof networksfor the monitoring and
continuoussurveillanceof watersreceivingwastesand
of point and diffusesourcesof pollution;
(ii) Promotionandextensionof the applicationof envi-
ronmentalimpact assessments of geographicalinforma-
tion systems;
(iii) Surveillanceof pollution sourcesto improve com-
pliancewith standards andregulationsandto regulatethe
issueof dischargepermits:
(iv) Monitoring of the utilization of chemicalsin agri-
culture that may have an adverseenvironmentaleffect;
(v) Rational land use to prevent land degradation,
erosionand siltationof lakesand other waterbodies:
H} DEVELOPMENT OFNATIONALANDINTERNATIONAL LEGAL
INSTRUMENTS THAT MAYBEREQUIRED TOPROTECT THEAUALIW
OFWATER RESOURCES,
ASAPPROPRIATE,PARTICULARLY FOR:
(i) Monitoring and control of pollution and its effects
using
in nationaland transboundarywaters;
(ii) Controlof long-rangeatmospherictransportof pol-
l utants:
(iii) Control of accidentaland/or deliberatespills in
nationaland/ortransboundary water bodies:
(il') Environmentalimpact assessment.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
18.41The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
agetotal cost( 1993-2000)of irrplementingthe activities
of this programmeto be about$1 billion, includingabout
$340 million from the internationalcommunity on grant
or concessionalterms.Theseare indicative andorder-of-
magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby
Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,including
any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter
alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
AND TFCHNOLOGICAL
B/ SC/ENr/F/C MEANS
18.42Statesshouldundertakecooperativeresearchpro-
jects to developsolutionsto tecltnicalproblemsthat are
appropriatefor the conditions in each watershedor
country. States should consider strengtheningand
developingnationalresearchcentreslinked throughnet-
works and supportedby regional water researchin-
stitutes.The North-Southtwinning of researchcentres
and field studiesby internationalwater researchinstitu-
tions shouldbe actively promoted.It is importantthat a
minimum percentageof funds for water resource
development projects is allocated to researchand
development,particularlyin externallyfundedprojects.
18.43Monitoring and assessment of complex aquatic
systemsoftenrequiremultidisciplinarystudiesinvolving
severalinstitutionsand scientistsin a joint programme.
Int er nat ional wa te r-q u a l i ty p ro g ra m m e s ,s u ch as
GEMSflVATER, should be oriented towards the water-
quality of developingcountries.User-friendlysoftware
andGeographical InformationSystems(GIS)andGlobal
ResourceInformationDatabase(GRID) methodsshould
be developedfor thehandling,analysisandinterpretation
of monitoring data and for the preparationof manage-
ment strategies.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
18.44Innovative approachesshould be adopted for
professionalandmanagerialstafftrainingin orderto cope
with changing needs and challenges.Flexibility and
adaptabilityregardingemergingwater pollution issues
shouldbe developed.Trainingactivitiesshouldbe under-
taken periodicallyat all levels within the organizations
responsiblefor water-qualitymanagement,and innova-
tive teachingtechniquesadoptedfor specificaspectsof
water-qualitymonitoring and control, including devel-
opment of training skills, in-servicetraining,problem-
solvingworkshopsand refreshertrainingcourses.
18.45Suitableapproaches includethe strengtheningand
improvementof the humanresourcecapabilitiesof local
Governmentsin managingwater protection,treatment
anduse,particularlyin urbanareas,andtheestablishment
of nationaland regionaltechnicaland engineeringcourses
on the subjectsof water-qualityprotectionand control at
existingschoolsandeducation/training courseson water
resourcesprotectionand conservationfor laboratoryand
field technicians,women and otherwater-usergroups.
D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG
18.46The effective protectionof water resourcesand
ecosystemsfrom pollution requiresconsiderableupgrad-
ing of most countries'presentcapacities.Water-quality
managementprogrammesrequire a certain minimum
infrastructureand staff to identify and implement tech-
nical solutionsand to enforceregulatoryaction.One of
the key problemstoday and for the future is the sustained
operation and maintenanceof thesefacilities. In order
not to allow resourcesgainedfrom previousinvestments
to deterioratefurther, immediate action is required in a
numberof areas.
Dl DRTNKTNG-WATER
Suppry AND SANTTATTON
BASIS
FORACTION
18.47Safewater-supplies and environmentalsanitation
arevital for protectingtheenvironment,improvinghealth
andalleviatingpoverty.Safewateris alsocrucialto many
traditionaland cultural activities.An estimated80 per
cent of all diseasesand over one third of deaths in
developingcountriesare causedby the consumptionof
contaminatedwater,andon averageasmuch asone-tenth
of eachperson'sproductivetime is sacrificedto water-
related diseases.Concerted efforts during the 1980s
brought water and sanitation services to hundreds of
millions of the world's poorestpeople.The most out-
standingof theseeffortswasthe launchingin 1981of the
InternationalDrinking WaterSupplyandSanitationDec-
ade,which resultedfrom the Mar del PlataAction Plan
adoptedby theUnitedNationsWaterConferencein1977.
The commonly agreedpremisewas that "all peoples,
whatevertheir stageof developmentand their socialand
economicconditions,have the right to have accessto
drinking waterin quantitiesandof a qualityequalto their
basic needs".2The target of the Decadewas to provide
safedrinking-water and sanitationto underservedurban
and rural areasby 1990, but even the unprecedented
progressachievedduring the Decadewas not enough.
One in threepeoplein the developingworld still lacks
thesetwo mostbasicrequirements for healthanddignity.
It is alsorecognizedthat humanexcretaand sewageare
importantcausesof the deteriorationof water quality in
175
developingcountries,and the introductionof available
technologies,includingappropriatetechnologies,
andthe
constructionof sewagetreatmentfacilities could brinB
significantimprovement.
OBJECTIVES
18.48The New Delhi Statement(adoptedat the Global
Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the
1990s ,whi c h w a s h e l d a t N e w D e l h i from l 0 to 14
September1990)formalizedthe needto provide,on a
sustainablebasis, accessto safe water in sufficient
quantitiesand proper sanitationfor all, emphasizing
the "some for all ratherthan more for some" approach.
Four guiding principles provide for the programme
objectives:
(a) Protectionof the environmentand safeguardingof
health through the integrated managementof water
resourcesand liquid and solid wastes;
(b) Institutionalreforms promoting an integratedap-
proach and including changesin procedures,attitudes
and behaviour,and the full participationof women at all
levelsin sectorinstitutions;
(c) Cornmunity managementof services,backed by
measures to strengthen localinstitutionsin implementing
and sustainingwaterand sanitationprogrammes;
(d) Soundfinancialpractices,achievedthroughbetter
managementof existing assets,and widespreaduse of
appropriatetechnologies.
18.49Past experiencehas shown that specific targets
shouldbe set by each individual country.At the World
Summit for Children,in September1990,headsof State
or Governmentcalled for both universalaccessto water-
supplyandsanitationandtheeradicationof guineaworm
diseaseby 1995. Even for the more realistic target of
achievingfull coveragein water-supplyby 2025, it is
estimatedthat annualinvestmentsmustreachdoublethe
currentlevels.One realisticstrategyto meetpresentand
future needs,therefore,is to develop lower-cost but
adequateservicesthatcanbe implementedand sustained
at the communitylevel.
ACTIVITIES
I 8.50 All States,accordingto theircapacityandavailable
resources,and throughbilateralor multilateralcooper-
ation, including the United Nations and other relevant
organizationsas appropriate,could implementthe fol-
lowing activities:
A) ENVIRONMENT,AND
HEALTH:
(i) Establishmentof protected areas for sourcesof
drinking-watersupply;
176
(ii) Sanitary disposal of excreta and sewage, using
appropriatesystemsto treat waste waters in urban and
rural areas;
(iii) Expansion of urban and rural water-supplyand
developmentandexpansionof rainwatercatchmentsys-
tems, particularly on small islands,in addition to the
reticulatedwater-supplysystem;
(iv) Building and expansion,where appropriate,of
sewagetreatmentfacilitiesand drainagesystems;
(v) Treatmentand saf-ereuseof domesticand industrial
wastewaters in urban and rural areas;
(vi) Control of water-associateddiseases:
B) PEOPLE
AND|NST|TUT|ONS:
(i) Strengthening of the functioningof Govemmentsin
water resourcesmanagementand, at the same time,
giving of f ull recognitionto the role of local authorities;
(ii) Encouragement of waterdevelopmentandmanage-
mentbasedon a participatoryapproach,involving users,
plannersand policy makersat all levels;
(iii) Applicationof the principlethat decisionsareto be
takenat the lowestappropriatelevel,with public consul-
tation and involvement of users in the planning and
implementationof waterprojects;
(iv) Humanresourcedevelopmentatall levels,including
specialprogramlnesfor women;
(v) Broad-based educationprogrammes, with particular
emphasison hygiene,local managementand risk reduc-
ti on;
(vi) International support mechanismsfor programme
funding,implementationand follow-up;
C} NATIONAL ANDCOMMUNITY MANAGEMENT:
(i) Supportand assistance to communitiesin managing
their own systemson a sustainablebasis;
(ii) Encouragement of the local population,especially
w omen, youth. i ndi genouspeopl e and l o cal com -
munities.in watermanagement;
(iii) Linkages betweennational water plans and com-
munity managementof local waters;
(iv) Integration of community managementof water
within the contextof overallplanning;
(v) Promotionof primary healthandenvironmentalcare
at thelocallevel,includingtrainingfbrlocal communities
in appropriatewater managementtechniquesand pri-
mary health care;
(vi) Assistanceto serviceagenciesin becomingmore
cost-eff-ective
and responsiveto consumerneeds;
(vii) Providing of more attentionto underservedrural
and low-incomeperiurbanareas;
(viii) Rehabilitationof defectivesystems,reductionof
wastageand sa{'ereuseof water and wastewater;
(ix) Programmesfor rational water use and ensured
operationand maintenance;
(x) Researchanddevelopmentof appropriatetechnical
solutions;
(xi) Substantial increase in urban treatment capacity
commensurate with increasingloads;
D) AWARENESS
CREATTON
AND
INFORMATION
PUBLIC :
/PARTICIPATION
(i) Strengtheningof sectormonitoring and information
managementat subnationaland nationallevels;
(ii) Annual processing,analysis and publication of
monitoringresultsat nationaland local levelsas a sector
managementand advocacy/awareness creationtool;
(iii) Use of limited sector indicators at regional and
global levelsto promotethe sectorand raisefunds;
(iv) Improvementof sectorcoordination,planningand
im plem ent at io n ,w i th th e a s s i s ta n c eo f i m p roved
monitoring and information management,to increasethe
sector'sabsorptivecapacity,particularlyin community-
basedself-helpprojects.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
18.51The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activities of this progranuneto be about $20 billion,
includingabout$7.4 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessionalterms.Theseare indic-
ative andorder-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand financial
terms,including any that arenon-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand prografirmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
AND TECHNOT.OGICAL
B/ 5C/ENI/F/C MFANS
18.52To ensurethe feasibility,acceptabilityandsustain-
ability of plannedwater-supplyservices,adoptedtech-
nologies should be responsiveto the needsand con-
straints imposedby the conditions of the community
concerned.Thus, designcriteria will involve technical,
health, social. economic, provincial, institutional and
environmentalfactorsthat determinethe characteristics,
magnitude and cost of the planned system. Relevant
international support programmes should addressthe
developingcountriesconcerning,inter alia:
(a) Pursuit of low-cost scientific and technological
means,as far as practicable;
(b) Utilization of traditional and indigenouspractices,
as far as practicable, to maximize and sustain local
involvement;
(c) Assistanceto country-leveltechnical/scientific in-
stitutes to facilitate curricula development to support
fields critical to the water and sanitationsector.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
18.53To effectivelyplan and managewater-supplyand
sanitationat the national,provincial, district and com-
munity level,andto utilizefundsmosteffectively,trained
professionalandtechnicalstaffmustbe developedwithin
eachcountryin sufficientnumbers.To do this,countries
must establishmanpowerdevelopmentplans, taking
into considerationpresentrequirementsand planned
developments.Subsequently,the development and
performance of country-level training institutions
should be enhancedso that they can play a pivotal role
in capacity-building.It is also importantthat countries
provide adequatetraining fbr women in the sustainable
maintenanceof equipment,waterresources management
and environmentalsanitation.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
18.54The implementationof water-supplyand sanita-
tion programmesis a nationalresponsibility.To varying
degrees,responsibi Ii ty for thei mplementationof projects
and the operatingof systemsshouldbe delegatedto all
administrativelevels down to the community and indi-
vidual served.This also meansthat nationalauthorities,
together with the agencies and bodies of the United
Nations system and other external support agencies
providing support to national programmes,should
developmechanismsand proceduresto collaborateat all
levels.This is particularlyimportantif full advantageis
to be taken of community-basedapproachesand self-
relianceastoolsfcrrsustainability. This will entaila high
degreeof communityparticipation,involving women,in
theconception,planning,decision-making, implementa-
tion andevaluationconnectedwith projectsfor domestic
water-supplyand sanitation.
18.55Overall nationalcapacity-buildingat all adrninis-
trativelevels,involving institutionaldevelopment,coor-
dination, human resources,community pafticipation,
health and hygiene educationand literacy, has to be
developedaccordingto its fundamentalconnectionboth
with any efforts to improve health and socio-economic
development through water-supply and sanitation and
with their impact on the humanenvironment.Capacity-
177
building should thereforebe one of the underlying keys
in implementationstrategies.Institutionalcapacity-
building should be consideredto have an importance
equalto that of the sectorsuppliesand equipmentcom-
ponentso that funds can be directedto both. This can be
undertakenat the planningor programme/projectformu-
lation stage,accompaniedby a cleardetlnitionof objec-
tives and targets.In this regard,technicalcooperation
among developing countries,owing to their available
wealthof infbrmation and experienceandthe needto avoid
"reinventingthewheel",is crucial.Sucha coursehasproved
cost-effectivein many countryprojectsalready.
URBAN DEVETOP-
E) WATERAND SUSTAINABLE
A/TENT
FORACTION
BASIS
18.56Early in the next century,more than half of the
world's populationwill be living in urban areas.By the
year 2025,that proportion will have risen to 60 per cent,
comprisingsome5 billion people.Rapid urbanpopula-
tion growth and industrializationare putting severe
strainson the waterresourcesand environmentalprotec-
tion capabilitiesof many cities.Specialattentionneeds
to be givento thegrowingeff'ectsof urbanizationon water
demandsandusageandto the criticalrole playedby locai
and municipal authoritiesin managingthe supply,use
and overall treatmentof water,particularlyin developing
countriesfor which specialsupportis needed.Scarcity
of freshwater resourcesand the escalating costs of
developingnew resourceshavea considerable impacton
national industrial,agriculturaland human settlement
developmentand economicgrowth.Bettermanagement
of urban water resources,including the elimination of
unsustainable consumptionpatterns.canmakea substan-
tial contributionto the alleviation of poverty and im-
provementof the healthand quality of life of the urban
and rural poor. A high proportion of large urban ag-
glomerationsarelocatedaroundestuariesand in coastal
zones. Such an arrangementleads to pollution from
municipalandindustrialdischarges combinedwith over-
exploitationof availablewater resourcesand threatens
the marine environmentand the supply of freshwater
resources.
OBJECTIVES
18.57The developmentobjectiveof this programmeis
to supportlocal and central Govemments'efforts and
capacitiestt-rsustainnationaidevelopmentand produc-
tivity through environmentallysound managementof
water resourcesfor urbanuse.Supportingthis objective
is the identiflcationandimplementationof strategies
and
178
actionsto ensurethecontinuedsupplyof affordablewater
for presentand future needsand to reversecurrenttrends
of resourcedegradationand depletion.
1S.58All States,accordingto their capacityand available
resources,andthroughbilateralor multilateralcooperation,
including the United Nations and other relevantorganiza-
tions as appropriate,could setthe following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have ensuredthat all urban
residentshave accessto at least 40 litres per capita per
day of safe water and that 75 per cent of the urban
population are provided with on-site or community
facilitiesfor sanitation;
(b) By the year 2000, to have establishedand applied
quantitative and qualitative discharge standardsfor
municipaland industrialeffluents;
(c) By the year 2000,to haveensuredthat 75 per cent
of solid waste generatedin urban areasis collected and
recycledor disposedof in an environmentallysafeway.
ACTIVITIES
18.59All States,accordingto theircapacityandavailable
resources,and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-
ation, including the United Nations and other relevant
organizationsas appropriate,could implementthe fol-
lowing activities:
A) PROTECnON
OFWATER FROMDEPLETION,
RESOURCES
POLLUTION
ANDDEGRADATION:
(i) Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilities
basedon environmentallysoundlow-cost and upgrad-
abletechnologies;
(ii) Implementationof urban storm-waterrun-off and
drainageprogrammes;
(iii) Promotionof recyclingandreuseof wastewaterand
solidwastes;
(iv) Control of industrial pollution sourcesto protect
water resources;
(v) Protectionof watershedswith respectto depletion
and degradationof their forest cover and from harmful
upstreamactivities;
(vi) Promotion of researchinto the contribution of
foreststo sustainablewaterresourcesdevelopment;
(vii) Encouragement of the bestmanagementpractices
for the useof agrochemicalswith a view to minimizing
their impact on waterresources;
B) EFF|C|ENT
ANDEaU|TABLE OFWATER
ALLOCATTON RESOURCES:
(i) Reconciliationof city developmentplanning with
the availabilityand sustainabilityof waterresources;
(ii) Satisfactionof the basicwater needsof the urban
population;
(iii) Introductionof water tariffs, taking into accountthe
circumstances, in eachcountry andwhereaffordable,that
reflect the marginal and opportunity cost of water,espe-
cially for productiveactivities;
C) INSTITUTIONAL/LEGAL/MANAGEMENT
REFORMS:
(i) Adoption of a city-wide approachto the manage-
ment of water resources;
(ii) Promotion at the national and local level of the
elaborationof land-useplansthat give dueconsideration
to waterresourcesdevelopment;
(iii) Utilizationof the skillsandpotentialof non-govern-
mental organizatrons, the private sectorand local people,
taking into accountthe public's and strategicinterestsin
water resources;
D) PROMOTION
OFPUBLIC
PARTICIPATION:
(i) Initiationof public-awareness
campaignsto encour-
agethe public'smove towardsrationalwaterutilization;
(ii) Sensitizationof the public to the issueof protecting
water quality within the urbanenvironment;
(iii) Pronrotionof public participationin the collection,
recyclingand eliminationof wastes;
E) SUPPORT
TOLOCAL
CAPAC|TY-BU|LD|NG:
(i) Developrnentof legislationand policiesto promote
investmentsin urban water and waste management,
reflecting the major contribution of cities to national
economicdevelopment;
(ii) Provisionof seedmoney and technicalsupportto
the local handlingof materialssupplyand services;
(iii) Encouragement, to theextentpossible,of autonomy
and financial viability of city water. solid waste and
sewerageutilities;
(iv) Creationand maintenance of a cadreof profession-
als and semi-professionals, for water, waste-waterand
solid wastemanagement;
F) PROVISION OF ENHANCED ACCESS TO
SANITARY SERVICES:
(i) Implementationof water, sanitationand waste
managementprogrammesfocusedon the urbanpoor;
(ii) Making available of low-cost water-supplyand
sanitationtechnologychoices;
(iii) Basing of choiceof technologyand servicelevels
on userpreferences and willingnessto pay,
(iv) Mobilizationand facilitationof the activeinvolve-
ment of women in water managementteams;
(v) Encouragement andequipmentof local waterasso-
ciations and water committeesto managecommunity
water-supplysystemsand communallatrines,with tech-
nical back-upavailablewhen required;
(vi) Consideration of the merits and practicality of
rehabilitating existing malfunctioning systems and of
correctingoperationand maintenanceinadequacies.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
18.60The Conference secretariathas estimated the
averagetotal annual cost (1993-20A0)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$20 billion,
including about $4.5 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindicative
and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
reviewedby Governments. Actualcostsandfrnancialternls,
includingany thatarenon-concessional, will dependupon,
inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovem-
mentsdecideuponfor implementation.
8/ SC'ENilFtCAND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MFANS
18.61The 1980s saw consi derabl eprogressi n t he
developmentand applicationof low-cost water-supply
and sanitationtechnologies.The programmeenvisages
continuationof this work, with particularemphasison
developmentof appropriatesanitationandwastedisposal
technologiesfor low-income high-densityurban settle-
ments. There should also be international information
exchange,to ensurea widespreadrecognitionamong
sectorprofessionalsof the availability and benefitsof
appropriatelow-cost technologies.The public-aware-
nesscampaignswill also includecomponentsto over-
come userresistance to second-class servicesby empha-
sizing the benefitsof reliability and sustainability.
c) H U MA NR E S OU R CDEE V E LOP ME N T
18.62Implicit in virtuallyall elementsof thisprogramme
is the needfor progressiveenhancementof the training
andcareerdevelopmentof personnelat all levelsin sector
institutions.Specificprogrammeactivitieswill involve
the training and retentionof staff with skills in com-
munity involvement, low-cost technology,financial
management,and integratedplanning of urban water
resourcesmanagement.Special provision should be
madefor mobilizing andfacilitatingthe activeparticipa-
tion of women,youth,indigenouspeopleand local com-
munitiesin water managementteamsand for supporting
the developmentof water associationsand water com-
mittees,with appropriatetraining of such personnelas
179
treasurers,secretariesand caretakers.Specialeducation apply water-savingtechnology and managementmeth-
and training programmesfor women shouldbe launched ods and,throughcapacity-building, enablecommunities
with regardto the protectionof waterresourcesand water to introduceinstitutionsandincentivesfor therural popu-
quality within urban areas. lation to adopt new approaches,for both rain-fed and
irrigatedagriculture.The rural populationmust alsohave
better accessto a potablewater-supplyand to sanitation
services.It is an immensetaskbut not an impossibleone,
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
provided appropriate policies and programmes are
adoptedat all levels- local, nationaland international.
18.63In combination with human resourcedevelop-
While significant expansionof the area under rain-fed
ment,strengthening of institutional,legislativeandman-
agriculturehasbeenachievedduring the pastdecade,the
agementstructuresare key elementsof the programme.
productivityresponseandsustainabilityof irrigationsys-
A prerequisitefor progressirt enhancingaccessto water
temshavebeenconstrainedby problemsof waterlogging
and sanitationservicesis the establishment of an institu-
and salinization. Financial and market constraintsare
tional framework that ensuresthat the real needs and
also a commonproblem.Soil erosion,mismanagement
potentialcontributionsof currentlyunservedpopulations
and overexploitationof naturalresourcesand acutecom-
arereflectedin urbandevelopmentplanning.The multi-
petition for water have all influenced the extent of pov-
sectoralapproach,which is a vital part of urban water
erty, hungerand famine in the developingcountries.Soil
resourcesmanagement, requiresinstitutionallinkagesat
erosioncausedby overgrazingof livestock is also often
the nationaland city levels,andthe programmeincludes
responsiblefor the siltation of lakes. Most often, the
proposalsfor establishingintersectoralplanninggroups.
developmentof irrigation schemesis supportedneither
Proposalsfor greater pollution control and prevention
by environmentalimpactassessments identifyinghydro-
dependfor their successon the right combinationof
logic consequences within watershedsof interbasin
economic and regulatory mechanisnts,backed by ade-
transfersnor by the assessmentof social impacts on
quatemonitoring and surveillanceand supportedby en-
peoplesin river valleys.
hancedcapacityto addressenvironmentalissueson the
18.66The non-availabilityof water-supplies of suitable
part of local Governments.
quality is a significantlimiting factor to livestockpro-
18.64Establishmentof appropriatedesign standards,
duction in many countries,and improper disposal of
water-qualityobjectivesanddischargeconsentsis there-
animal wastes can in certain circumstancesresult in
fore amongthe proposedactivities.The programmealso
pollutionof water-supplies forboth humansandanimals.
includessupportfor strengthening thecapabilityof water
The drinking-water requirementsof livestock vary ac-
and sewerageagenciesand for developingtheir auton-
cordingto speciesandthe environmentin which they are
omy and financial viability. Operationand maintenance
kept. It is estimated that the current global livestock
of existing water and sanitationfacilities have been
drinking-waterrequirementis about60 billion litresper day
recognizedas entailing a seriousshortcomingin many
and, basedon livestockpopulationgrowth estimates,this
countries.Technicaland financial supportare neededto
daily requirementis predictedto increaseby 0.4 billion
help countriescorrectpresentinadequacies and build up
litres per annum in the foreseeablefuture.
the capacity to operate and maintain rehabilitated and
18.67Freshwaterfisheriesin lakes and streamsare an
new systems.
important sourceof food and protein. Fisheriesof inland
watersshouldbe so managedasto maximizethe yield of
FOOD PRODUCTION
Fl WATERFOR SUSTATNABLE aquatic food organismsin an environmentallysound
AND RURATDEVETOPMENT manner.This requiresthe conservationof water quality
and quantity, as well as of the functional morphology of
the aquaticenvironment.On the other hand, fishing and
FORACTION
BASIS
aquaculturemay themselvesdamagethe aquaticecosys-
18.65Sustainabilityof food productionincreasinglyde- tem; hencetheir developmentshouldconform to guide-
pendson soundand efficientwateruseand conservation lines for impact limitation. Presentlevels of production
practicesconsistingprimarily of inigation development from inland fisheries,from both fresh and brackish water,
and management,including water managementwith are about 7 million tons per year and could increaseto 16
respectto rain-fedareas,livestockwater-supply,inland million tons per year by the year 2000; however, any
fisheriesand agro-forestry.Achieving food securityis a increasein environmentalsffesscouldjeopardiznthis rise.
high priority in many countries,and agriculturemust not
only provide food for rising populations,but also save
water for other uses.The challengeis to develop and

r80
OBJECTIVES
18.68The key strategicprincipleslor holistic and inte-
grated environmentallysound managementof water re-
sourcesin the rural context may be set forth as follows:
(a) Watershouldbe regardedasa finite resourcehaving
an economicvaluewith significantsocialand economic
implications reflecting the importance of meeting basic
needs;
(b) Local cornmunitiesmustparticipatein all phasesof
water management,ensuring the full involvement of
women in view of their crucial role in the practical
day-to-daysupply,managementand useof water;
(c) Water resource managementmust be developed
within a comprehensiveset of policies for (i) human
health; (ii) food production,preservationand distribu-
tion; (iii) disastermitigation plans; (iv) environmental
protectionandconservationof the naturalresource base;
(d) It is necessary to recognizeand activelysupportthe
role of rural populations,with particularemphasison
women.
18.69An InternationalAction Programmeon Waterand
SustainableAgricultural Development(IAP-WASAD)
has been initiated by FAO in cooperation with other
internationalorganizations.The main obiective of the
Action Programmeis to assistdevelopingcountriesin
planning,developingand managingwater resourceson
an integratedbasisto meet presentand future needsfor
agriculturalproduction,taking into accountenvironmen-
tal considerations.
18.70The Action Programmehas developeda frame-
work for sustainablewater use in the agricultural sector
and identified priority areas for action at national,
regional and global levels. Quantitativetargetsfor new
inigation development, improvement of existing irri-
gation schemesand reclamationof waterloggedand
salinized lands through drainage for 130 developing
countriesareestimatedon thebasisof food requirements,
agro-climaticzonesand availabilityof water and land.
18.71FAO globalprojectionsfor irrigation,drainageand
small-scalewaterprogrammesby the year 2000 for 130
developingcountriesare as follows: (a) 15.2 million
hectaresof new irrigation development;(b) l2 million
hectaresof improvement/modernization of existing
schemes;(c) 7 million hectaresinstalledwith drainage
and water control facilities;and (d) l0 million hectares
of small-scalewaterprogrammesand conservation.
18.72The developmentof new irrigation areasat the
above-mentioned level may give rise to environmental
concernsin sofar asit impliesthedestructionof wetlands,
waterpollution,increasedsedimentation anda reduction
in biodiversity.Therefore,new irrigationschemesshould
be accompanied by anenvironmentalimpactassessment,
dependingupon the scaleof the scheme,in casesignifi-
cantnegativeenvironmentalimpactsareexpected.When
consideringproposalsfor new irrigation schemes,con-
siderationshouldalsobe given to a morerationalexploi-
tation, and an increasein the efflciency or productivity,
of any existing schemescapableof serving the same
localities. Technologies for new irrigation schemes
shouldbe thoroughly evaluated,including their potential
conflictswith otherland uses.The activeinvolvementof
water-usergroupsis a supportingobjective.
18.73It shouldbe ensuredthat rural communitiesof all
countries, according to their capacities and available
resourcesand taking advantageof internationalcooper-
ation as appropriate,will have accessto safe water in
sufficientquantitiesand adequatesanitationto meettheir
health needsand maintain the essentialqualitiesof their
local environments.
18.74The objectiveswith regardto water management
for inland fisheriesand aquacultureincludeconservation
of water-quality and water-quantity requirements for
optimum productionand preventionof water pollution
by aquaculturalactivities.The Action Programmeseeks
to assistmember countriesin managingthe tlsheriesof
inland watersthroughthe promotion of sustainableman-
agementof capturefisheriesas well as the development
of environmentallysoundapproachesto intensification
of aquaculture.
18.75The objectiveswith regardto water management
for livestock supply are twofold: provision of adequate
amountsof drinking water and safeguardingof drinking-
water quality in accordancewith the specific needsof
differentanimal species.This entailsmaximum salinity
tolerancelevels and the absenceof pathogenicorgan-
isms.No globaltargetscanbe setowing to largeregional
and intra-countryvariations.
ACTIVITIES
18.76All States,accordingto their capacityand avail-
able resources,and through bilateral or multilateral
cooperation, including the United Nations and other
relevant organizationsas appropriate,could implement
the following activities:
A) WATER-SUPPLY
ANDSANTTATTON
FORTHEUNSERVED
RURAL
POOR:
(i) Establishnationalpoliciesandbudgetprioritieswith
regardto increasingservicecoverage;
(ii) Promoteappropriatetechnologies;
(iii) Introduce suitable cost-recoverymechanisms,
taking into accountefficiencyandequity throughdemand
managementmechanisms:
(iv) Promotecommunity ownershipand rights to water-
supply and sanitationfacilities;
r8t
(v) Establishmonitoringand evaluationsystems;
(vi) Strengthenthe rural water-supply and sanitation
sectorwith emphasison institutional development,effi-
cient managementand an appropriate framework for
financingof services;
(vii) Increasehygieneeducationand eliminatedisease
transmissionfoci:
(viii) Adopt appropriate technologiesfor water treat-
ment;
(ix) Adopt wide-scaleenvironmentalmanagement
measuresto control diseasevectors:
EFFTCTENCY:
Bl WATER-USE
(i) Increaseof efficiency and productivity in agricultu-
ral water use for better utilization of limited water re-
sources:
(ii) Strengthenwater and soil managementresearch
underirrigationand rain-fedconditions;
(iii) Monitor andevaluateirrigationprojectperformance
to ensure,inter alia, the optimal utilization and proper
maintenanceof the project;
(iv) Supportwater-usergroupswith a view to improving
managementperformanceat the local level;
(v) Supportthe appropriateuse of relatively brackish
water for irrigation;
SALINITY
cl WATERLOGGING, ANDDRAINAGE:
CONTROL
(i) Introducesurfacedrainagein rain-fedagricultureto
pr ev ent te mp o ra ry w a te rl o g g i n g a n d fl oodi ng of
lowlands;
(ii) Introduceartificialdrainagein inigatedandrain-fed
agriculture;
(iii) Encourageconjunctiveuseof surfaceand ground-
water,includingmonitoringand water-balance studies;
(iv) Practisedrainagein irrigatedareasof arid and semi-
arid regions;
D) WATER.OUALITY MANAGEMENT:
(i) Establishand operatecost-effectivewater-quality
monitoringsystemsfor agriculturalwateruses;
(ii) Preventadverseeffectsof agriculturalactivitieson
waterqualityfor othersocialandeconomicactivitiesand
on wetlands,inter alia, through optimal use of on-farm
input andthe minimizationof the useof externalinput in
agriculturalactivities;
(iii) Establishbiological,physicaland chemicalwater-
quality criteriafor agriculturalwater-usersandfor marine
and riverineecosystems;
(iv) Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;
(v) Disposeproperlyof sewagefrom humansettlements
andof manureproducedby intensivelivestockbreeding;
182
(vi) Minimize adverseeffects from agriculturalchemi-
cals by useof integratedpestmanagement;
(vii) Educatecommunitiesabout the pollution-related
impacts of the use of fertilizers and chemicalson water
quality, food safetyand human health;
E)WATER PROGMMMES:
DEVELOPMENT
RESOURCES
(i) Developsmall-scaleirrigationand water-supplyfor
humansandlivestockandfor waterandsoilconservation;
(ii) Formulate large-scaleand long-term irrigation de-
velopmentprogrammes,taking into accounttheir effects
on the local level, the economyand the environment;
(iii) Promotelocal initiativesfor the integrateddevelop-
ment and managementof water resources;
(iv) Provide adequatetechnicaladvice and supportand
enhancementof institutionalcollaborationat the local
communitylevel;
(v) Promote a farming approach for land and water
managementthattakesaccountof the levelof education,
the capacity to mobilize local communitiesand the eco-
systemrequirementsof arid and semi-aridregions;
(vi) Plan and develop multi-purposehydroelectric
power schemes,making sure that environmentalcon-
cernsare duly takeninto account:
F} SCARCE
WATER
RESOURCES
AAANAGEMENT:
(i) Develop long-term strategiesand practical im-
plementation programmesfor agricultural water use
under scarcityconditionswith competingdemandsfor
water;
(ii) Recognizewateras a social,economicand strategic
good in inigation planningand management;
(iii) Formulate specializedprogrammesfocused on
drought preparedness, with emphasison food scarcity
and environmentalsafeguards;
(iv) Promoteand enhancewaste-waterreusein agricul-
ture;
G} WATER-SUPPLYFORLIVESTOCK:
(i) Improve quality of water available to livestock,
taking into accounttheir tolerancelimits;
(ii) Increasethe quantityof water sourcesavailableto
livestock,in particularthose in extensivegrazing sys-
tems,in orderto both reducethedistanceneededto travel
for waterandpreventovergrazingaroundwatersources;
(iii) Preventcontaminationof water sourceswith anirnal
excrementin order to preventthe spreadof diseases, in
particularzoonosis;
(iv) Encouragemultiple use of water-suppliesthrough
promotionof integratedagro-livestock-fishery systems;
(v) Encouragewater-spreadingschemesfor increas-
ing waterretentionof extensivegrasslands
to stimulate
forage production and preventrun-off;
H} INLAND
FISHERIES;
(i) Developthe sustainable management of fisheriesas
part of nationalwaterresourcesplanning;
(ii) Study specificaspectsof the hydrobiologyand en-
vironmentalrequirementsof key inland fish speciesin
relationto varying waterregimes;
(iii) Preventor mitigatemodificationof aquaticenviron-
ments by other usersor rehabilitateenvironmentssub-
jected to suchmodificationon behalf of the sustainable
use and conservationof biological diversity of living
aquaticresources;
(iv) Develop and disseminateenvironmentallysound
water resourcesdevelopmentand managementmethod-
ologiesfor the intensificationof fish yield from inland
waters;
(v) Establishand maintainadequatesystemsfor the
collection and interpretationof data on water quality
and quantity and channel morphology relatedro the
state and managementof living aquatic resources,
including fisheries;
I) AOUACULTURE
DEVELOPMENT:
(i) Develop environmentallysound aquaculturetech-
nologies that are compatible with local, regional and
nationalwaterresourcesmanagement plansandtakeinto
considerationsocialfactors:
(ii) Introduceappropriateaquaculturetechniquesand
relatedwaterdevelopmentand managementpracticesin
countriesnot yet experiencedin aquaculture;
(iii) Assessenvironmentalimpactsof aquaculturewith
specific referenceto commercializedculture units and
potentialwaterpollution from processingcentres;
(iv) Evaluateeconomicfeasibilityof aquaculturein re-
lation to alternativeuse of water,taking into consider-
ation the use of marginal-qualitywater and investment
andoperational requirements.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTAIION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND CCSTEVALUATTON
18.77The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
theactivitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$ 13.2billion,
includingabout$4.5 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseare indic-
ative and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and have
not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costsand
financial terms, including any that are non-conces-
sional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategiesandprogrammesGovernmentsdecideupon for
implementation.
8/ SC'ENIIFICAND IECHNOIOGICA,L
A4FANS
18.78There is an urgentneed for countriesto monitor
waterresourcesandwater-quality,waterandland useand
crop production;compile inventoriesof type and extent
of agricultural water developmentand of present and
future contributionsto sustainableagricultural develop-
ment; evaluatethe potentialfor fisheriesand aquaculture
development;and improvethe availabilityand dissemi-
nation of data to planners,technicians,farmersand fish-
ermen.Priority requirementsfor researchare as follows:
(a) Identification of critical areas for water-related
adaptiveresearch;
(b) Strengtheningof the adaptive researchcapacities
of institutionsin developingcountries;
(c) Enhancementof translationof water-relatedfarm-
ing andfishingsystemsresearchresultsinto practicaland
accessibletechnologiesand provision of the support
neededfor their rapid adoptionat the field level.
18.79Transferof technology,both horizontaland verti-
cal, needsto be strengthened. Mechanismsto provide
credit, input supplies,markets,appropriatepricing and
transportation mustbedevelopedjointly by countriesand
extemal supportagencies.Integratedrural water-supply
i nfrastructure,i ncluding facilitie s for water-relatededu-
cation and training and supportservicesfor agriculture,
shouldbe expandedfor multiple usesand shouldassist
in developingthe rural economy.
C ) H U MA NR E S OU R CDEE V E LOP ME N I
18.80E ducati on and trai ni ng of human resour ces
shouldbe activelypursuedat the nationallevel through:
(a) assessment of currentandlong-termhumanresources
managementand training needs;(b) establishmentof a
nationalpolicy for human resourcesdevelopment;and
(c) initiationandimplementationof trainingprogrammes
for staffat all levelsaswell asfbr farmers.The necessary
actionsare as follows:
(a) Assesstraining needsfor agriculturalwater man-
agement;
(b) Increaseformal and informal trainingactivities;
(c) Develop practical training coursesfor improving
the ability of extensionservicesto disseminatetech-
nologiesand strengthenfarmers'capabilities,with spe-
cial referenceto small-scaleproducers;
r83
(d) Train staff at all levels,including farmers,fisher-
men and membersof local communities,with particular
referenceto women;
(e) Increasethe opportunitiesfor career development
to enhancethe capabilitiesof administratorsandofficers
at all levels involved in land- and water-management
programmes.
D) CA P A C IT Y .BU IL D IN G
18.81The importanceof a functional and coherentin-
stitutionalframework at the national level to promote
water and sustainableagriculturaldevelopmenthas
generallybeenfully recognizedat present.ln addition,
an adequatelegal framework of rules and regulations
should be in place to facilitate actions on agricultural
water-use,drainage,water-qualitymanagement,small-
scale water programmesand the functioningof water-
users'and fishermen'sassociations. Legislationspecific
to the needs of the agriculturalwater sectorshould be
consistent with, and stem from. general legislationforthe
managementof water resources.Actions shouldbe pur-
suedin the following areas:
(a) Improvementof water-usepoliciesrelatedto agri-
culture, fisheries and rural developmentand of legal
frameworksfor implementingsuchpolicies;
(b) Review,sftengtheningand restructuring,if required,
of existinginstitutionsin orderto enhancetheir capacities
in water-relatedactivities,while recognizingthe need to
managewaterresourcesat the lowestappropriatelevel;
(c) Review and strengthening.where necessary,of
organizationalstructure,functional relationshipsand
linkages arnong ministries and departmentswithin a
given ministryl
(d) Provisionof specificmeasuresthat requiresupport
for institutional strengthening,inter alia, through long-
term programmebudgeting,staff training, incentives,
mobility, equipmentand coordinationmechanisms;
(e) Enhancementof involvementof the privatesector,
whereappropriate,in humanresourcedevelopmentand
provisionof infrastructure;
(0 Transferof existingandnew water-usetechnologies
by creatingmechanismsfor cooperationandinformation
exchangeamongnationaland regionalinstitutions.
G) rrriPAcTsOF CUMATECHANGE ON
WATERRESOURCES
FORACTION
BASIS
18.82Thereis uncertaintywith respectto the prediction
of climate changeat the global level. Although the un-
r84
certaintiesincreasegreatly at the regional, national and
local levels, it is at the national level that the most
important decisions would need to be made. Higher
temperaturesand decreasedprecipitation would lead to
decreasedwater suppliesand increasedwater demands;
they might causedeteriorationin thequality of freshwater
bodies, putting strains on the already fragile balance
betweensupply and demandin many countries.Even
whereprecipitationmight increase,thereis no guarantee
that it would occur at the time of year when it could be
used;in addition,theremight be a likelihoodof increased
flooding. Any rise in sealevelwill often causethe intru-
sionof saltwaterinto estuaries,smallislandsandcoastal
aquifersand the flooding of low-lying coastalareas;this
puts low-lying countriesat greatrisk.
18.83The Ministerial Declaration of the SecondWorld
Climate Conferencestatesthat "the potential impact of
suchclimate changecould posean environmentalthreat
of an up to now unknown magnitude... and could even
threaten survival in some small island Statesand in
low-lying coastal,arid and semi-aridareas".3The Con-
ferencerecognizedthat among the most important im-
pactsof climate changewere its effectson the hydrologic
cycle and on water managementsystemsand, through
these,on socio-economic systems.Increasein incidence
of extremes,such as floods and droughts,would cause
increasedfrequencyand severityof disasters.The Con-
ferencethereforecalled for a strengtheningof the neces-
sary researchand monitoring programmesand the ex-
changeof relevantdataand information,theseactionsto
be undertakenat the national,regional and international
l evel s.
OBJECTIVES
I 8.84 The verv natureof thistopiccallsfirst andforemost
for more information about and greaterunderstandingof
the threatbeing taced.This topic may be translatedinto
the following objectives,consistentwith the United
NationsFrameworkConventionon Climate Change:
(a) To understandand quantify the threatof the impact
of climate changeon freshwaterresources;
(b) To facilitate the implementation of effective na-
tional countermeasures, as and when the threatening
impact is seenas sufficiently confirmed to justify such
action;
(c) To study the potentialimpactsof climate changeon
areasprone to droughtsand floods.
ACTIVITIES
18.85 All States,accordingto theircapacityandavailable
resources,and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-
 ation, including the United Nations and other relevant
organizationsas appropriate,could implement the fol-
lowing activities:
(a) Monitorthehydrologicregime,includingsoil mois-
ture, groundwaterbalance,penetration and transpiration
of water quality, and related climare factors, especially
in the regionsandcountriesmost likely to sufferfrom the
adverseeffectsof climatechangeandwherethelocalities
vulnerableto theseeffects shouldthereforebe defined;
(b) Developandapplytechniquesandmethodologies for
assessing the potentialadverseeffectsof climate change,
throughchangesin temperature, precipitationand sealevel
rise,on freshwaterresourcesand the flood risk:
(c) Initiate case-studies to establishwhetherthereare
linkagesbetweenclimatechangesandthe currentoccur-
rencesof droughtsand floods in certainregions;
(d) Assessthe resultingsocial,economicand environ-
mentalimpacts;
(e) Developand initiate responsestrategiesto counter
theadverseeffectsthatareidentified,includingchanging
groundwaterlevels,and to mitigatesalineintrusioninto
aquifers;
(0 Develop agriculturalactivitiesbasedon brackish-
water use;
(g) Contributeto theresearchactivitiesunderway within
the framework of currentinternationalprograffunes.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
Ai FINANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
18.86The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2(n0)of implementing
the activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$ 100million,
includingabout$40 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseare indic-
ative and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and have
not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and
financialterms,includingany that arenon-concessional,
will dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand
programmesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementa-
tion.
8/ SC/ENTIFrc
ANDTECHNOI.OGICAL
MFANS
18.87Monitoring of climate changeand its impact on
freshwaterbodies must be closely integratedwith na-
tional and internationalprogrammesfor monitoringthe
environment,in particularthoseconcernedwith the at-
mosphere,as discussedunderother sectionsof Agenda
21, andthe hydrosphere, as discussedunderprogramme
area B above. The analysisof data for indication of
climate change as a basis for developing remedial
measuresis a complextask.Extensiveresearchis neces-
sary in this area and due accounthas to be taken of the
work of the IntergovernmentalPanelon Climate Change
(IPCC), the World Climate Programme,the International
Geosphere-BiosphereProgramme (IGBP) and other
relevantintemationalprogrammes.
18.88The developmentand implementationof response
strategiesrequiresinnovativeuseof technologicalmeans
and engineeringsolutions,including the installationof
flood and droughtwarningsystemsand the construction
of nerv water resourcedevelopmentprojects such as
dams, aqueducts,well fields, waste-watertreatment
plants,desalinationworks, levees,banks and drainage
channels.There is also a needfbr coordinatedresearch
networkssuchas theInternationalGeosphere-Biosphere
Programme/GlobalChange System for Analysis, Re-
searchand Training (IGBP/START) network.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
18.89The developmentalwork and innovationdepend
for their successon good academictraining and staff
motivation.Intemationalprojectscan help by enumera-
ting alternatives,
but eachcountryneedsto establishand
implementthe necessary policiesandto developits own
expertisein the scientificand engineeringchallengesto
be faced,as well as a body of dedicatedindividualswho
are able to interpretthe complex issuesconcemedfor
thoserequiredto makepolicy decisions.Suchspeciahzed
personnelneedto betrained,hiredandretainedin service,
so that they may servetheir countriesin thesetasks.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
18.90Thereis a need,however,to build a capacityat the
national level to develop,review and implementresponse
sfrategies.Consffuction of major engineeringworks and
installationof forecastingsystemswill require significant
sffengtheningof the agenciesresponsible,whether in the
public or the private sector.Most critical is the requirement
for a socio.economicmechanismthatcanreview predictions
of the impact of climate change and possible response
sfrategiesand makethenecessary judgemenlsanddecisions.
'Report
of the UnitedNotionsWoterConference, Mor del Ploto,
l4-25 Morch 1977 lUnitedNotions publicotion,SolesNo.
E.77.1.'.A.12),
pori one,chopterl, sectionC, porogroph35.
2lbid.,
portone,chopterl, resolution
ll.
3a/$/Ogo/Add.l,
onnexlll, preomble,porogroph2.
185
19 Environmentolly
chemicols,
soundmonogement
including prevention
of toxic
of illegol
products
trofficin toxicond dongerous
internotionol
INTRODUCTION
19.1 A substantialuseof chemicalsis essentialto meet
the social and economic goals of the world community
and today's best practice demonstratesthat they can be
usedwidely in a cost-effectivemannerand with a high
degreeof safety.However,a greatdealremainsto be done
to ensurethe environmentallysound managementof
toxic chemicals, within the principles of sustainable
developmentandimprovedquality of life forhumankind.
Two of the major problems, particularly in developing
countries,are (a) lack of sufficient scientific information
for the assessmentof risks entailedby the use of a great
number of chemicals,and (b) lack of resourcesfor as-
sessmentof chemicalsfor which dataare at hand.
19.2 Grosschemicalcontamination,with gravedamageto
humanhealth,geneticstucturesandreproductiveoutcomes,
and the environment,has in recent times been continuing
within someof the world's most imporlant industrialareas.
Restorationwill requiremajor investmentand development
of new techniques.The long-rangeeffectsof pollution, ex-
tendingevento the fundamentalchemicerl andphysicalpro
cessesof the Eafth'satrnosphereand climate,arebecomrng
understoodonly recently and the importanceof thoseeffects
is becomingrecognizedonly recentlyaswell.
19.3 A considerable numberof internationalbodiesare
involved in work on chemicalsafety.In many countries
work programmesfor the promotion of chemical safety
arein place.Suchwork hasinternationalimplications,as
chemicalrisks do not respectnationalboundaries.How-
ever. a significant strengtheningof both national and
internationaleffortsis neededto achievean environmen-
tally soundmanagementof chemicals.
19.4 Six programmeareasare proposed:
(a) Expanding and acceleratinginternationalassess-
ment of chemicalrisks;
r86
(b) Harmonization of classification and labelling of
chemicals;
(c) Information exchange on toxic chemicals and
chemicalrisks;
(d) Establishmentof risk reductionprogrammes;
(e) Strengtheningof national capabilities and capac-
ities for managementof chemicals;
(0 Preventionof illegal internationaltraffic in toxic and
dangerousproducts.
In addition. the short final subsectionG deals with the
enhancementof cooperation related to several pro-
gramme areas.
19.5 The six programmeareasaretogetherdependentfor
their successfulimplementationon intensive interna-
tional work and improved coordinationof current inter-
national activities,as well as on the identificationand
applicationof technical,scientific,educationaland fi-
nancialmeans,in particularfor developingcountries.To
varying degrees,the progralruneareas involve hazatd
assessment (basedon the intrinsic propertiesof chemi-
cals), risk assessment(including assessment of expo-
sure),risk acceptabilityand risk management.
19,6 Collaborationon chemical safety between the
United Nations EnvironmentProgramme(UNEP), the
InternationalLabour Organisation(ILO) and the World
Health Organization (WHO) in the International Pro-
gramme on ChemicalSafety (IPCS) should be the nu-
cleus for internationalcooperationon environmentally
soundmanagement of toxic chemicals.All effor-tsshould
be madeto strengthenthis programme.Cooperationwith
other programmes,suchas thoseof the Organisationfor
Economic Cooperationand Development (OECD) and
the EuropeanCommunities(EC) and other regional and
governmentalchemical programmes,should be pro-
moted.
19.7 Increasedcoordinationof United Nations bodies
and other internationalorganizationsinvolved in chemi-
cals assessment and managementshouldbe furtherpro-
 moted. Within the framework of IPCS, an intergovern-
mentalmeeting,convenedby the ExecutiveDirector of
UNEP,was held in London in December1991to further
explorethis matter(seeparas.19.75and 19.76).
19.8 The broadestpossibleawareness of chemicalrisks
is a prerequisitefor achievingchemicalsafety.The prin-
ciple of the right of the community and of workers to
know those risks should be recognized.However, the
right to know the identity of hazardousingredientsshould
be balancedwith industry'sright to protectconfidential
businessinformation. (Industry, as referred to in this
chapter,shall be taken to include large industrialenter-
prisesand transnational corporationsaswell asdomestic
industries.)The industrv initiative on responsiblecare
and product stewardshipshouldbe developedand pro-
moted.Industryshouldapplyadequatestandards of oper-
ationin all countriesin ordernotto damaeehumanhealth
and the environment.
19.9Thereis internationalconcernthat paft of the inter-
nationalmovementof toxic and dangerousproductsis
being carried out in contraventionof existing national
legislationandinternationalinstruments, to thedetriment
of the environmentand public health of all countries,
particularlydevelopingcountries.
19.10In resolution441226of 22 December1989,the
GeneralAssemblyrequestedeachregionalcommission,
within existingresources, to contributeto the prevention
of the illegal traffic in toxic and dangerousproductsand
wastesby monitoring and making regionalassessments
of that illegal traffic and its environmental and health
implications.The Assemblyalsorequestedthe regional
commissionsto interact among themselvesand to co-
operate with the United Nations Environment Pro-
gralnme,with a view to maintainingefficient and coor-
dinatedmonitoring and assessment of the illegal traffic
in toxic and dangerousproductsand wastes.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) EXPANDTNGAND ACCETERATTNG
INTERNATIONAT
ASSESS'IAEMOF CHETATAIRISKS
l9.l I Assessing the risksto humanhealthandthe envi-
ronment hazardsthat a chemical may causeis a pre-
requisite to planning for its saf'eand beneficial use.
Among the approximately100,000chemicalsubstances
in commerceand the thousandsof substances
of natural
origin with which humanbeingscomeinto contact,many
appearas pollutantsand contaminantsin food, commer-
cial productsand the variousenvironmentalmedia.For-
tunately,exposureto mostchemicals(some1,500cover
over 95 per cent of total world production) is rather
limited, as most are usedin very small amounts.How-
ever, a seriousproblem is that even for a great number
of chemicalscharacterizedby high-volume produc-
tion, crucial datafor risk assessmentare often lacking.
Within the framework of the OECD chernicalspro-
gramme such data are now being generated for a
number of chemicals.
19.12Risk assessment is resource-intensive.
It couldbe
made cost-effectiveby strengtheninginternationalco-
operation and better coordination. thereby making the
bestuseof availableresourcesand avoidingunnecessary
duplicationof effort. However,eachnationshouldhave
a critical mass of technical staff with experiencein
toxicity testing and exposureanalysis,which are two
importantcomponentsof risk assessment.
OBJECTIVES
19.I3 The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To strengthen internationalrisk assessment.Several
hundredpriority chemicalsor groupsof chemicals,in-
cluding major pollutants and contaminanrsof global
significance,shouldbe assessed by the year 2000,using
currentselectionand assessment criteria:
(b) To produceguidelinesfor acceptableexposurefor a
greaternumber of toxic chemicals,basedon peer review
and scientificconsensusdistinguishingbetweenhealth-or
environment-based exposurelimits and thoserelatingto
socio-economicfactors.
ACTIVIIIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELATED
ACTIV
ITIES
19.14Governments,throughthe cooperationof relevant
internationalorganizations andindustry,whereappropri-
ate,should:
(a) Strengthenand expand programmeson chemical
risk assessment within the United NationssystemIPCS
(UNEP,ILO. WHO) andtheFoodandAgricultureOrgan-
izationof the United Nations(FAO), rogetherwith other
organizations,including the Organisationfor Economic
Cooperationand Development(OECD), based on an
agreedapproachto data-qualityassurance, applicationof
assessmentcriteria, peer review and linkages to risk
managementactivities,taking into accountthe precau-
tionary approach;
(b) Promote mechanismsto increase collaboration
among Governments,industry, academiaand relevant
non-governmental organizationsinvolved in the various
aspectsof risk assessment of chemicalsand relatedpro-
cesses,in particularthe promoting and coordinatingof
187
researchactivitiesto improveunderstanding of themech- testing by industry and researchinstitutions.The cost
anismsof action of toxic chemicals; projectionsaddressthe needsto strengthenthecapacities
(c) Encouragethe developmentof proceduresfor the of relevant United Nations bodies and are based on
exchangeby countriesof their assessment reports on currentexperiencein IPCS.It shouldbe notedthat there
chemicalswith clther for
countries usein nationalchemi- areconsiderable costs,olten not possibleto quantify,that
cal assessrnentprogrammes. are not included.Thesecomprisecoststo industry and
Governmentsof generatingthe safetydataunderlyingthe
assessments andcoststo Governments of providingback-
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON ground documentsand draft assessment statementsto
IPCS, the InternationalRegister of Potentially Toxic
19.15Governments, throughthecooperation of relevant Chemicals(IRPTC) and OECD. They also includethe
i nternationalorganizati onsandindttstry,whereappropri- cost of acceleratedwork in non-UnitedNations bodies
ate,should: suchas OECD and EC.
(a) Give high priority to hazardassessment of chemi- 19.19 The Conf-erence secretariathasestimatedthe aver-
cals,thatis, ot ttreirintrinsicpropeftiesasthe appropriate age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
basisfor risk assessment: activitiesof this prograntmeto be about$30million from
(b) Generatedatanecessary for assessment, building, the intemationalcommunitv on grant or concessional
interulia, on programmes of IPCS(UNEP WHO, ILO), terms.Theseareindicativeand order-of-magnitude esti-
FAO, OECD anciEC and on establishedprogrammes matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
otherregionsandGovernments. Industryshouldpartici- Actual costsanclfinancial terms,including any that are
pateactively. non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
19.16Industryshouldprovidedatatbr substances pro- specificstrategies and programmesGovernmentsdecide
ducedthat are needed specificallyfor the assessment of uponfor i nrpl cnrentati on.
potentialrisks to human health and the environment.
Suchdatashouldbe madeavailableto relevantnational
competentauthoritiesand internationalbodiesand other B i 5C /E N IFtCA N D TE C H N OLOG\CME
A L A NS
interested partiesinvolvedin hazardandrisk assessment,
and to the greatestpossibleextent to the public also, 19.20Major researcheffortsshouldbe launchedin order
takinginto accountlegitimateclaimsof confidentiality. to improvemethodslor assessntent of chemicalsaswork
towardsa commonframeworkfor risk assessffIent andto
improveproceduresfor r-rsing toxicological and epidemi-
CJ / NI E R N AIION AIA N D R F G ION A. ologicaldatato predicttheeffbctsof chemicals on human
CO O P E R AIION A N D C O OR D /N AI/ON health and the environntent.so as to enabledecision
makersto adoptadequatcpoliciesandmeasures to reduce
19.I 7 Governments, throughthecooperation clfrelevant ri sksposedbv cherrri cal s.
internationalorganizations andindustry,whereappropri- 1 9 . 2 1A c t i ri t i e si n c l u d e :
ate.should: (a) S trengtheni ng researchcl nsafe/saf' er alt er nat ives
(a) Developcriterialor priority-settingfor cherricals to toxrcchemi cal sthatposeanunrcasonab le andot her -
of globalconcernn'ith respcctto assessment; w ' i seunmanageablriesk to thc cnvi ronntentor hum an
(b) Revicu' strategies1-orexposureassessment and heal thand to thosethat are toxi c. persi ste ntand bio-
environnrentalmonitoring to allclrvfor the best use o1' a c c u m u l a t i v ea n d t h a t c a n n o t h e a d e q u a t e l yc o n -
availableresource s. to ensurecompatibilityof dataand trol l ed;
t o e n c o u r a g cc o h e r e n tn a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l (b) Promotionof researchtin. iind validationof, meth-
stratesies for that assessnte ltt. ods consti tuti nga rcpl accrnentfor those using t est
animals(thus rcducingthe use ol' animalsfor testing
purposes ):
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION (c) Promotionof relevantepidemiological studieswith
a vie$' to establishin-s a canse-and-ef1-ect relationship
Al F/NANC/AIAND COST EVALUATION betweenexposureto chemicalsand the occurrenceof
certaindiseases:
1 9 . 1 8M o s t o f t h e d a t a a n d m e t h o d s f o r c h e m i c a l r i s k (d) P romoti onof ecotoxi col ogi calstudieswit h t he
assessmentarc generatedin the developedcountries and ai m of assessi ng the ri sks of chemi cal sto t he envi-
an expansion and acceleration of the assessmentwork ronment.
u'ill call for a considerableincreasein researchand safety

r88
C) HUM A NRE S O U R CDEE VE L O P M EN T OBJECTIVES
19.27A globally harmonizedhazard classificationand
19.22lnLemationalorganizations, with the participation
compatible labelling system, including material safety
of Governmentsand non-governmentalorganizations, datasheetsandeasilyunderstandable symbols,shouldbe
shouldlaunchtrainingand educationprojectsinvolving available,if feasible,by the year 2000.
womenand children,who are at greatestrisk. in orderto
enablecountries,and particularlydevelopingcountries,
to make maximum nationaluse of internationalassess- ACTIVITIES
mentsof chemicalrisks"
EDACTIVITIES
ELAT
A) MANAGEMENI-R

D) CA P A CT TY-B U tL D IN G 19.28Governments, throughthe cooperationof relevant

intemationalorganizationsandindustry,whereappropri-
19.23lnternationalorganizations, buildingon past,pres- ate, shouldlauncha project with a view to establishing
entandfutureassessment work, shouldsupportcountries, and elaboratinga harmonizedclassificationand com-
particularlydevelopingcountries.in developingand patible labelling system for chemicalsfor use in all
strengthening risk assessillent capabilitiesat nationaland United Nations official languagesincluding adequate
r egional lev el s tc l m i n i m i z e , a n d a s fa r a s p ossi bl e pictograms.Such a labelling systemshouldnot lead to
control and prevent,risk in the manufacturingand use the imposition of unjustified trade barriers. The new
of toxic and hazardclus chemicals.Technicalcooper- systemshoulddraw on curent systemsto the greatest
at ion and f ina n c i a l s u p p o rt o r o th e r c o n tr i buti ons extent possible;it should be developedin steps and
should be given to ac-tivitiesaimed at expandingand shouldaddressthe subjectof compatibility with labelsof
acceleratingthe nationaland internationalassessment variousapplications.
and controlof chemicalrisks to enablethe bestchoice
of chemicals.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON

B) HARMONTZATIONOF CLASSIFICATION 19.29Internationalbodies including, inter alia. IPCS

AND LABELLINGOF CHEMICATS (UNEP, ILO, WHO), FAO, the InternationalMaritime
Organization(IMO), the United NationsCommitteeof
Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods and
FORACTION
BASIS
OECD, in cooperationwith regional and national au-
19.24Adequatelabellingof chemicalsand the dissemi- thoritieshaving existingclassificationand labellingand
nationof saletydatasheetssuchasICSCs(International other information-dissemination systems,shouldestab-
ChemicalSafetyCards)and sin-rilarlywritten materials, lish a coordinatinggroupto:
basedon assessed hazardsto healthandenvironment, are (a) Evaluateand, if appropriate,undertakestudiesof
the simplestandmostefficientway of indicatinghow to existinghazardclassificationandinformationsystemsto
handleand usechemicalssaf-ely. establishgeneralprinciplesfor a globally harmonized
19.25For the safetransporlof dangerousgoods,includ- system;
ing chemicals, a comprehensive schemeelaborated with- (b) Developand implementa work plan for the estab-
in the United Nations systemis in currentuse. This lishment of a globally harmonizedhazardclassification
schememainly takesinto accountthe acutehazardsof system.The plan shouldincludea descriptionof thetasks
c hem ic als . to be cornpleted,deadlinefor completionandassignment
19.16Globally harmonizedhazard classil'ication and
of tasksto the participantsin the coordinatinggroup;
labellingsysterns arenotyetavailableto promotethesafe (c) Elaboratea harmonizedhazardclassificationsys-
use of chernicals, inter aliu. ar the workplaceor in the tem:
honre.Classification of chemicalscan be tnadefor dif- (d) Draft proposalsfor standardizationof hazardcom-
l-erentpurposesand is a particularlf itnportanttool in municationterminologyandsymbolsin ordertoenhance
establishrng labellingsystems. Thereis a needto der.'elop
risk managementof chemicalsand facilitateboth inter-
harmonizedhazardclassiflcation and labelline systems,
national trade and translation of information into the
buildingon ongoingwork. end-user'slanguage;
(e) Elaboratea harmonizedlabellingsystem.

r89
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION guidelinesadoptedby Governmentswith a view to
increasingchemical safety through the exchangeof
A N DC OS I EV AL U AT T ON
A / F / NA N C IAL information on chemicals.Special provisions have
been included in the guidelineswith regard to the
19.30The Conferencesecretariathas includedthe tech- exchangeof i nformati on on banned and sever ely
nical assistancecostsrelatedto this programmein esti- restrictedchemicals.
matesprovidedin programmeareaE. They estimatethe 19.35The exportto developingcountriesof chemicals
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)for strengthening that have beenbannedin producingcountriesor whose
internationalorganizationsto be about $3 rnilliort from use has been severelyrestrictedin some industrialized
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional countrieshas been the subjectof concern,as some itn-
terms.Theseare inclicativeand order-of-magnitude esti- portingcountrieslack theability to ensuresafeuse,owing
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments. to inadequateinfrastructurefor controlling the irnpor-
Actual costsand financialterms.including any that are tation,distribution.storage,tormulationand disposalof
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the chemicals.
specificstrategiesandprogrammesGovernmentsdecide 19.36In order to addressthis issue,provisionsfor Prior
upon for irnplernentation. Informed Consent(PIC) procedureswere introducedin
1989in the London Guidelines(UNEP) and in the Inter-
nationalCodeof Conducton the Distnbutionand Useof
B ) HUM A NR E SOU R CDEEV EL OP M EN I P esti ci des(FA O). In addi ti on a j oi nt FAO / UNEP
programmehas been launchedfor the operationof the
19.31Governmentsand institutionsand non-govern- PIC proceduresfor chemicals,includingthe selectionof
rnentalorganizations. with the collaborationof appropri- chemicalsto be includedin the PIC procedureand prep-
ateorganizations and programmes of the UnitedNations, arationof PIC decisionguidancedocuments.The ILO
should launch training courses and infonnationcam- chemicalsconventioncallsfor communication between
paignsto lacilitatcthe understanding and useof a new exporting and importing countries when hazardous
harmonizedclassification and compatible labellingsys- chemicalshavebeenprohibitedfor reasonsof safetyand
t em f or c he mi c a l s . healthat work. Within the GeneralAgreementon Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) framework, negotiationshave been
pursuedwith a view to creatinga bindinginstrumenton
c ) c A P A C tT Y-B U tL D tN G productsbannedor severelyrestrictedin the domestic
market. Further, the GATT Council has agreed,as
ic).32In strengthening nationalcapacitiesfor manage- statedin its decisioncontainedin Clll{l25l, to extend
I nent o1'c h e m i c a l s .i n c l u d i n g d e v e l o p mentand i m- the mandateof the working groupfor a periodof three
plementationof, andadaptationto, newclassificationand months, to begin from the date of the group's next
labellingsystems. thecreationof tradebarriersshouldbe meeting, and has authorized the Chairman to hold
avoidedandthelimitedcapacities andresources of a large consultationson timing with respectto conveningthis
numberof countries.particularlydevelopingcountries, meeti ng.
for implementin-r suchs.vsterns, shouldbe takeninto tull 19.37Notwithstanding the importanceof thePIC proce-
account. dure,informationexchange on allchemicalsis necessary.

c) TNFoRMATTONEXCHANGEON TOXIC OBJECTIVES

CHEMICATSAND CHEMICALRISKS
19.38The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To promoteintensifiedexchangeof intormationon
BASISFORACTION
chemicalsafety,use and emissionsamongall involved
19.33 The lollowing activitics. related tci infbrrnation
parties:
exchange on the benefits as well as the risks associated (b) To achieveby the year 2000,if possible,full par-
u'ith the use of chemicals, are ainted at enhancing the
ticipation in and implementationof the PIC procedure,
sound management of toxic chemicals through the ex-
i ncl udi ng possi bl emandatoryappl i cati onst hr ough
change of scientific, technical,economic ancllegal infor-
legally binding instrumentscontainedin the Amended
rtraticltt.
London Guidelinesand in the FAO InternationalCode
i 9.3-1The London Guidelines for the Exchange of Infor-
of Conduct,taking into acccluntthe experiencegained
n'rationon Chemicals in International Trade are a set of
wrthin the PIC procedure.

r90
ACTIVITIES
A,) MANAGEMENT-R ACTtVtTtES
ELATED
19.39Governmentsand relevantintemational organrza-
tions with the cooperationof industryshould:
(a) Strengthennational institutionsresponsiblefor in-
formation exchangeon toxic chemicalsand promotethe
creation of national centreswhere these centresdo not
exist:
(b) Strengtheninternationalinstitutionsand networks,
suchasIRPTC, responsiblefor information exchangeon
toxic chemicals;
(c) Establishtechnical cooperationwith, and provide
information to, other countries,especiallythose with
shortages of technicalexpertise,includingtrainingin the
interpretationof relevanttechnicaldata,suchasEnviron-
mental Health Criteria Documents, Health and Safety
Guides and InternationalChemical SafetyCards (pub-
lishedby IPCS); monographson the Evaluationof Car-
cinogenicRisks of Chemicalsto Humans(publishedby
the International Agency for Researchon Cancer
(IARC)); and decision guidancedocuments(provided
throughtheFAOfuNEPjointprogrammeon PIC), aswell
as thosesubmittedby industryand other sources;
(d) Implementthe PIC proceduresas soonas possible
and, in the light of experiencegained,invite relevant
internationalorganrzations,suchas UNEP, GATI FAO,
WHO and others,in their respectiveareaof competence
to considerworking expeditiouslytowardsthe conclu-
sion of legally binding instruments.
B) DATAAND /NFORMATTON
19.40Governmentsand relevantintemational organiza-
tions with the cooperationof industryshould:
(a) Assistin the creationof nationalchemicalinforma-
tion systemsin developingcountriesandimproveaccess
to existinginternationalsystems;
(b) Improve databasesand information systemson
tox ic c hem ic al s , s u c h a s e mi s s i o n i n v e n to ry pro-
grantmes,throughprovisionof trainingin theuseof those
systemsaswell assoftware,hardwareandotherfacilities;
(c) Provide knowledge and information on severely
restrictedor bannedchemicalsto importingcountriesto
enablethem to judge and take decisionson whetherto
import,andhow to handle,thosechemicalsandestablish
joint responsibilitiesin tradeof chemicalsbetweenim-
porting and exportingcountries;
(d) Provide data necessaryto assessrisks to human
health and the environmentof possiblealternativesto
bannedor severelvrestrictedchemicals.
19.41UnitedNationsorganizations shouldprovide,as
far as possible,all internationalinformationnaterial
on toxi c chemi cal si n al l U ni tedN ati onsol fi ci al lan-
guages.
C/ /NIERNAIIONAI.
AND REG/ONAI.
COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON
19.42 Governmentsand relevantinternationalorganrza-
tions with the cooperationof industryshouldcooperate
in establishing,strengtheningand expanding,as appro-
priate,the networkof designatednationalauthoritiesfor
exchangeof information on chemicalsand establisha
technical exchangeprogrammeto produce a core of
trainedpersonnelwithin eachparticipatingcountry.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALUATION
19.43The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof thisprogrammeto be about$ l0 rnillion from
the internationalcornmunity on grant or concessional
terms.Theseareindicativeandorder-of-magnitude esti-
matesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financialterms,including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alict, the
specificstrategiesandprogrammesGovemrnentsdecide
upon for implementation.
D) ESTABUSHi/IENT
OF R|SK REDUCTTON
PROGRATAMES
BASIS
FORACTION
19.44There are often alternativesto toxic chernicals
currentlyin use.Thus,risk reductioncan sometimes be
achievedby usingotherchemicalsor evennon-chemical
technologies.Theclassicexampleof risk reductionis the
substitutionof harmlessor lessharmfulsubstances for
harmfulones.Establishment of pollutionpreventionpro-
ceduresand settingstandardsfbr chemicalsin eachen-
vironmentalrnedium,including food and water,and in
consumer goods, constitute another example of risk
reduction.In a wider context.risk reductioninvolves
broad-basedapproachesto reducing the risks of toxic
chemicals,taking into accountthe entirelife cycle of the
chemicals.Suchapproaches couldencompass bothregLr-
latory and non-regulatorymeasures,suchas promotion
of theuseof cleanerproductsandtechnologies, pollution
preventionprocedures andprogramffles, emissioninven-
191
tories, product labelling, use limitations,economicin-
centives,proceduresfor safehandlingandexposureregu-
lations,and the phasingout or banningof chemicalsthat
poseunreasonable and otherwiseunmanageable risks to
human health and the environmentand of thosethat are
toxic, persistentand bio-accumulativeand whose use
cannotbe adequatelycontrolled.
19.45In the agriculturalarea,integratedpest manage-
ment, including the use of biological control agentsas
alternativesto toxic pesticides,is one approachto risk
reduction.
19.46Other areas of risk reduction encompassthe
preventionof chemicalaccidents,preventionof poison-
ing by chemicalsand the undertakingof toxicovigilance
and coordinationof clean-upand rehabilitationof areas
damagedby toxic chemicals.
19.41The OECD CouncilhasdecidedthatOECD mem-
ber countriesshouldestablishor strengthennationalrisk
reduction programmes.The InternationalCouncil of
ChemicalAssociations(ICCA) hasintroducedinitiatives
regarding responsiblecare and product stewardship
aimedat reductionof chemicalrisks.The Awarenessand
Preparedness for Emergenciesat Local Level (APELL)
programmeof UNEP is designedto assistdecision
makersandtechnicalpersonnelin improvingcommunity
awarenessof hazardousinstallationsand in preparing
responseplans.ILO haspublisheda Codeof Practiceon
the preventionof major industrialaccidentsand is pre-
paring an internationalinstrument on the prevention of
industrialdisastersfor eventualadoptionin 1993.
OBJECTIVES
19.48The objectiveof theprogrammeareaisto eliminate
unacceptableor unreasonablerisks and, to the extent
economicallyfeasible,to reducerisks posed by toxic
chemicals,by employingabroad-based approachinvolv-
ing a wide rangeof risk reductionoptionsand by taking
precautionarymeasuresderivedfrom a broad-based life-
cycle analysis.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMFNI-R
19.49Governments,throughthe cooperationof relevant
andindustry,whereappropri-
internationalorganizations
ate.should:
(a) Consider adopting policies based on accepted
producerliability principles,whereappropriate,as well
as precautionary,anticipatoryand life-cycleapproaches
to chemicalmanagemen t. covering manufacturing,trade,
transport,useand disposal;
192
(b) Undertakeconcertedactivitiesto reducerisks for
toxic chernicals,taking into accountthe entirelife cycle
of the chemicals.Theseactivitiescould encompassboth
regulatoryartdnon-regulatorymeasures, suchaspromo-
tion of the use of cleanerproductsand technologies;
emissioninventories;productlabelling;uselimitations;
economicincentives;and the phasingout or banningof
toxic chemicalsthat posean unreasonable andotherwise
unmanageable risk to the environmentor humanhealth
and thosethat aretoxic, persistentand bio-accumulative
and whoseusecannotbe adequatelycontrolled;
(c) Adopt policies and regulatoryand non-regulatory
measuresto identify, and minintize exposureto, toxic
chemicalsby replacingthem with lesstoxic substitutes
and ultimately phasingout the chemicalsthat pose un-
reasonableand otherwiseunmanageable risk to human
health and the environmentand those that are toxic,
persistentand bio-accumulativeand whose use cannot
be adequatelycontrolled:
(d) lncreaseetfortsto identify'nationalneedsfor stand-
ard setting and implementation in the context of the
FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius in order to minimize
adverseeffectsof chemicalsin food;
(e) Develop nationalpoliciesand adoptthe necessary
regulatory framework for prevention of accidents,
preparedness and response,inter alia, throughland-use
planning,permit systemsand reportingrequirementson
accidents,and work with the OECD/UNEPinternational
directory of regionalresponsecentresand the APELL
programme;
(0 Promoteestablishment andstrengthening, asappro-
priate,of nationalpoisoncontrolcentresto ensureprompt
and adequate diagnosisand treatmentof poisonings;
(g) Reduceoverdependence on the use of agricultural
chemi cal sthroughai ternati vel armi ng pract ices.int e-
gratedpestmanagementand other appropriatemeans;
(h) Requiremanufacturers, importersand othershan-
dling toxic chemicalsto develop,with thecooperationof
producersof such chemicals.where applicable,emer-
gencyresponse procedures andpreparationofon-siteand
otf-siteemergencyresponseplans;
(i) Identify, assess, reduceand rninimize,or eliminate
as far as feasible by environmentallysound disposal
practices,risks fiom storageof outdatedchemicals.
19.50Industryshouldbe encouraged to:
(a) Develop an internationallyagreedupon code of
principles for the managementof trade in chemicals,
recognizingin particularthe responsibilityfor making
availableinformationon potentialrisksandenvironmen-
tally sounddisposalpracticesif thosechemicalsbecome
wastes,in cooperationwith Governmentsand relevant
intemationalorganizationsand appropriateagenciesof
the United Nationssvstem:
(b) Develop applicationof a "responsiblecare" ap-
proach by producersand manufacturerstowards chemi-
cal products,taking into accountthe total life cycle of
suchproducts;
(c) Adopt, on a voluntarybasis,communityright-to-
know programmesbasedon internationalguidelines,
includingsharingof informationon causesof acciden-
tal and potentialreleasesand meansof preventingihem.
andreportingon annualroutineemissionsof toxic chemi-
cals to the environmentin the absenceof host country
requirements.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
19.51Governments,throughthe cooperationof relevant
internationalorganizationsandindustry,whereappropri-
ate,should:
(a) Promoteexchangeof informationon nationaland
regionalactivitiesto reducethe risksof toxic chemicals;
(b) Cooperatein the developmentof communication
guidelines on chemical risks at the national level to
promote informationexchangewith the public and the
understanding of risks.
c/ INTERNAT/ONAI
AND REGIONA/
COOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
19.52Governments,throughthe cooperationo1'relevant
internationalorganizations andindustry,whereappropri-
ate,should:
(a) Collaborateto developcommon criteria to deter-
mine which chemicalsare suitablecandidatesfor con-
certedrisk reductionactivities;
(b) Coordinateconcertedrisk reductionactivities;
(c) Develop guidelinesand policiesfor the disclosure
by manufacturers,importers and others using toxic
chemicalsof toxicity information declaring risks and
emergencyresponse arrangements:
(d) Encouragelarge industrial enterprisesincluding
transnationalcorporationsand other enterpriseswher-
everthey operateto introducepoliciesdemonstrating the
commitment, with reference to the environmentally
soundmanagement of toxic chemicals,to adoptstandards
of operationequivalentto or not lessstringentthanthose
existingin the countryof origin;
(e) Encourageand supportthe developmentand adop-
tion by small- and medium-sizedindustriesof relevant
proceduresfor risk reductionin their activities;
(0 Develop regulatory and non-regulatorymeasures
and proceduresaimedat preventingthe exportof chemi-
cals that are banned,severelyrestricted,withdrawn or
not approvedfor healthor environmentalreasons.except
whensuchexporthasreceivedprior writtenconsentfrom
the importingcountryor is otherwisein accordancewith
the PIC procedure;
(g) Encouragenationalandregionalrvorktclharmonize
evaluationof pesticides
:
(h) Promote and develop mechanisrnsfor the saf-e
production,management anduseof dangeroLls materials,
formulating programmesto substitutefor thenr sal-er
alternatives,whereappropriate;
(i) Formalizenetworksof ernergency response centres;
0t Encourageindustry,with the help ol'rnultilateral
cooperation.to phaseont as appropriate,and disposeof.
any bannedchemicalsthat are still in stockor in usein
an environmentally soundmanner.includingsaf'ereuse,
where approvedand appropriate.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/AL AND COSI EVALUATION
1 9 . 5 3 T h e C o n t e r c r t c c s e c r e t a r i a th a s i n c l u d e d m o s t
costs relatedto this prograr"nmein estimatesprovided for
-fhey
programme areasA and E. estinlateother require-
ments for training and strcngthening thc cinergcncy and
poison control centres to be about $'l rnillion annually
from the international community on grant or conces-
sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-nragni-
tude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
G o v e r n m e n t s .A c t u a l c o s t s a n d f i n a n c i a l t e r r n s .i n c l u d -
i n g a n y t h a t a r e n o n - c o n c e s s i o n a lw
. i l l c l e p e n dL r p o n ,
irtter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes Gov-
ernments decide upon lbr inrplernentation.
B / S C I E N I / F / CA N D I E C H N O T O G I C A LM E A N S
19.54 Governments. in cooperatiorlri,ith relevant inter-
national organizaticlnsand programrnes,shoulcl:
(a) Promote technology that would mininrize release
of, and exposure to. toxic chemicals in all countries;
(b) Carry out national reviews, as appropriate.of pre-
viously acceptedpcsticidcswhose acceptancewas based
on criteria now recognizedas insufficie-ntor outdatedand
of their possiblc rcplacement with othe'r pest control
rnethods. particr-rlarlvin the case of pesticides that are
toxic. persistentand/or bio-accumulative.
E) STRENGTHENTNGOF NAnONAT CAPABTUnES
AND CAPACITIESFOR MANAGE'VIENT OF CHEMICATS
BASISFORACTION
1 9 . 5 5 M a n y c o u n t r i e sl a c k n a t i o n a ls v s l c m st o c o p e w i t h
r93
chemicalrisks. N4ostcountrieslack scientificmeansof
collectingevidenceof misuseand of judging the impact
of toxic chemicalson the environment,becauseof the
difficultiesinvolvedin thedetectionof manyproblematic
chemicalsand systematicallytrackingtheir flow. Signi-
ficantnew usesareamongthepotentialhazardsto human
health and the environmentin developingcountries.ln
severalcountrieswith systemsin placethereis an urgent
needto make thosesystemsmore efficient.
19.56Basic elementsfor soundmanagementof chemi-
calsare: (a) adequatelegislation,(b) informationgather-
ing and dissemination, (c) capacityfor risk assessment
andinterpretation, (d) establishment of risk management
policy,(e) capacityfor implementationandenforcement,
(f) capacityfor rehabilitationof contaminatedsitesand
poisonedpersons,(g) eff'ectiveeducationprogrammes
and (h) capacityto respondto emergencies.
19.57As management of chemicalstakesplacewithin a
numberof sectorsrelatedto variousnationalministries.
experiencesuggeststhat a coordinatingmechanismis
es s ent ial .
OBJECTIVE
19.58By the year 2000, nationalsystemsfor environ-
mentally sound managementof chemicals,including
legislationand provisionsfor implementationand en-
forcement, shouldbe in placein all countriesto theextent
possible.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
ELATED
19.-59Governments,whereappropriateand with the col-
laborationof relevantintergovemmental organizations.
agenciesand progranlmesof the United Nationssystem,
should:
(a) Promoteand supportmultidisciplinaryapproaches
to chemicalsafetyproblems;
(b) Consider the need to establishand strengthen,
whereappropriate, a nationalcoordinatingmechanismto
provide a liaison tor all partiesinvolved in chemical
safetyactivities(fbr example,agriculture, environment,
education,i ndustry,labour,health,transportation,police,
civil defence,economicaff'airs,researchinstitutions,
and
poisoncontrolcentres);
(c) Developinstitutionalnrechanisms fbr the ntanage-
mentof chemicals.includineeffectivemeansof enforce-
ment;
(d) Establishand developor strengthen,whereappro-
priate,networksof emergencyresponsecentres,includ-
ing poisoncontrolcentres:
194
(e) Develop nationaland local capabilitiesto prepare
for and respondto accidentsby taking into accountthe
UNEP APELL programmeand similar programmeson
accidentprevention,preparedness and responsc,wherc
appropriate,includingregularlytestedandupdatedcrner-
gencyplans;
(0 Develop,in cooperationwith industry,erlrergency
responseprocedures,identifying meansand equiprnent
in industriesand plants necessaryto reduceinrpactsol'
accidents.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
19.60Governments should:
(a) Direct informationcampaignssuchasprogranlmes
providinginformationaboutchemicalstockpiles.envi-
ronmentallysaf.eralternativesand emissioninventories
that could alsobe a tool for risk reductionto the general
public to increasethe awareness of probletnsof chenical
safety;
(b) Establish,in conjunctionwith IRPTC, national
registersanddatabases, includingsa{'ety information,tbr
chemicals:
(c) Generatefield monitoringdatafor toxic chernicals
of high environmental importance;
(d) Cooperatewith internationalorganizations,r.vhere
appropriate, to monitorandcontroleff-ectively thc gener-
ation. manufacturing,distribution,transp(rr-tation aud
disposalactivitiesrelatingto toxic chenricals. to foster
preventiveand precautionalyapproachesand ensure
compliancewith safetymanagement rules.and provide
accuratereportingof relevantdata.
c/ /N IE R N A TTONAAN
L D R E G/ON A r
COOPERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI/ON
19.61Governments,with thc cooperationof interna-
tionalorganizations, whereappropriate. shctuld:
(a) Prepareguidelines,where not alreadl'available,
with adviceandcheck-lists for enactinslesislationin the
chemicalsaf'etyfield:
(b) Supportcountries,particularlydevelopingcoun-
tries, in developingand further strengthening national
legislationand its implementation;
(c) Consideradoptionof communityri-eht-to-know or
other public information-dissemination programlt"les.
whenappropriate, aspossiblerisk reductiontools.Appro-
priate internationalorganizations,in particularIJNEP
OECD,theEconomicCornmission forEurope(ECE)and
other interestedparties,shouldconsiderthe possibility
of developinga guidancedocumenton theestablishntcnt
 fu) Promotetranslation,wherefeasible,of intemationally
of suchprogrammesfor useby interestedGovernments'
'rhe prepzfeddocumentson chemicalsaf'etyinto local languages
docun-rent shoulclbuildon existingworkon accidents to
und ,upport variouslevelsof regionalactivitiesrelated
anc linc lr idenew g u i d a n c e c l n to x i c e mi s s i o ni nventori es
technology transferand information exchange'
a ndr is k c om m u tri c a ti o n .S u c h g u i d a n c e s h o ul di ncl ude
harmonizationof requirements, definitionsand dataele-
mentsto promoteunitormity and allow sharingof data
internationallY; C / H U MA NR E S OU R CDEE V E LOP ME N T
(d) Build on past.present and future risk assessment
work at an internationallevel, to support countries' I 9.64 Internationalorganizationsshould:
(a) Enhancetechnicaltraining for developingcountries
particularly developingcountries'in developingand
strengthening risk orr.rr,.r.ttntcapabilitiesat nationaland in relationto risk managementof chemicals;
and (b) Promoteandincreasesupportfor researchactivities
regionallevelsto rninimizerisk in themanufacturing for
us eof t ox icc hern i c a l s : at the local level by providinggrantsand fellowships
institutions active in dis-
( e) P r om ot e i m p l e me n ta ti o no f U N E P' s A P E I-L studiesat recognizedresearch
programmcancl.in pelrticular, use of an OECD/UNEP ciplinesof importancefor chemicalsafetyprogrammes'
internationaldirectoryof emergencyresponsecentres; lg.65Governmentsshouldorganize,incollabcrration
(fl Cooperatewith all countries, particularly develop- with industryand trade unions,training programmesin
the managementof chemicals,inclr"rding emergencyre-
ing c ot t nt r ies ,i n th e s e tti n g u p o f a n i n s ti tuti onal basicele-
of sponse,targetedat all levels. In all countries
mechanismat the nationallevel and the development included
of chemicals; mentsof chemicalsafety principles should be
appropriate toolsfor management
(;; Arrangcinformationcourses atalllevelsofproduction in the primary educationcurricula'
working on chemical safety issues:
irncluse-.aimedat stafl-
(h) Devclop mechanismsto make maximum use in F) PREVENTIONOF ltLEGAt INTER'NATIoNAL
countriesofinternationallyavailableinformation; rirarrtc lN Toxlc ANDDANGERoUS PR'oDucrs
(i) Invite UNEP to promote principles for accident
prerctttion.prepareclness audresponsefor Governments' lg.66Thereiscumentlynoglobalinternationalagree-
(toxic
industryandthepublic. builcling on ILO, OECD and ECE ment on traffic in toxic and dangerousproducts
those that are banned' sev-
work in this area. and dangerousproductsare
or not approved for use or
erely restricted,withclrawn
to protect publichealth and
saleby Governmentsin order
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION theenvironment).However,thereisinternationalcon-
cernthati l l egal i nternati onal traffi ci nthesepr oduct sis
A l F / N A N C / N GA N D C O S T E V A L U A T T O N detrimentaltopublichealthandtheenvironment'par-
ticularly in developingcountries'as acknowledgedby
lg.62.fheConlerencesecretariathasestimatedtheaver- the GeneralAssemblyin resolutions421183and441226.
the
age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing Illegal traffic refers to traffic that is carried out in con-
countries to
activities of this programme in developing
traventionof a country'slaws or relevantinternational
rnillion from the
bc abour $600 million, inclu<ling $150 legalinstruments.The cclncernalsorelatesto transboun-
terms.
international cOmmunity cln grant or concessional dary movementsof thoseproductsthat are not carried
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates with applicableintemationallyadopted
Thcse are out in accordance
Actual
only and have not beenreviewed by Governments' guidelinesandprinciples.Activitiesunderthispro-
t e r n l s . i n c l u d i n g a n y t h a t a r e non-
costs and financral grammeareaareintencledtoimprclvedetectionand
will clepend Llpon' inter alia' the specific
cottcsssional. preventionof the traffic concerned'
upon for
:tnttegies anrJprogramnles Govemments decide l g.6TFurtherstrengtheni ngofi ntemati onal andr egional
irrplettti:ntation. cooperaticlnis ncederJto preventillegal transboundary
-ou.*.nt of toxic and clangerousproducts' Further-
more.capaci ty-bui l di ngatthenati onal l evelisneededt o
CN D r E c H N o t o G l c A L M E A N S
B / S C / F N T / F /A i mprove moni tori ng and enforcementcapa bilit ies
penal-
involving recognitionol the fact that appropriate
I c).6r Itttctrlatiotralclrganizationsshould: tiesmayneedtobeimposeclunderaneffectiveenforce-
( i l ) P r o t r l o t c t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n ta n d s t r e n g t h e n i n go f ment programme.Other activitiesenvisagedin the pres-
(d))will
n a t i o l a l l u b o t ' i t t o r i e st 0 e n s L l r et h e a v a i l a b i l i t y
of ade- entchapter(for example,underparagraph19'39
regarding the im- alsocontributeto achievingtheseobjectives'
qLlatctrittionalcontrol in all countries
potlation. ttrltnttf'acture and use of chemicals:

195
OBJECTIVES c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL
AND RFG/ONAL
19.68The ob-jectives of the programmeare: COOPERAI/ONAND COORDINAI/ON
(a) To reinlbrccnationalcapacitiesto detectand hait
ani; illegal attempt to introclucetoxic and dan_{erous 19.72 Furtherstrengtheningof internationalandregional
prodLrcts into the tcnitory of any State"in contravention cooperationis neededto preventillegal transboundary
cll'nationallegislationand rele.vantintemationallegal movementof toxic and dangerclus products.
instruments: 19.73l'he regional commissions,in cooperationwith
( b) ' I o a s s i s ta l l c o u n tri c :sp. a rti c u l a r l ydevel opi ng and relying upon expertsupportand advicefrom UNEP
countries.in clbtainingall irppropriate and other relevantbodiesof the United Nations,should
informationcon-
cerningillegaltrafllc in toxic and dangerous monitor, on the basis of data and information provided
products.
by Governments,and on a continuous basis make
regional assessments of the illegal traffic in toxic and
ACTIVITIES dangerousproductsandits environmental,economicand
health implications,in each region, drawing upon the
A) MANAGFA4FNR
I ELATED
ACTIVITIES resultsandexperiencegainedin thejoint UNEP/ESCAP
preliminaryassessment of illegal traffic, expectedto be
19.69 Gove-rnnlents.according to their capacities and completedin August 1992.
available lesolrrces and ivith the cooperation of the 19.74Governmentsand internationalorganizations,as
U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d o t h e r r c l e v a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s .a s appropriate,shouldcooperatewith developingcountries
appropriate,should: in strengthening their institutionaland regulatorycapac-
(a) Adopt, where nr-cessary.
and implernent legislation ities in orderto preventillegal import andexportof toxic
to prevent the illegal inrpofi and export of toxic and and dangerousproducts.
dangerousprr.lclrrct s:
(b) [)evekrp appropriatc national enforcelnent pro-
G) ENHANCE'YIENT
OF INTERNATTONAL
g r a m r n e st o m o n i t o r c o m p l i a n c e w i t h s r - r c h
legislation,
COOPERATIONRETATINGTO SEVERATOF
and detcct and cleterviolations through appropriate
THE PROGRAMMEAREAS
penaltics.
19.75A meetingof government-designated experts,held
in London in f)ecember 1991.made recommendations
B ) D A T AA N D / N F O R M A T / O N for increasedcoordinationamongUnitedNationsbodies
and otherinternationalorganizations involved in chemi-
1 9 . 7 0 G o v e r n m e n t ss h o u l d d e r , ' e l o pa. s a p p r o p r i a t e .n a - cal risk assessmentandmanagement. Thatmeetingcalled
tional alert systenl\ to assistin detecting illegal traffic in for the takingof appropriatemeasuresto enhancetherole
toxic and dangerous prodr.rcts;local cornr-nunities.and of IPCS and establishan intergovernmentalforum on
o t h e r sc o u l d b e i n v o l v c c li n t h c o p e r a t i o no f s u c ha s y s t c m . chemicalrisk assessment and management.
19.7| Governrnentsshoulrl cociperatein thc exchangeof 19.76To further considerthe recommendations of the
i n lirrnration on i I I egaI tmn sbounclaryrnovernents of tox i c Londonmeetingandinitiateactionon them,asappropri-
lrnclclangerouspnrdLrclsancl should make such infomra- ate. the ExecutiveHeadsof WHO, ILO and UNEP are
tion a'u'ailable to appropriateL.lnitcdNations bodies. such invited to convenean intergovernmental meetingwithin
a s L l N l r P a n d t h e r e s i o n a lc o m m i s s i o n s . one year,which could constitutethe first meetingof the
i ntergovernmental forum.

196
20 Environmentollysoundmonogement
wostes,including
wostes
of hozordous
of illegolinternotionol
prevention
trofficin hozordous
INTRODUCTION
20J Effective control of the geueration,storage,treat-
ment,recyclingandreuse,transport,recoveryanddispo-
sal of hazardouswastesis of paramountimportancefor
properhealth,environmentalprotectionand naturalre-
sourcemanagement, and sustainable development.This
will require the active cooperationand participationof
the internationalcommunity,Governrnents and industry.
Industry, as referredto in this paper,shall include large
industrial enterprises,including transnationalcorpora-
tions and domesticindustry.
20.2 Preventionof the generationof hazardouswastes
and the rehabilitation of contaminatedsites are the key
elements, and both require knowledge, experienced
people,facilities,financial resourcesand technicaland
scientificcapacities.
20.3 The activitiesoutiined in the presentchapterare
very closelyrelatedto, and have implicationsfor, many
of the progralnmeareasdescribedin other chapters,so
that an overall integratedapproachto hazardouswaste
managementis necessary.
20.4 There is internationai concern that part of the
internationalmovement of hazardouswastesis being
carriedout in contraventionof existingnationallegisla-
tion and internationalinstrumentsto the detrimentof the
environmentand public healthof all countries,particu-
larly developingcountries.
20.5 In sectionI of resolution441226of 22 December
1989, the General Assembly requestedeach regional
commission,within existingresources,to contributeto
the preventionof the illegal traffic in toxic anddangerous
productsand wastesby monitoringand makingregional
assessments of that illegal traffic and its environmental
andhealthimplications.The Assemblyalsorequestedthe
regionalcommissionsto interactamongthemselvesand
cooperatewith the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP), with a view to maintaining efficient
and coordinatedmonitoring and assessment of the illegal
traffic in toxic and dangerousproductsand wastes.
OVERALL
OBJECTIVE
20.6 Within the framework of integrated life-cycle
management,the overall objective is to prevent to the
extentpossible,and minimize,thegenerationof hazard-
ous wastes,as well as to managethosewastesin sucha
way that they do not cause harm to health and the
environment.
OVERALL TARGETS
20.7 The overall targetsare:
(a) Preventingor minimizing the generationof hazerd-
ous wastesas part of an overall integratedcleanerpro-
duction approach;eliminating or reducingto a minimum
transboundarymovementsof hazardouswastes,consist-
ent with the environmentally sound and efficient man-
agementof thosewastes;and ensuringthat environmen-
tally sound hazardouswaste managementoptions are
pursued to the maximum extent possible within the
country of origin (the self-sufficiencyprinciple). The
transboundarymovementsthat take place should be on
environmental and economic grounds and based upon
agreements betweenthe Statesconcemed;
(b) Ratificationof theBaselConventiononthe Control
of TransboundaryMovementsof HazardousWastesand
their Disposalandthe expeditiouselaborationof related
protocols, suchas the protocol on liability and compen-
sation, mechanismsand guidelines to facilitate the im-
plementationof the BaselConvention;
(c) Ratification and full implementationby the coun-
tries concernedof the BamakoConventionon the Ban
on the Import into Africa andthe Control of Transbound-
197
ary Movement of HazardousWasteswithin Africa and
the expeditiouselaborationof a protocolon liability and
compensation;
(d) Elimination of the export of hazardouswastesto
countries that, individually or through international
agreements, prohibit the import of suchwastes,suchas,
the contractingpartiesto the Bamako Conventicln,the
fourth Lom6 Conventionor other relevantconventions.
wheresuchprohibitionis providedfor.
20.ti The following programmeareasare included in
this chapter:
(a) Promotingthe preventionandminimizationof haz-
ardouswaste;
(b) Promoting and strengtheninginstitutionalcapac-
ities in hazardouswastemanagement;
(c) Promotingand strengthening internationalcooper-
ation in the managementof transboundarymovements
of hazardouswastes:
(d) Preventingillegal internationaltraffic in hazardous
wastes.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) PROI OTING THEPREVENTTONAND
MINIMIZATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
BASIS
FORACTION
20.9 Human healthand environmentalquality are un-
dergoing continuous degradationby the increasing
amountof hazardouswastesbeing produced.There are
increasingdirect and indirect costs to society and to
individual citizens in connectionwith the generation,
handling and disposal of such wastes.It is therefore
crucial to enhanceknowledge and information on the
economicsof preventionand managementclf hazardous
wastes,including the impact in relationto the employ-
ment and environmentalbenefits.in ordertclensurethat
the necessarycapital investmentis made availablein
developmentprogrammesthrougheconomicincentives.
Oneof thefirstprioritiesin hazardouswastemanagement
is minimization,aspartof a broaderapproachto changing
industrialprocesses and consumerpatternsthroughpol-
lution preventionand cleanerproductionstrategies.
20. 10A m on g th e mo s t i mp o rta n t fa c to rs i n these
strategiesis the recoveryof hazardouswastesand their
tranformationinto usefulmaterial.Technologyapplica-
tion, modificaticlnand developmentof new low-waste
technoklgiesare thereforecurrently a central focus of
hazardous wasteminirnization.
198
OBJECTIVES
20.1I The objectivesof this programmeareaare:
(a) To reduce the generationof hazardouswastes,to
the extent teasible,as part of an integratedcleanerpro-
duction approach;
(b) To optimize the useof materialsby utilizing, where
practicableandenvironmentally sound,theresiduesfrom
productionprocesses;
(c) To enhanceknowledgeand information on the eco-
nomics of prevention and managementof hazardous
wastes.
20.12To achievethoseobjectives,and therebyreduce
the impactand costof industrialdevelopment,countries
that canafford to adoptthe requisitetechnologieswithout
detrimentto their developmentshouldestablishpolicies
that include:
(a) Integration of cleaner production approachesand
hazardouswasteminimization in all planning,and the
adoptionof specific goals;
(b) Promotion of the use of reguiatory and market
mechanisms;
(c) Establishmentof an intermediategoal for the sta,
bilizationof the quantityof hazardouswastegenerated;
(d) E stabl i shmentof l ong-term programm esand
policiesincluding targetswhereappropriatefor reducing
the amount of hazardouswaste produced per unit of
manufacture;
(e) Achievementof a qualitativeimprovementof waste
streams,mainly throughactivitiesaimedatreducingtheir
hazardouscharacteristics;
(0 Facilitationof the establishmentof cost-effective
policies and approachesto hazardouswaste prevention
and management,taking into considerationthe stateof
developmentof eachcountry.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGFMENI-R
ELAT
EDACTIVITI
ES
20J3 The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Governmentsshouldestablishor modify standards
or purchasing specificationsto avoid discrimination
againstrecycledmaterials,providedthat thosematerials
are environmentallysound;
(b) Governments,accordingto their possibilitiesand
with the help of multilateralcooperation,shouldprovide
economicorregulatoryincentives,whereappropriate, to
stimulateindustrialinnovationtowardscleanerproduc-
tion methods,to encourageindustryto investin preven-
tive and/orrecyclingtechnologiesso as to ensureenvi-
ronmentallysoundmanagentent of all hazardouswastes,
including recyclable wastes,and to encouragewaste
mi ni mi zati on i nvestments:
(c) Governmentsshouldintensifyresearchand devel-
opmentactivitieson cost-effectivealternativesfor pro-
cessesand substances that currentlyresult in the gener-
ation of hazardoLts wastesthat poseparticularproblems
for environmentallysound disposal or treatment,the
possibilityof ultimatephase-outof thosesubstances that
presentan unreasonable or otherrviseunmanageable risk
and are toxic. persistentand bio-accumulativeto be
consideredas soon as practicable.Emphasisshould be
given to alternativesthat could be economically ac-
cessibleto developingcountries;
(d) Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizationsand
industries, as appropriate,should support the estab-
lishment of domestic facilities to handle hazardous
wastesof domesticorigin,
(e) Govemmentsof developedcountriesshould pro-
mote the transferof environmentallysoundtechnologies
and know-how on clean technologiesand low-waste
productionto developingcountriesin conformity with
chapter34, which will bring about changesto sustain
innovation.Governmentsshouldcooperatewith industry
to developguidelinesandcodesof conduct,whereappro-
priate" leading to cleaner production through sectoral
tradeindustryassociations:
(f) Governmentsshould encourageindustry to treat,
recycle, reuse and disposeof wastesat the source of
generation,or as close as possiblethereto, whenever
hazardouswastegenerationis unavoidableand when it
is both economicallyand environmentallyefficient for
industryto do so;
(g) Governmentsshouldencouragetechnologyassess-
ments,for examplethroughthe useof technologyassess-
mentcentres;
(h) Governmentsshould promote cleanerproduction
throughthe establishmentof centresproviding training
andinformationon environmentallysoundtechnologies;
(i) Industry should establishenvironmentalmanage-
ment systems,including environmentalauditing of its
productionor distributionsites,in orderto identify where
the installationof cleanerproductionntethodsis needed;
(j) A relevant and competentUnited Nations organ-
ization should take the lead, in cooperationwith other
organizations, to developguidelinesfor estimatingthe
costsand benefitsof variousapproaches to the adoption
of cleanerproductionand wasteminimizationand envi-
ronmentally sound managementof hazardouswastes,
includingrehabilitationof contaminated sites,takinginto
account.where appropriate,the report of the l99l Nai-
robi meeting of government-designated expertson an
internationalstrategyand an actionprogramme,includ-
ing technicalguidelinesfor the environmentallysound
managementof hazardouswastes;in particularin the
context of the work of the Basel Convention,being
developedunderthe UNEP secretariat;
(k) Governmentsshouldestablishregulationsthat lay
down the ultimate responsibilityof industriesfor envi-
ronmentallysounddisposalof the hazardouswastestheir
activitiesgenerate.
B) DATAAND /NFORM,AI/ON
20.14The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Governments,assistedby internationalorganiza-
tions, should establishmechanismsfbr assessingthe
value of existinginformationsystems:
(b) Governmentsshouldestablishnationwideand re-
gional information collection and disseminationclear-
ing-housesand networksthat are etrsyfor Government
institutions and industry and other non-governmental
organizationsto accessand use;
(C) Ittternationalorganizations,through the {JNEP
CleanerProductionprograntmealtd ICPICI.shoulclcr-
tend and strengthetl existilrg \vslettrs lirt'tolleeliolt r';
cleanerproductioninformation:
(d) All UnitedNationsorgansandorganizations should
promotethe use and dissemination of informationc.ol-
lectedthroughthe CleanerProductionnetwork:
(e) OECD should,in cooperationwith otherorganiza-
tions,undertakea comprehensive surveyof, anddissemi-
nateinformationon, experiences of membercountriesin
adopting economic regulatory schemesand incentive
mechanismsfor hazardouswaste managementand for
theuseof cleantechnologies thatpreventsuchwastef rom
being generated;
(0 Governmentsshouldencourage industriesto be trans-
parcntin their operationseurdproviderelevantinformation
to thecommunitiesthatmightbe affectedby thegeneration,
managementand disposalof hazardouswastes.
AND REG/ONAI
cJ INTERNATONAT"
CCOPERAIIONAND COORD/NAI/ON
20.15 International/regional cooperationshouldencour-
age the ratificationby Statesof the Basel and Bamako
Conventionsand promote the implementationof those
Conventions.Regionalcooperationwill be necessary for
the developmentof similar conventionsin regionsother
than Africa. if so required.In additionthereis a needfor
effectivecoordinationof internationalregionaland na-
tional policies and instruments.Another activity pro-
posed is cooperatingin monitoring the effects of the
managementof hazardouswastes.
199
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
20.16The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about $750 million
from the internationalcommunity on grant or conces-
sional terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-magni-
tude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,including
any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter
alia, the specific strategiesand prograrrunesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ S C/ E N IIF IC
AN D T EC H N O IOG| C AL
MFA N S
20J7 The following activitiesrelatedto technologyde-
velopmentand researchshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizations.and
industries,as appropriate,should significantlyincrease
financial support fcrr cleaner technologyresearchand
developmentprograrrunes, includingthe useof biotech-
nologies;
(b) States,with the cooperationof internationalorgan-
izationswhereappropriate,shouldencourageindustryto
promoteand undertakeresearchinto thephase-outof the
processes thatposethe greatestenvironmentalriskbased
on hazardouswastesgenerated;
( c ) S t ate s s h o u l d e n c o u ra g ei n d u s tr y to devel op
schemes to integratethecleanerproductionapproachinto
designof productsand managementpractices:
(d) Statesshouldencourageindustryto exerciseenvi-
ronmentallyresponsiblecare through hazardouswaste
reduction and by ensuringthe environmentallysound
reuse,recycling and recovery of hazardouswastes,as
well as their final disposal.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
20.18 The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Governments,internationalorganizationsand in-
dustryshouldencourageindustrialtrainingprogrammes,
incorporatinghazardouswastepreventionand minimi-
zationtechniquesand launchingdemonstrationprojects
at the local level to develop"successstories"in cleaner
production;
(b) Industryshouldintegratecleanerproductionprinci-
ples and caseexamplesinto trainingprogrammesand es-
tablishdemonstration projects/networks
by sector/country
;
200
(c) All sectorsof societyshoulddevelopcleanerprod-
uction awarenesscampaignsand prorncltedialogueand
partnershipwith industryand other actors.
D ) C A P A C TTY -B U tLD tN G
20.19The following activitiesshouldbe undcrtaken:
(a) Governments of developingcountries,in coopera-
tion with industry and with the cooperationof appro-
priateinternational organizations, shoulddevelopinven-
toriesof hazardouswasteproduction.in orderto identify
their needswith respectto technologytransferand im-
plementationof measuresfor the soundmanagementof
hazardous wastesandtheir disposal:
(b) Governmentsshouldincludein nationalplanning
and legislationan integratedapproachto environmental
protection,driven by preventionand sourcereduction
criteria,takinginto accountthe "polluterpays"principle,
and adopt programmesfor hazardouswastereduction,
includingtargetsand adequate environmental control;
(c) Governmentsshouldwork with industry/on sector-
by-sectorcleanerproductionand hazardous wastemin-
imizationcampaigns, aswell ason the reductionof such
wastesand otheremissions;
(d) Governmentsshould take the lead in establishing
and strengthening,as appropriate,national procedures
for environmental i mpactassessnlent,takingintoaccount
the cradle-to-grave approachto the managementof haz-
ardouswastes,in orderto identilyoptionsfor minimizing
the generationof hazardouswastes,thror"rgh saf'erhan-
dling, storage,disposaland destruction:
(e) Governments.in collaborationu,ith industryand
appropriateintemationalorganizations,shoulddevelop
proceduresfor monitoringthe applicationof the cradle-
to-graveapproach.includingenvironmental audits;
(0 Bilateraland multilateraldevelopmentassistance
agenci esshoul d substanti al l yi ncreasefu nding f or
cleanertechnologvtransferto developingcountries,in-
cludingsmall-and medium-sized enterprises.
B) PRO'VIOTINGAND STRENGTHENTNG
INSTITUTIONATCAPACITIES
IN HAZARDOUS
WASTEMANAGEMENT
BASIS
FORACTION
20.2AMany countries lack the national capacity to
handleand managehazardous wastes.This is prirnarily
due to inadequateinfiastructure.deficienciesin regula-
tory frameworks.insufficienteducationandti'ainingpro-
grammesand lack of coordinationbetweenthe difl-erent
ministriesandinstitutionsinvolveclin variousaspectsof
wastemanagement. In addition,thereis a lack of know- ACTIVITIES
ledgeaboutenvironmental contarnination andpollution
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
and the associatedhealth risk from the exposureof
populations, especiallywomenandchildren.andecosys-
20.22The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
tems to hazardouswastes;assessment of risks;and the
(a) Governments shouldestablishandntaintaininven-
characteristics of wastes.Stepsneedto be takenimme-
tories,includingcomputerized inventories, of hazardous
diatelyto identify populationsat high risk and to take
wastesand their treatment/disposal sites,as well as of
remedialmeasures, where necessary. One of the main
contaminatedsitesthat requirerehabilitation,and assess
prioritiesin ensuringenvironmentallysound manage-
exposureand risk to humanhealthand the environment:
ment of hazardous wastesis to provideawareness, edu-
they shouldalso identify the measuresrequiredto clean
cation and trainingprogrammescoveringall levelsof
up thedisposalsites.Industryshouldmakethenecessary
society.There is also a needto ttndertakeresearchpro-
wastes, informationavailable;
grammesto understandthe natureof hazardclus
(b) Governments,industryand internationalorganiza-
to identify their potentialenvironmentaleffectsand to
tions shouldcollaboratein developingguidelinesand
develop technologiesto safely handle those wastes.
easy-to-implement methodsfor the characterization and
Finally, there is a neecito strengthenthe capacitiesof
classification
of hazardous wastes:
institutionsthat are responsible for the management of
(c) Governments shouldcarryout exposureandhealth
hazardous wastes.
assessments of populationsresidingnear uncontrolled
hazardouswastesitesand initiateremedialmeasures;
OBJECTIVES (d) Internationalorganizations shoulddevelopimproved
criteria,takinginto acccluntnationaldecision-
healttr-based
20.21The obiectivesin this programmeareaare:
(a) To adopt appropriatecoordinating,legislativeand makingprocesses, andassistin the preparationof practical
technicalguidelinesfbr the prevention,minimizationand
regulatorymeasuresat the nationallevel for the environ-
safehandlingand disposalof hazardouswastes;
mentally soundmanagementof hazardouswastes,in-
(e) Governmentsof developingcountriesshoulden-
cludingtheimplementation of international andregional
courage interdisciplinaryand intersectoralgroups, in
conventions;
(b) To establish publicawareness andinformationpro- cooperationwith internationalorganizationsand agen-
cies,to implementtrainingandresearch activitiesrelated
grammeson hazardouswaste issuesand to ensurethat
to evaluation,preventionandcontrolofhazardous waste
basic educationand training programmesare provided
health risks. Such groups should serve as models to
for industryand govemmentworkersin all countries;
(c) To establishcomprehensiveresearchprogrammes developsimilarregionalprogrammes;
(0 Governments,accordingto their capacitiesand
on hazardous wastesin countries:
(d) To strengthenserviceindustriesto enablethem to available resourcesand rvith the cooperationof the
UnitedNationsandotherrelevantorganizations asappro-
handlehazardouswastes,and to build up international
priate, should encourageas far as possiblethe estab-
networking,
(e) To developendogenous lishment of combined treatment/disposal facilities for
capacities in all developing
hazardous wastesin srnall-andmedium-sized industries;
countriesto educateand train statfat all levelsin envi-
(g) Governmentsshould promote identificationand
ronmentallysoundhazardous wastehandlingandmoni-
soundmanagement; clean-upof sitesof hazardolrswastesin collaboration
toringand in environmentally
(f) To promote human exposLlreassessment with industryand internationalorganizations. Technol-
with re-
wastesitesand identifythe rernedial ogies,expertise andfinancingshoulclbeavailablefor this
spectto hazardous
purpose,asfar aspossibleandwhenappropriatewith the
measures requircd:
(g) To facilitatethe assessmcnt of impactsandrisksof applicationof the "polluterpays"principle:
(h) Governmentsshould ascertainthat their military
hazardous wasteson humanhealthandthe environment
procedures. methodologies, establishments conform to their nationallyapplicable
b1'establishingappropriate
guidelinesandstandards: environmentalnorms in the treatmentand disposalof
criteriaand/oreflluent-related
(h) To improve knowledge regarding the effbcts of hazardous wastes.
hazardouswasteson humanhealthandthe environment;
(i) To makeinformationavailableto Governmentsand
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
to the generalpublic on the eff-ectsof hazardouswastes,
including inf'ectiouswastes,on human health and the
20.23The fbllowing activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
environment.
(a) Governments, international and regionalorganiza-

201
tions and industry shouldfacilitateand expandthe dis-
seminationof technicaland scientificinformationdeal-
ing with the varioushealthaspectsof hazardouswastes,
and promoteits application;
(b) Governmentsshouldestablishnotificationsystems
and registriesof exposedpopulationsand of adverse
healtheffectsand databases on risk assessmentsof haz-
ardouswastes:
(c) Governmentsshouldendeavourto collectinforma-
tion on thosewho generateor dispose/recyclehazardous
wastesand provide suchinformationto the individuals
and institutionsconcerned.
c/ /NTERNATTONAL
AND REG/ONAL
COOPERAIIONAND COORDINAI/ON
20.24Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizations,as
appropriate.should:
(a) Promoteand supportthe integrationand operation,
at the regionaland local levelsas appropriate,of institu-
tional and interdisciplinarygroupsthat collaborate,ac-
cordingto theircapabilities,in activitiesorientedtowards
strengthening risk assessment, risk management andrisk
reductionwith respectto hazardouswastes;
(b) Supportcapacity-buildingandtechnologicaldevel-
opmentand researchin developingcountriesin connec-
tion with human resourcedevelopment,with particular
supportto be given to consolidatingnetworks;
(c) Encourageself-sufficiencyin hazardouswastedis-
posal in the country of origin to the extent that is en-
vironmentally sound and feasible.The transboundary
movementsthat take place shouldbe on environmental
and economicgroundsand basedupon agreementsbe-
tween all Statesconcerned.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
20.25 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe average
total annualcost( 1993-2000)of implementingttreactivities
of thisprogrammeto beabout$ 18.5billion on a globalbasis
with about $3.5 billion related to developingcountries,
including about $500 million fiom the intemationalcom-
munity on grantorconcessional terms.Theseareindicative
and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and have not been
reviewedby Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,
includingany thatarenon-concessional, will dependupon,
inter alia, the specificstrategiesand programmesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
202
8/ SC/ENilF/C
AND TECHNOLOGTCAL
TIEANS
20.26The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizations and
industry as appropriate,should increasesupportforhaz-
ardouswasteresearchmanagementin developingcoun-
tries;
(b) Governments,in collaborationwith international
organizations,should conduct research on the health
effects of hazardouswastes in developing countries,
includingthe long-termeffectson childrenand women;
(c) Governmentsshouldconductresearchaimedat the
needsof small and medium-sizedindustries;
(d) Govemmentsand intemationalorganizationsin co-
operation with industry should expand technological re-
search on environmentally sound hazardouswaste han-
dling, storage,transport,treatmentand disposaland on
hazardous wasteassessment, management andremediation ;
(e) Internationalorganizationsshouldidentify relevant
and improvedtechnologiesfor handling,storage,treat-
ment and disposalof hazardouswastes.
c) H U MA NR E S OU R CDEE V E LOP ME N T
20.27Governments,accordingto their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant oreanizations and
industryas appropriate,should:
(a) Increasepublic awareness and informationon haz-
ardouswasteissuesand promote the developmentand
disseminationof hazardouswastesinformationthat the
generalpublic can understand;
(b) Increaseparticipationin hazardouswastemanage-
ment programmesby the general public, particularly
women,includingparticipationat grass-roots levels;
(c) Develop training and educationprogrammesfor
men and women in industry and Governmentaimed at
specific real-lif'eproblems,for example,planning and
implementrng hazardous waste minimization pro-
grammes,conducting hazardousmaterials audits and
establi shing appropriate regulatoryprogranilnes;
(d) Promotethe training of labour,industrialmanage-
ment and govemment regulatory staff in developing
countrieson technologiesto minimize andmanagehaz-
ardouswastesin an environmentallysoundmanner.
'Ihe
20,28 following activitiesshouldalsobeundertaken:
(a) Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
UnitedNations,otherorganizations andnon-governmen-
tal organizations,should collaboratein developingand
disseminatingeducationalmaterialsconcerninghazaro-
ous wastesand their effects on environmentand human
health,for usein schools,by women'sgroupsandby the
generalpublic;
(b) Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resources and with the cooperation of the
United Nationsand other organizations,shouldestablish
or strengthenprogrammesfor the environmentallysound
managementof hazardouswastesin accordancewith, as
appropriate,health and environmental standards,and
extend surveillance systems for the purpose of iden-
tifying adverseeffects on populationsand the environ-
ment of exposuretohazardouswastes;
(c) International organizationsshould provide assist-
anceto memberStatesin assessing the healthand envi-
ronmental risks resulting from exposure to hazardous
wastes,and in identifying their priorities fbr controlling
the variouscategoriesor classesof wastes;
(d) Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nationsand otherrelevantorganizations, should
promote centresof excellencefor training in hazardous
wastemanagement, building on appropriatenationalin-
stitutions and encouraginginternational cooperation,
inter alia, throughinstitutionallinks betweendeveloped
and developingcountries.
D) CAPACTTY-BUTLDING
20.29 Whereverthey operate,transnationalcorporations
and other large-scaleenterprisesshould be encouraged
to introduce policies and make commitments to adopt
standardsof operationwith referenceto hazardouswaste-
generationand disposalthat are equivalentto or no less
stringentthan standardsin the country of origin, and
Governments are invited to make efforts to establish
regulationsrequiring environmentallysound manage-
ment of hazardouswastes.
20.30 Internationalorganizationsshouldprovide assis-
tanceto memberStatesin assessing the healthand envi-
ronmental risks resulting from exposure to hazardous
wastesand in identifying their priorities for controlling
the variouscategoriesor classesof wastes.
20.31 Governments,accordingto their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizationsand
industries,should:
(a) Supportnational institutionsin dealing with haz-
ardous wastesfrom the regulatory monitoring and en-
forcement perspectives,with such support including
enablingof thoseinstitutionsto implementinternational
conventions:
(b) Develop industry-basedinstitutions for dealing
with hazardous wastesandserviceindustriesforhandling
hazardouswastes;
(c) Adopt technicalguidelinesfor the environmentally
soundmanagementof hazardouswastesand supportthe
implementation of regional and international conven-
tions;
(d) Develop and expand international networking
among professionalsworking in the area of hazardous
wastesand maintain an information flow among coun-
tries;
(e) Assessthe feasibilityof establishingand operating
national, subregionaland regional hazardouswastes
treatmentcentres.Suchcentrescould be usedfor educa-
tion andtraining,aswell asfor facilitation andpromotion
of the transfer of technologiesfor the environmentally
soundmanagementof hazardouswastes;
(0 Identify and strengthenrelevantacademic/research
institutionsor centresfor excellenceto enablethem to
carry out educationand training activitiesin the environ-
mentallysoundmanagementof hazardouswastes;
(g) Develop a programme for the establishmentof
nationalcapacitiesand capabilitiesto educateand train
staff at various levels in hazardouswastesmanaqe-
ment;
(h) Conductenvironmentalauditsof existingindustries
to improve in-plant regimesfor the managementof haz-
ardouswastes.
c) PROMOTTNGAND STRENGTHENING
COOPERATIONIN THE
INTER.NATIONAT
MANAGEMENT OF TRANSBOUNDARY
MOVEMENTSOF HAZARDOUSWASTES
BASIS FORACTION
20.32 In order to promote and strengtheninternational
cooperationin the management,including control and
monitoring, of transboundarymovementsof hazardous
wastes,a precautionaryapproach should be applied.
There is a needto harmonizethe proceduresand criteria
usedin variousintemationalandlegalinstruments. There
is also a need to developor harmonizeexisting criteria
for identifyingwastesdangerousto the environmentand
to build monitoringcapacities.
OBJECTIVES
20.33The objectivesof this programne areaare:
(a) To facilitate and strengtheninternational cooper-
ation in the environmentallysoundmanagementof haz-
ardouswastes,includingcontrolandmonitoringof trans-
boundarymovementsof such wastes,including wastes
203
for recovery,by using internationallyadoptedcriteria to
identify and classify hazardouswastesand to harmonize
relevantinternationallegal instruments;
(b) To adopt a ban on or prohibit, as appropriate,the
export of hazardouswastesto countriesthat do not have
the capacityto deal with thosewastesin an environmen-
tally soundway or that have bannedthe import of such
wastes;
(c) To promote the developmentof control procedures
for the transboundarymovement of hazardouswastes
destinedfor recovery operationsunder the Basel Con-
vention that encourageenvironmentally and economi-
cally soundrecyclingoptions.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R
ELATED
ACTIVITIES
> Strengthening
ond hormonizingcriferio and rqulotions
20.34 Governments,according to their capacities and
available resourcesand with the cooperationof United
Nations and other relevantorganizations,as appropriate,
should:
(a) Incorporatethe notification procedurecalled for in
the BaselConventionand relevantregionalconventions,
as well as in their annexes,into nationallegislation;
(b) Formulate,whereappropriate,regionalagreements
such as the Bamako Convention regulating the trans-
boundarymovementof hazardouswastes;
(c) Help promote the compatibility and complemen-
tarity of such regional agreementswith international
conventionsand protocols;
(d) Strengthen national and regional capacities and
capabilities to monitor and control the transboundary
movementof hazardouswastes;
(e) Promote the development of clear criteria and
guidelines,within the framework of the Basel Conven-
tion and regional conventions,as appropriate,for envi-
ronmentally and economically sound operation in re-
source recovery, recycling reclamation, direct use or
alternativeusesand for determinationof acceptablere-
covery practices,including recovery levels where feas-
ible and appropriate,with a view to preventingabuses
and false presentationin the above operations;
(0 Considersettingup, at nationaland regionallevels,
as appropriate,systemsfor monitoring and surveillance
of the transboundarymovementsof hazardouswastes;
(g) Developguidelinesfor the assessment of environ-
mentally soundtreatmentof hazardouswastes;
(h) Develop guidelinesforthe identification of hazard-
ous wastes at the national level, taking into account
existing internationally - and, where appropriate,re-
204
gionally - agreedcriteria and preparea list of hazard
profilesforthe hazardouswasteslistedin nationallegisla-
tion;
(i) Develop and use appropriatemethods for testing,
characterizing and classifying hazardous wastes and
adopt or adapt safety standardsand principles for man-
aging hazardous wastes in an environmentally sound
way.
> lmplementingexistingogrements
20.35 Governmentsareurgedto ratify the BaselConven-
tion and the Bamako Convention, as applicable,and to
pursuethe expeditiouselaborationof relatedprotocols,
such as protocols on liability and compensation,and of
mechanismsand guidelinesto facilitate the implementa-
tion of the Conventions.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A' F'NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
20.36 Becausethis programmearea covers a relatively
new field of operationand becauseof the lack so far of
adequatestudieson costing of activities under this pro-
gramme, no cost estimateis available at present.How-
ever,the costsfor someof the activities relatedto capac-
ity-building that are presentedunder this programme
could be consideredto have been covered under the
costing of programmeareaB above.
20.37 The interim secretariatfor the Basel Convention
shouldundertakestudiesin orderto arrive at a reasonable
costestimatefor activitiesto be undertakeninitiallv until
the year 2000.
B) CAPACTTY-BUILD|NG
20.38 Governments,according to their capacities and
available resourcesand with the cooperationof United
Nations and other relevantorganizations,as appropriate,
should:
(a) Elaborateor adoptpoliciesfor the environmentally
sound managementof hazardous wastes, taking into
accountexistingintemationalinstruments;
(b) Make recommendationsto the appropriateforums
or establishor adaptnorrns,including the equitableim-
plementationof the "polluter pays" principle, and regu-
latory measuresto comply with obligations and princi-
ples of the Basel Convention, the Bamako Convention
and other relevantexisting or future agreements,includ-
ing protocols,asappropriate,for settingappropriaterules
andproceduresin the field of liability andcompensation
for damageresultinglrom the transboundarymovement
and disposalof hazardouswastes;
( c ) I m plem en tp o l i c i e sfo r th e i mp l e m e n ta t i onof a
ban or pr ohib i ti o n , a s a p p ro p ri a te ,o f e x p o rts of
haz ar douswas te sto c o u n tri e sth a t d o n o t h ave the
c apac it yt o dea l w i th th o s ew a s te si n a n e n v i ronmen-
t ally s ound way o r th a t h a v e b a n n e dth e i mport of
s u c hw a s t e s ;
(d) Study,in the contextof the BaselConventionand
relevantregionalconventions,the feasibility of pro-
viding temporaryfinancialassistance in the caseof an
emergencysituation, in order to minimize damage
from accidentsarisingfrom transboundary movements
of hazardouswastesor during the disposalof those
was t es .
D) PREVENTING TRAFFIC
lttEGAt INTERNATIONAL
IN HAZARDOUS WASTES
BASIS FORACTION
20.39The prevention of illegal traffic in hazardous
wasteswill benefrtthe environmentand public healthin
all countries,particularlydevelopingcountries.It will
also help to make the Basel Conventionand regional
internationalinstruments,such as the BamakoConven-
tion and the fourth Lomd Convention,more effectiveby
promoting compliancewith the controlsestablishedin
those agreements.Article IX of the Basel Convention
specificallyaddresses the issueof illegal shipmentsof
hazardouswastes.Illegaltraffic of hazardouswastesmay
causeseriousthreatsto human health and the environ-
ment and imposea specialand abnormalburdenon the
countriesthatreceivesuchshipments.
20..10Effectivepreventionrequiresactionthrougheffec-
tive monitoringand the enforcementand impositionof
appropriatepenalties.
OBJECTIVES
20.41The objectivesof this progranlffleareaare:-
(a) To reinforcenationalcapacitiesto detectand halt
any illegal attemptto introducehazardous wastesinto
the ten'itory of any State in contraventionof national
legis lat ion and re l e v a n t i n te rn a ti c l n alle g a l i nstru-
ments:
(b) To assist all countries,particularlydeveloping
countries,in obtainingall appropriateinformationcon-
cerningillegal traffic in hazardouswastes;
(c) To cooperate,within the frarneworkof the Basel
Convention.in assistingcountriesthat suff'erthe conse-
quencesof illegal traffic.
ACTIVITIES
EDACTIVITIES
ELAT
A) MANAGEMENI-R
2A.42Governments,accordingto their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizations,as
appropriate,should:
(a) Adopt, wherenecessary, andimplementlegislation
to prevent the illegal irnport and export of hazardous
wastes;
(b) Develop appropriatenational enforcementpro-
grammesto monitor compliancewith such legislation,
detectand deterviolationsthroughappropriatepenalties
andgive specialattentionto thosewho areknown to have
conductedillegal traffic in hazardouswastesand to haz-
ardouswastesthat are particularlysusceptibleto illegal
traffic.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
20.43Governmentsshould develop as appropriate,an
informationnetworkand alert systemto assistin detect-
ing illegal traffic in hazardouswastes.Local com-
munitiesand otherscor"rldbe involved in the orreration
of sucha network and system.
2A.44Governmentsshouldcooperatein the exchangeof
movementsof haz-
informationon illegal transboundary
ardouswastesand shouldmake suchinformationavail-
ableto appropriateUnited NationsbodiessuchasUNEP
and the regionalcommissions.
AND REGIONAICOOPERATION
c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL
20.45The regional commissions,in cooperationwith
and relying upon expertsupportand advicefrom UNEP
and otherrelevantbodiesof the United Nationssystem,
taking full accountof the Basel Convention,shall con-
tinueto monitorandassess the illegaltraffic in hazardous
wastes,includingits environmental, economicandhealth
implications,on a continuingbasis,drawing upon the
resultsandexperiencegainedin thejoint UNEP/ESCAP
preliminary/assessment of illegal traffic.
20.46Countries and international organizations,as
appropriate,shouldcooperateto strengthenthe institu-
tional and regulatorycapacities,in particularof devel-
oping countries,in orderto preventthe illegalimport and
export of hazardouswastes.
205
 21 Environmentolly
soundmonogement
ond sewoge-reloted
issues
of solidwostes
INTRODUCTION
2l.l This chapterhasbeenincorporated in Agenda21
in response to GeneralAssemblyresolution441228, sec-
tion I, paragraph3, in which the Assemblyaffirmedthat
the Conferenceshouldelaboratestrategies andmeasures
to halt and reversethe effectsof environmentaldegrada-
tion in the contextof increasednationalandintemational
effortsto promotesustainable andenvironmentallysound
dcveloprnentin all countries,and to sectionI, paragraph
l2 (g), of the sameresolution,in which the Assembly
affirrned that environmentallysound managementof
wasteswas among the environmentalissuesof major
concernin rnaintainingthe quality of the Earth'senvi-
ronment and especiallyin achievingenvironmentally
soundand sustainable development in all countries.
21.2 Programmeareasincludedin the presentchapter
of Agenda21 arecloselyrelatedto the following pro-
grammeareasof otherchaptersof Agenda2l :
(a) Rotection of the quality and supply of freshwaterre-
sources:applicationof integratedapproaches to thedevelop-
ment,management anduseof waterresources (chapterl8);
(b) Promotingsustainable humansettlement develop-
ment(chapter7);
(c) Protectingand promotinghumanhealthconditions
(chapter6);
(d) Changingconsumptionpatterns(chapter4).
21.3 Solid wastes,as definedin this chapter,includeall
dorlesticrefuseand non-hazardous
wastessuchas com-
rnercialand institutionalwastes,streetsweepingsand
constructiondebris.In somecountries,the solid wastes
management systernalsohandleshumanwastessuchas
night-soil,ashesfrom incinerators,septictanksludgeand
sludge fiom sewagetreatmentplants. If these wastes
manif-est hazardouscharacteristicsthevshouldbe treated
as hazardous wastes.
/Li0
21.4 Environmentallysoundwastemanagement mustgo
beyondthe meresafedisposalor recoveryof wastesthat
are generatedand seek to addressthe root causeof the
problemby attemptingto changeunsustainable patterns
of productionand consumption.This implies the appli-
cation of the integratedlife cycle managementconcept,
which presentsa uniqueopportunityto reconciledevel-
opmentwith environmentalprotection.
21.5 Accordingly,theframeworkfor requisiteactionshould
be foundedon a hierarchyofobjectives and focusedon the
four major waste-relatedprograrnmeareas,asfollows:
(a) Minimizing wastes;
(b) Maximizing environmentallysound waste reuse
and recycling;
(c) Promotingenvironmentallysound waste disposal
and treatment;
(d) Extendingwasteservicecoverage.
21.6 The four programme areas are interrelated and
mutually supportiveand must thereforebe integratedin
order to provide a comprehensiveand environmentally
responsiveframework for managing municipal solid
wastes.The mix and emphasisgiven to eachof the four
programmeareaswill vary accordingto the local socio-
economicand physicalconditions,ratesof wastegener-
ationandwastecomposition.All sectorsof societyshould
panicipatein all the programmeareas.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) MtNtMtZtNG WASTES
BASIS FORACTION
21.7 Unsustainable patternsof productionandconsump-
tion areincreasingthe quantitiesand varietyof environ-
mentally persistentwastesat unprecedented rates.The
trendcouldsignificantlyincreasethequantitiesof wastes
producedby theendof thecenturyandincreasequantities
four to fivefold by the year 2025. A preventive waste
managementapproachfocusedon changesin lifestyles
and in production and consumption pattems offers the
best chancefor reversingcurrent trends.
OBJECTIVES
21.8 The objectivesin this areaare:
(a) To stabilize or reduce the production of wastes
destinedfor final disposal,over an agreedtime-frame,
by formulatinggoalsbasedon wasteweight,volumeand
compositionand to induceseparationto facilitatewaste
recyclingand reuse;
(b) To strengthenprocedures for assessingwastequan-
tity and composition changes for the purpose of formu-
lating operational waste minimization policies utilizing
economicor other instruments to inducebeneficial modi-
ficationsof production and consumption patterns.
21.9 Governments,according to their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof thc
United Nations and other relevant orsanizations.as
appropriate,should:
(a) By the year 2000, ensure sufficient national.
regionalandinternationalcapacityto access,processand
monitor wastetrend information and implement waste
minimizationpolicies;
(b) By theyear2000,havein placein all industrialized
countriesprogrammesto stabilizeor reduce,if practic-
able, productionof wastesdestinedfor final disposal,
includingper capitawastes(wherethis conceptapplies),
at the level prevailingat that date;developingcountries
as well shouldwork towardsthat goal without jeopard-
izing their developmentprospects;
(c) Apply by the year 2000.in all countries,in pzu'ticular
in industriaJizeAcountries.progralrlmesto reducethe pro-
ductionof agrochemicalwastes,containersand packaging
materials,which do not meethazardouscharacteristics.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-R ACTIVITIES
ELATED
2 1 . 1 0G o v e r n m e n t ss h o u l d i n i t i a t e p r o g r a m m e st o
achieve sustainedminimization of waste generation.
Non-governmentalorganizationsand consumergroups
shouldbe encouraged to participatein suchprogrammes.
which could be drawn up with the cooperationof inter-
national organizations,where necessary.These pro-
grammesshould,whereverpossible,build upon existing
or plannedactivitiesand should:
(a) Develop and strengthennationalcapacitiesin re-
searchand design of environmentallysound technol-
ogies, as well as adopt measuresto reducewastesto a
mi ni mum:
(b) Providefbr incentivesto reduceunsustainable pat-
ternsclf productionand consumption;
(c) l)evelop, where necessary. nationalplans to min-
imize wastegenerationas part of overallnationaldevel-
opmentplans;
(d) Emphasizewaste minimization considerationsin
procurementwithin the United Nationssystem.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAI/ON
21.t I Monitoring is a key prerequisitefor keepingtrack
of changesin wastequantityand quality and their resui-
tantirnpacton healthandtheenvironment.Govemments,
with the supportof internationalagencies,should:
(a) Developandapplymethodologies forcountry-level
wastemonitoring;
(b) Unclertakedata gatheringand analysis,establish
nationalgoalsand monitor progress;
(c) Utilizc clatato assess environmentalsoundness of
nationalwastepoliciesas a basisfbr correctiveaction;
(d) Input inf'ormationinto global informationsystems.
C] /NIERNAI/ONAI.
AND REG/ONAt
COOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON
21.12The UnitedNationsandintergovernmental organ-
izations.r,viththe collaboration of Governments, should
help promotewasterlinimization by facilitatinggreater
exchange of inforrnation.know-howandexperience. The
fbllowing is a non-exhaustive list of specificactivities
that couldbe undertaken:
(a) Identifying,developingand harmonizingmethod-
ologiesfor rvastemonitoringandtransferringsuchmeth-
odol ogi u'trl
s countri es:
(b) Iclentifyingand furtherdevelopingthe activitiesof
existingint-ormation networkson cleantechnologies and
w asterni ni mi zati on:
(c) Llndertakingperiodic assessment, collating and
analvsingcountrydata and reportingsystematically, in an
appropriateUn itedNationsfomm,to thecountriesconcemed;
(d) Reviewingtheeffectiveness of all wasteminimiza-
tion instrunrents and identifyingpotentialnew instru-
mcnts that could be usedand techniquesby which they
cor.rldbe rnac'leoperationalat the country level. Guide-
linesand codesof practiceshouldbe developed;
(e) Undertakingresearchon the social and economic
impactsof wasteminimizationat the consumerlevel.
207
 MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
21.13The Conferencesecretariatsuggeststhat indus-
trialized countriesshould considerinvesting in waste
minimizationthe equivalentof about I per cent of the
expenditureson solid wastesand sewagedisposal.At
currentlevels,this would amounttcl about $6.5 billion
annually,includingabout$1.8billionrelatedto minimiz-
ing municipal solid wastes.Actual amountswould be
determinedby relevant municipal, provincial and na-
tional budgetauthoritiesbasedon local circumstances.
B / S C/ F N IIF IC
A N D IEC H N O I.OGIC ME
AL A N S
21.14Wasteminimizationtechnologiesand procedures
will needto be identifiedand widely disseminated. This
work shouldbe coordinatedby nationalGovernments,
with the cooperationand collaborationof non-govern-
mentalorganizations, researchinstitutionsand appropri-
ate organizations ol'the United Nations,and could in-
clude the folloi,ving:
(a) Undertakinga continuousreview of the effective-
nessof all waste minimizationinstrumentsand identi-
fying potentialnew instrumentsthat could be usedand
techniquesby which instrumentscould be made oper-
ational at the country level. Guidelinesand codes of
practiceshoLrldbe developed;
(b) Promotingwastepreventiclnand minimization as
the principal objective of national waste management
programmes;
(c) Promotingpublic educationand a rangeof regula-
tory andnon-regulatoryincentivesto encourageindustry
to changeproductdesignand reduceindustrialprocess
wastesthroughcleanerproduciiontechnologies andgood
housekeeping practicesand to encourageindustriesand
consumersto use typesof packagingthat can be safely
reused:
(d) Executing,in accordancewith nationalcapacities,
demonstrationand pilot programmesto optimize waste
minimizationinstruments ; programmefor waste streams,including paper,within
(e) Establishing proceduresfor adequatetransport.
storage,conseryationand managementof agricultural
products,foodstuffs and other perishablegoods in order
to reducethe lossof thoseproducts,which resultsin the
productionof solid waste;
(0 Facilitatingthe transferof waste-reduction technol-
ogies to industry,particularlyin developingcountries,
andestablishingconcretenationalstandards fbr effluents
and solid waste, taking into account, inter a.lia, raw
materialuseand energyconsumption.
208
C) HUIAANRFSOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
21.15Human resourcedevelopmentfor wasteminimi-
zationnot only shouldbe targetedat professionals
in the
wastemanagementsectorbut also shouldseekto obtain
the support of citizens and industry.Human resource
developmentprogrammesmust thereforeaim to raise
consciousness andeducateand inform concernedgroups
and the public in general.Countriesshouldincorporate
within schoolcurricula,whereappropriate,theprinciples
and practicesof preventingand minimizing wastesand
materialon the environmentalimpactsof waste.
B) i AXrMtZtNc ENVTRONTUENTAIrY
SOUND
WASTEREUSEAND RECYCTING
BASIS
FORACTION
21.16Theexhaustion of traditionaldisposalsites,stricter
environmentalcontrols governing waste disposaland
increasingquantitiesof more persistentwastes,particu-
larly in industrializecl
countries.haveall contributedto a
rapidincreasein thect-rstof wastedisposalservices.Costs
could double or triple by the end of the decade.Some
currentdisposalpracticespose a threatto the environ-
ment. As the econr-rmics of waste disposalservices
change, waste recycling and resourcerecovery are
becoming increasingly cost-effective.Future waste
managernentprograntmesshould take maximum ad-
vantageof resource-efficient approaches to the control
of wastes.These activities should be carried out in
conjunctionwith public educationprogrammes.It is
important t.hat markets for products from reclaimed
materialsbe identifiedin the developmentof reuseand
recyclingprogrammes.
OBJECTIVES
21.17The ob.jectivesin this areaare:
(a) To strengthenandincreasenationalwastereuseand
recycl i ngsystems:
(b) To createa modelinternalwastereuseandrecycling
the UnitedNationssystem;
(c) To make available informaticln,techniquesand
appropriatepolicy instrumentsto encourageand make
operationalwastereuseand recyclingschemes.
2l .18 Govemments, accclrding to theircapacities
andavail-
ableresourcesandwith thecooperationof theUnitedNations
and otherrelevantorganizations,asappropriate,should:
(a) By the year 2000,promotesufficientfinancialand
technologicalcapacitiesat the regional, national and
locallevels,asappropriate,to implementwastereuseand
recyclingpoliciesand actions;
(b) By theyear2000,in all industrialized
countries,
and
by the year 2010, in all developingcountries,have a
nationalprogramme,including, to the extent possible,
targetsfor efficientwastcreuseand recycling.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENI-RELATEDACTIVITIES
21.19 Governments and institutions and non-govern-
mental organizations,inch.rdingconsumer.women's and
youth groups, in collaboration with appropriate organ-
izations of the United Nations system, should launch
programmes to demonstrate and make operational en-
hanced waste reuse and recycling. These programmes
should,whereverpossible,build upon existing orplanned
a c t i v i t i e sa n d s h o u l d :
(a) Develop and strengthennational capacity to reuse
and recycle an increasing proportion of wastes;
(b) Review and rclorm national rvastepolicies to pro-
vide incentives for waste reuse and recycling;
(c) Develop and implement national plans fbr waste
management that take advantage of, and give priority to,
waste reLrseand recycling;
(d) Modify existing standardsor purchase specifica-
tions to avoid discrimination against recycled materials,
taking into account the saving in energy and raw
materials:
(e) Develop public education and awarenesspro-
grammes to promote the use of recycled products.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAIION
21.20 Information and research is required to identify
promising socially acceptableand cost-effective forms
of u'astereuseand recycling relevantto each country. For
example. supporting actii'ities undeftaken by national
and local govemments in collaboration with the United
Nations and other international organizationscould in-
clude.
(a) Undertaking an extensive review of options and
techniquesfbr reuseand recycling all lbrms of municipal
solid u,'astes.Policies fbr leuse and recycling should be
madc an integral component of national and local waste
millliigenlent programme s:
(b ) ,Assessing the extent and practice o1'wastereuseand
recvcling operations cllrentlv undertaken and identi-
ff ing \\ avs by which these could be increasedand sup-
pofiecl:
(c) Incrcasing funding for researchpilot programmes
to test various options tor reuse and recycling. including
the use of' small-scale, cottage-basedrccycling indus-
tries; compostproductionI treatedwaste-waterirri gation;
and energyrecoveryfrom wastes;
(d) Producingguidelinesand bcst practicesfor waste
reuseandrecycling;
(e) Intensifyingefforts, at.collecting,analysingand
disseminating, to key targetgroups,relevantinformation
on wasteissues.Specialresearchgrantscould be nrade
availableon a competitivebasisfbr innovativeresearch
projectson recyclingtechniques;
(0 Identifyingpotentialmarketsfor rccycledproducts.
c/ /NIERNAI/ONAL
AND RFG/ONA/
COOPERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI/ON
21.21 States. throughbilateralandntultjlateralcooperation,
includingthroughthe United Nationsand otherrelevant
i ntemational organi zations, asapprclpri
ate,shcluld:
(a) Undertakea penodicreviewof the extentto which
countriesreuseand recycletheir wastes;
(b) Review the effectivenessof techniquesfor and
approachesto waste reuseand recycling and ways clf
enhancingtheir applicationin countries:
(c) Reviervand updateinternational guidelinesfor the
safereuseof wastes:
(d) Establishappropriate prograntrnesto supportsmall
communities'wastereLlscand recy'clingindustricsin
developingcountries.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A / F I N A N C / N GA N D C O S T E V A L U A T T O N
21.22 The Contercncc sccrctariat has estimated that if
the equivalent of I per cent o1'waste-relatedmunicipal
expenditures was clevotedto sale rvastereuse schemes,
worldwide e-xpenditr-rres lor this purpose would amount
to $8 billion. The secretariatestintatesthe total annual
c o s t ( 1 9 9 3 - 2 0 0 0 )o f i r n p l e r r e n t i n gt h e a c t i v i t i e so 1 ' t h i s
programme areain developing countriesto be about $850
million on grant or concessionalterms. These are indica-
tive and order-of-rnagnitudeestimatesonly and have not
been reviewed by Govc-rnmcnts.Actual costs and finan-
cial terms. including any that are non-concessional.will
depend upon, irttcr olirt. the specific programmes pro-
posed by internationalinstitutions and approved by their
g o v e r n i n gb o d i e s .
B / s C / E N I / F / CA N D I F C H N O T O G T C AM
L EANS
21.23 The transfer of t.echncllogyshould support waste
recycling and rcuse hy the following means:
209
(a) Including the transfer of recycling technologies,
suchasmachineryfor reusingplastics,rubberandpaper,
within bilateral and multilateral technicalcooperation
and aid programmes;
(b) Developingand improving existing technologies,
especiallyindigenoustechnologies, andfacilitatingtheir
transferunder ongoingregionaland interregionaltech-
nical assistance programmes;
(c) Facilitatingthetransferofwastereuseandrecycling
technology.
21.24Incentives for waste reuse and recycling are
numerous.Countriescould considerthe following op-
tions to encourageindustry,institutions,commerciales-
tablishmentsand individualsto recyclewastesinsteadof
disposingof them:
(a) Offeringincentivesto local and municipalauthorities
that recyclethe maximumproportionof their wastes;
(b) Providing technical assistanceto informal waste
reuseand recyclingoperations:
(c) Applying economicandregulatoryinstruments,in-
cluding tax incentives,to supportthe principlethat gen-
eratorsof wastespay fbr their disposal;
(d) Providing legal and economic conditionscondu-
cive to investmentsin wastereuseand recycling;
(e) Implementingspecific mechanismssuch as de-
posit/refundsystemsas incentivesfor reuseand recycling;
(f) Promoting the separatecollection of recyclable
partsof householdwastes;
(g) Providing incentivesto improve the marketability
of technicallyrecyclablewaste;
(h) Encouragingthe use of recyclablematerials,par-
ticularly in packaging,wherefeasible;
(i) Encouragingthe developmentof markets for re-
cycled goodsby establishingprogrammes.
C) HUM A NR E SOU R CDEEV EL OP M EN I
21.25Training will be required to reorient current
waste managementpracticesto include waste reuse
and recycling. Governments,in collaboration with
United Nationsinternationalandregionalorganizations,
shouldundertakethe following indicativelist of actions:
(a) Including wastereuseand recycling in in-service
trainingprogrammesasintegralcomponentsof technical
cooperationprogrammeson urban managementand
infrastructure development;
(b) Expandingtraining programmeson water supply
anclsanitationto incorporatetechniquesand policiesfor
wastereuseand recycling;
(c) Including the advantagesand civic obligationsas-
sociatedwith wastereuseand recycling in schoolcur-
ricula and relevantgeneraleducationalcourses;
210
(d) Encouraging non-governmentalorganizations,
community-basedor ganizations andwomen's,youth and
public interestgroup programmes,in collaborationwith
local municipalauthorities,to mobilizecommunitysup-
port for wastereuseandrecyclingthroughfocusedcom-
munity-levelcampaigns.
D) CAPACITY.BUILDING
21.26Capacity-buildingto support increasedwaste
reuseand recyclingshouldfocuson the following areas:
(a) Making operationalnationalpoliciesandincentives
for wastemanagement;
(b) Enablinglocal and municipal authoritiesto mobi-
lize communitysupportfor wastereuseandrecyclingby
involving and assistinginformal sectorwastereuseand
recyclingoperationsandundertakingwastemanagernent
planningthat incorporatesresourcerecoverypractices.
c) PROMOTTNGENVIRONMENTATTY SOUND
WASTEDISPOSAI AND TREATMENT
BASIS
FORACTION
21.21Even when wastesare minimized, some wastes
will still remain.Even after treatment,all dischargesof
wasteshave someresidualimpacton the receivingenvi-
ronment. Consequently,there is scope for improving
waste treatment and disposal practices such as, for
example,avoiding the dischargeof sludgesat sea. In
developingcountries,theproblemis of a morefundamen-
tal nature: lessthan l0 per centof urbanwastesreceive
some form of treatmentand only a small proportion of
treatmentis in compliancewith any acceptablequality
standard.Faecalmattertreatmentand disposalshouldbe
accordeddue priority given the potentialthreatof faeces
to humanhealth.
OBJECTIVES
21.28The objective in this area is to treat and safely
disposeof a progressivelyincreasingproportionof the
generatedwastes.
21.29Governments,accordingto their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the cooperationof the
United Nations and other relevant orsanizations.as
appropriate,should:
(a) By the year 2000, establishwaste treatmentand
disposalquality criteria,objectivesand standardsbased
on the natureand assimilativecapacityof the receiving
environment;
(b) By the year 2000, establishsufficientcapacityto
undertakewaste-relatedpollution impact monitoring and
conductregularsurveillance,includingepidemiological
surveillance.whereappropriate :
(c) By the year 1995,in industrializedcountries,and
by the year 2005,in developingcountries,ensurethat at
least50 per cent of all sewage,wastewatersand solid
wastes are treated or disposed of in conformity with
national or international environmental and health
quality guidelines;
(d) By the year 2025, disposeof all sewage,waste
watersand solid wastesin conformity with nationalor
internationalenvironmentalquality guidelines.
ACTIVITIES
ACTtVlTlES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENT-R
21.30Governments, institutionsand non-govemmental
organizations,togetherwith industries,in collaboration
with appropriate organizatronsof the United Nations
system,shouldlaunchprogrammesto improve the con-
trol and managementof waste-relatedpollution. These
programmesshould,whereverpossible,build uponexist-
ing or plannedactivitiesand should:
(a) Develop and strengthennationalcapacityto treat
and safelydisposeof wastes;
(b) Review and reform national waste management
policiesto gain controlover waste-related pollution;
(c) Encouragecountriesto seek wastedisposalsolu-
tions within their sovereignterritory and as close as
possibleto the sourcesof origin thatarecompatiblewith
environmentallysoundand efficient management.In a
number of countries,transboundarymovementstake
placeto ensurethat wastesare managedin an environ-
rnentallysoundand efficient way. Suchmovementsob-
sen/etherelevantconventions, includingthosethatapply
to areasthat are not undernationaljurisdiction;
(d) Develophumanwastesmanagementplans,giving
due attention to the developmentand application of
appropriatetechnologies andtheavailabilityof resources
for implementation.
B) DATAAND INFORMAI/ON
21.31 Standardsettingand monitoringare two key ele-
ments essentialfor gaining control over waste-related
pollution.The following specificactivitiesareindicative
of the kind of supportiveactionsthat could be taken by
internationalbodies such as the United Nations Centre
for Human Settlements(Habitat), the United Nations
Environment Programmeand the World Health Organ-
ization:
(a) Assemblingand analysingthe scientificevidence
and pollution impactsof wastesin the environmentin
order to formulate and disseminaterecommendedscien-
tific criteriaandguidelinesfor theenvironmentallysound
managementof solid wastes;
(b) Recommendingnationaland,whererelevant,local
environmentalquality standardsbasedon scientificcri-
teria and guidelines;
(c) Incl udi ng w i thi n techni cal cooperati on pr o-
grammesand agreementsthe provision for monitorinp
equipmentand for the requisitetrainingin its use;
(d) Establishingan information clearing-housewith
extensivenetworks at the regional,national and local
levels to collect and disseminateinformationon all as-
pectsof wastemanagement, including safedisposal.
AND REG/ONAT
C/ 'NIERNAI/ONAT
COOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON
21.32States,through bilateraland multilateralcooper-
ation, including through the United Nations and other
relevant internationalorganizations.as appropriate,
should:
(a) Identify,developandharmonizemethodologies and
environmentalquality and health guidelines for safe
wastedischargeand disposal;
(b) Reviewand keepabreastof developments and dis-
seminateinformation on the effectivenessof techniques
and approachesto safewastedisposaland ways of sup-
portingtheir applicationin countries.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
Ai FINANCTNG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
21.33Safe waste disposalprogrammesare relevantto
both developedand developingcountries.In developed
countriesthe focus is on improving facilities to meet
higher environmentalquality criteria,while in develop-
ing countriesconsiderable investmentis requiredto build
new treatmentfacilities.
21.34The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this programrnein developingcountriesto
be about$15 billion, includingabout$3.4 billion fronr
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms.Theseareindicativeandorder-of-magnitude esti-
matesonly andhavenotbeenreviewedby Governments.
Actual costsand financial terms,including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter nlia, the
specificstrategiesandprogrartmesGovemmentsdecide
upon for implementation.
,)Il
L t I
 AN D IE C H N OT OGIC AL
8/ S C/ F N I/F /C ME A N S D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

21.3-5Scientiticguidelinesand researchon variousas- 21.37Institutionalreformsandcapacity-buildingwill be

pectsof waste-related pollutioncontrol rvill be crucial indispensable if countriesare to be able to quantify and
for achievingthe obiectivesof thisprogramme. Govern- mitigate waste-relatedpollution. Activities to achieve
ments,municipalitiesand local authorities, with appro- this objectiveshouldinclude:
priateinternational cooperation, should: (a) Creatingand strengtheningindependentenviron-
(a) Prepare guidclinesandtcchnicalreporlson subjects mental control bodies at the national and local levels.
such as the integrationof land-useplanningin human Internationalorganizationsand donors should support
settlements with wastedisposal,environmentalquality neededupgradingof manpowerskills and provision of
criteriaanclstandards" u'astetrcl.ttl-nent and saf-edisposal equipment;
options.industrialwaste treatmentand landflll oper- (b) Empoweringof pollutioncontrolagencieswith the
ations; requisitelegal mandateand financialcapacitiesto carry
(b) Undertakerescarchon critical subjectssuch as out their dutieseffectively.
low-cost,low-maintenarlcc waste-watertreatmentsYs-
terns:safesludgeclisposal options;industrialwastetreat-
m ent ;and l o w -tc c h n o l o g ye.c o l o g i c a l l ys afew astedi s- DI EXTENDING COVERAGE
WASTESERVICE
posaloptions;
(c) Transl'er tcchnclkrgies, in conlormitywith thetermsas
well as the provisionsof chapter34 (Transf-er of environ- BASIS
FORACTION
mentally sound technology,cooperationand capacity- 21.38B y theendof thecentury,over2.0bi l lion people
building),on indusffialwastetreatnreltt processes through w i l l be w i thout accessto basi c sani tation,and an
bilateralandmuitilateraltcchnicalcooperation programmes esti matedhal l ' ol ' the urbanpopul ati oni n developing
and in cooperationu'ith bLrsincss and industry.including countri esw i l l be w i thoutadequate sol i dw ast edisposal
largeand transnatiorlal corprlratiotts. asirppropriate. servi ces.A s many as 5.2 rni l l i on peopl e,i ncluding4
(d) Focuson the rehabilitatic-rn. operationand mainte- mi l l i on chi l drenunderfi ve yearsof age,di e eachyear
nanc eof e x i s ti n gl a c i l i ti e sa n d te c h n i c alassi stance
on from waste-relateddiseases.The health impacts are
inrprovedmaintcnancepractice'sand techniquesfol- particularlyseverefor the urbanpoor. The healthand
lowed by the planningand constluctionof wastetreat- environmentalimpacts of inadequatewaste lnanage-
mentfacilitics; ment, however,go beyond the unservedsettlements
(e') Irstablishprograrnrxe s to traximizethc sollrceseg- themsel vesand resul ti n w ater.l and and a ir cont am i-
regationand saf-e disposalol'thc hazardous conrponents nati onand pol l uti onover a w i der area.E xt endingand
ot 'niunic i p asl o l i dw a s te " i mprovi ngw astecol l ecti onand safedi spo salser vices
(f ) Ensurethe investrnentand prclvisionof wastecol- are crucial to gaining control over this form of pollu-
lcctionfacilitieswith therconcomitant provisionof water ti on.
sen,icesancirl'ith an equaland parallclinvestmerltand
provisionof wastetreatme nt facilities.
OBJECTIVES
21.39The overall objective of this programmeis to
C) HUM A NR ES O U R CDEEV EL OP M EN T provide health-protecting, environmental Iy safewaste
col l ecti onanddi sposalservi cesto al l people.G over n-
21.36Training would bc requiredto improve curuent ments,accordi ngto thei r capaci ti esand av ailabler e-
wastemanagement practicesto includesafecollection sourcesandw i th thecooperati on of theU ni tedNat ions
and wastedisposal.The following is an indicativelist of a n d o t h e r r e l e v a n t o r g a n i z a t i c l n sa,s a p p r o p r i a t e ,
actionsthat shouldbe takenby Governments, in collab- shoul d:
orationwith international organizations: (a) By the year 2000, have the necessarytechnical,
( a) P r ov i d i n g b o th to rn -ra al n d i n -s e rvi cetrai ni ng. flnancial and humanresourcecapacityto providewaste
focusedon pollLrtior.l control,wastetreatmentand dis- collectionserviccscommensurate with needs:
p t - r s rt le c h n o l o g i e sa, n d o p e r a t i n ga n d n r a i n t a i n i n g (b) By the year 2025. provide all urban populations
w aste- re latedi nfiastrLlcture. I ntercountrystaffexchange with adequiitewasteservices:
programnles shouldalsobe established; (c) By the year 2025, ensure that full urban waste
(b) Undertakingthereqr-risite trainingfbr waste-related servicecoverageis maintainedand sanitationcoverage
pollr.rtion monitoringandcontrolen{rlrcement. achievedin all ruralarcas.

?12
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENT-RELATED
ACTIVITIES
21.4AGovernments.accordingto their capacitiesand
available resourcesand with the coopcrationof the
United Nations and other relevant organizations.as
appropriate,should:
(a) Establishfinancingmechanismslbr wastemanage-
ment servicedevelopmentin deprive-dareas.including
appropriatemodesof revenuegeneration:
(b) Apply the "polluter pays" principle.where appro-
priate,by settingwastemanagementchargesat ratesthat
reflect the costsof providing the serviceand ensurethat
thosewho generatethewastespaythefull costof disposal
in an environmentallysafeway;
(c) Encourage institutionalization
ofcomnrunities'par-
ticipationin planningandimplernentation proceduresfor
solid wastemanagement.
B) DATAAND /NFORMATION
21.41Governments.in collaborationwith the United
Nations and internationalorganizations.should under-
takethe following:
(a) Developingand applyingmethodologiesfor waste
monitoring;
(b) Data gatheringand analysisto establishgoalsand
monitor progress;
(c) Inputtinginformationinto a _elobal informationsys-
tem buildinguponexistingsvstems,
(d) Strengthening the activitiesof existingintbrmation
networksin orderto disseminatefocusedinformationon
the applicationof innovativeand low-cost alternatives
for wastedisposalto targetedaudiences.
ci /NTERNAI/ONA/
AND REG/ONAt
COOPERAI/ONAND COORD/NAI/ON
71.42Many United Nations and bilateral programmes
exist that seek to provide water supply and sanitation
sen'icesto the unserved.The Waterand SanitationCol-
laborative Council, a global forum. currently acts to
coordinatedevelopmentand encouragecooperation.
Even so, given the ever-increasingnumbersof unserved
urbanpoor populations andthe needto address, in addi-
tion. the problem of solid waste disposal,additional
mechanismsareessentialto ensureaccelerated coverage
of urbanwastedisposalservices.The internationalcom-
munity in generaland selectedUnited Nations organ-
izationsin particularshould:
(a) Launcha settlementinfrastructureandenvironment
programmefollowing the United NationsConferenceon
EnvironmentandDevelopmentto coordinatethe activities
of all organizations
of the UnitedNationssysteminvolved
in this areaand include a clearing-housefor infonnation
disseminationon all wastemanagementissues;
(b) Undertakeand systematicallyreporlon progressin
providingwasteservicesto thosewithout suchservices;
(c) Review the effectivenessof techniqueslor and
approachesto increasingcoverageand identify innova-
tive ways of acceleratingthe process.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
21.43The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of irnplementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $7.5 billion,
includingabout$2.6 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
cial terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alio, the specifrcstratcgiesand pro-
granrmesGovemmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
8/ SC/ENI/FIC
AND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MEANS
21.44Governmentsand institutions.togetherwith non-
governmentalorganizations.should, in collaboration
with appropriateorganizationsof the United Nations
system, launch programmesin different parts of the
developingworld to extend waste servicesto the un-
servedpopulations.Theseprogrammesshould.rvherever
possible,build upon and reorient existing or planned
activities.
21.45Policy changesat the national and local levels
could enhancethe rateof wasteservicecoverageexten-
sion.Thesechangesshouldincludethe following:
(a) Giving full recognitionto and using the full range
of low-cost options for waste management.including,
where appropriate,their institutionalizationand incor-
porationwithin codesof practiceand regulation;
(b) Assigninghigh priority to the extensionof waste
nanagementservices,as necessaryand appropriate,to
all settlementsirrespectiveof their legal status,giving
due emphasisto meetingthe wastedisposalneedsof the
unserved,especiallythe unservedurbanpoor:
(c) Integratingthe provisionandmaintenance of waste
managementserviceswith other basic servicessuch as
water-supplyand storm-waterdrainage.
213
21.46Research activitiescouldbe enhanced. Countries.
in cooperation with appropriateinternational organ-
i zationsandnon-governmental or ganizat i ons,shouId, f or
instance:
(a) Find solutionsandequiprnent for managingu'astes
in areasof concentrated populationsandon sn-rallislands.
In particular,thereis a needfor appropriaterefusestorage
and coilectionsystemsand cost-effectiveand hygienic
humanwastedisposaloptions;
(b) Prepareand disseminateguidclines,case-studies,
policy reviews and technical reports on appropriate
solutions and modes of service delivery to unserved
low-incomeareas;
(c) Launchcampaignsto encourage activecommunity
participationinvolving women'sandyouth groupsin the
managementof waste,parlicularlyhouseht-lld waste;
(d) Promoteintercountrytransferof relevanttechno-
logies, especiallytechnologiesfor high-densitysettle-
ments.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
21.47Intemationalorganizationsand national and locai
Governrnents,in collaborationwith non-governnrental
organizations,shouldprovidefocusedtrainingon low-cost
wastecollectionand disposalopticlns,particularly'tech-
niquesfor their planning and deliverry.Intercountr-.1
staff
exchangeprogrammesamongdevelopingcountricscould
fbrm part of such training. Particuiarattentionshoulcibe
givento upgrading thestatusandskillsof managcmcnt-lcvel
personnelin wastemanagement agencies.
21A
21.48Improvementsin managementtechniquesare
likely to yield the greatestreturnsin termsof improving
rvastemanagementservice efficiency. The United Na-
tions, internationalorganizationsand financial institu-
tions should, in collaborationwith national and local
Governments,developand renderoperationalmanage-
ment informationsystemsfor municipalrecordkeeping
and accounting and for efficiency and effectiveness
assessment.
D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
21.49Governments,institutionsand non-governmental
organizatrons,with the collaboration of appropriate
organizationsof the United Nations system,should
developcapacitiesto implementprogramrnesto provide
waste collection and disposalservicesto the unserved
populations.Some activities under the programmes
shouldincludethe following:
(a) Establishinga specialunit within current institu-
tional arrangements to plan and deliver servicesto the
unservedpoor communities,with their involvementand
participation;
(b) Making revisionsto existingcodesandregulations
to perrnitthe useof the full rangeof low-costalternative
technologies tor wastedisposal;
(c) B ui l di ng i nsti tuti onalcapaci tyand d eveloping
proceduresfor undertaki ng servi ce pl a nning and
delivery.
 ) ) soundmonogement
Sofeond environmentolly
^L z- of rodiooctive
wostes
P R O G R A M MAER E A
PROA'IOTINGTHE SAFEAND ENVIRONA/IENTALLY
SOUND MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVEWASTES
BASIS
FORACTION
22.1 Radioactivewastesaregeneratedin thenuclearfuel
cycle as well as in nuclear applications(the use of
radionuclidesin medicine,researchand industry).The
radiological and safety risk from radioactive wastes
variesfrom very low in short-lived,low-level wastesup
to very large for high-level wastes.Annually about
200,000m3 of low-level and intermediate-levelwaste
and 10,000m3 of high-levelwaste (as well as spent
nuclear fuel destinedfor final disposal)is generated
world wide from nuclearpower production.Thesevol-
umesareincreasingasmorenuclearpowerunitsaretaken
into operation,nuclearfacilitiesaredecommissioned and
the useof radionuclidesincreases. The high-levelwaste
containsabout99 per cent of the radionuclidesand thus
representsthe largest radiological risk. The waste
volumesfrom nuclearapplicationsare generallymuch
smaller.typically sometensof cubic metresor lessper
year and country.However,the activity concentration,
especiallyin sealedradiationsources, mightbehigh,thus
j u s t i f y i n g v e r y s t r i n g e n tr a d i o l o g i c a lp r o t e c t i o n
measures. The growthof wastevolumesshouldcontinue
to be kept underclosereview.
21. 2 T he s af ean d e n v i ro n m e n ta l sl yo u n d m a n a gement
o f r adioac t iv ew a s te s ,i n c l u d i n gth e i r mi n i mi zati on,
t r ans por t at ion an d d i s p o s a l i.s i m p o rta n t,g i v en thei r
c har ac t er is t ic sIn. mo s t c o u n tri e sw i th a s u b stanti al
nuclearpower programme,technicaland administra-
tive measureshave been taken to irnplementa wa-ste
m anagem ent s y s te mIn . ma n yo th e rc o u n tri e ss ti l l onl y
in preparationfor a national nuclear programmeor
havingonly nuclearapplications,suchsystemsarestill
needed.
OBJECTIVE
22.3 The objectiveof this programmeareais to ensure
that radioactivewastesare safelymanaged,transpofted,
storedand disposedof, with a view to protectinghuman
health and the environment,within a wider framework
of an interactive and integratedapproachto radioactive
wastemanagementand safety.
ACTIVITIES
A) MANAGEMENT.
RELAT
EDACTIVITIES
22.4 States,in cooperationwith relevantinternational
organizations,whereappropriate,should:
(a) Promotepolicies and practical measurcsto min-
imize and limit, where appropriate,the generationof
radioactivewastesand providefor their safeprocessing,
conditioning,transpofiationand disposal;
(b) Supportefforts within IAEA to develop and pro-
mulgateradioactivewastesafetystandards or guidelines
andcodesof practiceasan internationally acceptedbasis
for the safeandenvironmentallysoundmanagementand
disposalof radioactir,e wastes:
(c) Promotesaf'estorage,transportationand disposal
of radioactivewastes,as well as spentradiationsources
and spentfuel from nuclearreactorsdestinedfor final
disposal,in all countries,in particular in developing
countries,by facilitatingthe transferof relevanttechno-
logiesto thosecountriesand/orthe returnto the supplier
of radiationsourcesafter their use, in accordancewith
relevantinternationalregulationsor guidelines;
(d) Promoteproperplanning,includingenvironmental
impact assessment whereappropnate,of safeand envi-
215
ronmentally sound managementof radioactivewaste,
includingemergencyprocedures, storage.transportation
and disposal,prior to and after activitiesthat generate
suchwaste.
AND REGIONAL
B/ /NIERN,AI/ONAi.
AND COORDINAI/ON
COOPERAIION
22.5 States,in cooperationwith relevant intemational
organizattons,where appropriate,should:
(a) Strc'ngthentheir efforts to implementthe Code of
Practiceon the Transboundary1\{ovementso1'Raditt-
activeWasteand,underthe auspiceso1'IAEA.in cooper-
ation with relevant intemationalorganizationsdealing
with differentmodesof transport,keep the questionof
such movementsunder active review, including the
desirabilityof concludinga legallybindinginstrument;
(b) Encouragethe London Dumping C'onventiottto
expeditework to completestudieson replacingthe cur-
rent voluntary moratorium on disposal of low-level
radioactivewastesat seaby a ban, taking into account
the precautionaryapproach,with a view to taking a well
informedand timely decisionon the issue:
(c) Not promote or allow the storageor disposalof
high-level,intermediate-level and low-level radioactive
wastesnear the marine environmentunlessthey deter-
mine that scientificevidence,consistentwith the applic-
able internationallyagreed principles and guidelines,
showsthatsuchstorageor disposalposesno unacceptable
risk to people and the marine environtnentor doesnot
interf'erewith otherlegitimateusesof the sea,making,in
the processof consideration,appropriateuseof the con-
cept of the precautionaryapproach;
(d) Not export radioactivewastesto countriesthat,
individually or through internationalagreements,pro-
hibit the import of such wastes,suchas the contracting
parties to the Bamako Conventionon the Ban of the
lmport into Africa and the Control of Transboundary
N{ovementof HazardousWasteswithin Africa, thefourth
Lom6 Conventionor otherrelevantconventions. where
suchprohibitionis pror,'idedfor;
(e) Respect,in accordancewith internationallaw. the
decisions,as far as applicableto them, takenby parties
to other relevant regional environmentalconventions
dealing with other aspectsof safe and environmentally
soundmanagement of radioactivewastes.
216
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANCTNG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
22.6 The costs at the national level of managingand
disposingof radioactivewastesareconsiderable andwill
vary, dependingon the technologyusedfor disposal.
22.1 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe aver-
agetotal annualcost( 1993-2000)to internationalorgan-
izationsto implementthe activitiesof this programmeto
be about $8 million. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand programmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ sC/ENI/F/C MEANS
AND TECHNOLOGICAL
22.8 States,in cooperationwith internationalorgan-
izations,whereappropriate,should:
(a) Promoteresearchand developmentof methodsfor
thesafeandenvironmentallysoundtreatment,processing
anddisposal,includingdeepgeologicaldisposal,of high-
level radioactivewaste;
(b) Conductresearchandassessment programmescon-
cerned with evaluating the health and environmental
impact of radioactivewastedisposal.
c) .APAC\TY-BU|LD\NG, /NCtUD/NGHUMAN
R E S OU R CDEE V E LOP MFN I
22.9 States,in cooperationwith relevant international
organizations, shouldprovide,asappropriate,assistance
to developingcountriesto establishand/or strengthen
radioacti ve wastemanagementinfrastructures, including
legislation, organizations,trained manpower and fa-
cilities for the handling,processing,storageanddisposal
of wastesgeneratedfrom nuclearapplications.
 Section3

Strengthening
the Roleof
Moiot Groups
23 Preomble
23.1 Critical to the effective implementationof the ob-
jectives, policies and mechanismsagreedto by Govern-
ments in all programmeareasof Agenda 2l will be the
commitment and genuine involvement of all social
groups.
23.2 One of the fundamental prerequisites for the
achievementof sustainabledevelopmentis broadpublic
participation in decision-making. Furthermore,in the
more specific context of environmentand development,
the need for new forms of participation has emerged.
This includesthe needof individuals, groupsand organ-
izations to participate in environmentalimpact assess-
ment proceduresand to know about and participate in
decisions,particularly thosewhich potentially affect the
communitiesin which they live and work. Individuals,
groupsand organizationsshouldhaveaccessto informa-
tion relevant to environment and developmentheld by
national authorities,including information on products
and activitiesthat have or are likely to have a significant
impact on the environment,and information on environ-
mental protectionmeasures.
23.3 Any policies, definitions or rules affecting access
to and participationby non-governmentalorganizations
in the work of United Nations institutions or agencies
associatedwith the implementationof Agenda 21 must
apply equally to all major groups.
23.4 The prograrnmeareasset out below addressthe
means for moving towards real social partnership in
supportof common efforts for sustainabledevelopment.
219
24 Globoloctionfor womentowordssustoinoble
development
ond equitoble
P R O G R A M MAER E A
BASISFORACTION
24.1 The internationalcontmunity has endorsed several
plans clf action and ceinventionsfor the full, equal and
benr:flcialintcgration of women in alldeveloprnentactiv-
i ti es. in particular the N airobi Forward-looki n g Strategies
for the Advancemc-nt clf Wonten,l which emphasize
women's participation in national and intemational eco-
systenr management and control of environment degra-
dation. Several conl'entions, including the Convention
on the E,lirninationof All Forms of Discrimination against
Wornen (General Assembiy resolution 34l180. anncx)
and conventions of tLO and UNESCO have also been
adopted to end gender-baseddiscrimination and ensure
wornen accessto land and other resources.eclucationand
saf.eand equal employrnent. Also relevant are the 1990
World Dcclaration on the Sun'ival. Protection and Devel-
opnrent of Chilclren and the Plan ctfAction f or irnplement-
ing the Declaration (,4/4*5/6?5,annex). Effective im-
plementation of thesc prograrnlnes r,r'illdepend on the
active involvernent of rvomen in economic and political
decision-making and ivill be critical to the successful
i m p l e m e n t a t i o no f A g e n d a 2 1 .
OBJECTIVES
l;t I i'he following objectivesare proposedftrr national
G ov er nnt e n ts :
( a ) 1 o r r n p l e m e n tt h e N a i r o b i F o r r v a r d - l o o k i n g
Strategics for theAdvancement of Wotnen,panicularlywith
regzudto wor-nen's par-ticipation in nationalccosystetn miur-
agementandcontrolof environmentdegradation:
( b) T o inc re a s el h c -p ro p o rti o no f w o m en deci si on
makers,planners.technicaladvisers,managersand ex-
tensiol workersin enyironment anddevelopmentfields;
220
(c) To considerdevelopingandissuingby theyear2000
a strategyof changesnecessaryto eliminate constitu-
tional, legal,administrative,cultural,behavioural,social
and economicobstaclesto women'sfull participationin
sustainable development and in publiclife;
(d) To establishby the year 1995 mechanismsat the
national,regionaland internationallevels to assessthe
implementationandirnpactof developmentandenviron-
ment policiesand programlneson women and to ensure
their contributionsand beneflts:
(e) To assess,review, revise and implement, where
appropriate,curricula and other educationalmaterial,
with a view to promotingthe disseminationto both men
and women of gender-relevant knowledgeand appreci-
ation of women's roles throughformal and non-formal
education,as wcll as throughtraining institutions,in
collaborationwith non-governmental organizations;
(0 To formulate and implcrnent clear govetnmental
policiesand nationalguidelines,strategies andplansfor
the achievementof equality in all aspectsof society,
includingthe promotionof \ ,olnen'sliteracy,education,
training.nutritionand healthand their participationin
key decision-making positionsandin management of the
environnrent" particularlyas it pertainsto their accessto
resources.by lacilitatingbetteraccessto all lbrms of
credit.particularlyin theinforntalsector,takingmeasures
towardsensuringwonlen'saccessto propertyrights as
well as agriculturaiinputsand implements;
(gt To irnplemcnt.asa matterof urgency,in accordance
u'ith country-specificconclitions. measures to ensurethat
women and men have the sarneright to decidefreely and
responsibly thenumberandspacingof theirchildrenand
have accessto information.educationand means,as
appropriate.Ltl enablethem to exercisethis right in
keepingwith theirfreedom.dignity andpersonallyheld
val ues:
(h) To consideradopting.strengthening and enforcing
legislationprohibitingviolenceagainstwomen and to
take all necessaryadminisbative, social and educational
measures to eliminateviolenceagainstwomenin all its forms.
ACTIVITIES
24.3 Governmentsshould take active stepsto imple-
ment the following:
(a) Measuresto review policies and establishplans to
increasethe proportion of women involved as decision
makers,planners,managers,scientistsand technicalad-
visersin the design,developmentand implementationof
policies and programmesfor sustainabledevelopment;
(b) Measures to strengthen and empower women's
bureaux,women's non-governmentalorganizationsand
women'sgroupsin enhancingcapacity-buildingfor sus-
tainabledevelopment;
(c) Measuresto eliminateilliteracy amongfemalesand
to expand the enrolment of women aurdgirls in educa-
tional institutions,to promotethe goal of universalaccess
to primary and secondaryeducationfor girl children and
for women, and to increase educational and training
opportunitiesfor women and girls in sciencesand tech-
nology, particularly at the post-secondarylevel;
(d) Programmes to promote the reduction of the
heavy workload of women and girl children at home
and outside through the establishmentof more and
affordable nurseriesandkindergartensby Governments,
local authorities,employers and other relevant organ-
izations and the sharingof householdtasksby men and
women on an equal basis,and to promote the provision
of environmentallysoundtechnologieswhich have been
designed,developedand improved in consultationwith
women, accessibleand clean water, an efficient fuel
supply and adequatesanitationf4cilities;
(e) Programmesto establishand strengthenpreventive
and curative health facilities, which include women-
centred,women-managed,safe and effective reproduc-
tive health care and affordable,accessible,responsible
planning of family size and services,as appropriate,in
keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held
values. Programmesshouldfocus on providing compre-
hensivehealth care, including p:e-natalcare, education
and information on health and responsibleparenthood,
and shouldprovidethe opportunityfor all women to fully
breastfeedat leastduring the first four monthspost-par-
tum. Progriunmesshouldfully supportwomen'sproduc-
tive and reproductiveroles and well-being and should
pay special attention to the need to provide equal and
improved health care for all children and to reducethe
risk of maternaland child mortality and sickness;
(f) Programmesto support and strengthenequal em-
ployment opportunitiesand equitable remunerationfor
women in the formal and informal sectorswith adequate
economic,political and social support systemsand ser-
vices,including child care,particularlyday-carefacilities
and parentalleave, and equal accessto credit, land and
other naturalresources;
G) Programmes to establish rural banking systems
with a view to facilitating and increasingrural women's
accessto credit and to agricultural inputs and imple-
ments:
(h) Programmesto develop consumerawarenessand
the active participation of women, emphasizing their
crucial role in achievingchangesnecessaryto reduceor
eliminateunsustainable patternsof consumptionandpro-
duction, particularly in industrializedcountries,in order
to encourageinvestmentin environmentallysoundpro-
ductive activities and induce environmentally and so-
cially friendly industrial development;
(i) Prograrnmesto eliminate persistent negative im-
ages,stereotypes, attitudesandprejudicesagainstwomen
through changes in socialization patterns, the media,
advertising,and formal and non-formal education;
0) Measuresto review progressmade in these areas,
including thepreparationof a review andappraisalreport
which includesrecommendationsto be submittedto the
1995 world conferenceon women.
24.4 Governmentsare urged to ratify all relevant con-
ventions pertaining to women if they have not already
done so. Those that have ratified conventions should
enforce and establishlegal, constitutionaland adminis-
trative proceduresto transformagreedrights into domes-
tic legislation and should adopt measuresto implement
them in order to strengthenthe legal capacityof women
for full and equalparticipationin issuesand decisionson
sustainabledevelopment.
24.5 Statespartiesto the Conventionon the Elimination
of All Forms of Discrimination againstWomen should
review and suggestamendmentsto it by the year 2000,
with a view to strengtheningthoseelementsof the Con-
vention relatedto environmentand development,giving
specialattentionto the issueof accessand entitlements
to natural resources,technology, creative banking fa-
cilitiesandlow-costhousing,andthe controlof pollution
and toxicity in the home and workplace. Statesparties
should also clarify the extent of the Convention'sscope
with respectto the issuesof environmentand develop-
ment and requestthe Committee on the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women to develop guidelines
regarding the nature of reporting such issues,required
under particulararticlesof the Convention.
A) AREASREQU/RING
URGENTACTTON
24.6 Countriesshould take urgent measuresto avert the
ongoing rapid environmentaland economicdegradation
221
in dcveloping countriesthat generally atfects the lives of includingthosewith a specialfocuson therole of women,
\'omen and children in rural areas sLrfferingdrouglrt, in meetingdevelopmentandenvironmentobjectives,and
desertification and delorcstation.arnrcdhostilities. natu- make recommendationsfbr strengtheningtheir capac-
rai disasters.toxic rvasteand the aftermath of the use of ities.Institutionsthatrequirespecialattentionin this area
urisuitablcagrc'-chcnricalproducts. include the Division for the Advancementof Women
1.1.7In order to reachthesegoals, women should be fully (Centrefor Social f)evelopmentand HumanitarianAf-
involvcd in decision-making and in the implen-rentation fairs, United NationsOffice at Vienna),the United Na-
o f s u s t a i n a b l ed e v e l o o m e n ta c t i v i t i e s . tions DevelopmentFund for Women (UNIFEM), the
InternationalResearchandTrainingInstitutefor the Ad-
vancementof Women (INSTRAW) and the women's
8 l R E S F A R C HD, A T AC O L L F C T T OA
NN D programmesof regionalcommissions. Thereviewshould
D/S.SEMINAI/ONOF INFORMAI/ON considerhow the environmentand developmentpro-
grammesof each body of the United Nations system
l-tr.t1('ountries should develop gender-sensitivedata- could be strengthened to implernerltAgenda2l and how
bases, inforn-ration systems and participatory action- to incorporatethe role of women in programmesand
orientcd research and policy analyses with the col- decisionsrelatedto sustainable developmenf.
iaboration of acaclemic institLrtionsand local women 74J0 Each body of the United Nations systemshould
rcsearcherson the following: review the numberof women in seniorpolicy-leveland
(at Knowledge and experience on the part of women decision-makingposts and, where appropriate,adopt
of' thc managenrcnttrndconsen,ationclf natural resources progranlmesto increasethat nurnber,in accordance with
lor incorporation in thc databasesand intbrmation sys- Economicand SocialCouncil resolution1991l17on the
tems for sristainablc- developrnent; improvementof the statusof women in the Secretariat.
(b) The' irnpact of structural adjustment prograffunes on 24.11UNIFEM should establishregularconsultations
worncn. ln rt:su'rrrcltdonc c-utstructural adjustment pro- with donorsin collaborationwith UNICEF. with a view
gramnres.specialaitention should be given to the difl-eren- to promoting operationalprogrammesand projectson
tial inipact o1'thoseprograrnmcson women, especially in sustainable developmentthat will strengthenthe partici-
lr-rnrsot'cut-hacks in sociai scrvices.education and health pationof women,especiallylow-incomewornen,in sus-
and in the remrlvai of subsidiescln tbcld and fuel: tainabledevelopmentand in decision-rnaking.UNDP
(c) The impact ()n women of environmental degrada- shouldestablisha \,\,'omen's focal point on development
tion. particularlv dror.rght.deserrification.toxic chemi- and environmentin each of its residentrepresentative
ea l s i l r t da n r e c l h o s t i l i t i e s : officesto provideinformationand promoteexchangeof
(rj ) ,\nalvsis of the structural linkages between gender experienceandinformationin thesefields. Bodiesof the
r - c i i i lo n s . c r r v i n r n r t t c nat n d d c v c l o p m e n t ; United Nations system,governmentsand non-govem-
( c . t T ' h ei n t e g r a t i o no f t h e v a l u eo f u n p a i dr v o r k . i n c l u d - mentalorganizations involvedin the follow-up to the Con-
rng u'ork that is currently designated "domestic", in ferenceandtheimplementation of Agenda2l shouldensure
resource accounting mechanisms in order better to rep- that genderconsiderations are fully integratedintcl all the
rcscnt thi: truc value of the contribution of rvomen to the policies,programmcsandactivities.
cconon)v.using reviseciguidelinesf or the United Nations
S v s t e r nt r f N a t i o n a l A c c o u n t s .t o b e i s s u e di n 1 9 9 3 :
(t) I\{eiisuresto develop and inclLrdeenvironmental,social MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
and genclcr irnpact analyses as an essential step in the
anclmonitoring of prograrnmesand policies;
developrnc-n1 F/N A N C /N G
A N D C OS I E V A I.U A TION
(g) Prograrnrnes 1<.lcreate rural and urban training,
research and rcsource centres in developing and de- 21.12The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
veloped countrie\ that wrll serveto disseminateenviron- age total annualcost (1993-2000)of intplementingthe
r n e r t t a l l t s' o u n d t e c h n o l o g i e st o \ \ ' o m e n . activitiesof this chapterto be about$.10million from the
intemationalcommunityon grantor concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
c j / N T F R N A T / O N AA
I ND REG/ONAL onlv and havenot beenreviewedby Governments.Ac-
C O O P E R A I / O NA N D C O O R D / N A I / O N tual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will dependupon,inter ulia, the spe-
l-{.t) I'hc Sccretary-Generalofthe United Nations should cific strategiesand programmesGovernrnentsdecide
rcr icu the adequacy of all United Nations institutions, upon for implernentation.

222
I
Reporf of the World Conference to Review ond Approise fhe
Achievementsof the United Nofions Decode for Women: Equality,
Development ond Peoce, Noirobi, 15-26 July 1985 (United
N o t i o n sp u b l i c o t i o nS
, o l e sN o . E . 8 5 . l V . . l 0 )c, h o p t e r l, s e c t . A .

ltJ

INTRODUCTION
25"1 Youth comprise nearly 30 per cent of the world's
population.The involvementof today'syouth in environ-
ment and developmentdecision-makingand in the im-
plementationof prograrnmesis critical to the long-term
successof Agenda21.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
Al ADVANCTNGTF|EROLEOF YOTTTH AND
INVOTVINGIHE'YTIN THEPROIECTION
ACTIVETY
OF THEENVIRONMENTAND THEPRO}TONONOF
ECONO}TrcAND SOCIAIDEVETOPfrIENT
FORACNON
BASIS
25.2 lt is imperativethat youth from all partsof the world
participateactivelyin all relevantlevelsof decision-making
processesbecauseit affectstheir lives today andhasimpli-
cations for their futures. In addition to their intellectual
contributionandtheir ability to mobilize support,theybring
uniqueperspectives thatneedto be takeninto account.
25.3 Numerousactionsand recommendationswithin the
internationalcommunity have been proposedto ensure
that youth are provided a secure and healthy future,
including an environmentof quality, improved standards
of living and accessto educationand employment.These
issuesneedto be addressed in developmentplanning.
OBJECTVES
25.4 Each country should,in consultationwith its youth
224
communities, establisha processto promote dialogue
between the youth community and Government at all
levels and to establish mechanismsthat permit youth
accessto information and provide them with the oppor-
tunity to presenttheir perspectiveson governmentdeci-
sions,includingthe implementationof Agenda21.
25.5 Each country,by the year 2000, should ensurethat
more than 50 per cent of its youth, genderbalanced,are
enrolled in or have accessto appropriatesecondaryedu-
cation or equivalenteducationalor vocationaltraining
programmesby increasingparticipationand accessrates
on an annualbasis.
25.6 Each country should undertakeinitiatives aimed at
reducingcurrentlevels of youth unemployment,particu-
larly where they are disproportionatelyhigh in compari-
son to the overall unemploymentrate.
25.7 Eachcountryandthe United Nationsshouldsupport
the promotion and creation of mechanismsto involve
youth representation in all United Nations processesin
order to influencethoseprocesses.
25.8 Each country shouldcombathuman rights abuses
againstyoung people, particulariy young women and
girls, and shouldconsiderprovidingall youth with legal
protection,skills,opportunitiesand thesupportnecessary
for them to fulfil their personal,economic and social
aspirationsand potentials.
ACTIVITIES
25.9 Governments,accordingto their strategies,should
take measuresto:
(a) Establish proceduresallowing for consultation and
possibleparticipationof youth of both genders,by 1993,in
decision-makingprocesseswith regardto the environment,
involving youth at the local, national and regionallevels;
(b) Promotedialoguewith youth organizationsregard-
ing the drafting and evaluationof environmentplansand
programmesor questionson development;
(c) Consider for incorporation into relevant policies the
rccommendationsof intemational,regional and local youth
conferencesandotherforumsthat offer youth penpectiveson
socialandeconomicdevelopmentandresourcemirnagement;
(d) Ensureaccessfor allyouth to all typesof education,
wherever appropriate,providing alternativelearning
structures,ensurethat educationreflects the economic
and social needsof youth and incorporatesthe concepts
of environmental awarenessand sustainabledevelop-
ment throughout the curricula; and expand vocational
training,implementinginnovativemethodsaimedat in-
creasingpracticalskills,suchasenvironmentalscouting;
(e) In cooperationwith relevant ministries and organ-
izations,includingrepresentatives of youth,developand
implement strategiesfor creating alternative employ-
ment opportunities and provide required training to
young men and women;
(0 Establishtask forces that include youth and youth
non-goverrlmentalorganizations to develop educational
and awarenessprogramlnes specifically targeted to the
youth population on critical issuespertainingto youth.
Thesetaskforcesshoulduseformal andnon-formaleduca-
tional methodsto reacha maximum audience.Nationaland
local media,non-govemmentalorganizations,businesses
and otherorganizationsshouldassistin thesetaskforces;
(g) Give support to programmes,projects, networks,
national organizations and youth non-governmental
organizationsto examinethe integrationof programmes
in relationto their projectrequirements, encouragingthe
involvementof youth in project identification,design,
implementationand follow-up;
(h) Include youth representatives in their delegations
to internationalmeetings,in accordance with therelevant
GeneralAssemblyresolutionsadoptedin 1968, l9ll ,
1 9 8 5a n d 1 9 8 9 .
25.10The United Nations and internationalorganiza-
tions with youth programmesshouldtake measuresto:
(a) Review their youth programmesand considerhow
coordinationbetweenthem can be enhanced;
(b) Improve the disseminationof relevantinformationto
govemments,youth organizationsand other non-govern-
mentalorganizations onctrrent youthpositionsandactivities,
andmonitorandevaluatetheapplicationof Agenda21;
(c) Promote the United Nations Trust Fund for the
InternationalYouth Yearand collaboratewith youth rep-
resentatives in the administrationof it, focusingparticu-
larly on the needsof youth from developingcountries.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION
25.11 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about$1.5 million on
grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
reviewedby Governments.Actual costsand financial
terms,includingany that are non-concessional, will de-
pend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
DEVETOPMENT
B) CHIIDRENlN SUSTAINABTE
BASISFORACTION
25.12Childrennot only will inherit the responsibilityof
looking after the Earth,but in many developingcountries
they comprisenearly half the population.Furthermore,
childrenin both developingand industrializedcountries
are highly vulnerable to the effects of environmental
degradation.They are also highly aware supportersof
environmentalthinking.The specificinterestsof children
need to be taken fully into accountin the participatory
processon environmentand developmentin order to
safeguardthe future sustainabilityof any actionstaken
to improvethe environment.
OBJECTIVES
25.13Nationalgovernments, accordingto their policies,
shouldtake measuresto:
(a) Ensurethe survival,protectionanddevelopmentof
children,in accordancewith the goalsendorsedby the
1990World Summitfor Children(A1451625, annex);
(b) Ensurethat the interestsof childrenaretakenfully
into accountin the participatoryprocessfor sustainable
developmentand environmentalimprovement.
ACTIVITIES
25.14Governmentsshouldtake activestepsto:
(a) Implement programmesfor children designedto
reachthe child-relatedgoalsof the 1990sin the areasof
environmentand developn-rent, especiallyhealth,nutri-
tion, education,literacyand povertyalleviation;
(b) Ratify the Conventionon the Rights of the Child
(GeneralAssembly resolution 44125of 20 November
1989,annex),at the earliestmomentandimplementit by
addressingthe basicneedsof youth and children;
(c) Promoteprimaryenvironmentalcareactivitiesthat
addressthe basic needsof communities,improve the
environmentfor children at the householdand com-
munity level and encouragethe participationand em-
powerment of local populations,including wolnen.
youth, children and indigenouspeople,towardsthe ob-
225
jective of integrated community management of re- non-governmentalorganizationsto developprogrammes
sources,especiallyin developingcountries; for children and programmesto mobilize children in the
(d) Expand educationalopportunitiesfor children and activities outlined above.
youth, including educationfor environmentaland devel-
opmentalresponsibility,with overriding attentionto the
educationof the girl child; MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
(e) Mobilize communitiesthrough schoolsand local
A/ F'NANC'NGAND cosT EVALUATI?N
healthcentresso that childrenand their parentsu..or*
effective focal points for sensitizationof communitiesto
: , : 25.16Financingrequirementsfor most of the activities
envlronmenttulssues;
are included in estimatesfor other programlnes'
(0 Establishproceduresto incorporatechildren's con-
cernsinto all relevantpolicies and strategiesfor environ-
ment and developmentat the local, regionaland national
levels,including thoseconcerningallocationof and en- B) HUMA,NRESOURCEDEVELaPMENT
titlement to natural resources,housing and recreation AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
needs,and control of pollution and toxicity in both rural
and urbanareas. 25.17The activitiesshould facilitate capacity-building
Z5.lS Internationaland regional orgamzatronsshould andtrainingactivitiesalreadycontainedinotherchapters
cooperateand coordinatein the proposedareas.UNICEF of Agenda 21'
shouldmaintaincooperationandcollaborationwith other
organizationsof the United Nations, Governmentsand

226
) A the roleof
Recognizingond strengthening
Z-V indigenouspeopleond theircommunities
P R O G R A M MAER E A
BASIS FORACTION
26.1Indigenouspeopleandtheir communitieshavean
historicalrelationshipwith their landsand are gener-
ally descendantsof the original inhabitantsof such
lands. In the context of this chapterthe term "lands"
is understoodto include the environmentof the areas
which the peopleconcernedtraditionallyoccupy.In-
digenouspeople and their communitiesrepresenta
significantpercentageof the global population.They
havedevelopedover many generations a holistictradi-
tional scientificknowledgeof their lands,naturalre-
sourcesand environment.Indigenouspeopleand their
conrmunitiesshall enjoy the full measureof human
rightsand fundamentalfreedomswithout hindranceor
discrinrination.Their ability to participate fully in
sustainabledevelopmentpracticeson their lands has
tendedto be limited as a result of factorsof an eco-
nomic. social and historical nature. In view of the
interrelationship betweenthe naturalenvironmentand
its sustainabledevelopmentand the cultural, social,
economicand physical well-beingof indigenous
people. nationaland internationalefforts to implement
environmentallysound and sustainabledevelopment
shouldrecognize,accommodate, promoteandstrengthen
thc-role of indigenouspeopleand their communities.
16.l Some of the goals inherentin the objectivesand
activitiesof this programmeareaare alreadycontained
in such internationaliegal instrumentsas the ILO In-
digenousand Tribal PeoplesConvention(No. 169) and
arebeingincorporatedinto the draft universaldeclaration
on indigenousrights,being preparedby the United Na-
tions working group on indigenouspopulations.The
lntemational Year for the World's IndigenousPeople
(1993),proclaimedby the GeneralAssemblyin its res-
olution 451164of 18 December1990,presentsa timely
opportunity to mobilize further international technical
and fi nancial cooperation.
OBJECTIVES
26.3 ln full partnershipwith indigenouspeopleand their
communities,Governmentsand, where appropriate,in-
tergovernmentalorganizationsshould aim at fulfillins
the following objectives:
(a) Establishmentof a processto empowerindigenous
people and their communities through measuresthat
include:
(i) Adoption or strengtheningof appropriatepolicies
and/orlegal instrumentsat the nationallevel;
(ii) Recognitionthatthe landsof indigenouspeopleand
their communitiesshouldbe protectedfrom activitiesthat
are environmentally unsound or that the indigenous
peopleconcernedconsiderto be socially and culturally
inappropriate;
(iii) Recognitionof their values,traditionalknowledge
and resourcemanagementpracticeswith a view to pro-
moting environmentallysoundand sustainable develop-
menU
(iv) Recognitionthat traditionaland direct dependence
on renewableresourcesand ecosystems, including sus-
tainableharvesting,continuesto be essentialto the cul-
tural, economicand physical well-beingof indigenous
peopleand their communities;
(v) Development and strengtheningof national dis-
pute-resolutionarrangementsin relation to settlementof
land and resource-management concerns;
(vi) Support for alternative environmentally sound
meansof productionto ensurea rangeof choiceson how
to improvetheir quality of life so thatthey caneffectively
participatein sustainabledevelopment;
(vii) Enhancementof capacity-buildingfor indigenous
communities,basedon the adaptationand exchangeof
227
 knowledgeandresource-manage-
traditionalexperience,
ment practices,to ensuretheir sustainable development;
(b) Establishment, whereappropriate, of arrangements
to strengthenthe active participation of indigenous
peopleandtheircommunitiesin thenationalformulation
of policies,laws and prograrrrmesrelating to resource
managementand otherdevelopmentprocesses that may
affect them, and their initiation of proposalsfor such
policiesand programmes;
(c) Involvementof indigenouspeopleand their com-
munities at the national and local levels in resource
management andconservationstrategies andotherrelev-
ant prografiunesestablishedto supportand review sus-
tainabledevelopmentstrategies, suchasthosesuggested
in otherprogrammeareasof Agenda21.
ACTIVITIES
26.4 Some indigenouspeople and their communities
may require, in accordancewith national legislation,
greatercontrolover their lands,self-management of their
resources, participationin developmentdecisionsaffect-
ing them,including,where appropriate,participationin
theestablishrnent or management of protectedareas.The
following are someof the specificmeasureswhich Gov-
ernmentscould take:
(a) Considertheratiflcationandapplicationof existing
internationalconventionsrelevantto indigenouspeople
and their communities(wherenot yet done)and provide
supportfor the adoptionby the GeneralAssemblyof a
declaration on indigenousrights;
(b) Adopt or strengthenappropriatepolicies and/or
legalinstrumentsthatwill protectindigenousintellectual
andculturalpropertyandthe right to preservecustomary
and administrativesystemsand practices.
26.-5United Nations organizationsand other interna-
tional developmentand financeorganizationsand Gov-
ernmentsshould.drawing on the activeparticipationof
indigenouspeopleandtheircommunities,asappropriate,
take the following measures,inter alia, to incorporate
their values,views and knowledge,includingthe unique
contributionof indigenouswomen,in resourcemanage-
ment and otherpoliciesand programmesthat may affect
them:
(a) Appoint a specialfbcal point within each interna-
tional organization,and organizeannual interorganiza-
tional coordinationmeetingsin consultationwith Gov-
ernmentsand indigenousorganizations,as appropriate,
anddevelopa procedurewithin and betweenoperational
agenciesfor assistingGovernmentsin ensuringthe
coherentand coordinatedincorporationof the views of
indigenouspeoplein the designand implementationof
policies and programmes.Under this procedure,in-
228
digenouspeople and their communitiesshould be in-
formed and consultedand allowed to participatein na-
tional decision-making,in particular regardingregional
and internationalcooperativeefforts. In addition, these
policies and prograrnmesshould take fully into account
strategiesbasedon local indigenousinitiatives;
ft) Provide technicaland financial assistancefor ca-
pacity-buildingprograrnmesto supportthe sustainable
self-developmentof indigenouspeople and their com-
munities;
(c) Strengthen research and education programmes
aimedat:
(i) Achieving a better understandingof indigenous
people'sknowledgeand managementexperiencerelated
to the environment,and applying this to contemporary
developmentchallenges ;
(ii) Increasingthe efficiency of indigenouspeople's
resourcemanagementsystems,for example,by promot-
ing the adaptationand disseminationof suitabletechno-
logical innovations;
(d) Contributeto the endeavoursof indigenouspeople
andtheircommunitiesin resourcemanagementandcon-
servationstrategies(suchasthosethat may be developed
under appropriateprojects funded through the Global
Environment Facility and the Tropical Forestry Action
Plan)andotherprogrammeareasof Agenda21,including
programmesto collect, analyseand use data and other
information in support of sustainabledevelopment
projects.
26.6 Governments,in full partnershipwith indigenous
peopleand their communitiesshould,whereappropriate:
(a) Develop or strengthennational arrangementsto
consult with indigenouspeople and their communities
with a view to reflecting their needsand incorporating
their values and traditional and other knowledge and
practicesin nationalpoliciesand programmesin thefield
of natural resourcemanagementand conservationand
other development progranxnes affecting them;
(b) Cooperateat the regionallevel, where appropriate,
to addresscomfiton indigenousissueswith a view to
recognizingand strengthening their participationin sus-
tainabledevelopment.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
26.7 The Conferencesecretariathas estimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $3 million on
grant or concessionalterms. These are indicativeand
order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
reviewedby Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms,including any that are non-concessional, will de-
pend upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
B) LEGALAND ADM/N/srRAr/y
E TRAMEwoRKs
26.g Governmentsshould incorporate,in collaboration
with the indigenouspeople affected, the rights and re-
sponsibilities of indigenous people and their com-
munities in the legislationof eachcountry,suitableto the
country'sspecificsituation. Developingcountriesmay
requiretechnicalassistance to implementtheseactivities.
C) HUMANRESOURCE
DEVELOPMENI
26.9 Internationaldevelopmentagenciesand Govern-
ments should commit financial and other resourcesto
education and training for indigenouspeople and their
communitiesto developtheir capacitiesto achievetheir
sustainableself-development,and to contribute to and
participatein sustainableand equitabledevelopmentat
the national level. Particular attention should be given
to strengthening the role of indigenouswomen.
229
 27 theroleof non-governmentol
Strengthening
Portners
orgonizotions: for sustoinoble
development

P R O G R A M MAER E A 27.4 To ensure that the full potential contribution of

non-governmentalorganizationsis realized,the fullest
possiblecommunicationand cooperationbetweeninter-
nationalorganizations,nationaland local governments
BASISFORACTION andnon-governmentalorganizationsshouldbe promoted
l - i . I N n n , s o v e r n n r e n i aol r g a n i z a t i o n sp l a v a v i t a l r o l e i n in institutionsmandated,and programmesdesignedto
! ltr: .,lr;rpirrg uriri rrrrplcrricntation ol' participatory democ- carry out Agelrda 21. Non-governmentalorganiza-
-['hei
r:acv r credi bi I i tv I ies i n the responsible and constnlc- tions will also need to foster cooperationand com-
Ine rolc lhel pla] in srlcietv. Formal and inlbrmal municationamongthemselvesto reinforcetheir effec-
org:rni;..atrons. ils well as grass-rootsnlovements, should tivenessasactorsin the implementationof sustainable
b e r e c o g n i z e d a s p a r t n e r s i n t h e i m p l e r n c n t a t i c l no f devel opment.
Agenda 21. The nature of the independentrole played by
non-governmental organizations within a society calls
fbr real participation: therelore, independence is a major OBJECTIVES
attribute of non-govenrmental organizations and is the 27.5 Society. Governments and international bodies
prcconclitionof real participation. shoulddevelopmechanismsto allow non-governmental
27.2 One of the major challengesfacing the world cont- organizationsto play their partnershiprole responsibly
ntunitv as it seeksto replace unsustainabledevelopment and effectivelyin the processof environmentallysound
patterns with environmentally sound and sustainablede- and sustainable development.
velopnlent is the need to activate a sense of common 27.6 With a view to strengtheningthe role of non-
pLrrposeon behalf of all sectors of society. The chances governmentalorganizationsas social partners,the
ril' lilrging such a sense of prirylosewill clependon the United Nationssystemand Govemmentsshouldinitiate
rvillingnessof all sectorsto participatein genuine social a process,in consultationwith non-goverrrmental organ-
partnership and dialogue. while recognizing the inde- izations,to review formal proceduresand mechanisms
pendent roles. responsibilitiesand special capacities of for the involvementof theseorganizationsat all levels
each. from policy-makinganddecision-makingto implemen-
17..1Non-goveil)mental organizations. including those tati on.
rron.prof it organizationsrepresentinggroups addressed 27.7 By 1995,a mutuallyproductivedialogueshouldbe
i n t h c p r c s e n ts e c t i o no f A g e n d a 2 1 , p o s s e s sw e l l - e s t a b - established at thenationallevelbetweenall Governments
iishe-cl and divcrse experience,expertise and capacity in and non-governmentalorgani zati onsand t heir self -
fielcls u'hich will be of particular importance to the organized networks to recognize and strengthentheir
implcinc'ntation and review of environrnentally sound respectiverolesin implementingenvironmentallysound
and socially responsiblesustainabledevelopment.as ell- and sustainable development.
risaged throughout Agenda 21. The community of 27.8 Governments andinternationalbodiesshouldpromote
n ( r n - g ( ) \ ' e l ' n n r e n t aol r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e r e f c l r e , o f f e r s a and allow the participationof non-governmentalorganiza-
global network that should be tapped, enabled and tions in the conception,establishmentand evaluationof
strengthcncd in support of efforfs to achieve these official mechanismsand formal proceduresdesigned to
c ( ) n r m o ng o a l s . reviewthe implementation of Agenda2I atall levels.

230
ACTIVITIES
21.9 The LlniteclNations systern,including interna-
t i o n a l f i n a n c e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a g e n c i e s ,a n d a l l i n -
tergovernnrental r:rganizations and lbrurns should, in
consultation with non-sovernmental organizations,
take measures to:
(a) Review and report on ways of enhancing existing
procedures and mechanisms by rvhich non-governmental
organizations contribute to policy design. decision-
rnaking, irnplernentatiottanclevaluation at the individual
agency level" in inter-agency disc:ussionsand in United
Nations conlerences:
(b) On the basis of subparagraph(a) above, enhance
existing or, where they do not exist, establish,nrechan-
isms and procedureswithin each agency to draw on the
expertise and views of non-governmental organizations
in policy and programme design, irnplernentation and
evaluation:
(c) Review levels of financial and administrative sup-
port fbr non-,gover"nmentalorganizaticlnsand the extent
and efl'ectivenessof their involvement in project and
programnre impiementation. with a view to augmenting
their role as social partners:
(d) Design open and effective means of achier,'ingthe
participation of non-governnrentalclrganizationsin the
processes established to rer,'iew and evaluate the im-
p l e m e n t a t i o no f A g e n d a 2 1 a t a l l l e v e l s :
(e) Promote and allow' non-govemmental organiza-
tions and their self-organizednetworks to contribute to
the review and evalualion of policies and programtnes
d e s i g n e dt o i m p l e m e n t A g e n d a 2 1 , i n c l u d i n g s u p p o r tf o r
developin g country non -governntcntalorganizationsand
their sell-organizednetworks.
(f) Tlrke into account the findings of non-govemmental
rel'iew s)'stems and evalr"rationprocesses in relevant
reports of the Secretary-General to the Gencral Assem-
bly'.and of all pertinent United Nations organizationsand
othcr intergovernmentalrtrganizationsand forums con-
cerning implenrentation of Agenda 21, in accordance
u ' i t h t h e r e v i e w , p r o c e s sl b r A g c n d i i 2 l :
( g ) P r o v i d e a c r c e s sf o r n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a -
tions to accurateand timely data and informaticln to
p r o m o t e t h e e f 1 ' e c t i v e n e s so f t h c i r p r o g r a n t m e s a n d
l u c t i v i t i e s a n d t h e i r n r l e s i n s r - r p p o no f s u s t a i n a b l e
derelopment.
l7 l0 Governments shor-rldtake measuresto:
(a ) Establishor enhancean existing dialogue with non-
sovenlmcntal organizationsand their self-organizednet-
u orks representingvarious sectors.which could serveto:
( i ) considerthe rights and responsibilitiesof'theseorgan-
izations: (ii I efficiently channel integraled non-govern-
nrental inputs to the governmental policy development
process:and (iii ) facilititte non-governmentalcoordina-
tion in implernenting national policies at the programnrc
level:
(b) Encourage and enable partnership and dialogue
between local non-governmental clrganizationsand local
authorities in activities ainred at sustainable develop-
ment;
( c ) I n v o l v e n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l c l r g a n i z u t i o n si r t r t a -
t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m s o r p r o c e d u r e se s t a b l i s h e dt o c a r r y
out Agenda 21, making the best use ol-their particular
c a p a c i t i e s .e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i e l d s o f e d u c a t i o n . p o v -
erty alleviation and cnvironnrentalprotection and re-
habilitation:
(d) Take into accountthe lindings r:f non-govcrnntental
monitoring and revieu, mechanisrns in the design and
evaltiation of policies concenlll'rgthe irlplementiiticlii of'
Agenda 21 at all levels.
(e) Review government education systems to identil'r'
w a y s t o i n c l u d e a n d e x p a n d t h e i n v o l v e n t e n to 1 ' n o n -
governmental organizations in the f ielci of lbrrnal and
informal education and of public awareness:
(f) Make available and accessibleto non-govrrnrnental
and infbrnration ncccssarr'lirr their'
organizationsthe cLata
effective contribution tr) rescitrch itntl to lht ilesi;:n.
implementation and eviiluatiortcil-prosr';lrilntes"
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A ' F / N A N C / N GA N D C O S T E V A L U A T I O N
27.11 Depending on thc outcome of rcvieu' processes
and the evolution of r,'iews as to hclw bcst to builcl
partnership iind dialogue hctu'een olllcial organizaticins
and groups of non-govcrnmcntal organ i z ati on s. relative:-
limited but unprcdictahlc.costs r.r,illbc involved;tt thr--
l"v*
international and national levels in enhancing con:iult-
ative procedures and mechanisnrs. Non-govgrnrnentiil
organizations'uvilIiilso rccluircaclditionall.undingin .;rrp-
pclrt of their establishrnentof. irnprol'enrerlto1'ot corr
tributions to Age nda 2l rnonitoring sy'stcnrs.The'secosts
w i l l b e s i g n i f i c : a nbt u l c a n n o t b e r e l i a l - r l cv s t i n r a t c t l o nt h c
b a s i so f e x i s t i n g i n l o r n r a t i c r n "
B) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
2 1 . 1 2 T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n so l ' t h c l - - i n i t e dN a t i o n s s y s t e n l
and other intcrgovcrnnrcntalorganizations and forurrris.
bilateral programmes anclthe private sectrlr.as appropri-
ate, will need to provide' increasedfinancial anclatlnrin-
istrativesLlpportf or non-govcrnmcntalorganizltions iind
their sell-organized nctw'orks. in particular thosc l-rased
i n d e v e l o p i n gc o u n t r i e s t. h a t c i i n t r i b u l et o t h c n r o n i t o r i r t g
and evaluation ol' Agencla 2 | progranrnres.antl pror icle
231
training for non-governmentalorganizations(and assist
them to develop their own training prograrnmes)at the
internationalandregionallevelsto enhancetheir partner-
ship role in programmedesign and implementation.
27.13 Govemmentswill needto promulgateorsftengthen,
subject to country-specific conditions, any legislative
measuresnecessaryto enabletheestablishmentby non-gov-
ernmentalorganizationsof consultativegroups,and to en-
surethe right of non-govemmentalorganizationsto protect
the public interestthrough legal action.

232
A n '.ocqlouthorities'initiotives
lU 21
ofAgendo
l, support

ACTIVITIES
P R O G R A M MAER E A
28.3 Each local authorityshouldenter into a clialogue
with its citizens,local organizations and privateenter-
-l'hrough
prisesand adopt"A local Agenda21"" consul-
BASIS FORACTION tation and consensus-building, local authoritieswould
28.1 Becauseso many of the problemsand solutions learn from citizensand from lclcal,civic. conrmunity,
beingaddressed try Agenda2l havetheir rootsin local businessand industrialorganizations and acquirethe
activities,the participationand cooperationof local information neededfor formulatingthe best strategies.
authoritieswill be a determiningl"actorin fulfilling its The processof consultationwould increasehousehold
objectives.Local authoritiesconstruct,operateandmain- awareness of sustainable development issues.l-ocalau-
tain economic,socialand envirclnmental infrastructure, thority programmes.policies.laws anclregulationsto
overseeplanningprocesses, establishlocalenvironmen- achieveAgenda 2l objectiveswor-rldbe assessed and
tal policiesand regulations, anclassistin implementing m o d i f i e d . b a s e d o n l o c a l p r o g r a m m e sa d o p t c d .
nationaland subnational environmental policies.As the Strategies couldalsobe usedin supportingproposals for
levelof governance closestto thepeople.theyplay a vital local,national.regionaland international funding.
rolein educating,mobilizingandresponding to thepublic 28.4 Partnershipsshould be fostereclamong relevant
to promotesustainabledeveloptnent. organsand organizationssuch as UNDP, the United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements(Habitat)and
UNE,P.the World Bank"regionalbanks,the Intcrnational
OBJECTIVES Unionof l,ocalAuthorities.thc WorldAssociation of the
28.2 The followingobjective s areproposcdf or this pro- MajorMetropolises. Summitof GreatCitiesof theWorld,
grammearea: the U ni ted Tow ns Organi zati onand other relevant
(a) By 1996,most lclcalauthontiesin each country partners.w i th a vi ew to mobi l i zi ngi ncreased i nt er na-
shouldhaveundertaken a consultative process with thcir ti onal support for l ocal authori ty progran" l m es. An
populat ionsan d a c h i e v e da c o n s e l l s u s " a l ocal
o n i mportantgoal w oul d be to support.extendan d im -
A genda2I " f or th e c o mmu n i ty ' ; proveexi sti ngi nsti tuti onsw orki ngi n thef i el d of local
(b) By 1993,the international communityshouldhave authori ty capaci ty-bui l di ngand l ocal envi ronm ent
initiateda consultative processaimedat increasingco- management. For thi s purposc:
operationbetweenlocal authoritiesl (a) Habitatandotherrelevantorgansandorganizations
(c) By 1994,representatives of associattions of cities o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s s ) ' \ t L ' ma r e c a l l e d L l p o nt o
and otherlocal authoritiesshouldhaveincreasedlevels s t r e n g t h e ns e r v i c e si n c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o no n
of cooperation andcoordination with thegoalof enhanc- strategies of localauthorities. in prarlicular for thosethat
ing the cxchangeof informationand experienceamong needinternational support:
localauthoriticsr (b) Periodicconsultations involvingbothinternational
(d) All localauthorities in eachcountryshouldbeencour- pannersanddeveloping countries couldrcviewstrategies
agedto implementand monitorprograrnmeswhich aim at and considerhow suchinternational supportccluldbest
ensuringthatwomenandyoutharerepresented in decision- be mobilizcd. Sucha sectoralconsultation wclulclcont-
making.planningandimplementation processes. plementconcurrentcountry-fircused consultatiotts. such

lJ3
as those taking place in consultativegroups and round
tables.
28.5 Representatives of associationsof local authorities
are encouragedto establish processesto increasethe
exchangeof information, experienceand mutual techni-
cal assistanceamong local authorities.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
Al F/NANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
28.6 It is recommendedthat all partiesreassessfunding
needsin this area. The Conferencesecretariathas esti-
mated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) for
234
strengtheninginternationalsecretariatservicesfor imple-
menting the activities in this chapterto be about $1 mil-
lion on grant or concessionalterms.Theseare indicative
andorder-of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot been
reviewed by Governments.
B) HUMANRFSOURCEDEVELOPMENI
AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
28.7 This programme should facilitate the capacity-
building and training activitiesalreadycontainedin other
chaptersof Agenda21.
 29 Strengtheningtheroleof workers
ond theirtrodeunions
P R O G R A M MAER E A
BASIS
FORACTION
29.1 Effortsto implementsustainable developmentwill
involve adjustments andopportunitiesat the nationaland
enterpriselevels, with workers foremost among those
concerned.As theirrepresentatives,tradeunionsarevital
actorsin facilitatingthe achievementof sustainablede-
velopment in view of their experiencein addressing
industrialchange,the extremelyhigh priority they give
to protectionof the working environmentand the related
natural environment,and their promotion of socially
responsibleand economic development.The existing
network of collaboration among trade unions and their
extensive membership provide important channels
through which the conceptsand practicesof sustain-
able developmentcan be supported.The established
principlesof tripartismprovide a basisfor strengthened
collaborationbetweenworkersandtheirrepresentatives,
Governmentsand employersin the implementationof
sustainabledevelopment.
OBJECTIVES
29.2 The overall objective is poverty alleviationand
full and sustainableernployment,which contributeto
safe.clean and healthyenvironments- the working
environment,the communityandthe physicalenviron-
ment. Workersshouldbe full participantsin the im-
plementationand evaluationof activities related to
A g e n d a2 1 .
29.3 To that end the following objectivesare proposed
for accomplishment by the year 2000:
(a) To promoteratiflcationof relevantconventionsof
ILO and the enactmentof legislationin supportof those
conventions:
(b) To establishbipartite and tripanite mechanismson
safety,healthand sustainabledevelopment;
(c) To increasethenumberof environmentalcollective
agreements aimedat achievingsustainable development;
(d) To reduceoccupationalaccidents,injuriesand dis-
easesaccordingto recognizedstatisticalreportingproce-
dures;
(e) To increasethe provision of workers' education,
training and retraining,particularlyin the areaof occu-
pationalhealthand safetyand environment.
ACTIVITIES
A) PROMOIINGFREEDOM
OF ASSOCIATION
29.4 For workersand their tradeunionsto play a full and
informedrole in supportof sustainable development,Gov-
emmentsand employersshouldpromotetherightsof indi-
vidual workersto freedomof association andthe protection
of the right to organizeas laid down in ILO conventions.
Governmentsshouldconsiderratifying and implementing
thoseconventions,if they havenot alreadvdoneso.
8/ SIRENGIHEN'NG
PARTTCTPAIION
AND CONSUIIAI/ON
29.5 Governments,businessand industry should pro-
mote the active participationof workers and their trade
unions in decisionson the design,implementationand
evaluation of national and internationalpolicies and
programmeson environmentand development.includ-
ing employment policies, industrial strategies,labour
adjustmentprogrammes and technologytranst-ers.
29.6 Tradeunions,employersand Governmentsshould
cooperateto ensurethatthe conceptof sustainable devel-
opmentis equitablyimplemented.
235
29. 7 I or nt (e mp l o y e r/w o rk e r) o r tri p a rti te (em- their economicand social welfare. Suchtraining should
ployer/worker/Govemment)collaborative mechanisms ensurethat the necessaryskills are availableto promote
at the workplace,coffImunity and national levels should sustainablelivelihoods and improve the working envi-
be establishedto deal with safety,health and environ- ronment. Trade unions, employers, Governments and
ment, including specialreferenceto the rights and status international agenciesshould cooperatein assessing
of women in the workplace. trainingneedswithin their respectivespheresof activity.
29.8 Governments and employers should ensure that Workers and their representativesshould be involved in
workers and their representativesare provided with all the design and implementationof worker training
relevantinformation to enableeffective participationin programmesconductedby employersandGovernments.
thesedecision-makingprocesses.
29.9 Tradeunionsshouldcontinueto define,developand
promotepolicieson all aspectsof sustainabledevelop- MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
ment. A) F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
29.10Tradeunionsand employersshouldestablishthe
framework for a joint environmental policy, and set
29.13 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
priorities to improve the working environment and the
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
overall environmentalperformanceof enterprise.
activities of this programme to be about $300 million
29.11Tradeunionsshould:
from the intemational community on grant or conces-
(a) Seekto ensurethat workers are able to participate
sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-
in environmentalauditsat the workplaceand in environ-
tude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
mentalimpact assessments ;
Governments. Actual costsand financial terms, includ-
(b) Participatein environmentand developmentactiv-
ing any that arenon-concessional,will dependupon,inter
itieswithin thelocal communityandpromotejoint action
alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovern-
on potentialproblemsof commonconcern;
ments decideupon for implementation.
(c) Play an activerole in the sustainabledevelopment
activities of internationaland regional organizations,
particularlywithin the United Nationssystem.
B ) C A P A C ITY -B U ILD IN G

29.14Particularattentionshouldbe given to strengthen-

ADEQUAIEIRA/N/NG
C) PROVIDE
ing the capacity of each of the tripartite social partners
(Governmentsand employers' and workers' organiza-
shouldhaveac-
29.12Workersand their representatives
tions) to facilitate greatercollaborationtowardssustain-
cess to adequatetraining to augment environmental
abledevelopment.
awareness,ensuretheir safetyand health.and improve

236
 Shengthening
theroleof business
ondindustry
3 0
INTRODUCTION
30.1 Businessand industry,includingtransnationalcor-
porations,play a crucial role in the socialand economic
developmentof a country.A stablepolicy regimeenables
and encourages businessand industryto operaterespon-
sibly and efficiently and to implement longer-term
policies.Increasingprosperity,a major goalof thedevel-
opmentprocess,is contributedprimarilyby the activities
of businessand industry.Businessenterprises, largeand
small,formalandinformal,providemajortrading,employ-
ment and livelihood opportunities.Businessopportunities
availableto women are contributingtowardstheir profes-
sionaldevelopment,sffengthenrng their economicrole and
transformingsocialsystems.Businessandindustry,includ-
ing transnationalcorporations,and their representativeor-
ganizationsshouldbe full participantsin the implementa-
tion andevaluationof activitiesrelatedto Agenda21.
30.2 Through more efficient production processes,
preventivestategies,cleanerproductiontechnologiesand
proceduresthroughoutthe productlife cycle, hencemini-
mizing or avoiding wastes,the policiesand operationsof
businessandindustry,includingtransnational corporations,
can play a major role in reducingimpactson resourceuse
and the environment.Technologicalinnovations,develop-
ment. applications,ffansferand the more comprehensive
aspectsof partnershipand cooperationare to a very large
extentwithin the provinceof businessandindustry.
30.3 Buslnessand industry,includingtransnational cor-
porations,shouldrecognizeenvironmentalmanagement
as among the highestcorporateprioritiesand as a key
determinantto sustainable development.Someenlight-
ened leadersof enterprisesare already implementing
"responsiblecare" and productstewardshippoliciesand
programmes,fosteringopennessand dialoguewith em-
ployeesand the public and carrying out environmental
auditsand assessments of compliance.Theseleadersin
businessand industry,including transnationalcorpora-
tions, are increasinglytaking voluntaryinitiatives,pro-
moting and implementing self-regulationsand greater
responsibilitiesin ensuringtheir activitieshaveminimal
impacts on human health and the environment. The
regulatoryregimesintroducedin many countriesand the
growing consciousness of consumersand the general
public and enlightenedleadersof businessand industry,
including transnationalcorporations,have all contributed
to this. A positive contributionof businessand industry,
includingtransnationalcorporations,to sustainabledevel-
opmentcan increasinglybe achievedby using economic
instrumentssuchas free marketmechanismsin which the
pricesof goodsrurdsen,icesshouldincreasinglyreflectthe
environmentalcostsof their input, production,use,recy-
cling anddisposalsubjectto country-specificconditions.
30.4 The improvementof productionsystemsthrough
technologiesand processesthat utilize resourcesmore
efficiently and at the sametime producelessyysstss-
achievingmore with less- is an importantpathwayto-
wards sustainabilityfor businessand industry. Similarly,
lacilitating and encouraginginventiveness,competitive-
nessand voluntaryinitiativesarenecessary for stimulating
more varied, efficient and effective options. To address
thesemajor requirementsand strengthenfurther the role of
businessandindustry,includingftansnational corporations,
the following two programmesare proposed.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) PROMOTTNG
CLEANER
PRODUCTTON
BASISFORACTION
30.5 There is increasing recognition that production,
237
technology and managementthat use resourcesineffi-
ciently form residuesthatarenotreused,dischargewastes
that have adverse impacts on human health and the
environment and manufactureproductsthat when used
have further impacts and are difficult to recycle,needto
be replacedwith technologies,good engineeringand
managementpracticesand know-how that would mi-
nimize waste throughout the product life cycle. The
conceptof cleanerproductionimpliesstrivingfor optimal
efficienciesat every stageof the product life cycle. A
resultwould be the improvementof the overall compet-
itiveness of the enterprise.The need for a transition
towardscleanerproductionpolicies was recognizedat
the UNlDO-organizedministerial-levelConferenceon
Ecologically SustainableIndustrialDevelopment,held
at Copenhagen in Octoberl99l.l
OBJECTIVES
30.6 Governments,businessand industry, including
transnationalcorporations,shouldaim to increasethe
efficiencyof resourceutilization,includingincreasing
the reuseand recycling of residues,and to reducethe
quantityof wastedischargeper unit of economicout-
put .
ACTIVITIES
30.7 Governments.businessand industry, including
transnationalcorporations,should strengthenpartner-
shipsto implementthe principlesandcriteriafor sustain-
able development.
30.8 Governmentsshould identify and implement an
appropriatemix of economicinstrumentsand normative
measuressuch as laws, legislationsand standards,in
consultationwith businessand industry,includingtrans-
thatwill promotetheuseof cleaner
nationalcorporations,
production,with specialconsiderationfor smalland me-
dium-sized enterprises.Voluntary private initiatives
shouldalsobe encouraged.
30.9 Governments,businessand industry, including
transnationalcorporations,academiaand international
shouldwork towardsthedevelopmentand
organizations,
implementationof conceptsand methodologiesfor the
internalizationof environmentalcosts into accounting
and pricing mechanisms.
cor-
30.l0 Businessandindustry,includingtransnational
porations,shouldbe encouraged:
(a) To reportannuallyon their environmentalrecords,
as well as on their useof energyand naturalresources;
(b) To adoptandreporton the implementationof codes
of conduct promoting the best environmentalpractice,
such as the BusinessCharteron SustainableDevelop-
238
ment of the InternationalChamberof Commerce(ICC)
and the chemicalindustry'sresponsiblecare initiative.
30.11Governmentsshould promote technologicaland
know-howcooperationbetweenenterprises, encompass-
ing identification, assessment, researchand develop-
ment,managementmarketingand applicationof cleaner
production.
30.12Industry should incorporatecleaner production
policiesin its operationsandinvestments, takingalsointo
accountits influenceon suppliersand consumers.
30.l3 Industryand businessassociations shouldcooper-
ate with workers and trade unions to continuously im-
provetheknowledgeandskillsfor implementingsustain-
abledevelopmentoperations.
30.14 Industryandbusinessassociations shouldencour-
age individual companiesto undertakeprogrammesfor
improvedenvironmentalawareness andresponsibilityat
all levels to make theseenterprisesdedicatedto the task
of improving environmentalperformancebasedon inter-
nationallyacceptedmanagementpractices.
30.15 Internationalorganizations shouldincreaseeduca-
tion, trainingand awareness activitiesrelatingto cleaner
production,in collaborationwith industry,academiaand
relevantnationaland local authorities.
30.l6 International and non-governmentalorganiza-
ti ons, i ncl udi ng trade and sci enti fi c associat ions,
should strengthencleanerproduction information dis-
seminationby expandingexisting databases,such as
the UNEP InternationalCleaner Production Clearing
House(ICPIC),theUNIDO IndustrialandTechnologi-
cal Information Bank (INTIB) and the ICC Interna-
tional Environment Bureau (IEB), and should forge
networking of nationaland internationalinformation
systems.
Bl PROTVTOnNG
RESPONSTBLE
ENTR.EPRENEURSHTP
BASIS FORACTION
30.17 Entrepreneurshipis one of the most important
driving forces for innovations, increasing market effi-
cienciesandrespondingto challengesandopportunities.
Small and medium-sizedentrepreneurs,in particulaq
play a very important role in the social and economic
developmentof a country. Often, they are the major
means tor rural development,increasingoff-farm em-
ployment and providing the transitionalmeansfor im-
proving the livelihoodsof women. Responsibleentre-
preneurship can play a major role in improving the
efficiency of resourceuse, reducingrisks and hazards,
minimizing wastes and safeguardingenvironmental
qualities.
OBJECTIVES and the scientific/engineeringestablishments,drawing
30.18The followingobjectivesareproposed: upon indigenousknowledge,where appropriate.
(a) To encouragethe concept of stewardshipin the 30.26Businessandindustry,includingtransnational cor-
managementand utilizationof naturalresourcesby en- porations,shouldensureresponsible andethicalmanage-
trepreneurs; ment of products and processesfrom the point of view
(b) To increasethe numberof entrepreneurs engaged of health,safetyandenvironmentalaspects.Towardsthis
in enterprises
thatsubscribeto andintplementsustainable end, businessand industry should increaseself-regula-
development policies. tion, guidedby appropriatecodes,chartersand initiatives
integratedinto all elementsof businessplanning and
decision-making,and fosteringopennessand dialogue
ACTIVITIES with employeesand the public.
30.19Governments shouldencourage theestablishment 30.27Multilateraland bilateralfinancialaid institutions
and operations of sustainably managedenterprises. The should continue to encourageand support small- and
mix wouldincluderegulatorymeasures. economicincen- medium-scale entrepreneursengaged in sustainable
tives and streamliningof administrativeprocedures to developmentactivities.
ensuremaximumefficiencyin dealingwith applications 30.28 United Nationsorganizations andagenciesshould
for approvalin order to facilitateinvestrnentdecisions. improve mechanismsfor businessand industry inputs,
advice and assistancewith infbrmation.infiastructural policy and strategyformulation processes,to ensurethat
supportand stewardshipresponsibilities. environmentalaspectsarestrengthenedin foreign invest-
30.20Governmentsshould encourage,in cooperation ment.
with the private sector,the establishmentof venture 30.29Internationalorganizationsshould increasesup-
capitalfunds for sustainable developmentprojectsand port for researchand development on improving the
programmes. technologicaland managerialrequirementsfor sustain-
30.21In collaboration r,vithbusincss.indr.rstry,
academia able development,in particular for small and medium-
and internationalorganizations.Governmentsshould sizedenterprisesin developingcountries.
supporttrainingin the environmentalaspectsof enter-
prise managementAttention should also be dilected
towardsapprenticeship schernesfbr youth. MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
30.22Business andindustry,includingtransnational cor- F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALUATION
porations,shouldbe encouraged to establishworld-wide
corporatepolicieson sustainabledevelopment,arrange
30.30The activitiesincludedunderthis programmearea
for environmentally soundtechnologics to be available aremostlychangesin theorientationof existingactivities
to affiliatesownedsubstantiallyby their parentcompany
and additional costs are not expectedto be significant.
in developingcountrieswithout extraexternalcharges,
The cost of activities by Governmentsand international
encourageoverseasafilliates to modify proceduresin
organizationsare already included in other programme
order to reflect local ecological conditions and share
areas.
experiences with localauthorities, nationalGovemments
and intemationalorganizations.
30.23Large businessand industry,including transna-
tionalcorporations,should considerestabli shing partner-
ship schemeswith small and medium-sizedenterprises
to help facilitatethe exchangeof experiencein manage-
rial skills.marketdevelopntent arrdtechnological know-
how, where appropriate,with the assistance of interna-
tionalorganizations.
30.2.1Businessand industry should establishnational
councilsfor sustainable developmentand help promote
entrepreneurship in the formal and inlitrnralsectors.The
inclusionof wornenentrepreneurs shouldbe facilitated.
30.25Business andindustry,includingtransnational cor-
porations.shouldincreaseresearchand development of
environmentally soundtechnologies and environmental
managementsystems,in collaborationwith academia '
I
S e eA / C O N F . l 5 1/ P C / 1 2 5 .

239
3t qnd technologicol
Scientific community
INTRODUCTION
3l.l The presentchapterfocuseson horv to enablethe
scientificandtechnologicalcommunity,which includes,
amongothers,engincers,architects,i ndustrial designers,
urban plannersand other professionalsand policy rna-
kers, to make a more clpenand effectivecontributionto
the decision-makingprocesses concerningenvironment
and development.It is importantthat the role of science
and technologyin humanaffairsbe more widely known
and betterunderstood, both by decisionmakerswho help
determinepublic policy and by the generalpublic. The
cooperativerelationshipexisting betweenthe scientific
and technologicalcommunity and the general public
shouldbe extendedand deepenedinto a full partnership.
Improved communicationand cooperationbetweenthe
scientific and technologicalcommunity and decision
makerswill facilitategreateruse of scientificand tech-
nical information and knowledgein policies and pro-
grammeimplementation.Decisionmakersshouldcreate
more favourableconditionsfor improving training and
independent researchin sustainable development.Exist-
ing multidisciplinaryapproaches will have to be streng-
thenedand more interdisciplinarystudiesdevelopedbe-
tween the scientific and technologicalcommunity and
policy makers and with the generalpublic to provide
leadershipand practical know-how to the concept of
sustainabledevelopment.The public shouldbe assisted
in communicatingtheir sentimentsto the scientificand
technologicerl communityconcerninghow scienceand
technologymight be bettermanagedto affecttheir lives
in a beneficialway. By the sametoken,the independence
of t he s c ie n ti fi ca n dte c h n o l o g i c ac lo m m u ni tyto i nves-
tigate and publish without restrictionand to exchange
their findings freely must be assured.The adoptionand
irnplementationof ethicalprinciplesand codesof prac-
240
tice for the scientific and technologicalcommunitythat
areinternationallyacceptedcould enhanceprofessional-
ism and may improveandhastenrecognitionof the value
of its contributionsto environmentand development,
recognizingthe continuingevolutionand uncertaintyof
scientificknorvledse.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) TMPROVTNGCOMMUNTCATIONAND
COOPERATIONAMONG THESCIENTIFIC
AND TECHNOTOGICAT
COMMUNITY,
DECISIONMAKERSAND THEPUBTIC
BASIS
FORACTION
31.2 The scientificand technologicalcommunityand
policy makersshould increasetheir interactionin order
to irnplementstrategiesfor sustainabledevelopmenton
the basisof the bestavailableknowledge.This implies
thatdecisionmakersshouldprovidethenecessary frame-
work for rigorous researchand for full and open com-
municationof the tindings of the scientificand techno-
logical community,and developwith it ways in which
researchresults and the concernsstemmingfrom the
fi ndi ngs can be communi catedto deci sion- m aking
bodiesso as to betterlink scientificand technicalknow-
ledge'withstrategicpolicy andprogrammeformulation.
At the sametime,this dialoguewould assistthescientific
andtechnologicalcomrnunityin developingprioritiesfor
researchandproposingactionsfor constructivesolutions.
OBJECTIVES
31.3 The following objectivesareproposed:
(a) To extendandopenup the decision-making process
and broadenthe range of developmentaland environ-
mentalissueswherecooperationat all levelsbetweenthe
scientificand technologicalcommunity and decision
makerscan take place;
(b) To improvetheexchangeof knowledgeandconcerns
betweenthescientific andtechnologicalcornmuniqr andthe
generalpublic in orderto enablepoliciesandprogrammes
to be betterformulated,understoodand supported.
ACTIVITIES
31.4 Governments shouldundertakethe lollowins ac-
t iv it ies :
(a) Reviewhow nationalscientificand technological
activitiescouldbe moreresponsive to sustainable devel-
opment needsas part t.l1'anoverall eftbrt to strengthen
nationalresearchand developmentsystems,including
throughstrengtheningand widening the membershipof
nationalscientificand technologicaladvisorycouncils,
organizations and committeesto ensurethat:
(i) The full rangeof nationalneedstor scientiflcand
technologicalprogrammesarecommllnicatedto Govern-
mentsand the public;
(ii) The variousstrandsof public opinion are repre-
sented:
(b) Promoteregionalcooperativemechanismsto ad-
dressregionalneedsfbr sustainable
development.Such
regionalcooperativemechanismscould be facilitated
throughpublic/privatepartnershipsand providesupport
to Governments.industry, non-governmental educa-
tional institutionsand other domesticand international
organizations, and by strengthening globalprofessional
networks:
(c) Improveandexpandscientiflcandtechnicalinputs
throughappropriatemechanismsto intergovemmental
c ons ult at iv e,c o o p e ra ti v ea n d n e g o ti a ti n gp rocesses
torvardsinternationaland regionalagreements;
(d) Strengthenscienceand technologyadviceto the
highestlevelsof the United Nations,and otherinterna-
tional institutions.in order to ensurethe inclusionof
scienceand technologyknow-howin sustainable devel-
opmentpoliciesand strategies;
(el Improveand strengthenprogrammesfor dissemi-
nating researchresultsof universitiesand researchin-
stitutions.This requiresrecognitionof and greatersup-
poft to the scientists, technologists andteachers who are
en_eaged in communicatingand interpretingscientific
and technological inforrnationto policy makers,profes-
sionalsin othertieldsand the generalpublic.Suchsup-
port shouldfbcuson the transf-er of skills and the transfer
andadaptation of planningtechniques. This requiresfull
and open sharingof dataand informationamongscien-
tists and decision makers.The publication of national
scientificresearchreportsand technicalreportsthat are
understandable and relevantto local sustainabledevel-
opmentneedswould alsoimprovethe interfacebetween
scienceand decision-making, as well as the implemen-
tation of scientificresults;
(0 Improvelinks betweenthe official andindependent
research sectors and industry so that researchmay
becomean importantelementof industrialstrategy;
(g) Promoteand strengthenthe role of women as full
partnersin the scienceandtechnologydisciplines;
(h) Developand implenrentinformationtechnologies
to enhancethe disseminationof infclrmationf-orsustain-
able development.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
31.5 The Conf'erencre secretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of irnplementingrhe
activitiesof thisprogrammeto be abor,rt
$ 15million from
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms. Theseare indicativeand order-of-magnitude es-
timatesonly and have not been reviewedby Govern-
ments. Actual costsand financialterms,includingany
that are non-concessional.will dependupon.inter alio,
the specific strategiesand programmesGovernnrents
decideuponfor implementation.
B ) C A P A C TTY -B U tLD tN G
31.6 Intergovernmental panelson developmentanden-
vironmentalissuesshouldbe organized.with emphasis
on their scientificand technicalaspects.and studiesof
responsiveness and adaptabilityincludedin subsequent
programmes ol ' acti on.
B) PROMOTTNGCODESOF PRACTTCE AND
GUIDEUNESREI.AIEDTO SCIENCE
AND TECHNOTOGY
BASIS
FORACTION
31.7 S ci enti sts
and technol ogi sts
havea speci alset of
responsibilities which belongto them both as inheritors
of a traditionand asprof'essionalsandmembersof disci-
plines devotedto the searchfor knowledgeand to the
needto protectthebiosphere in thecontextof sustainable
development.
31.8 Increased ethicalawareness in environmentaland
developmentaldecision-makingshould help to place
241
appropriatepriorities for the maintenanceand enhance-
ment of life-support systemsfor their own sake,and in
so doing ensure that the functioning of viable natural
processesis properly valued by presentand future so-
cieties. Therefore,a strengtheningof the codesof prac-
tice and guidelinesfor the scientificand technological
community would increaseenvironmentalawareness
andcontributeto sustainable development. It would build
up the level of esteemand regard for the scientific and
technological community and facilitate the "account-
ability" of scienceand technology.
OBJECTIVES
31.9 The objectiveshouldbe to develop,improve and
promoteinternationalacceptanceof codesof practiceand
guidelinesrelating to scienceand technologyin which
the integrityof life-supportsystemsis comprehensively
accountedfor and where the important role of science
and technologyin reconcilingthe needsof environment
and development is accepted.To be effective in the
decision-makingprocess,suchprinciples,codesof prac-
tice and guidelinesmust not only be agreedupon by the
scientific and technologicalcommunity, but also be
recognizedby the societyas a whole.
ACTIVITIES
31.10The following activitiescouldbe undertaken:
(a) Strengtheningnational and internationalcooper-
ation,includingthenon-governmental sector,to develop
codesof practiceand guidelinesregardingenvironmen-
tally sound and sustainabledevelopment,taking into
accountthe Rio Declarationand existingcodesof prac-
tice and guidelines;
(b) Strengtheningand establishingnational advisory
242
groups on environmentaland developmentalethics,in
order to develop a common value framework betrveen
the scientificand technologicalcommunity and society
as a whole, and promotecontinuousdialogue;
(c) Extendingeducationandtrainingin developmental
and environmentalethicalissuesto integratesuchobjec-
tives into educationcurriculaand researchpriorities;
(d) Reviewingand amendingrelevantnationaland in-
ternationalenvironmentand developmentlegal instru-
mentsto ensureappropriatecodesof practiceandguide-
lines are incorporatedinto suchregulatorymachinery.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
AJ FINANC'NGAND COSTEVALUATION
3l.l I The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activities of this programmeto be about $5 million from
the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional
terms. Theseare indicative and order-of-magnitudees-
timates only and have not been reviewed by Govern-
ments. Actual costsand financial terms,including any
that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia,
the specific strategiesand programmesGovernments
decideupon for implementaticln.
B ) C A P A C ITY .B U ILD IN G
31.12Codes of practiceand guidelines,including on
appropriateprinciples,shouldbe developedfor and by
the scientificandtechnologicalcommunityin the pursuit
of its researchactivities and implementationof pro-
grammesaimedat sustainable development.
 Skengthening
theroleof theformers
3 2
P R O G R A M MAER E A
BASIS
FORACTION
32.1 Agriculture occupiesone third of the land surface
of the Earth, and is the centralactivity for much of the
world's population.Rural activitiestake place in close
contact with nature, adding value to it by producing
renewableresources,while at the sametime becoming
vulnerableto overexploitationand improper manage-
ment.
32.2 The rural household,indigenouspeople and their
communities,andthefamily farmer,a substantialnumber
of whom are women, have beenthe stewardsof much of
the Earth's resources.Farmers* must conserve their
phvsical environmentas they depend on it fbr their
sustenance. Over the past 20 years there has been an
i mpressiveincreasei n aggregate agriculturalproduction.
Yet, in someregions,this increasehas beenoutstripped
by population growth or internationaldebt or falling
commodity prices. Further,the natural resourcesthat
sustainfarming activity needpropercare,and thereis a
growing concernaboutthe sustainabilityof agricultural
productionsystems.
32.3 A farmer-centred approachis the key to the attain-
mentof sustainabilityin both developedand developing
countriesand many of the programmeareasin Agenda
2l addressthis objective. A significanrnumber of the
rural populationin developingcountriesdependprimar-
ily upon small-scale,subsistence-oriented agriculture
basedon family labour. However, they have limited
accessto resources,technology,alternativelivelihood
* Inthischopter,
oll references
to "formers"
includeollrurolpeople
who derivetheirlivelihoodfromoctivities
suchos forming,fishing
ond foresthorvesting.Theterm"forming"olsoincludes fishingonJ
foresihorvesting.
and meansof production. As a result,they are engaged
in the overexploitationof natural resources,including
marginallands.
32.4 The sustainabledevelopmentof peoplein marginal
and fragile ecosystemsis also addressed in Agenda 21.
The key to the successfulimplementationof thesepro-
grammesliesin themotivationandattitudesof individual
farmers and government policies that would provide
incentivesto farmers to managetheir natural resources
efficiently andin a sustainableway.Farmers,particularly
women, face a high degreeof economic,legal and in-
stitutionaluncertaintieswhen investingin their land and
otherresources. The decentralizationof decision-making
towardslocal and community organizationsis the key in
changingpeople'sbehaviourand implementingsustain-
able farming strategies.This programmeareadealswith
activitieswhich can contributeto this end.
OBJECTIVES
32.5 The following objectivesare proposed:
(a) To encouragea decentralized decision-making pro-
cessthroughthe creationand strengthening of local and
village organizationsthat would delegatepower and
responsibilityto primary usersof naturalresources;
(b) To supportandenhance thelegalcapacityof women
and vulnerablegroups with regard to access,use and
tenureof lartd;
(c) To promote and encouragesustainablefarming
practicesand technologies;
(d) To introduceor strengthenpoliciesthat would en-
courage self-sufficiencyin low-input and low-energy
technologies, includingindigenouspractices,andpricing
mechanismsthat internalizeenvironmentalcosts;
(e) To developa policy frameworkthatprovidesincen-
tives and motivation among farmersfor sustainableand
efficient farming practices;
(f) To enhancethe participation of farmers, men and
243
women, in the design and implernentationof policies
directedtowardstheseends,throughtheirrepresentative
orsanizations.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
ELATED
A) MANAGEMENI-R
32.6 National(iovernmentsshould:
(a) Ensurethe implementationof the programmeson
sustainablelivelihoods,agricultureand rural develop-
m ent .m an a g i n gfra g i l ee c o s y s te m sw. a tcr usei n agri -
culture, and integrated managementof natural re-
s our c es ;
(b) Promotepricingmechanisms, tradepolicies.fiscal
incentivesand other policy instrumentsthat positively
affectindividualt-arme r's decisionsaboutanefficientand
sustainable useof naturalresources, andtakefull account
of the impact of thesedecisionson householdfbod
security.farm incomes,employmentand the environ-
ment:
(c) Involve farmersand their representative organiza-
tionsin the tormulationof PolicY;
(d) Protect,recognizeand forrnalizewotnen'saccess
to tenureanduseof Iand,aswell asrightsto land,access
inputsand training:
to credit,technology,
(e) Supportthe fcrrmationof f-armers'organizationsby
providingadequate legaland socialconditions.
32.7 Support for farmers' organizationscould be ar-
rangedas follows:
(a) Nationaland internationalresearchcentresshould
cooperatewith farmers' organizationsin developing
location-specificenvironment-friendlyfarming tech-
niques :
(b) National Governments,multilateraland bilateral
development agenciesand non-governmental organiza-
tions shouldcollaboratewith tamrers'organizations in
fomrulating agricultural developmentprojects to specific
agro-ecological zones.
B) DATAAND /NFORMAT/ON
32.8 Governmentsand farmers'organizationsshould:
( a) I nit ia tem e c h a n i s ms
to d o c u m e n t,s ynthesi ze
proj ect
l o c a l k n o w l e d g e ,p ra c ti c esand
dis s er nin a te
experiences so that they will makeuseof the lessonsof
the past when forrnulatingand irnplementingpolicies
affectingtarming,forestand fishing populations;
(b) Establishnetworksfor the exchangeof experiences
with regardto farming that help to conserveland, water
and forestresources,minimize the useof chemicalsand
reduceor reutilizefarm wastes;
244
(c) Developpilot projectsand extensionservicesthat
would seekto build on the needsand knowledgebaseof
women farmers.
ALN D R E G/ON AC
C / /N IE R N A TION A TOOPERAI I O N
32.9 FAO. IFAD, WFP, the World Bank, the regionalde-
velopmentbanksand other intemationalorganizationsin-
volved in rural developmentshould involve fanners and
ASappropriate.
in theirdeliberations.
theirrepresentatives
32.10Representativeorganizationsol' farmers should
establishprogrammesfilr the developmentand support
of farmers' organizations,particularlyin developing
countries.
OFIMPLEMENTATION
MEANS
A) FINANCINGAND COSTEVALUATION
32.11The financing neededfor this programmeareais
estimatedin chapterl4 (Promotingsustainable agricul-
ture and rural development),particularly in the pro-
gramme area entitled "Ensuring people'sparticipation
andpromotinghumanresourcedevelopmentfor sustain-
able agriculture".The costs shown under chapters3
(Combatingpoverty),l2 (Managingfragileecosystems:
combatingdesertificationand drought), and l3 (Man-
agingfragileecosystems: sustainable mountaindevelop-
ment) are alsorelevantto this programmearea.
MEANS
B/ sC/FNilFtC AND TECHNOLOGtCAL
32.12Governmentsandappropriateinternationalorgan-
izations,in collaborationwith nationalresearchorgan-
izationsand non-govemmental organizations should,as
appropriate:
(a) Developenvironmentallysoundfarming technol-
ogies that enhancecrop yields, maintain land quality,
recyclenutrients,conservewaterand energyand control
pestsand weeds:
(b) Conductstudiesof high-resource andlow-resource
and agricultureto comparetheir productivity and sltstain-
ability. The researchshould preferably be conducted
undervariousenvironmental and sociologicalsettings;
(c) Supportresearchon mechanizationthat would op-
timize humanlabourand animalpowerandhand-heldand
animal-drawnequipmentthat can be easily operatedand
maintained.The developrnent of fanr-rtechnologiesshould
takeinto accountfarmers'availableresourcesand the role
of animalsin fanning householdsand the ecology.
C) HUM A NRE S O U R CDEEV EL OP M EN I
32.13Governments, with the supportof multilateraland
bilateraldevelopmentagenciesand scientificorganiza-
tions.shoulddevelopcurriculafor agriculturalcolleges
andtraininginstitutionsthatwould integrateecoiogyinto
agricultural science. Interdisciplinaryprogrammesin
agriculturalecologyareessentialto the trainingof a new
generationof agriculturalscientistsandfield-levelexten-
sion agents.
D) CAPACITY-BUILDING
32.14Governments should,in thelight of eachcountry's
specificsituation:
(a) Create the institutionaland legal mechanismsto
ensureeffectiveland tenureto farmers. The absenceof
legislationindicatingland rightshasbeenan obstaclein
taking action againstland degradationin many farming
communitiesin developingcountries;
(b) Strengthenrural institutionsthat would enhance
sustainabilitythrough locally managedcredit systems
and technicalassistance, local productionand distribu-
tion facilities for inputs, appropriateequiprnentand
small-scaleprocessingunits,andmarketinganddistribu-
tion systems;
(c) Establishmechanisms to increaseaccessof farmers.
in particularwomenandfarmersfrom indigenousgroups,
to agriculturaltraining,credit and useclf improvedtech-
nology for ensuringfood security.
245
 Section4

Meons of
Irplementotion
 33 Finonciol
resources
ond mechonisms
INTRODUCTION
33.1 The GeneralAssembly,in resolution 441228of 22
December1989,inter alia, decidedthattheUnitedNations
Conferenceon Environmentand Developmentshould:
"Identify ways and meansof providing new and addi-
tional financial resources,parlicularly to developing
countries,for environmentallysounddevelopmentpro-
grammesandprojectsin accordance with nationaldevel-
opmentobjectives,prioritiesand plans and to consider
waysof effectivelymonitoringtheprovisionof suchnew
andadditionalfinancialresources, particularlyto develo-
ping countries,so as to enablethe internationalcom-
munity to take further appropriateaction on the basisof
accurateand reliabledata;
"Identify ways and meansof providingadditionalfin-
ancialresourcesfor measures directedtowardssolving
major environmentalproblemsof global concernand
especiallyof supportingthosecountries,in particular
developingcountries,for which the implementationof
suchmeasures would entaila specialorabnomralburden,
owing, in particular,to their lack of financialresources,
expertiseor technicalcapacity;
"Considervariousfundingmechanisms, includingvol-
untary ones,and exanrinethe possibilityof a special
intemationalfund and other innovative approaches,
with a view to ensuring,on a favourablebasis.the most
effectiveand expeditioustransferof environmentally
soundtechnologiesto developingcountries;
"Quantify thefinancialrequirements for the successful
implementationof Conferencedecisionsand recom-
mendationsand identify possiblesources,including
innovativeones,of additionalresources."
33.2 This chapterdeals with the financing of the im-
plementationof Agenda21, which reflectsa globalcon-
sensusintegratingenvironmentalconsiderations into an
accelerated developmentprocess.For eachof the other
chapters,the secretariatof the Conferencehas provided
indicativeestimatesof the total costsof implementation
for developingcountriesand the requirementsfor grant
or otherconcessional financingneededfrom theinterna-
tional community. Thesereflectthe needfor a substan-
tially increasedeffort, both by countriesthemselvesand
by the internationalcommunity.
BASIS FORACTION
33.3 Economicgrowth,socialdevelopmentand poverty
eradicationare the first and overriding priorities in
developingcountriesand are themselvesessentialto
meetingnationaland global sustainabilityobjectives.
In the light of the global benefitsro be realizedby rhe
implementation of Agenda21 asa whole,the provision
to developingcountriesof effectivemeans,inter alia,
financialresources andtechnology, withoutwhichit will
be difficult for them to fully implemenrtheir commit-
ments,will servethecommoninterestsof developedancl
developingcountriesand of humankindin general,in-
cludingfuturegenerations.
33.4 The cost of inaction could outweigh the financial
costsof implementingAgenda2l . Inactionwill narrow
the choicesof futuregenerations.
33.5 For dealingwith environmental issues,specialefforts
will be required.Globalandlocal environmentalissuesare
interrelated.The United Nations FrameworkConvention
on Climate Change and the Conventionon Biological
Diversityaddresstwo ol the most importantglobal issues.
33.6 Economic conditions,both domesticand interna-
tional, that encouragefree tradeand accessto markets
will help make economic growth and environmental
protectionmutually supportivefor all countries,particu-
larly for developingcountriesand countriesundergoing
theprocessof transitionto a marketeconomy(seechapter
2 for a fuller discussionof theseissr:es
).
249
33.7 Internationalcooperationfor sustainabledevelop-
ment shouldalso be strengthenedin order to supportand
complementthe efforts of developingcountries,particu-
larly the leastdevelopedcountries.
33.8 Allcountriesshouldassess how to translateAgenda
2I into national policies and programmesthrough a
processthat will integrateenvironmentand development
considerations.National and local priorities shouldbe
establishedby meansthat include public participation
and community involvement,promoting equal oppor-
tunity for men and women.
33.9 For anevolvingpartnershipamongall countriesof the
world, including, in particular,between developedand
developingcountries,sustainabledevelopmentstrategies
and enhancedand predictablelevelsof funding in support
of longer term objectivesare required. For that purpose,
developingcountriesshould arliculatetheir own priority
actions and needs for support and developedcounffies
shouldcommit themselves to addressing thesepriorities.In
this respect, groups
consultative andround tablesandother
nationallybasedmechanismscanplay a facilitativerole.
33.10The implementation of thehugesustainable devel-
oprnentprogrammesof Agenda2l will requirethe pro-
vision to developingcountriesof substantialnew and
additionaifinancial resources.Grant or concessionalfi-
nancing should be provided according to sound and
equitablecriteria and indicators.The progressiveim-
plementationof Agenda 21 should be matchedby the
provision of such necessaryfinancial resources.The
initial phase will be acceleratedby substantialearly
commitmentsof concessional funding.
OUECTN/ES
33.11The objectivesareas lollows:
(a) To establishmeasures concemingfinancialresources
and mechanismsf or the implementationof Agenda21;
(b) To provide new and additionalfinancial resources
that are both adequateand predictable;
(c) To seekfull useandcontinuingqualitativeimprove-
merlt of f.undingmechanismsto be utilized for the im-
plementation of Agenda21.
ACTIVITIES
33.11 Fundamentally,the activitiesof this chapterare
relatedto the implementationof all the otherchaptersof
A g e n d a2 l .
MEANS OFIMPLEMENIATION
of
33.13 in general,thefinancingfor the implernentation
Agenda 2l will corle from a country'sown public and
250
private sectors.For developingcountries,particularlythe
least developedcountries,ODA is a main source of
external funding, and substantial new and additional
funding f or sustainable developmentandimplementation
of Agenda 21 will be required. Developed countries
reaffirm their commitmentsto reachthe acceptedUnited
Nations target of 0.7 per cent of GNP for ODA and, to
theextentthatthey havenot yet achievedthattarget,agree
to augmenttheir aid prografiImesin order to reach that
target as soon as possible and to ensureprompt and
effectiveimplementationof Agenda21. Somecountries
have agreedto reachthe targetby the year 2000. It was
decidedthat the Commissionon SustainableDevelop-
ment would regularly review and monitor progressto-
wardsthis target.This review processshouldsystemati-
cally combine the monitoring of the implementationof
Agenda 21 with a review of the financial resources
available.Thosecountriesthat have alreadyreachedthe
targetare to be commendedand encouragedto continue
to contributeto the colrlmon effort to make availablethe
substantialadditionalresourcesthat have to be mobil-
ized.Otherdevelopedcountries,in line with their support
for reform effbrts in developingcountries,agreeto make
their besteffortsto increasetheir level of ODA. In this
context, the importance of equitable burden-sharing
amongdevelopedcountriesis recognized.Other coun-
tries,includingthoseundergoingthe processof transition
to a market economy,may voluntarily augmentthe con-
tributionsof the developedcountries.
33.14Fundingfor Agenda2l andotheroutcomesof the
Conferenceshouldbe providedin a way that maximizes
the availabilityof new and additionalresourcesand uses
all availablefunding sourcesand mechanisms.These
include,amongothers:
A) THEMULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS ANDFUNDS:
(i) The InternationalDevelopmentAssociation(lDA).
Among the variousissuesand optionsthat IDA deputies
will examine in connectionwith the forthcorning tenth
replenishmentof IDA, the statementmadeby the Presi-
dent of the World Bank at the United NationsConference
on Environmentand Developmentshouldbe given spe-
cial considerationin order to help the poorestcountries
meet their sustainabledevelopmentobjectivesas con-
tainedin Agenda21;
(ii) Regionaland subregionaldevelopment banks. The
regionaiand subregionaldevelopmentbanksand funds
should play an increasedand more effective role in
providingresourceson concessional or otherfavourable
termsneededto implementdgenda 21;
(iii) TheGlobalEnt,ironmentFacililvn, managedjointly
by the World Bank, UNDP andUNEP,whoseadditional
 grant and concessionalfunding is designedto achieve
global environmentalbenefits,should cover the agreed
incrementalcostsof relevantactivitiesunderAgenda2l ,
in particular for developing countries.Therefore, it
shouldbe restructuredso as to, inter alia:
> Encourageuniversalparticipation;
> Have sufficient flexibility to expand its scope and
coverageto relevantprogrammeareasof Agenda 21,
with global environmentalbenefits,as agreed;
> Ensure a governancethat is transparentand demo-
craticin nature,includingin termsof decision-making
and operations,by guaranteeinga balancedand equit-
able representationof the interests of developing
countriesand giving due weight to the funding efforts
of donor countries;
D Ensure new and additional financial resourceson
grantandconcessionalterms,in particularto develop-
ing countries;
> Ensurepredictabilityin the flow of fundsby contribu-
tions from developedcountries,taking into account
the importanceof equitableburden-sharing;
> Ensureaccessto anddisbursement of the fundsunder
mutually agreed criteria without introducing new
forms of conditionality;
(b) The rclevant specialized agencies, other United
Nations bodies and other international organizations,
which have designatedroles to play in supportingna-
tional Govemmentsin implementingAgenda2l:
(c) Multilateral institutionsfor capacity-buildingond
technical cooperatiorz.Necessaryfinancial resources
should be provided to UNDP to use its network of field
offices and its broad mandateand experiencein the field
of technicalcooperationfor facilitatingcapacity-build-
ing at the countrylevel, making full useof the expertise
of the specializedagenciesand other United Nations
bodies within their respectiveareasof competence,in
particular UNEP and including the multilateral and re-
gional developmentbanks;
(d) Bilateral assistanceprogrammes.These pro-
grammeswill needto be strengthenedin orderto promote
sustainabledevelopment;
(e) Debt relief. It is important to achievedurable so-
lutionsto the debt problemsof low- and middle-income
developingcountriesin order to provide them with the
neededmeansfor sustainabledevelopment.Measuresto
addressthecontinuingdebtproblemsof low- andmiddle-
-incomecountriesshouldbe keptunderreview.All credi-
tors in the Paris Club should promptly implement the
agreementof December1991to provide debt relief for
thepoorestheavilyindebtedcountriespursuingstructural
adjustment;debt relief measuresshould be kept under
reviewsoasto addressthecontinuingdifficultiesof those
countries;
(0 Private funding. Voluntary conrributionsthrough
non-governmental channels,which havebeenrunningat
about l0 per centof ODA, might be increased.
33.15Investmenr.Mobilization of higher levels of
foreign direct investment and technology transfers
shouldbe encouragedthrough nationalpolicies that pro-
mote investment and through joint venturesand other
modalities.
3-1.16Innovativefinancing. New ways of generating
new public and private financial resourcesshould be
explored,in particular:
(a) Various forms of debt relief, apart from official or
ParisClub debt,includinggreateruseof debt swaps;
(b) The use of economic and fiscal incentivesand
mechanisms;
(c) The feasibilityof tradeablepermits;
(d) New schemesfor fund-raisingand voluntarycon-
tributionsthroughprivatechannels,including non-gov-
ernmentalorganizations;
(e) The reallocationof resourcesat presentcommitted
to military purposes.
33.17A supportiveintemationalanddomesticeconomic
climate conducive to sustainedeconomic growth and
development is important, particularly for developing
countries,in orderto achievesustainability.
33.l8 The secretariat of theConferencehasestimatedthe
averageannual costs (1993-2000) of implementing in
developingcountriesthe activitiesin Agenda 2l to be
over $600 billion, includingabour$125 billion on granr
or concessionaltermslrom the internationalcommunity.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitudeestimates
only, and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs will dependupon, inter alia, the specific
strategiesandprogrammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor
implementation.
33.19 Developedcountriesand othersin a positionto do
so should make initial financial commitments to give
effect to the decisionsof the Conference. They should
report on such plans and commitments to the United
NationsGeneralAssemblyat its forty-seventhsession,
in 1992.
33.20Developingcountriesshouldalsobeginto draw up
nationalplansfor sustainabledevelopmentto give effect
to the decisionsof the Conference.
33.21 Reviewandmonitoringof thefinancingof Agenda
2l is essential.Questionsrelatedto the effectivefollow-
up of the Conferenceare discussedin chapter38 (Inter-
national institutional arrangements).It will be important
to review on a regularbasisthe adequacyof funding and
mechanisms,including effortsto reachagreedobjectives
of thepresentchapter, including targetswhereapplicable.
251
? / Tronsfer soundtechnology,
of environmentolly
\, + cooperotionond copocity-building
INTRODUCTION
34.1 Environmentallysoundtechnologies protecttheen-
vironment,are lesspolluting,useall resourcesitr a more
sustainablemanner, recycle more of their wastes and
products,andhandleresidualwastesin amoreacceptable
mannerthan the technologiesfor which they were sub-
stitutes.
34.2 Envtonmentally soundtechnologiesin the context
of pollution are "processand producttechnologies"that
generatelow orno waste,forthe preventionof pollution'
They alsocover "end of the pipe" technologiesfor treat-
ment of pollution after it hasbeengenerated.
34.3 Environmentallysound technologiesare not just
individual technologies, but total systemswhich include
know-how, procedures,goods and services,and equip-
ment as well as organizationaland managerial proce-
dures. This implies that when discussingtransfer of
technologies, the humanresourcedevelopmentandlocal
capacity-buildingaspectsof technologychoices,includ-
ing gender-relevant aspects,should also be addressed.
Environmentallysound technologiesshould be com-
patiblewith nationallydeterminedsocio-economic, cul-
tural and environmentalpriorities.
34.4 Thereis a needfor favourableaccessto and transfer
of environmentallysoundtechnologies,in particularLo
developingcountries,through supporlivemeasuresthat
promotetechnologycooperationand that shouldenable
transferof necessary technologicalknow-how as well as
building up of economic,technical,and managerialca-
pabilities for the efficient use and further development
clf transferredtechnology.Technology cooperation in-
volvesjoint effortsby enterprisesandGovernments,both
suppliersof technologyandits recipients.Therefore,such
cooperationentailsan iterativeprocessinvolving gov-
ernment, the private sector,and researchand develop-
252
ment facilities to ensurethe best possible results from
transferof technology.Successfullong-termpartnerships
in technologycooperationnecessarilyrequirecontinuing
systernatictraining and capacity-buildingat all levels
over an extendedperiod of time.
34.5 The activitiesproposedin this chapteraim at im-
proving conditionsand processes on information,access
to and transferof technology (including the state-of-the-
art technologyand related know-how), in particularto
developingcountries, as well as on capacity-building and
cooperativearrangements and partnerships in the field of
technology,in orderto promote sustainable development.
New and efficient technologieswill be essentialto in-
creasethe capabilities,in particularof developingcoun-
tries, to achieve sustainabledevelopment,sustainthe
world's economy,protectthe environment,and alleviate
povertyandhumansuffering.Inherentin theseactivities
is the need to addressthe improvement of technology
currently used and its replacement,when appropriate,
with more accessibleand more environmentallysound
technology.
FORACTION
BASIS
34.6 This chapterof Agenda 2l is without prejudiceto
specific commitmentsand affangementson transfer of
technologyto be adoptedin specificinternationalinstru-
ffrents.
34.7 The availabilityof scientificand technologicalin-
formationand accessto and transl'erof environmentally
soundtechnologyare essentialrequirements for sustain-
able development. Providing adequateinformation on
the environmentalaspectsof presenttechnologiescon-
sists of two interrelatedcomponents: upgrading infor-
mation on presentand state-of-the-art technologies,in-
cluding their environmentalrisks,and improvingaccess
to environmentallysoundtechnologies.
34.8 The primarygoal of improvedaccessto technology
 informationis to enableinformed choices,leadingto access
to and ffansferof suchtechnologiesand the strengthening
of countries'own technologicalcapabilities.
-74.9Alargebody of usefultechnologicalknowledgelies
in the public domain. There is a need for developing
countriesto have accessto suchtechnologiesas are not
coveredby patentsor lie in the public domain.Develop-
ing countries would also need to have accessto the
know-horv and expertiserequired for the effective utili-
zationof the aforesaidtechnologies.
34.10 Considerationmust be given to the role of patent
protectionand intellectualpropertyrights along with an
examinationof their impacton the accessto and transfer
of environmentallysound technology,in particular to
developing cor-lntries, as well as to further exploring
efficiently the conceptof assuredaccessfor developing
countriesto environmentallysound technologvin its
relation to proprietary rights with a vierv to developing
effectiveresponses to the needsof developingcountries
in this area.
34.1I Proprietarytechnologyis availablethroughcom-
mercialchannels,and internationalbusinessis an impor-
tant vehicle for technologytransfer.Tappingthis pool of
knowledgeand recombiningit with local innovationsto
generatealternativetechnologiesshouldbe pursued.At
the sametime that conceptsand modalitiesfor assured
accesstu environmentallysoundtechnologies, including
state-ot--the-art technologies, in particularby developing
countries,continuedto be explored"enhancedaccessto
e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d t e c h n o i o g i e ss h o u l d b e
promoted,farilitated and financedas appropriate,while
providing fair incentivesto innovatorsthat promotere-
searchand developmentof new environmentallysound
technologies.
3 4 .1 ?Rec ipient c ou n tri e s re q u i re te c h n o l o e y a nd
strengthened supportto help furtherdeveloptheir scien-
tific, technological,professionalanclrelatedcapacities,
taking into accountexistingtechnologiesandcapacities.
This supportwould enablecountries,in particularde-
veloping countries,to make more rational technology
choices.Thesecountriescould then better assessenvi-
ronmentallysoundtechnologies prior to their transfcrand
properly apply and managethem, as well as improve
uponalreadyexistingtechnologies andadaptthernto suit
their specificdevelopmentneedsand priorities.
34.1-lA critical massof researchand developmentca-
pacitvis crucialto the effectivedissernination anduseof
envi ronmentally soundtechnologies andtheirgeneration
lcrcally.Educationand training programmesshould re-
flect the needsof specificgoal-orientedresearchactiv-
ities and should work to producespecialistsliterate in
environmentallysoundtechnologyand with an interdis-
ciplinary outlook. Achieving this critical massinvolves
buildingthecapabilitiesof craftspersons,techniciansand
middle-levelmanagers,scientists,engineersand educa-
tors, as well as developingtheir corespondingsocialor
managerialsupport systems. Transferringenvironmen-
tally sound technologiesalso involves innovatively
adaptingandincorporatingtheminto thelocalor national
culture.
OBJECTIVES
34.14The following objectivesare proposed:
(a) To help to ensure the access,in particular of
developingcountries.to scientificand technologicalin-
fbrmation,includinginformationon state-of-the-art tech-
nologies;
(b) To promote,facilitate. and finance, as appropriate,
the accessto and the transf'erof environmentallysound
technologiesand corresponding know-how,in particular
to developingcountries,on f'avourableterms,including
on concessionaland preferential terms, as mutually
agreed,taking into accounttheneedto protectintellectual
propertyrightsaswell asthe specialneedsof developing
countriesfor the implementationof Agenda2l;
(c) To facilitate the maintenanceand promotion of
environmentallysoundindigenoustechnologies thatmay
have been neglecteCor displaced, in particular in
developingcountries,payingparticularattentionto their
priority needsandtakinginto accounttlrecomplementary
roles of men and women;
(d) To supportendogenouscapacity-building,in par-
ticularin developingcountries,so theycanassess, adopt,
manageand apply environmentallysoundtechnologies.
This could be achievedthroughinter alia:
(i) Human resourcedeveloprnent;
(ii) Strengthening of institutionalcapacitiesfor research
and developmentand programmeimplementation;
(iii) Integratedsectorassessments of technologyneeds,
in accordancewith countries' plans, objectivesand
priorities as foreseenin the implementationof Agenda
2l at thenati onall evel ;
(e) To promote long-term technologicalpartnerships
betweenholdersof environmentallysoundtechnologies
and potentialusers.
ACTIVITIES
A) DEVELOqMENTOF /NTERNAT/ONAI
TNFORMAITON
NEIWORKSWHICHIINK NAT/ON,A[,
SUBREG/ONAI.,
REG/ONAI.
AND /NIERNAT/ONAT
SYSIEMS
34.15Existing national,subregional,regionaland inter-
nationalinformation systemsshouldbe developedand
linked throughregionalclearing-housescoveringbroad-
253
basedsectorsof the economysuchasagriculture,indus-
try and energy. Sucha network might, inter alia, include
national,subregionaland regionalpatentoffices that are
equippedto producereportson state-of-the-arttechnol-
ogy. The clearing-housenetworks would disseminate
information on available technologies,their sources,
their environmental risks, and the broad terms under
which they may be acquired.They would operateon an
information-demandbasisand focus on the information
needsof the end-users. They would takeinto accountthe
positiverolesandcontributionsof international,regional
and subregionalorganizations,businessconununities,
tradeassociations, non-governmental organizations, na-
tional Governments,and newly establishedor strength-
enednationalnetworks.
34.16.The internationaland regional clearing-houses
would take the initiative, where necessary,in helping
usersto identify their needsand in disseminatinginfor-
mation that meets those needs,including the use of
existing news, public infonnation,and communication
systems.The disseminatedinformationwould highlight
and detail concretecaseswhereenvironmentallysound
technologieswere successfullydeveloped and im-
plemented.In order to be effective,the clearing-houses
needto provide not only information,but also referrals
to other services,including sourcesof advice,training,
technologiesand technologyassessment. The clearing-
houseswould thus facilitate the establishmentof joittt
venturesand partnershipsof variouskinds.
34.11An inventory of existing and internationalor re-
gionalclearing-houses or informationexchangesystems
should be undertakenby the relel'ant United Nations
bodies.The existingstructureshouldbe strengthened and
improvedwhen necessary.Additional informationsys-
tems should be developed.if necessary, in order to fill
identifiedgapsin this internationalnetwork.
TO
OF AND PROMOilONOF ACCESS
B) SUPPORT
IRANSFEROF TECHNOLOGY
34.I 8 Governmentsand internationd, organizationsshould
promote, and encouragethe private sector to promote,
effectivemodalitiesfor the accessandtransfer,in particular
to developingcountries,of environmentallysound tech-
nologiesby meansof activities,includingthe following:
(a) Formulationof policies and programmesfor the
effective transfer of environmentally sclundtechnologi es
that are publicly ownedor in the public domain;
(b) Creationof favourableconditionsto encouragethe
private and public sectorsto innovate,market and use
environmentallysoundtechnologies;
(c) Examinationby Governmentsand,whereappropri-
254
ate,by relevantorganizations of existingpolicies,including
subsidiesand tax policies,and rrgulations to determine
whetherthey encourageor impedethe accessto, transferof
and introductionof environmentallysoundtechnologies;
(d) Addressing,in a framework which fully integrates
environmentand development,barriersto the transferof
privately owned environmentallysound technologies
and adoption of appropriategeneralmeasuresto reduce
suchbarrierswhile creatingspecificincentives,fiscal or
otherwise,for the transferof such technologies;
(e) In the case of privately owned technologies,the
adoption of the following measures,in particular for
developingcountries:
(i) Creationand enhancementby developedcountries,
aswell asothercountrieswhich might be in a positionto
do so, of appropriateincentives,fiscal or otherwise,to
stimulatethe transferof environmentallysoundtechnol-
ogy by companies,in particularto developingcountries,
as integralto sustainable development;
(ii) Enhancement of the accessto and transferof patent
protectedenvironmentallysound technologies,in par-
ticular to developingcountries;
(iii) Purchaseof patentsand licenceson commercial
terms for their transferto developing countrieson non-
commercialtermsaspart of developmentcooperationfor
sustainabledeveloprnent,taking into accountthe needto
protect intellectualproperty rights;
(iv) In compliancewith and underthe specificcircum-
stancesrecognizedby the relevantinternationalconven-
tions adheredto by States,the undertakingof measures
to prevent the abuseof intellectual property rights, in-
cluding rules with respectto their acquisitionthrough
compulsorylicensing,with theprovisionof equitableand
adequatecompensation;
(v) Provisionof financialresourcesto acquireenviron-
mentally soundtechnologiesin order to enablein par-
ticular developingcountriesto implementmeasuresto
promote sustainabledevelopmentthat would entail a
specialor abnormalburdento them;
(0 Developmentof mechanismsfor the accessto and
transfer of environmentally sound technologies,in par-
ticularto developingcountries,while takinginto account
developmentin the processof negotiating an interna-
tional code of conduct on transfer of technology, as
decided by UNCTAD at its eighth session,held at
Cartagenade Indias,Colombia, in February 1992.
TO DEVELOP
OF THECAPACTTY
c) TMPROVEMENT
SOUND
AND MANAGEENV'RONMENTALLY
TECHNOLOGIES
34.19Frameworksat subregional,regionaland interna-
tional levels should be establishedand/or strengthened
for the development,transt'erand applicationof environ-
mentally soundtechnologiesand correspondingtechni-
cal know-how with a specialfocuson developingcoun-
tries'needs,by addingsuchfunctionsto alreadyexisting
bodies.Suchframeworkswould tacilitateinitiativesfrom
both developingand developedcountriesto stimulatethe
research, development and transfer of environmentally
soundtechnologies,often throughpartnershipswithin and
amongcountriesandbetweenthe scientificandtechnologi-
cal community,industryandGovernments.
34.20Nationalcapacitiesto assess, develop,manageand
apply new technologiesshouldbe developed.This will
require strengtheningexisting institutions,training of
personnelat all levels,and educationof the end-userof
the technology.
D) ESTABLISHMENI
OF A COLLABORATTVE
NFTWORKOF RESEARCHCENTRES
34.21 A collaborativenetwork of national, subregional,
regionaland internationalresearchcentreson environmen-
tally soundtechnologyshouldbe established to enhancethe
accessto and development,managementand transferof
environmentallysoundtechnologies, includingtransferand
cooperationamongdevelopingcountriesand betrveende-
velopedanddevelopingcountries,primarilybasedon exist-
ing subregionalor regional research,developmentand
demonsfrationcentreswhich iue linked with the national
institutions,in closecooperationwittr the privatesector.
E) SUPPORT
FORPROGRAMMES OF
COOPERAI/ONAND ASS/SIANCE
34.22 Support should be provided for programmesof
cooperationand assistance, includingthoseprovidedby
United Nations agencies,irrternationalorganizations,
and other appropriatepublic and private organizations,
in particularto developingcountries,in theareasof research
and development,technologicaland human resources
capacity-buildingin the fields of training, maintenance,
nationaltechnologyneedsassessments, environmentalim-
pactassessments, and sustainabledevelopmentplanning.
34.23Supportshouldalsobe providedfor national,sub-
regional,regional,multilateralandbilateralprogrammes
of scientificresearch,disseminationof informationand
technologydevelopmentamong developingcountries,
including through the involvementof both public and
private enterprisesand researchfacilities, as well as
funding for technical cooperationamong developing
countries'programmesin this area.This shouldinclude
developinglinks amongthesefacilitiesto maximizetheir
efficiency in understanding.disserninatingand imple-
mentingtechnologiesfor sustainable development.
34.24Thc developmentof global, regional and sub-
regional programmesshould include identification and
evaluationof regional,subregionaland national need-
basedpriorities.Plansand studiessupportingthesepro-
grammesshouldprovide the basisfor potentialfinancing
by multilateraldevelopmentbanks,bilateral organiza-
tions, privatesectorinterestsand non-governmental or-
ganizations.
34.25Visits should be sponsoredand, on a voluntary
basis, the return of qualified experts from developing
countriesin the field of environmentallysoundtechnol-
ogies who are currentlyworking in developedcountry
institutionsshouldbe facilitated.
F/ TECHNOLOGY
ASSFSSMENTtN SU??ORTOF
THEMANAGEA4ENTOF ENY/RONMENIAI.I.Y
SOUNDTECHNOLOGY
34.26The internationalcommunity,in particularUnited
Nationsagencies,internationalorganizations, and other
appropriateand private organizationsshould help ex-
changeexperiences anddevelopcapacityfor technology
needsassessment, in particularin developingcountries,
to enablethemto makechoicesbasedon environmentally
soundtechnologies.They should:
(a) Build up technologyassessment capacity for the
rnanagementof environntentallysound technology,in-
cluding environmentalimpactand risk assessment, with
due regard to appropriatesafeguardson the transfer of
technologiessubjectto prohibitionon environmentalor
healthgrounds;
(b) Strengthenthe internationalnetwork of regional,
subregionalor nationalenvironmentallysoundtechnol-
ogy assessment centres,coupledwith clearing-houses, to
tap the technologyassessment sourcesmentionedabove
for the benefit of all nations. These centrescould. in
principle, provide advice and training for specific na-
tional situationsand promotethe building up of national
capacity in environmentallysound technologyassess-
ment. The possibilityof assigningthisactivity to already
existing regional organizationsshould be fully explored
beforecreatingentirelynew institutions,and funding of
this activity throughpublic-privareparrnershipsshould
alsobe explored.asappropriatc.
G) COLLABORATIV
E ARRANGEMENIS
AND PARTNERSH/PS
34.27Long-tenn collaborativearangementsshouldbe
promotedbetweenenterprisesof developedand devel-
oping countriesfor the developmentof environmentally
sound technologies. Multinational companies,as re-
positoriesof scarcetechnicalskills neededfor the pro-
255
tection and enhancementof the environment. have a
specialrole and interestin promoting cooperationin and
related to technology transfer, as they are important
channels for such transfer, and for building a trained
human resourcepool and infrastructure.
34.28Joint venturesshould be promotedbetweensup-
pliers and recipients of technologies,taking into ac-
count developing countries' policy priorities and ob-
jectives.Togetherwith direct foreign investment,these
venturescould constituteimportant channelsof trans-
ferring environmentally sound technologies.Through
suchjoint venturesand direct investment,soundenvi-
ronmental managementpracticescould be transferred
and maintained.
256
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTANON
F'NANC'NGAND COSI EVALUATION
34.29 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annual cost (1993-2000)of implementing the
activities of this chapterto be between$450 million and
$600 million from the internationalcommunity on grant
or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-
of-magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenotbeenreviewed
by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, in-
cludingany that arenon-concessional, will dependupon,
inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGov-
ernmentsdecideupon for implementation.
 Science
forsustoinoble
development
3 5
INTRODUCTION
35.1 This chapterfocuseson the role and the useof the
sciencesin supporting the prudent managementof the
environmentand developmentfor the daily survival and
future developmentof humanity. The prograrnmeareas
proposedhereinare intendedto be over-arching,in order
to supportthe specific scientific requirementsidentified
in the otherAgenda21 chapters.One role of the sciences
shouldbe to provide information to betterenableformu-
lation and selection of environment and development
policiesin thedecision-making process.In orderto fulfil
this requirement,it will be essentialto enhancescientific
understanding,improve long-term scientific assess-
ments,strengthen scientificcapacitiesin all countriesand
ensurethatthesciencesareresponsiveto emergingneeds.
35.2 Scientistsare improving their understandingin
areassuchasclimaticchange,growth in ratesof resource
consumption,demographictrends, and environmental
degradation.Changesin thoseand other areasneedto be
taken into account in working out long-term strategies
for development. A first step towards improving the
scientific basis for these strategiesis a better under-
standingof land, oceans,atmosphereand their interlock-
ing water,nutrientandbiogeochemicalcyclesandenergy
flows which all form part of the Earth system. This is
essentialif a more accurateestimateis to be provided of
the carrying capacity of the planet Earth and of its
resilience under the many stressesplaced upon it by
human activities.The sciencescan provide this under-
standingthrough increasedresearchinto the underlying
ecologicalprocessesandthroughthe applicationof mod-
em, effective and efficient tools that are now available,
such as remote-sensing devices,robotic monitoring in-
strumentsand computing and modelling capabilities.
The sciencesare playing an important role in linking the
fundamental significance of the Earth system as life
supportto appropriatestrategiesfor developmentwhich
build on its continuedfunctioning. The sciencesshould
continue to play an increasingrole in providing for an
improvementin the efficiency of resourceutilization and
in finding new developmentpractices,resources,and
alternatives. There is a need for the sciencesconstantly
to reassessand promote lessintensivetrendsin resource
utilization, including lessintensiveutilization of energy
in industry, agriculture, and transportation.Thus, the
sciencesareincreasinglybeingunderstoodasanessential
componentin the searchfor feasiblepathwaystowards
sustainabledevelopment.
35.3 Scientificknowledgeshouldbe appliedto articulate
and support the goals of sustainabledevelopment,
through scientific assessments of currentconditionsand
future prospectsfor the Earth system.Such assessments,
basedon existing and emerging innovationswithin the
sciences,shouldbe usedin the decision-makingprocess
and in the interactiveprocessesbetweenthe sciencesand
policy-making. There needs to be an increasedoutput
from the sciencesin order to enhanceunderstandingand
facilitate interaction between science and society. An
increase in the scientific capacity and capability to
achievethesegoals will also be required,particularly in
developingcountries.Of crucial importanceis the need
for scientistsin developingcountriesto participatefully
in internationalscientific researchprogrammesdealing
with the global problems of environmentand develop-
ment so as to allow all countriesto participateon equal
footing in negotiations on global environmental and
developmentalissues.In thefaceof threatsof irreversible
environmental damage, lack of full scientific under-
standing should not be an excusefor postponingactions
which are justified in their own right. The precautionary
approach could provide a basis for policies relating to
complexsystemsthatarenotyet fully understoodandwhose
consequences of disnrrbancescannotyet be predicted.
257
35. 4T he pro g ra m m ea re a s ,w h i c h a re i n harmony
wit h t he c o n c l u s i o n sa n d re c o m m e n d a ti onsof the
InternationalConferenceon an Agcnda of Sciencefor
Environmentand Developrnentinto the ZIst Century
(ASCEND/21) are
(a) Strengtheningthe scientific basis for sustainable
management;
(b) Enhancingscientiflcunderstanding;
(c) Improvinglong-termscientificassessment;
(d) Building up scientificcapacityand capability.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) STRENGTHENTNG BASIS
THESCTENTTF|C
FOR SUSTAINABTE
MANAGEMENT
BASIS
FORACTION
35.5 Sustainabledeveloprnentrequirestaking longer-
term perspectives, integratinglocal and regionaleffects
of global change into thedeveloprnent process,andusing
the best scientific and traditionalknowledge available.
The developmentprocessshouldbe constantlyre-evalu-
ated, in light of the findings of scientific research,to
ensurethat resourceutilizationhas reducedimpactson
the Earth system.Even so, the future is uncertain,and
therervill be surprises.Good environmentaland devel-
opmentalmanagementpoliciesmust thereforebe scien-
tifically robust,seekingto keep open a rangeof options
to ensureflexibility of response.The precautionaryap-
proachis important.Often,thereis a communicationgap
amongscientists,policy makers,and the public at large,
whoseinterestsarearticulatedby both governmentaland
non-governmental organization s. Bettercommunication
is requiredamong scientists, decisionmakers,and the
generalpublic.
OBJECTIVES
3.5.6 The primaryobjectiveis for eachcountrywith the
supportof intemationalorganizations,as requested,to
identify the state of its scientificknowledgeand its
researchneedsand prioritiesin orderto achieve,as soon
as possible,substantialimprovements in:
(a) Large-scalewidening of the scientific base and
strengtheningof scientific and researchcapacitiesand
capabilities- in particular,thoseof developingcoun-
tries - in areasrelevantto environmentand develop-
nlent:
(b) Environmentalanddevelopmentalpolicy formula-
258
tion, building upon the best scientitic knowledge and
assessments, and taking into accountthe needto enhance
international cooperationand the relative uncertainties
of the variousprocesses and optionsinvolved;
(c) The interactionbetweenthe sciencesand decision-
making, using the precautionaryapproach,whereappro-
priate, to changethe existing patternsof production and
consumptionand to gain time for reducing uncertainty
with respectto the selectionof policy options;
(d) The generationand application of knowledge,es-
pecially indigenousand local knowledge,to the capac-
ities of different environmentsand cultures,to achieve
sustainedlevels of development, taking into account
interrelationsat the national, regional and international
levels;
(e) Improving cooperationbetweenscientistsby pro-
moting interdisciplinaryresearchprogrammesand activ-
ities;
(f) Participation of people in setting priorities and in
decision-makingrelatingto sustainable development.
ACTIVITIES
35.7 Countries,with the assistance of internationalor-
ganizations,whererequired,should:
(a) Prepare an inventory of their natural and social
sciencedata holdingsrelevantto the promotionof sus-
tainabledevelopment;
(b) Identify their researchneeds and priorities in the
context of internationalresearchefforts;
(c) Strengthenand design appropriate institutional
mechanismsat the highest appropriatelocal, national,
subregionaland regional levels and within the United
Nationssystemfor developinga strongerscientificbasis
for the improvementof environmentaland developmen-
tal policy formulationconsistentwith long-termgoalsof
sustainabledevelopment.Currentresearchin this area
shouldbe broadenedto includemore involvementof the
publicin establishinglong-termsocietalgoalsforformu-
lating the sustainabledevelopmentscenarios;
(d) Develop,apply and institutethe necessary toolsfor
sustainabledevelopment,with regardto:
(i) Quality-of-life indicators covering, for example,
health, education,social welfare, state of the environ-
ment, and the economy;
(ii) Economic approachesto environmentallysound
developmentandnew andimprovedincentivestructures
for better resourcemanagement;
(iii) Long-termenvironmentalpolicy formulation,risk
managementandenvironmentallysoundtechnologyas-
sessment;
(e) Collect,analyseand integratedataon the linkages
betweenthe stateof ecosystemsand the healthof hurnan
 communitiesin order to improve knowledgeof the cost
and benefit of different development policies and
strategiesin relation to health and the environment,
particularlyin developingcountries;
(0 Conductscientificstudiesof nationaland regional
pathwaysto sustainable development,usingcomparable
and complementarymethodologies.Such studies,coor-
dinated by an internationalscienceeffort. should to a
largeextentinvolve local expertiseand be conductedby
multidisciplinaryteamsfrom regionalnetworksand/or
researchcentres,asappropriateandaccordingto national
capacitiesand the availableresources;
(g) Improve capabilitiesfor determiningscientificre-
searchprioritiesat thenational,regionalandgloballevels
to meetthe needsof sustainabledevelopment.This is a
processthat involves scientific judgementsregarding
short-termandlong-terntbenefitsandpossiblelong-term
costsand risks. It shouldbe adaptiveand responsiveto
perceivedneedsandbe carriedout via transparent,"user-
friendly", risk-evaluationmethodologies :
(h) Developmethodsto link the findings of the estab-
lishedsciences with the indigenousknowledgeof differ-
ent cultures.The methodsshould be testedusing pilot
studies.They shouldbe developedat the local level and
shouidconcentrateon the links betweenthe traditional
knowledgeof indigenoLls groupsandcorresponding,cur-
rent "advancedscience",with particularfocus on dis-
serninatingand applying the results to environmental
protectionand sustainable development.
MEANS
OFIMPLEMENTATION
Ai F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
35.8 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about$150 million,
including about$30 million from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of'-magnitude
estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsand finan-
ciai terms,includingany thatarenon-concessional, will
dependupon, inter ulia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
B / S C/ F NI I F I C
A N D T E C H N OL OGICME
AL AN S
35.9 The scientificand technoloeical
meansincludethe
follorving:
(a) Supportingnew scientific researchprogrammes,
includingtheir socio-ecclnomic
andhumanaspects, at the
community,national, subregional,regional and global
levels,to complementandencouragesynergiesbetween
traditional and conventionalscientific knowledge and
practicesand strengtheninginterdisciplinaryresearch
relatedto environmentaldegradationand rehabilitation:
(b) Settingup demonstrationmodelsof differenr types
(e.9., socio-economic,environmentalconditions) to
studymethodologiesand formulateguidelines;
(c) Supporting researchby developing relative-risk
evaluationmethodsto assistpolicy makersin ranking
scientific researchpriorities.
B) ENHANCTNGSC|ENTIFIC
UNDERSTANDTNG
BASIS
FORACTION
35.10In ordertopromotesustainable development, more
extensiveknowledge is required of the Earth's carrying
capacity,includingthe processes thatcould eitherimpair
or enhanceits ability to supportlife. The globalenviron-
ment is changingmorerapidly thanat any time in recent
centuries;as a result,surprisesmay be expected,and the
next century coul d see si gni fi cant envi ronment al
changes.At the sametime, the humanconsumptionof
energy,waterand non-renewable resourcesis increas-
ing, on both a total anda per capitabasis,andshortages
may ensuein many partsof the world even if environ-
mental conditionswere to remain unchanged.Social
processesare subjectto multiple variationsacrosstime
and space,regions and culture. They both affect and
are influencedby changingenvironmentalconditions.
Human factors are key driving forcesin theseintricate
setsof relationshipsand exert their influencedirectly
on global change. Therefore, study of the human
dimensionsof the causesand consequences of envi-
ronmental changeand of more sustainabledevelop-
ment pathsi s essenti al .
OBJEC'IIVES
35.11One key objectiveis to improveand increasethe
fundamental understandingof the linkages between
human and naturalenvironmentalsystemsand improve
the analytical and predictive tools required to better
understandthe environmentalimpactsof development
optionsby:
(a) Carrying out researchprogrammesin order better to
understandthecarryingcapacityof the Eafih asconditioned
by its naturalsystems,suchas the biogeochemicalcycles,
the atmosphereftrydro sphere sys-
sphere/li thosphere/cryo
tem,thebiosphereandbiodiversity,theagro-ecosystem and
otherterrestrialand aquaticecosystems:
(b) Developingand applying new analyticaland pre-
259
 dictive tools in orderto assessmore accuratelythe ways
in which the Earth'snaturalsystemsare being increas-
ingly influencedby human actions,both deliberateand
inadvertent,and demographictrends,and the impact and
consequences of thoseactionsand trends;
(c) Integratingphysical,economicand socialsciences
in orderbetterto understand the impactsof economicand
socialbehaviouron theenvironmentandof environmen-
tal degradationon local and global economies.
ACTIVITIES
35.12The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Supportdevelopmentof an expandedmonitoring
networkto describecycles(for example.global,biogeo-
chemical and hydrologicalcycles) and test hypotheses
regardingtheir behaviour,and improveresearchinto the
interactionsamong the various global cycles and their
consequences at national, subregional,regional and
global levelsas guidesto toleranceand vulnerability;
(b) Supportnational,subregional,regionaland interna-
tional observationand researchprogrammesin global at-
mosphericchemistryand the sourcesand sinks of green-
housegases,and ensurethat the resultsare presentedin a
publicly accessible and understandable form;
(c) Supportnational,subregional, regionalandinterna-
tional researchprograrnmeson marine and terrestrial
systems,strengthenglobal terrestrialdatabases of their
components, expandcorrespondi ng systernsfor monitoring
their changingstatesand enhancepredictivemodellingof
the Earth systemand its subsystems, including modelling
of the f'unctioningof these systemsassumingdifferent
intensities of human impact. The researchprogrammes
shouldincludethe programmesmentionedin otherAgenda
2l chapterswhich suppoftmechanisms for cooperationand
coherenceof researchprogrammeson global change;
(d) Encouragecoordinationof satellitemissions,the
networks, systemsand proceduresfor processingand
disseminatingtheir data;and developthe intertacewith
the researchusersof Earth observationdata and with the
United NarionsEARTHWATCH sysrem;
(e) Developthe capacityfor predictingthe responses
of
terrestrial,freshwater,coastaland marineecosystemsand
biodiversityto short- and long-term pernrrbationsof the
environment,anddevelopfurtherrestorationecology;
(0 Studythe role of biodiversityandthe lossof species
in the functioningof ecosystems and the global life-sup-
port system:
(g) Initiate a global observing system of parameters
neededfor therationalmanagement of coastalandmountain
zones and significantly expand freshwaterquantity/
quality monitoring systems,particularlyin developing
countries;
260
(h) In order to undentandthe Earth as a system,develop
Eatth observationsystemsfrom spacewhich will provide
integrated,continuousand long-termmeasurements of the
interactionsof theatmosphere, hydrosphereandlithosphere,
anddevelopa distributionsystemfor datawhich will facilitate
the utilizationof dataobtainedthroughobservation;
(i) Develop and apply sysremsand technologythat
automaticallycollect,recordand transmitdataand infor-
mation to data and analysiscentres,in order to monitor
marine,terrestrialandatmosphericprocesses andprovide
advancewarningof naturaldisasters;
0) Enhancethe contributionof the engineeringscien-
ces to multidisciplinary researchprogrammes on the
Earth system, in particular with regard to increasing
emergencypreparednessand reducing the negativeef_
fectsof major naturaldisasters;
(k) Intensify researchto integratethe physical,eco-
nomic and social sciencesto better understandthe im-
pactsof economicand socialbehaviouron the environ-
ment and of environmentaldegradationon local and
global economiesand, in particular:
(i) Developresearchon humanattitudesandbehaviouras
driving forcescentralto an understandingof the causesand
consequences of environmentalchangeand resourceuse;
(ii) Promoteresearchon human,economicand social
responses to global change;
(l) Supportdevelopmentof new user-friendlytechnol-
ogiesand systemsthatfacilitatetheintegrationof multidis-
ciplinary,physical,chemical,biologicalanclsocialhuman
processeswhich, in tum, provide informationand know_
ledgefor decisionmakersand the generalpublic.
MEANSOFIMPTEMENTATION
Ai F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALTJATTON
35.13 The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver_
age totai annualcosr (1993-2000)of implemenringthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about $2 billion, in-
cluding about $ 1.5 billion from the internationalcom-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments. Actual costsandfinancial
terms,includinganythatarenon-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
Bi sc/ENI/FtCAND TECHNOLOGTCAL
MEANS
35.14The scientificandtechnologicalmeansincludethe
following:
(a) Supportingand usingtherelevantnationalresearch
 activities of academia,researchinstitutesand govern-
ing indigenousapproaches,
for the differentscalesof time
mental and non-governmentalorganizations,und pro_
and spacerequiredfor long-termpolicy formulation.
moting their active participationin regionalano gtobat
programmes,particularlyin developingcountries;
(b) Increasingthe useof appropriateenabling ACTIVITIES
systems
and technologies,such as supercomputers, space_based 35'17 The following activitiesshourdbe under-taken:
observational technology,Earth-andocean-based obser- (a) Coordinateexisting data- and statistics-gathering
vational technologies,data managementand database
systemsrelevantto developmentaland environ
technologiesand, in particular,developingand expand_ .ntur
issuessoasto supportpreparationof rong-term
ing the Global Climate ObservingSystem. scientific
assessments - for example,dataon resource
depletion,
import/export flows, energy use, health impacts
and
c) |frrpRovtNc t oNG-TERlr SCtENTtFtc demographictrends;apply the dataobtainedthrough
the
ASSESSMENT activities identified in programmearea B to
environ-
ment/developmentassessments at the global, regional
and local levels;andpromotethe wide distribution
of the
BASIS FORACTION assessments in a form that is responsiveto public needs
35.15 Meeting scientificresearchneedsin the and can be widely understood;
environ-
ment/development field is only the first stepin the sup_ (b) Develop a methodorogyto carryout
nationaland
port that the sciencescan provide for the regionalauditsand a five-yeargtobaraudit
sustainabre on an inte-
developmentprocess.The knowledgeacquiredmay gratedbasis.The standardized auditsshouldhelpto refine
then
be usedto provide scientificassessments (audits)of the the patternand characterof development,examining
in
currentstatusand for a rangeof possiblefuture particularthe capacitiesof globarand regionar
condi- life-s"up-
tions.This impliesthatthe biospheremustbe maintained porting systemsto meet the needsof
human and non_
in a healthystateand that lossesin biodiversity human life forms and identifying areasand
must be resources
sloweddown. Althoughmany of the long_term vulnerableto further degradation.This task
environ_ would in-
mental changesthat are likely to affect people volve the integrationof arl rerevantsciences
and the at the na-
biosphereare globarin scare,key chang", .un often tional, regional, and global levels, and would
be be or_
madeat the nationarand local revels.At the same ganized by governmentalagencies,non_governmental
time,
human activitiesat the locar and regionarlevels or ganizations, universities and researchinititutions,
often as-
contributeto global threats- €.g., stratospheric sisted by internationalgovernmentaland non_govern_
ozone
depletion. Thus scientificassessments mentalorganizationsand united Nations bodiei
and projections when
arerequiredat theglobal,regionalandlocallevers. necessaryand as appropriate.Theseaudits
Many shouldthen
countries and organizationsalready preparereports be madeavailableto the generalpublic.
on
the environmentand deveropmentwhich review
current
conditionsand indicate future trends.Regional
and MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
global assessments courd make full use of such reports
but shouldbe broaderin scopeand include F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALI,JATION
the results
of detailedstudiesof future conditionsfor a
rangeof
assumptionsabout possiblefuture human ,.rpoi..r,
35'18 The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
using the best avairablemoders. Such assersments
age total annualcost (1993_2000)of implementing
should be designedto map out manageable the
develop_ activities of this progranrmeto be about
ment pathwayswithin the environmentaland $35 million,
socio- i ncl udi ng about $18 mi l l i on from the i nternati on al
economiccarrying capacityof each region.
Full use community on grant or concessionalterms.
shouldbe made of traditionalknowredgeof Theseare
the rocal indicativeand order-of-magnitude
e n v ir onm ent . estimatesonly and
have not beenreviewedby Governments.Actuar
costs
and financial terms,including any that are
non_
OBJECNVES concessi onalw, i l l dependupon,i nteral i a,the
speci fic
strategiesand programmesGovernmentsdecid.
35.16The primaryobjectiveis to provideassessments upon
of for implementation.
the currentstafusand trendsin major developmental
and 35.19 With regard to the existing data requirements
environmentalissuesat the national,subregional,regionar
underprogrammeareaA, supporishould provided
andgloballevelson thebasisof the bestavailablescientific be
for nationaldatacollectionand warningsystems.
knowledgein orderto deveropartemativestrategies, This
includ- would involve setting up database,information
and

261
r epor t ing s y s te ms ,i n c l u d i n g d a ta a s sessmentand
inf or m at i o nd i s s e mi n a ti o ni n e a c h re g ion.
D) BUlLDll.lGUP SCIE].InFrcCAPACITYAD.IDC/N4BUTY
BASIS FORACTION
35.20In view of the increasingrole the scienceshaveto
play in dealingwith the issuesof environmentanddevel-
opment,it is necessary to build up scientificcapacityand
strengthensuchcapacityin all countries- particularly
in developingcountries- to enablethem to participate
fully in the generationand applicationof the resultsof
scientificresearchand developmentconcerningsustain-
able development.There are many ways to build up
scientificand technologicalcapacity.Someof the most
importantof themarethe following: educationandtraining
in scienceand technology;assistance to developingcoun-
tries to improve infrastructuresfor researchand develop-
ment which could enablescientiststo work more produc-
tively; developmentof incentivesto encourage researchand
development;and greaterutilizationof their resultsin the
productivesectorsof theeconomy.Suchcapacity-building
would alsoform the basisfor improving public awareness
and understanding of ttresciences.Specialemphasismust
be put on the need to assist developingcountriesto
strengthen theircapacitiesto studytheirown resourcebases
andecologicalsystemsand managethem betterin orderto
meetnational,regionalandglobalchallenges.Furthermore,
in view of the sizeandcomplexityof globalenvironmental
problems,a needfor more specialistsin severaldisciplines
hasbecomeevidentworld wide.
OBJECTIVES
35.21The primary objectiveis to improve the scientific
capacitiesof all countries- in particular,thoseof de-
velopingcountries- with specificregardto:
(a) Education,trainingand facilitiesfor local research
and developmentand human resourcedevelopmentin
basic scientific disciplinesand in environment-related
sciences,utilizing whereappropriatetraditionalandlocal
knowledgeof sustainability:
(b) A substantialincreaseby the year 2000 in the
numberof scientists - particularlywomenscientists -
in thosedevelopingcountrieswhere their number is at
presentinsufficient;
(c) Reducingsignificantlytheexodusof scientistsfrom
developingcountriesand encouragingthose who have
left to return;
(d) Improvingaccessto relevantinformationfor scien-
tists and decision makers,with the aim of improving
public awarenessand participationin decision-making;
262
(e) Involvementof scientistsin national,regionaland
global environmentaland developmentalresearchpro-
grammes,includingmultidisciplinaryresearch;
(f) P eri odi c academi c update o1' sci en t ist sf r om
developingcountriesin their respectivefields o1'know-
ledse.
ACTIVITIES
35.22The following activitiesshouldbe undertaken:
(a) Promotetheeducationandtrainingof scientists, not
only in theirdisciplinesbut alsoin theirability to identili,
manageand incorporateenvironmentalconsiderations
into researchand developmentprojects:ensurethat a
sound base in natural systetns,ecology and resource
management is provided:anddevelopspecialists capable
of working in interdisciplinaryprogrammesrelatedto
environmentand development,including the field of
appliedsocialsciences;
(b) Strengthenthe scientificinfrastructurein schools,
universities and researchinstitutions -- particularly
those in developingcountries- by the provision of
adequatescientific equipment and accessto current
scientific literature,for the purposeof achieving and
sustaining a criticalmassof highly qualifiedscientists in
thesecountries;
(c) Developandexpandnationalscientificandtechno-
logical databases, processingdatain unifiedformatsand
systems,andallowing full andopenaccessto thedeposi-
tory libraries of regional scientific and technological
informationnetworks. Prornotesubmissionof scientific
andtechnologicalinformationanddatabases to globalor
regionaldatacentresand network systems;
(d) Developand expandregionaland global scientific
and technologicalinformationnetworkswhich arebased
on and linked to national scientific and technological
databases;collect, processand disseminateinfonnation
from regional and global scientificprogrammes;expand
activitiesto reduceinformationbarriersdue to language
differences. Increasettre applications- particularly in
developingcountries- of cornputer-based retrievalsys-
temsin ordertocopewith thegrowthof scientiflcliterature;
(e) Develop, strengthenand forge new partnerships
among national,regional and global capacitiestcl pro-
mote the full and open exchangeof scientificand tech-
nologicaldataandinformationand to facilitatetechnical
assistance relatedto environmentallysoundand sustain-
able development.This shouldbe done throughthe de-
velopmentof mechanismsfor the sharingof basic re-
search,data and inforrnation,and the improvementand
developmentof intemationalnetworksand centres,in-
cluding regional linking vr'ithnational scientiflc data-
bases,for research,trainingand monitoring.Suchmech-
anismsshouldbe designedso asto enhanceprofessional
cooperationamong scientistsin all countriesand to es-
tablish strong national and regional alliancesbetween
industryand researchinstitutions;
(0 Improve and develop new links betweenexisting
networksof naturaland socialscientistsand universities
at the internationallevel in order to strengthennational
capacitiesin the formulation of policy optionsin thefield
of environmentand development;
(g) Compile, analyseand pubiish information on in-
digenousenvironmentaland developmentalknowledge,
and assistthe communitiesthat possesssuchknowledge
to benefit from them.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F'NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATTON
35.23 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-2000)of implementing the
activitiesof this programmeto be about $750 million,
including about $470 million from the intemationalcom-
munityon grantor concessional terms.Theseareindicative
and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financial
terms,includinganyttratarenon-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes
Governmentsdecideupon for implementation.
8/ SC/FNilF'CAND TECHNOLOG\CAL
MEANS
35.24Suchmeansincludeincreasingand strengthening
regional multidisciplinary researchand training net-
works and centresmaking optimal use of existing fa-
cilitiesandassociatedsustainabledevelopmentandtech-
nology supportsystemsin developingregions.Promote
and use the potentialof independentinitiativesand in-
digenousinnovationsand entrepreneurship.The func-
tion of such networks and centrescould include. for
example:
(a) Supportand coordinationof scientificcooperation
amongall nationsin the region;
(b) Linking with monitoringcentresand carryingout
assessment of environmentaland developmentalcondi-
tions;
(c) Support and coordinationof national studies of
pathwaystowardssustainable development;
(d) Organizationof scienceeducationand training;
(e) Establishmentand maintenanceof information,
monitoringand assessment systemsand databases.
c) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG
35.25Capacity-buildingincludesthe fbllowing:
(a) Creatingconditions(e.g., salaries,equipment,li-
braries)to ensurethat the scientistswill work effectively
in their home countries;
(b) Enhancingnational,regionaland global capacities
forcarrying out scientificresearchandapplyingscientific
and technologicalinformation to environmentallysound
and sustainabledevelopment. This includesa need to
increasefinancial resource sfor globalandregionalscien-
tific and technologicalinformationnetworks,as may be
appropriate,so that they will be able to function effec-
tively and efflcientlyin satisfyingthe scientificneedsof
developingcountries. Ensurethe capacity-buildingof
women by recruitingmore women in researchand re-
searchtrainins.
263
 educotion,
Promoting ondtroining
publicoworeness
3 6

While basiceducationprovidesthe underpinningfor any

INTRODUCTION
environmentaland developmenteducation,the latter
needsto be incorporatedas an essentialpart of leaming.
Both fonnal educationand non-formal educationare
36.1 Education.raisingof publicawareness andtraining indispensable to changingpeople'sattitudesso that they
are linked to virtually all areas in Agenda 21, and even havethe capacityto assessand addresstheir sustainable
more closelyto the oneson meeting basic needs, capac- developmentconcerns"It is also critical for achieving
ity-building.data and information, science, and the role environmentaland ethical awareness,values and atti-
of major groups. This chapter sets out broad proposals, tudes,skills and behaviourconsistentwith sustainable
while specificsuggestionsrelatedto sectoralissuesare developmentand for effective public participationin
containedin otherchapters.The DeciarationandRecom- decision-making.To be eff'ective,environmentand de-
mendationsof the Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conference velopmenteducationshould deal with the dynamicsof
on Environmental Education,l organizecl by UNESCO both the physical/biologicaland socio-economicenvi-
and UNEP and held in l9ll, have provided the fun- ronmentandhuman(which may includespiritual)devel-
damental principles for the proposals in this document. opment,shouldbeintegratedin all disciplines,andshould
36,2 Programmeareasdescribedin the presentchapter employ formal and non-formal rnethodsand effective
are: meansof communication.
(a) Reorientingeducationtowardssustainable devel-
opment:
(b) Increasingpublicawareness:
(c) Prornotingtraining. OBJECTIVES
36..1Recognizingthat countriesand,regionaland inter-
nationalorganizationswill developtheir own priorities
and schedulesfbr irnplementationin accordancewith
P R O G R A M MAER E A S their needs,policiesand programmes.the following ob-
jectivesareproposed:
(a) To endorsethe recommendations arisingfrom the
A) REORTENTTNG TOWARDS
EDUCATTON World Conf'erence on Educationfor All: Meeting Basic
DEVETOPMENT
SUSTAINABLE Learning Needs2(Jomtien.Thailand,5-9 March 1990)
andto striveto ensureuniversalaccessto basiceducation,
and to achieveprimary educationfor at least80 per cent
FORACTION
BASIS of girls and 80 per cent of boys of prirnary schoolage
36.3 Education,including formal education,public through formal schoolingor non-fornraleducationand
awareness andtraining,shouldberecognized asa process to reducetheadultilliteracyrateto at leasthalf of its I 990
b1' which human beingsand societiescan reachtheir focuson reducingthehigh illiteracy
level. Effortsshor-rld
fullestpotential.Educationis criticalfor promotingsus- levelsand redressingthe lack of basiceducationamong
tainabledevelopmentand improvingthe capacityof the women and shouldbring their literacylevelsinto line
peopleto addressenvironmentand development issues. with thoseof men:

264
(b) To achieveenvironmentalanddevelopmentaware-
nessin all sectorsof societyon a world-wide scaleas
soonas possible;
(c) To striveto achievetheaccessibilityof environmen-
tal and developmenteducation,linked to social educa-
tion, from primary school age through adulthood to all
groups of people;
(d) To promote integrationof environmentand devel-
opment concepts,including dernography,in all educa-
tionalprogrammes, in particulartheanalysisof thecauses
of major environmentand developmentissuesin a local
context,drawingon thebestavailablescientificevidence
and other appropriatesourcesof knowledge,and giving
special emphasisto the further training of decision
makers at all levels.
ACTIVITIES
36.5 Recognizingthatcountriesandregionalandinter-
national organizationswill develop their own priorities
and schedulesfor implementationin accordancewith
their needs,policiesand prografitmes,the following ac-
tivities are proposed:
(a) All countriesareencouragedto endorsethe recom-
mendationsof the Jomtien Conferenceand strive to
ensureits Frameworkfor Action. This would encompass
the preparation of national strategiesand actions for
meetingbasiclearningneeds,universalizingaccessand
promoting equity, broadening the means and scope of
education,developinga supportingpolicy context,mobi-
lizing resourcesand strengtheninginternationalcooper-
ation to redressexisting economic, social and gender
disparitieswhich interferewith theseaims.Non-govern-
mentalorganizationscanmake an importantcontribution
in designingandimplementingeducationalprogrammes
and shouldbe recognized;
(b) Governments should strive to update or prepare
strategiesaimedat integratingenvironmentand develop-
ment as a cross-cuttingissueinto educationat all levels
within the next three years. This should be done in
cooperation with all sectorsof society. The strategies
shouldsetout policiesand activities,and identify needs,
cost, means and schedulesfor their implementation,
evaluationand review. A thoroughreview of curricula
should be undertakento ensurea multidisciplinaryap-
proach,with environmentand developmentissuesand
their socioculturaland demographicaspectsand link-
ages.Due respectshouldbe givento community-defined
needsanddiverseknowledgesystems,includingscience,
culturaland socialsensitivities;
(c) Countriesare encouragedto set up nationaladvi-
sory environmentaleducationcoordinating bodies or
round tables representativeof various environmental,
developmental,educational,genderand other interests.
includingnon-governmental organizations, to encourage
partnerships,help mobilize resources,and provide a
source of information and focal point for international
ties. These bodies would help mobilize and facilitate
different populationgroupsand communitiesto assess
their own needsand to develop the necessaryskills to
createand implemeuttheir own environmentand devel-
opmentinitiatives:
(d) Educationalauthorities.with theappropriateassist-
ance from community groups or non-governmental
organizations,are recommendedto assist or set up
pre-serviceand in-servicetraining programmesfbr all
teachers,administrators,and educationalplanners,as
well as non-formaleducatorsin all sectors.addressing
the nature and methodsof environmentaland develop-
ment educationand making use of reler,'antexperience
of non-governmentalor ganizations;
(e) Relevantauthoritiesshouldensurethateveryschool
is assistedin designing environmentalactivity work
plans, with the participation of studentsand staff.
Schoolsshould involve schoolchildrenin local and re-
gional studieson environmentalhealth.including safe
drinking-water,sanitationand food and ecosystems, and
in relevantactivities,linking thesestudieswith services
andresearchin nationalparks,wildlife reserves, ecologi-
cal heritagesitesetc.;
(0 Educationalauthoritiesshouldpromoteprovenedu-
cational methods and the developmentof innovative
teachingmethodsfor educationalsettings.They should
alsorecognizeappropriatetraditionaleducationsystems
in local communities;
(g) Within two yearstheUnited Narionssystemshould
undertakea comprehensivereview of its educational
programmes,encompassing training and public aware-
ness,to reassesspriorities and reallocateresources.The
UNESCO/LTNEPInternational EnvironmentalEducation
Programmeshould,in cooperationwith the appropriate
bodiesof the UnitedNationssystem,Governments, non-
governmentalorganizationsand others,establisha pro-
gramniewithin two yearsto integratethedecisionsof the
Conferenceinto the existingUnited Nationsframework
adaptedto the needsof eclucators at differentlevelsand
circumstances. Regionalorganizations andnationalauth-
oritiesshouldbe encouraged to elaboratesimilarparallel
programmesandopportunitiesbiuconductingan analysis
of how to mobilize differentsectorsof the populationin
order to assessand addresstheir environmentaland
developmenteducationneeds;
(h) There is a need to strengthen,within five years.
information exchangeby enhancingtechnologiesand
capacitiesnecessarvto promoteenvironmentand devel-
opment education and public atvareness.Countries
265
should cooperatc rvith cach other and with the various femalesin advancedprogrammesasstudentsandinstruc-
social sectors and population grclups to prepare educa- tors,reforming entranceanclteacherstaffingpoliciesand
ticlnaltools that include regional environment and devel- providing incentivesfor establishingchild-carefacilities.
opment issues and initiativcs, using learning materials as appropriate.Priority shouldbe given to educationof
and resourcessuited to their owtt requirentcnts: young femalesand to programmespromoting literacy
(i) Countriescould supportuniversity and othertertiary amongwomen;
activities and networks for environmental and develop- (n) Governmentsshouldaffirrnthc rightsof indigenous
ment education. Crclss-disciplinary courses could be peoples,by legislationif necessary, to use their experi-
Existing regionalnetworks
made availableto ailstr"rdents. ence and understandingof sustainabledevelopmentto
and ac:tivitiesand national university actions which pro- play a part in educationand training:
mote researchand cotntnon teaching apprclacheson sus- (o) The United Nationscould maintaina monitoring
tainable develclpntent should be built upon. and ncw and evaluativerole regardingdecisionsof the United
partnershipsand bridges created with the businessand NationsConferenceon }invironmentand Developlnent
other independent sectors,as well as with all countries, on educationandawareness, throughthe relevantUnited
for technology. know-how, aud knowledge exchange; Nations agencies.With Governrnentsand non-govern-
0) Countries,assistcdby internationalorganizations,non- mental organizations, as appropriate,it shouldpresent
governmental organizations and other sectors, could and disseminatedecisionsin a variety of fonns, and
strengthenor cstablishnatiotlalor rcgional centresof excel- shouldensurethecontinuousimplementationandreview
lence in irrterdisciplinaryresearchand educalionin environ- of the educationalimplicationsof Conferencedecisions,
rnental and developtttetttalsciences,law and the manage- in particularthroughrelevanteventsand conferences.
rnent of specific environntental problems. Such centres
could be urtiversitir'sor cristing networks in each country
or region. prornotitig coopel'ativcresearchand infonnation MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
sharing and disscrnirtatiott.At the giobal level these func- F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALUATION
tions should Lrcperlirnred by appropriateinstitutions:
(k) Countrics :hoLtlcll'acilitateand promote non-formal
36.6 The Conferencesecretariat has estimatedthe aver-
e d u c a t i o n a c t i r i t i c - su t t l t c l o c a l . r e g i o n a l a n c l n a t i o n a l
age total annualcost (1993-2000) of implementingthe
levcls bl, cooperatitt-ruith ancl supporting the efforts of
activitiesof this programme to be about $8 billion to
non- fbnn al cch.rc ators alid ot hcr cotnntunity -basedorg an-
$9 billion, includingabout $3.5 billion to $4.5 billion
izations. l'hc applopriatc bodies of the tJnited Nations
from the intemationalcommunity on grant or conces-
systern irt cooperittiort',r'ithnon-govemrnentalorganiza-
sional terms.Theseare indicatir.'c and order-ot--magni-
tions should c-rtcountsctht: dr-r'cloptnentof an intemational
tude estimatesonly and have not treen reviewed by
network fbr the achiei entcrtttr1-globaleducationalaims. At
Governments. Actualcostsandfinancialterms,including
the nationaland ltrcal lcrcls. public and scholasticforums
any that are non-concessional, will dependupon. inter
and development issues,and
should discussertviront.t.tcntal
alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovern-
suggestsustaitrablealtctratil'cs to policy makers;
mentsdecideupon for irnplementation.
(l) Educational authoritics.u'ith appropriateassistance
36.7 In the light of country-specificsituations,more
of non-governmental orgattizations.including women's
support for education,training and public itwareness
and indigenous pr-oplcs'orgartizations.should promote
activitiesrelatedto environmentanddevelopment could
all kinds of adult educatron progralnmes for continuing
be provided,in appropriatecases, through measures such
education in environntent and delelclpment, basing ac-
as the following:
tivities around eletuentarv/secondauy schools and local
(a) Giving higher priority to thosesectorsin budget
problerns.These authoritics and industry should encour-
allocations,protectingthem from structuralcutting re-
age business,industlial and agricultrrral schocllsto in-
'Ihe quirernents;
clude such topics in their curricula. corporate sector
(b) S hi fti ng al l ocati onsw i thi n exi sti ng educat ion
could include sustainabledeveloprttcntin their education
budgetsin favour of primarv education,with focus on
and training programtncs. Prograrnntcs at a postgraduatc
environmentand development;
ler el shoLrldincludc specitic courscsainting at the f'urther
(c) Promotingconditiclnswhere a larger shareof the
t r a i n i n g o f d e c i s i o nm a k e r s ;
cost is borne by local communities,with rich com-
(nr ) Gor ernments and educational authoritics should
munitiesassistingpoorerones:
opportunitics for wollten itl non-traditional fields
l'ostc-r'
(d) Obtaining additional funds fiom private donors
a n dc l i n r i r t a t cg en d er s t e r e o t y p i n gi n c u r r i c u l a .T h i s c o u l d
concentratingon the poorestcountries,and thosewith
b e d o r r eh r i r n p r o v t n ge n r o l m e n to p p o r t u n i t i e si.n c l u d i n g
ratesof literacybelow 40 per cent;

266
(e) Encouragingdebt for educationswaps;
(0 Lifting restrictionson privateschoolingandincreas-
ing the flow of funds from and to non-govemmental
organizations,including small-scalegrass-rootsorgani-
zations;
(g) Promotingthe effective use of existing facilities,
for example,multiple schoolshifts,fuller development
of open universitiesand other long-distanceteaching;
(h) Facilitatinglow-costor no-costuseof massmedia
for the purposesof education;
(i) Encouragingtwinning of universitiesin developed
and developingcountries.
Bl TNGREASTNG
PUBUCAWARENESS
FORAC-TON
BASIS
36.8 Thereis still a considerable
lack of awareness
of the
interrelatednatureof all human activitiesand the envi-
ronment,due to inaccurateor insufficientinformation.
Developingcountriesin particularlack relevanttech-
nologies and expertise.There is a need to increase
public sensitivity to environment and development
problemsand involvementin their solutionsand foster
a senseof personalenvironmentalresponsibilityand
greatermotivation and commitmenttowards sustain-
able development.
OBJECTIVE
36.9 The objectiveis to promotebroadpublic awareness
as an essential part of a global education effort to
strengthenattitudes.valuesand actionswhich are com-
patible with sustainabledevelopment.It is inrportantto
stresstheprincipleof devolvingauthority',
accountability
and resourcesto the most appropriatelevel with pref-
erence given to local responsibilityand control over
awareness-buildins activities.
ACTMTIES
36.10 Recognizingthat countriesand regionalandinter-
nationalorganizationswill developtheir own priorities
and schedulesfor implementationin accordancewith
their needs,policiesand programmes,the following ac-
tivities are proposed:
(a) Countries should strengthenexisting advisory
bodies or establishnew ones for public environment
and developmentinformation,and should coordinate
ac t iv it ieswit h , a m o n go th e rs th
, eU n i te dN a ti ons,non-
gov er nm enta lo rg a n i z a ti o n sa n d i mp o rta nt medi a.
They shouldencouragepublic participationin discus-
s ions of env i ro n me n ta lp o l i c i e s a n d a s s essments.
Governmentsshouldalsofacilitateandsupportnational
to localnetworkinsof informationthroushexistinsnet-
works;
(b) The United Nationssystemshouldimproveits out-
reachin the courseof a review of its educationandpublic
awareness activitiesto promotegreaterinvolvementand
coordinationof all parts of the system,especiallyits
informationbodiesand regionaland countryoperations.
Systematicsun/eys of the impact of awarenesspro-
grammesshouldbeconducted,recognizingtheneedsand
contributionsof specificcommunitygroups;
(c) Countriesand regionalorganizationsshouldbe en-
couraged,asappropriate,to providepublic environmen-
tal and developmentinformationservicesfor raisingthe
awarenessof all groups,the private sectorand particu-
larly decisionmakers;
(d) Countries should stimulate educationalestab-
lishmentsin all sectors,especiallythe tertiary sector,to
contributemoreto awareness building. Educationalma-
terialsof all kinds arrdfor all audiencesshouldbe based
on thebestavailablescientificinformation,includingthe
natural,behaviouraland socialsciences,and taking into
accountaestheticand ethicaldimensions;
(e) Countriesand the United Nations system should
promotea cooperativerelationshipwith the media,popu-
lar theatre groups. and entertainmentand advertising
industriesby initiatingdiscussions to mobilizetheirex-
periencein shapingpublic behaviourand consumption
patternsand making wide use of their methods. Such
cooperation wouldalsoincrease theactivepublicpartici-
pationin thedebateon theenvironment.UNICEF should
make child-orientedmaterial availableto rnediaas an
educational tool,ensuringclosecooperation betweenthe
out-of-schoolpublic information sectorand the school
cuniculum,f or the primarylevel.UNESCO,UNEP and
universitiesshouldenrichpre-servicecurriculafor jour-
nalistson environmentand development topics;
(f) Countries,in cooperationwith the scientificcom-
munity, should establishways of employing rnodern
communicationtechnologiesfor effective public out-
reach. National and local educationalauthoritiesand
relevantLlnitedNationsagenciesshouldexpand,as ap-
propriate,the useof audio-visualmethods,especiallyin
rural areasin mobile units,by producingtelevisionand
radio prograrnmesfor developingcountries,involving
local participation,employing interactivemultimedia
methods and integratingadvancedmethodswith fblk
media;
(g) Countriesshouldpromote,asappropriate.environ-
mentallysoundleisureand tourisrnactivities,building
on The Hague Declarationof Tourism (1989) and the
current prograrnmesof the World Tourism Organization
and UNEP, making suitableuse of museums,heritage
267
sites,zoos.botanicalgardens,nationalparks,and other
protectedtreas;
(h) Countriesshouldencouragenon-governmental or-
ganizationsto increasetheirinvolvementin environnten-
tal and developmentproblems,throughjoint awareness
initiativesand improvedinterchangewith otherconstit-
uenciesin society;
(i) Countriesand the United Nations system shouid
increasetheir interactionwith and include,as appropri-
ate,indigenouspeoplein the management, planningand
developmentof their local environment,and shouldpro-
mote disseminationof traditionaland socially leamed
knowledgethroughmeansbasedon local customs,espe-
cially in rural areas,integrating these efforts with the
electronicmedia,wheneverappropriate;
0) UNICEF,LTNESCO,UNDPand non-governmental
organizatronsshould develop support programmes to
irrvolveyoung peopleand childrenin environmentand
developmentissues,suchas children'sand youth hear-
ings and building on decisionsof the World Summit for
Children(A/451625,annex);
(k) Countries,the UnitedNationsandnon-governmen-
tal organizationsshouldencouragemobilizationof both
men and women in awarenesscampaigns,stressingthe
role of the family in environmentalactivities,women's
contribution to transmissionof knowledge and social
valuesand the developmentof humanresources;
(l) Public awarenessshould be heightenedregarding
the impactsof violencein society.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALUATION
36.1I The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedthe aver-
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implernentingthe
activitiesof this programmeto be about $1.2 billion,
includingabout$110million from theinternational com-
munity on grantor concessional terms.Theseareindica-
tive andorder-of-magnitude estimatesonly andhavenot
beenreviewedby Governments.Actual costsandfinan-
cial terms,includingany that arenon-concessional, will
dependupon, inter alia, the specificstrategiesand pro-
grammesGovernmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
cl PRoMoTTNGTRATNTNG
BASISFORACTION
36.12Training is one of the most important tools to
develophumanresourcesand facilitatethe transitionto
a more sustainableworld. It shouldhave a job-specific
268
focus,aimed at filling gapsin knowledgeand skill that
would helpindividualsfind employmentandbe involved
in environmentaland developmentwork. At the same
time, training programmes should promote a greater
awarenessof environmentand developmentissuesas a
two-way learningprocess.
OBJECTIVES
36.13The following obiectivesare proposed:
(a) To establishor strengthenvocationaltrainingpro-
grammesthat meetthe needsof environmentand devel-
opment with ensuredacc:essto training opportunities,
regardlessof socialstatus,age,gender,raceor religion;
(b) To promote a flexible and adaptableworkforce of
variousagesequippedto meetgrowing environmentand
developmentproblems and changeserising from the
transitionto a sustainablesociety;
(c) To strengthennational capacities,particularly in
scientificeducationandtraining,to enableGovemments,
employersand workers to meet their environmentaland
developmentobjectivesand to facilitatethe transferand
assimilationof new environmentallysound,sociallyac-
ceptableand appropriatetechnologyand know-how;
(d) To ensurethatenvironmentalandhumanecological
considerations areintegratedat all manageriallevelsand
in all functionalmanagementareas,suchas rnarketing,
productionand finance.
ACTIVITIES
36.14Countrieswith the supportof the United Nations
system should identify workforce training needs and
assess measures to betakento meetthoseneeds.Areview
of progressin thisareacouldbe undertakenby theUnited
Nationssystemin 1995.
36.15Nationalprofessionalassociations areencouraged
to developand review their codesof ethicsand conduct
to strengthenenvironmentalconnectionsand commit-
ment. The training and personaldevelopmentcompo-
nentsof programmessponsoredby prof'essional bodies
shouldensureincorporationof skills and informationon
the implementationof sustainabledevelopmentat all
pointsof policy- and decision-making.
36.16Countriesandeducationalinstitutionsshouldinte-
grateenvironmentalanddevelopmental issuesinto exist-
ing trainingcurriculaand promotethe exchangeof their
methodologiesand evaluations.
36.17Countriesshouldencourageall sectorsof society,
such as industry,universities,governmentofticials and
employees,non-governrnental organizationsand com-
munity organizations, to includean envirclnmentalman-
agementcornponentin all relevant training activities,
 with emphasison meetingimmediateskill requirements UNDP for operationalactivities of the United Nations
through short-term formal and in-plant vocational and systemmay contributeto this end.
managementtraining.Environmentalmanagementtrain- 36.24Existingnetworksof employers'and workers'or-
ing capacitiesshould be strengthened, and specialized ganizations,industryassociationsandnon-governmental
"training of trainers" programmesshouldbe established organizationsshould facilitate the exchangeof experi-
to supporttraining at the national and enterpriselevels. ence concerningtraining and awarenessprograffrmes.
New training approachesfbr existing environmentally 36.25Governments,in cooperationwith relevantinter-
soundpracticesshouldbe developedthat createemploy- national organizations,should develop and implement
ment opportunitiesand make maximum use of local strategiesto deal with national,regionaland local envi-
resource-based methods. ronmentalthreatsand emergencies,emphasizingurgent
36.18Countriesshouldstrengthenor establishpractical practicaltraining andawarenessprogrammesforincreas-
training programmes for graduatesfrom vocational ing public preparedness.
schools,high schoolsanduniversities,in all countries,to 36.26The UnitedNationssystem,asappropriate, should
enablethem to meet labour market requirementsand to extend its training programmes,particularly its environ-
achievesustainablelivelihoods.Training and retraining mental training and supportactivitiesfor employers'and
programmesshould be establishedto meet structural workers'organization s.
adjustmentswhich have an impact on employmentand
skill qualifications.
36.19Governmentsare encouragedto consult with MEANSOF IMPLEMENIATION
people in isolated situations,whether geographicaily,
F/NANC/NGAND COSTEVALUATION
culturallyor socially,to ascertaintheir needsfor training
to enablethem to contributemore fully to developing
36.27 The Conferencesecretariathasestimatedthe aver-
sustainablework practicesand lifestyles.
age total annualcost (1993-2000)of implementingthe
36.20Governments, industry,tradeunions,andconsum-
activities of this programme to be about $5 billion,
ers shouldpromotean understandingof the interrelation-
including about $2 billion frorn the intemationalcom-
shipbetweengoodenvironmentandgoodbusinessprac-
munity on grantorconcessional terms.Theseareindicative
tices.
and order-of-magnitudeestimatesonly and have not been
36.21Countries should develop a service of locally
reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financial
trained and recruited environmentaltechniciansable to
provide local people and communities,particularly in terms,includinganythatarenon-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategiesand programmes
deprived urban and rural areas,with the servicesthey
require,startingfrom primary environmentalcare. Govemmentsdecideuponfor implementation.
36.22Countriesshouldenhancetheability to gainaccess
to, analyseand effectively use information and know-
ledgeavailableon environmentand development.Exist-
ing or established specialtrainingprogrammesshouldbe
strengthenedto support information needs of special
groups.The impact of theseprogrammeson produc-
tivity, health,safetyand employmentshouldbe evalu-
ated. National and regional environmentallabour-
marketinformationsystemsshouldbe developedthat
would supply,on a continuingbasis,dataon environ-
mental job and training opportunities.Environment
and developmenttraining resource-guides should be
prepared and updated, with information on training
programmes,curricula,methodologiesand evaluation
'
resultsat the local, national,regionaland international lnlergovernmentol Conference on EnvironmentolEducotion :
lev els . F i n o l R e p o r t( P o r i s ,U N E S C O , 1 9 7 8 } , c h o p . l l l .
36.23Aid agenciesshouldstrengthenthe trainingcom- t
ponentin all developmentprojects,emphasizinga multi- Finol Reportof the Wortd Conferenceon Educotionfor All:
Meeting BasicLeorningNeeds, Jomtien, Thoilond,5-9 Morch
disciplinaryapproach,promotingawareness andprovid- 1990 (New York,Inter-Agency (UNDP,UNESCO,
Commission
ing the necessaryskills for transitionto a sustainable UNICEF, World Bonklfor theWorld Conference
on Educotionfor
society.The environmentalmanagementguidelinesof All, 1990).

269
a7 Notionolmechonisms ond internotionol
cooperotion
\', f in developing
for copocity-building countries
P R O G R A M MAER E A
BASIS
FORACTION
37"l The abilityof a countryto lollow sustainable devel-
opment paths is detenninedto a large extent by the
capacityof its peopleand its institutionsaswell asby its
ecological and geographicalconditions. Specifically,
capacity-buildingencompasses the country's human,
scientific,technological,organizational,i n stitutionaland
resourcecapabilities.A fundamentalgoal of capacity-
building is to enhancethe ability to evaluateand address
the crucialquestionsrelatedto policy choicesand modes
of implementationamong developmentoptions, based
on an understandingof environmentalpotentialsand
limits and of needsas perceivedb1' the people of the
country concerned.As a result, the need to strengthen
nationalcapacitiesis sharedby all countries.
3 7 . 2B u i l d i n g e n d o g e n o u sc a p a c i t y t o i m p l e m e n t
Agenda21 will requirethe effortsof the countriesthem-
selvesin partnershipwith relevantUnitedNationsorgan-
izations.as well as with developedcountries.The inter-
national community at the national, subregionaland
regional levels, municipalitiesn , on-governmental
organizations, universitiesandresearch centres,andbusi-
ness and other private institutions and organizations
could also assistin theseet-forts.It is essentialfor indi-
vidual countriesto identify prioritiesand determinethe
meansfor building the capacityand capabilityto imple-
mentAgenda2l , takinginto accounttheirenvironmental
and economicneeds.Skills, knowledgeand technical
knou,-howat the individual and institutionallevels are
necessaryfbr institution-building, policy analysisand
developmentmanagement,including the assessment of
alternativecoursesof action with a view to enhancing
accessto and transferof technologyand promotingeco-
nomic development.Technicalcooperation.including
270
that relatedto technologytransf-erand krrow-how,en-
compassesthe whole range of activitiesto develop or
strengthenindividual and group capacitiesand capa-
bilities. It shouldservethe purposeof long-temrcapac-
ity-building and needsto be managedand coordinated
by the countriesthemselves.Technicalcooperation,in-
cluding that relatedto technologytransler and ktrow-
how, is effectiveonly when it is derivedfrom andrelated
to a country'sown strategiesand prioritieson environ-
ment and developmentand when developmentagencies
and Governmentsdefi ne i mproved and co nsist ent
policiesand proceduresto suppor-t this process.
OBJECTIVES
37.3 The overall objectivesof endogenouscapacity-
building in this programme area are to develop and
improve national and relatedsubregionalanclregional
capacitiesand capabilitiesfor sustainabledevelopment,
with the involvementof the non-governmentalsectors.
The programmeshouldassistby:
(a) Promoting an ongoing participatoryprocessto
definecountryneedsandprioritiesin promotingAgenda
2l andto give importanceto technicaland professional
human resourcedeveloprnentand developrnentof in-
stitutionalcapacitiesand capabilitieson the agenclaof
countries,wittr due recognitionof tire potentialfor opti-
mum useof existinghumanresources aswell asenhance-
ment of the efficiencyof existinginstitutionsand non-
governmentalorganizations,including scientific and
i nstituti orrs:
technol ogi cal
(b) Reorientingtechnicalcooperationand.in that pro-
cess,settingnew priorities in the field, including that
related to transfer of technologyand know-how pro-
cesses,while giving due attentionto the specificcondi-
tions and individual needsof recipients,and intproving
coordinationamong prclvidersof assistance for support
to countri es'ow n programmesof acti on. This co-
ordinationshouldalsoincludenon-governmental organ-
izationsand scientificand technologicalinstitutions,as
well as businessand industrywheneverappropriate;
(c) Shiftingtime horizonsin programmeplanningand
implementationfor the developmentand strengthening
of institutionalstructuresto permit an enhancementof
their ability to respondto new longer-terrnchallenges
ratherthan concentratingonly on immediateproblems;
(d) Improving and reorientingexisting international
multi lateralinstitutions with responsibiIitiesfor environ-
ment and/or developmentmattersto ensurethat those
institutionshavethe capabilityand capacityto integrate
environmentand development;
(e) Improving institutional capacity and capability,
both public and private,in orderto evaluatethe environ-
mentalimpact of all developmentprojects.
37.4 Specificobjectivesincludethe following:
(a) Each country should aim to complete,as soon as
practicable,if possibleby I 994,areviewof capacity-and
capability-buildingrequirementsfor devising national
sustainabledevelopmentstrategies,including thosefor
generatingand implementingits own Agenda21 action
programme;
(b) By 1997,the Secretary-General should submit to
the GeneralAssembly a report on the achievementof
improvedpolicies,coordinationsystemsandprocedures
for strengtheningthe implementationof technicalco-
operationprogrammesfbr sustainabledevelopment,as
weil as on additional measuresrequiredto strengthen
suchcooperation.That reportshouldbe preparedon the
basisof informationprovidedby countries,international
organizations,environmentand developmentinstitu-
tions,donor agenciesand non-govemmental partners.
ACTIVITIES
A) BU|LD|NG A NAilONAt CONSENSUS AND
FORM ULATI NG C APAC ITY-
B UILD ING 5 IRAIEG/ES
F O RI M P LE M E N IINAGG E N D A2 I
37.5 As an important aspectof overall planning,each
country should seek internal consensusat all levels of
society on policies and programmesneededfor short-
andlong-termcapacity-building to implementitsAgenda
21 programme"This consensusshould result from a
participatorydialogue of r:elevantinterestgroups and
lead to an identificationof skill gaps,institutionalcapa-
cities and capabilities,technologicaland scientificre-
quirerlcntsandresourceneedsto enhanceenvironmental
knowledgeand administrationto integrateenvironment
and development.UNDP in partnershipwith relevant
specializedagenciesandotherinternationalintergovern-
mentalandnon-governmental organizations couldassist,
uponrequestof Governments, in the identificationof the
requirementsfor technicalcooperation,including those
relatedto technologytransferandknow-how and devel-
opmentassistance for the implementationof Agenda21.
The nationalplanningprocesstogether,whereappropri-
ate. with nationalsustainabledevelopmentactionplans
or strategiesshould provide the framework for such
cooperationandassistance. UNDP shoulduseandfurther
improve its networkof field offices andits broadmandate
to provideassistance, usingits experiencein the field of
technicalcooperationfor facilitating capacity-building
at the countryand regionallevelsand making full useof
the expertiseof other bodies,in particularUNEP, the
World Bank andregionalcommissionsanddevelopment
banks,as well as relevantinternationalintergovernmen-
tal and non-governmental organizations.
AND
OF NAilONAt SOURCES
8/ /DENI/F/CATION
PRESENIAI/ON OF REAUESISFOR TECHNICAL
COOPERATION, /NCTUD/NG TO
THATRELATED
TECHNOLOGY IRANSFERAND KNOW-HOW
IN THEFRAMEWORK OF SECIORSIRAIFG/ES
37.6 Countriesdesiringarrangements for technicalco-
operation, including that relatedto of technology
transfer
and know-how. with international organizationsand
donorinstitutionsshouldformulaterequestsin theframe-
work of long-termsectoror subsectorcapacity-building
strategies. Strategiesshould,asappropriate,addresspol-
icy adjustmentsto be implemented,budgetaryissues,
cooperationandcoordinationamonginstitutions,human
resourcerequirements,and technology and scientific
equipmentrequirements.They shouldcover public and
privatesectorneedsandconsiderstrengthening scientific
training and educational and research programmes, in-
cluding suchtraining thein developed countries and the
strengtheningof centresof excellencein developing
countries.Countriescould designateand strengthena
centralunit to organrzeandcoordinatetechnicalcoopera-
tion, linking it with the priority-settingand the resource
allocationprocess.
OFTA R E V IE W
c) E S TA B L/S H MFN ME C H A N IS M
OF IECHNICAL COOPERAIION /N AND RELATED
IO IE C H N OLOGY IR A N S FEARN D K N OW -H OW
37.7 Donorsandrecipients,theorganizations andinstitu-
tions of the United Nations system,and international
public and private organizationsshould review the
developmentof the cooperationprocessas it relatesto
technicalcooperation,includingthat relatedto activities
271
 for the transfer of technology and know-how linked to
sustainabledevelopment.To facilitate this processthe
Secretary-Generalcould undertake, taking into ac-
count work carried out by UNDP and other organiza-
tionsin preparationfor the United NationsConference
on Environmentand Development,consultationswith
developingcountries,regional organizations,organi-
zationsand institutionsof the United Nationssystem,
including regionalcommissions,and multilateraland
bilateralaid and environmentagencies,with a view to
further strengtheningthe endogenouscapacities of
countriesandimprovingtechnicalcooperation,includ-
ing that related to the technology transfer and know-
how process.The following aspectsshould be re-
v iewed:
(a) Evaluationof existing capacityand capabilityfor
the integratedmanagement of environmentanddevelop-
ment,includingtechnical,technologicalandinstitutional
capacitiesand capabilities,and facilities to assessthe
environmental impact of development projects; and
evaluationof abilitiesto respondto andlink up with needs
for technicalcooperation,including that relatedto tech-
nology transferand know-how, of Agenda 21 and the
global conventionson climate change and biological
diversity;
(b) Assessment of thecontributionof existingactivities
in technicalcooperation, includingthatrelatedto transfer
of technologyandknow-how,towardsstrengthening and
building nationalcapacityand capabilityfor integrated
environmentand developmentmanagementand an as-
sessmentof the meansof improving the quality of inter-
nationaltechnicalcooperation,including that relatedto
transferof technolgyand know-how;
(c) A strategyfor shiftingto a capacity-andcapability-
building thrust that recognizesthe need for the oper-
ationalintegrationof environmentanddevelopmentwith
longer-termcommitments,having as a basisthe set of
national programmesestablishedby each country,
through a participatoryprocess;
(d) Considerationof greateruseof long-termcoopera-
tive arrangements betweenmunicipalities,non-govern-
mentalorganizations, universities,trainingand research
centresand business,public andprivateinstitutionswith
counterpartsin other countriesor within countriesor
regions. Programmessuchas the SustainableDevelop-
ment Networks of UNDP should be assessedin this
regard;
(e) Strengtheningof the sustainabilityof projectsby
including in the original projectdesignconsiderationof
environmentalimpacts,the costsof institution-building,
human resourcedevelopmentand technologyneeds,as
well as flnancial and organizationalrequirementsfor
operationand maintenance;
272
(0 Improvement of technical cooperation,including
that relatedto transferof technologyand know-how and
managementprocesses,by giving greater attention to
capacity-and capability-buildingas an integralpart of
sustainabledevelopmentstrategiesfor environmentand
developmentprogrammesboth in country-relatedcoor-
dinationprocesses, suchasconsultativegroupsandround
tables,andin sectoralcoordinationmechanisms to enable
developingcountriesto participateactivelyin obtaining
assistance from differentsources.
D/ ENHANCEMFNI AF THEEXPERIISE
AND
COLLECTIVE CONTR/BUIION
OF THEUNITEDNAI/ONS
SYSTEM FORCAPACITY-AND CAPABILITY-BUII.DING
IN ITIA TIV E S
37.8 Organizations, organs,bodiesandinstitutionsof the
United Nations system,togetherwith other international
and regional organizationsand the public and private
sectors,could, as appropriate.strengthentheir joint ac-
tivities in technicalcooperation,includingthat relatedto
transferof'technologyandknow-how,in orderto address
linked environmentand developmentissuesand to pro-
motecoherenceandconsistency of action.Organizations
could assistand reinforce countries,particularly least
developedcountries,uponrequest,on mattersrelatingto
national environmentaland developmentalpolicies,
human resourcedevelopmentand fielding of experts,
legislation.naturalresourcesand environmentaldata.
37.9 UNDP, the World Bank and regional multilateral
developmentbanks,as part of their participationin na-
tional and regional coordinationmechanisms,should
assistin facilitatingcapacity-and capability-buildingat
the countrylevel,drawinguponthe specialexpertiseand
operationalcapacityof UNEP in the environmentalfield
as well as of the specializedagencies,organizationsof
the United Nationssystemand regionaland subregional
organizationsin their respectiveareasof competence.
For this purposeUNDP should mobilize funding for
capacity-and capability-building,utilizing its network
of field offices and its broad mandateand experiencein
the field of technicalcooperation,includingthat related
to transferof technologyandknow-how.UNDP,together
with theseinternationalorganizations, shouldat the same
time continueto developconsultativeprocessesto en-
hancethe mobilization and coordinationof funds from the
internationalcommunityfor capacity-andcapability-build-
ing, includingtheestablishment of an appropriatedatabase.
These responsibilitiesmay need to be accompaniedby
sffengtheningof the capacitiesof LINDP.
37.10The nationalentity in chargeof technicalcooper-
ation, with the assistanceof the UNDP residentrepre-
sentativesand the UNEP representatives, shouldestab-
lish a smallgroupof key actorsto steertheprocess,giving
priority to the countrl"s own strategiesand priorities.
The experiencegainedthroughexisting planningexer-
cisessuchas the nationalreportsfor the United Nations
Conferenceon Environtnentand Development,national
conservationstrategiesand environment action plans
should be fully used and incorporatedinto a country-
driven, participatoryand sustainable developmentstrat-
egy. This should be cornplernentedr,vith information
networksand consultationswith donor organizationsin
order to improve coordination.as well as accessto the
existingbody of scientificand technicalknowleclgeand
informationavailablein institutionselsewhere.
OF TtlE DELMRYOF
E) HARMON/ZATION
AT THEREGIONAT
ASS/SIANCE TEVEI.
37.11At theregionallevel,existingorganizations should
considerthe desirabilityof irnprovedregionaland sub-
regionalconsultativeptocesses andround-tablemeetings
to facilitatethee'xchangeof data,informationandexperi-
encein theimplementation o1'Agenda 21. UND| build-
ing on the resultsof the regional surveyson capacity-
building that thoseregionalorganizationscarriedout on
the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and
Developmentinitiative,anclin collaborationwith exist-
ing regional,subregionalor nationalorganizationswith
potential for regional coordination,should provide a
significantinput for this purpose.The relevantnationai
unit shouldestablisha steeringmechanisnt.A periodic
review mechanism should be establishedamong the
countriesof the region with the assistanceof the appro-
priate relevant regional organizationsand the participa-
tion of development banks, bilateral aid agenciesand
non-governmental organizations. Other possibilitiesare
to develop national and regional researchand training
facilities building on existing regionaland subregional
institutions.
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
F/NANC/NGAND COSI EVALUATION
37.12The cost of bilateralexpendituresto developing
countriesfor technicalcooperation, includingthatrelated
to transferof technologyandknow-how,is about$15bil-
lion or about 25 per cent of total official development
Theimplementationof Agenda2 I will require
assistance.
a moreeffectiveuseof thesefundsandadditionalfundins
in key areas.
3l .13 The Conferencesecretariat hasestimatedtheaver-
age total annual cost ( 1993-20f,0)of implementing the
activitiesof this chapterto be between$300million and
$ I billion from the internationalcommunity on grant or
concessionalterms.These are indicative and order-of-
magnitudeestimatesonly andhavenot beenreviewedby
Governments.Actual costsandfinancialtertns,including
any that are non-concessional, will dependvpon, inter
alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
273
 Internotionol
institutionol
orrongements
3 B
BASIS
FORACTION
38.1 The mandateof the United NationsConferenceon
Environmentand Developmentemanatesfrom General
Assembly resolution 4/'1228,in which the Assembly,
irfter alia, affirmed that the Conferenceshouldelaborate
strategiesand measuresto halt and reversethe effectsof
environmentaldegradationin the context of increased
nationaland internationaleffortsto promotesustainable
and environmentallysounddevelopmentin all countries
andthatthepromotionof economicgrowthin developing
countriesis essentialto addressproblemsof environmen-
tal degradation.The intergovernmentalfollow-up to the
Conferenceprocessshall be within the framework of the
UnitedNationssystem,with theGeneralAssemblybeing
the supremepolicy-makingforum that would provide
overall guidanceto Governments,the United Nations
system and relevant treaty bodies. At the same time,
Governments, aswell asregionaleconomicandtechnical
cooperationorganizations, have a responsibilityto play
an important role in the follow-up to the Conference.
Their commitmentsand actions should be adequately
supportedby the UnitedNationssystemand multilateral
financial institutions.Thus, national and international
effortswould mutually benefitfrom one another.
38.2 In fulfilling the mandateof the Conference,thereis
a need for institutionalarrangements within the United
Nationssystemin c:onformitywith, and providing input
into, the restructuringand revitalizationof the United
Nations in the economic,social and relatedflelds, and
the overall reform of the United Nations,including on-
going changesin the Secretariat.In the spirit of reform
and revitalizationof the United Nations system. im-
plementationof Agenda2l and otherconclusionsof the
Conferenceshall be based on an action- and result-
orientedapproachand consistentwith the principlesof
universality, democracy,transparency,cost-effective-
nessand accountability.
38.3 The tinited Nationssvstem.with its multisectoral
274
capacity and the extensiveexperienceof a number of
specializedagenciesin various spheresof international
cooperationin thefield of environmentanddevelopment,
is uniquelypositionedto assistGovernmentsto establish
more effective patternsof economicand socialdevelop-
ment with a view to achievingthe objectivesof Agenda
2l and sustainabledevelopment.
38.4 All agenciesof the United Nations systemhave a
key role to play in the implementationof Agenda 2l
within their respectivecompetence.To ensure proper
coordinationandavoid duplicationin theimplementation
of Agenda 21, there should be an effective division of
labour betweenvariousparts of the United Nations sys-
tem basedon their terms of referenceand comparative
advantages. Member States,throughrelevantgoverning
bodies,arein a positionto ensurethat thesetasksarecanied
out properly. In order to facilitate evaluationof agencies'
performanceand promoteknowledgeof their activities,all
bodiesof the United Nations systemshouldbe requiredto
elaborateand publish reportsof their activitiesconcerning
theimplementati onof Agenda2 1on a regularbasis. Serious
andcontinuousreviewsof theirpolicies,programmes, bud-
getsand activitieswill alsobe required.
38.5 The continuedactiveand eft'ectiveparticipationof
non-governmentalorganizations,the scientific com-
munity and the private sector,aswell aslocal groupsand
communities,is important in the implementationof
A g e n d a2 1 .
38.6 The institutionalstructureenvisagedbelow will be
basedon agreementon financial resourcesand mecha-
nisms, technology transfer, the Rio Declaration and
Agenda21. ln addition,therehasto be an effectivelink
betweensubstantive actionandfinancialsupport,andthis
requirescloseandeffectivecooperationandexchangeof
informationbetweenthe United Nationssystemand the
multilateral financial institutionsfor the follow-up of
Agenda2l within the institutionalarrangement.
OBJECTIVES reviewof the inrplementation of Agenda2l " In fulf illing
this task,the Assemblycouldconsiderthetiming, format
38.7 The overall objectiveis the integrationof environ-
anclorganizationalaspectst,rl'sucha review.In particular,
ment and developmentissuesat national,subregional,
levels.includingin the United the Assemblycould considerholdinga specialsession
regionalandinternational
not later than 1997 for the overall revicw and appraisal
Nationssysteminstituticlnalarrangements.
of Agenda2l , with adequatepreparations at a high level.
38.8 Specificobiectivesshallbe:
(a) To ensureandreviewtheimplementation of Agenda
2l so asto achieve sustainable development in all coun-
B) ECONOMIC ANDSOCIAL COUNCIL
tries:
(b) To enhancethe role and functioningof the United 38.10The Economicand SocialCouncil,in the context
of its role undertheChartert'i,i-d-vistheGeneralAssem-
Nationssystemin the field of environmentand develop-
bly and the ongoing restructuringand revitalizationof
ment. All relevant agencies.organizationsand pro-
the United Nations in the econontic,social and related
granunesof the linited Nations system should adopt
fields,would assistthe GeneralAssernblyby overseeing
concreteprogrammesfbr the implementationof Agenda
system-widecoordinationin the intplementationof
21 and alsoprovidepolicy guidancefor UnitedNations
Agenda2l andrnakingrecolnmetrdations ln this regard.
activitiesor adviccto Governments, uponrequest,within
In addition. the Councii would undefiakethe task of
their areasof competence,
directing system-widecoordinationand integrationof
(c) To strengthencooperationand coordinationon en-
environmentalanddevelopmentalaspectsof UnitedNa-
vironmentand developmentin the United Nations sys-
tions policiesand programmesand would make appro-
tem;
priate recommendations to the GeneralAssembly.spe-
(d) To encourageinteractionandcooperationbetween
cializedagencies concerned andMemberStates.Appro-
the United Nationssystemand other intergovernmental
priatestepsshouldbetakento obtainrr:gularreportstrom
and non-governmental subregional,regionaland global
in the specializedagencieson thcir plans and programmes
institutionsand non-governmentalorgamzatrons
relatedto the implementationof A-senda2l , pursuantto
field of envitonmentand clevelopment;
Article 64 of the Charterof the lJniteclNations' The
(e) To strengthen institutionalcapabilitiesandarrange-
irnplementation, follow- EconomicandSocialCouncilshouldorganizea periodic
mentsrequiredfor the eff-ective
review of the work of the Commissionon Sustainable
up andr ev iewof A g e n d a2 l :
D evel opment i n paragraph
envi saged 38.11,as w e ll as
(fl To assistin the strengtheningand coordinationof
of system-wideactivitiesto integrateenvironmentand
national.subregionalandregionalcapacitiesandactions
development,makingfull useof its high-leveland coor-
in the areasof environmentand development;
(g) To establisheffectivecooperationand exchangeof dinationsegments.
informationbetweenUnited Nations organs.organiza-
tions,programmesand the multilateralfinancialbodies, C) COMMISSION ONSUSTAINABLE DEVETOPMENT
within the institutionalarrangements for the ftlllow-up
38,l1 In order to ensurethe eff'ectivefollow-up of the
of Agenda 21 ;
Conference,as well as to enhanceinternationalcooper-
(h) To respon6l 1tlsontinuingand emergingissuesre-
ation and rationalizethe intergovernmental decision-
latingto environmettt and development;
(i) To ensnrethat any new institutionalanangements making capacityfor the integrationof environmentand
cleardivisionof responsi- developmentissuesanclto exatninethe progressin the
wor,rldsupportrevitalization, '21
implementation o1'Agenda at the national,regional
bilities and the avoidanceof duplicationin the United
and internationallevels.a high-levelClomniissionon
Nat ions s y s t ema n d d e p e n dto th e m a x i m u m extent
e evcl opmentshotrl tlbe establ i shed
S ustai nablD i n ac-
pos s ibleuponex i s ti n gre s o u rc e s .
cordancewith Article 6tJ o1'the Clhalterol the l-lnited
Nations.ThisComtnission wouldrepttrtto theBconomic
STRUCTURE
INSTITUTIONAL and SocialCouncil in the colttcxtof the Council'srole
under the Charter t'i.r-r)-t,isthe General Assembly.It
would consistoi representatives of Stateselectedas
A) GENERAL ASSEMBLY memberswith due rcgarclto equitabiegeographicaldis-
'fhe tribution. Representatives of non-memberStatesof the
3ti.9 General Assembly. as the highest intergovern- 'l'he
Commission w'ould havc obseruerstatus. Corn-
mental rnechanism. is the principal policy-making and
appraisal organ on matters relating to the follow-up of mission should provrdelirr the actir,'einvolvementof
the Conf'erence.The Assembly would organize a regular organs,pro-qrammes and organizationsof the United

275
 Nations system.internationalfinancial institutionsand
other relevantintergovernmental organizations,and en-
couragethe participationof non-govemmental organiza-
tions, including industryand the businessand scientific
communities.The first meeting of the Commission
'fhe
shouldbe convenedno laterthan 1993. Commission
shouldbe supportedby the secretariat envisagedin para-
graph 38.19. Meanwhile the Secretary-General of the
United Nations is requestedto ensureadequateinterim
administrativesecretariat arrangements.
38.12TheGeneralAssembly, atitsfbrty-seventh
session,
shoulddeterminespecificorganizationalmodalitiesfor
the work of this Commission,suchasits membership,its
relationshipwith other intergovernmentalUnited Na-
tions bodiesdealingwith mattersrelatedtclenvironment
and development.andthe frequency,durationandvenue
of its meetings.Thesemodalitiesshouldtakeinto account
the ongoingprocessof revitalizationandrestructuringof
the work of the United Nationsin the economic.social
and relatedfields. in particular measuresrecommended
by the General Assembly in resolutions 451264of
13 May l99l and 461235of 13 April 1992 and other
relevantAssemblyresolutions.In this respect.the Secre-
tary-Generalof the United Nations,with the assistance
of the Secretary-General of the United Nations Con-
ferenceon Environmentand Development,is requested
to prepare for the Assembly a report with appropriate
recommendations and proposals.
38.13The Cornmissionon SustainableDevelopment
shouldhave the following functions:
(a) To monitorprogressin the implementationof Agen-
da 2I and activitiesrelatedto the integrationof environ-
mental and developmentalgoals throughoutthe United
Nations systemthrough analysisand evaluationof re-
ports from all reJevantorgans, organizations,pro-
grammesand institutionsof the United Nations system
dealingwith variousissuesof environmentanddevelop-
ment, includingthoserelatedto finance;
(b) To considerinformationprovidedby Governments,
including.for example,informationin the form of peri-
odic comrnunicationsclr national reportsregardingthe
activitiesthey undertaketo implementAgenda 21, the
problemstheyface,suchasproblemsrelatedto financial
resources andtechnologytransfer,andotherenvironment
and development issuesthey find relevant;
(c) To reviewthe progressin the implementationof the
commitmentscontainedin Agenda 21, including those
relatedto provision of financial resourcesand transferof
technology;
(d) To receiveand analyserelevantinput from cornpe-
tent non-governmentalorganizations,including the
scientificandprivatesectors,in the contextof theoverall
implementation of Agenda2l;
276
(e) To enhancethe dialogue,within the framework of
the United Nations, with non-governmentalorganiza-
tions and the independentsector,as well as other entities
outsidethe United Nationssystem;
(0 To consider,whereappropriate,information regard-
ing the progressmadein the implementationof environ-
mentalconventions,which could be made availableby
the relevantConferencesof Parties;
(g) To provide appropriate recommendationsto the
GeneralAssemblythroughthe EconomicandSocialCoun-
cil on the basisof an integratedconsiderationof the reports
andissuesrelatedto the implernentationof Agenda2l;
(h) To consider,at an appropriatetime, the results of
the review to be conductedexpeditiouslyby the Secre-
tary-Generalof all recommendationsof the Conference
for capacity-building programmes,information net-
works, task forces and other mechanismsto supportthe
integrationof environmentand developmentat regional
and subregionallevels.
38;14 Within the intergoverrunentalframework, con-
siderationshouldbe given to allowing non-governmental
organizations,including those related to major groups,
particularly women's groups, committed to the im-
plementationof Agenda 2l to have relevantinformation
available to them, including information, reports and
other data producedwithin the United Nations systern.
D) THESECRETARY-GENERAL
38.15 Strong and effective leadershipon the part of the
Secretary-Generalis crucial, since he/shewould be the
focal point of the institutional arrangementswithin the
United Nations systemfor the successfulfollow-up to the
Conferenceand for the implementationof Agenda 21.
E)HIGH-LEVEL
TNTER-AGENCY
COORDTNATTON
MECHANTSM
38.16 Agenda 21, as the basisfor actionby the interna-
tional community to integrateenvironmentand develop-
ment, should provide the principal framework for coor-
dination of relevantactivities within the United Nations
system.To ensureeffectivemonitoring,coordinationand
supervisionof the involvementof the United Nations
systemin the follow-up to the Conference,thereis a need
for a coordinationmechanismunderthe direct leadership
of the Secretary-General.
38.17This task should be given to the Administrative
Committeeon Coordination(ACC), headedby the Sec-
retary-General.ACC would thus provide a vital link and
interface between the multilateral financial institutions
and other United Nations bodiesat the highestadminis-
trative level. The Secretary-Generalshould continue to
revitalizethe functionine of the Committee.All headsof
agenciesand institutionsof the United Nations system
shallbe expectedto cooperatewith theSecretary-General
fully in order to make ACC work effectively in fulfilling
its crucial role and ensuresuccesstulimplementationof
Agenda21. ACC shouldconsiderestablishing a special
task force, subcommitteeor sustainabledevelopment
board,taking into accountthe experienceof the Desig-
natedOfficials for EnvirontnentalMatters(DOEM) and
theCommitteeof InternationalDevelopmentInstitutions
on Environment(CIDIE), as well as the respectiveroles
of UNEP and UNDP. Its report should be submittedto
the relevantintergovernmental bodies.
F) H|GH-LEVEL BODY
ADVTSORY
38.18 Intergovernmental bodies,the Secretary-General
and the United Nations system as a whole may also
benet-itfrom the expertiseof a high-leveladvisoryboard
consistingof erninentpersonsknowledgeableabouten-
vironmentanddevelopment, includingrelevantsciences,
appointedby the Secretary-General in their personal
capacity. In this regard.the Secretary-Gcneral should
make appropriaterecommendations to the GeneralAs-
semblyat its forty-seventhsession.
G)SECREIARIAT STRUCTURE
SUPPORT
38.19 A highly qualifiedand cotnpetentsecretariatsup-
port structure rvithin the tlnited Nations Secretariat,
drawing,inter alia, on the expertisegainedin the Con-
ferencepreparatoryprocess,is essentialfor the follow-
up to the Conferenceand the implementationof Agenda
21. This secretariatsupport structureshould provide
supportto the work of both intergovernmentaland inter-
agency coordinationmechanisms.Concreteorganiza-
tional decisionsfall within the competenceof the Secre-
tary-Generalas the chief administrativeofficer of the
Organization,who is requested to reporton theprovisions
to be made, covering staffing implications,as soon as
practicable,taking into account gender balance as
definedin Article8 of the Charterof the United Nations
and the needfor the best use of existing resourcesin
the contextof the currentand ongoingrestructuringof
the United Nations Secretariat.
H) ORGANS, PROGRANMES AND
ORGANIZATIONS OFTHEUNITED NATIONS SYSTEM
38.20 In the follow-up to the Cont'erence, in particular
the implementation of Agenda 21, all relevant organs,
programmesand organizationsof the tlnited Nations
systemwill haveanimportantrolewithin theirrespective
areasof expertiseand mandatesin supportingand sup-
plementing national efforts. Coordinationand mutual
complementarityof their efforts to promote integration
of environmentand developmentcan be enhancedby
encouragingcountriesto maintainconsistentpositionsin
the variousgoverningbodies.
I ) UNITED ENVIRONMENT
NATIONS PROGRAMME
38.21 In the follow-up to the Conference,therewill be a
need for an enhancedand strengthenedrole for UNEP
and its Governing Council. The Governing Council
should,within its mandate,continueto play its role with
regard to policy guidanceand coordination in the field
of the environment,takinginto accountthe development
perspective.
38.22 Priority areason which UNEP shouldconcentrate
includethe following:
(a) Strengtheningits catalyticrole in stimulatingand
promoting environmentalactivitiesand considerations
throughoutthe United Nationssystem;
(b) Promoting internationalcooperationin the field of
environmentandrecommending, asappropriate, policies
to this end:
(c) Developingand promotingthe use of such techn-
iquesas naturalresourceaccountingand environmental
economics:
( d ) E n v i r o n m e n t a lm o n i t o r i n g a n d a s s e s s m e n t ,
through both improved participationby the United Na-
tions systemagenciesin the Earthwatchprogrammeand
expandedrelationswith privatescientificand non-gov-
ernmental researchinstitutes; and strengtheningand
making operationalits early-wamingfunction;
(e) Coordinationand promotionof relevantscientific
researchwith a view to prclvidinga consolidatedbasis
for decision-making;
(0 Disseminationof environmentalinformation and
data to Governmentsand to organs, programmesand
organizationsof the United Nationssystem;
(g) Raisinggeneralawareness and actionin the areaof
environmentalprotectionthroughcollaborationwith the
generalpublic, non-governmental entitiesand intergov-
ernmentalinstitutions;
(h) Furtherdevelopmentof internationalenvironmen-
tal law, in particularconventionsandguidelines,promo-
tion of its implementation,and coordinatingfunctions
arisingfrom an increasingnumberof internationallegal
agreements, inter ctlia,thefunctioningof the secretariats
of the conventions,taking into accountthe needfor the
most efflcient use of resources,including possible
co-locationof secretariats establishedin the future;
(i) Furtherdevelopmentand promotiotrof the widest
possibleuse of environmentalimpact assessments, in-
cluding activitiescarriedout underthe auspicesof spe-
cialized asenciesof the United Nationssvstem.and in
277
connectionwith every significant economic develop-
ment project or activity;
0) Facilitation of information exchangeon environ-
mentallysoundtechnologies, includinglegalaspects, and
provisionof training;
(k) Promotionof subregionaland regionalcooperation
and support to relevant initiatives and programmesfor
environmentalprotection,including playing a major
contributing and coordinating role in the regional
mechanismsin the field of environmentidentifiedforthe
follow-up to the Conference;
(l) Provisionof technical,legalandinstitutionaladvice
to Governments,upon request,in establishingand en-
hancing their national legal and institutionalframe-
wor k s , in p a rti c u l a r, i n c o o p e ra ti o n wi th U N D P
capacity -building efforts;
(m) Supportto Govemments,uponrequest,anddevel-
opment agenciesand organsin the integration of envi-
ronmentalaspectsinto their developmentpolicies and
programmes,in particularthrough provision of environ-
mental, technical and policy advice during programme
formulation and i mplementation;
(n) Further developingassessmentand assistancein
casesof environmentalemergencies.
38.23In order to perfonn all of thesefunctions,while
retaining its role as the principal body within the United
Nations system in the field of environment and taking
into accountthe developmentaspectsof environmental
questions,UNEP would requireaccessto greaterexper-
tise and provisionof adequatefinancialresourcesand it
would requireclosercooperationand collaborationwith
developmentorgans and other relevant organs of the
United Nationssystem.Furthermore,the regionaloffices
of UNEP shouldbe strengthened without weakeningits
headquartersin Nairobi, and UNEP shouldtake stepsto
reinforce and intensify its liaison and interactionwith
UNDP and the World Bank.
2) UNITED
NATIONS
DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMME
38.24UNDP, like UNEP, also has a crucial role in the
follow-up to the United Nations Conferenceon Envi-
ronment and Development. Through its network of
field officesit would fosterthe United Nationssystem's
collective thrust in supportof the implementationof
Agenda2I, at the country.regional,interregionaland
global levels, drawing on the expertiseof the spe-
cialized agenciesand other United Nations organrza-
tionsandbodiesinvolvedin operationalactivities.The
role of the residentrepresentative/residentcoordinator
of UNDP needsto be strengthened in order to coordi-
nate the field-level activities of the United Nations
operationalactivities.
278
38.25 Its role shouldincludethe following:
(a) Acting as the lead agency in organizing United
Nations systemeffbrts towards capacity-buildingat the
local, nationaland regionallevels;
(b) Mobilizing donor resourceson behalf of Govern-
ments for capacity-building in recipient countries and,
where appropriate,through the use of the UNDP donor
round-tablemechanisms;
(c) Strengtheningits own programmesin support of
follow-up to theConferencewithout prejudiceto the fifth
programmingcycle;
(d) Assistingrecipientcountries,upon request,in the
establishmentand strengtheningof nationalcoordination
mechanismsand networks related to activities for the
follow-up to the Conference;
(e) Assistingrecipientcountries,upon request,in co-
ordinating the mobiliz,atronof domestic financial re-
sources;
(0 Promoting and strengtheningthe role and involve-
ment of women,youth andothermajor groupsin recipient
countriesin the implementationof Agenda21.
3) UNTTED
NATTONS
CONFERENCE
ONTRADE
ANDDEVELOPMENT
38.26 UNCTAD should play an important role in the
implementationof Agenda 2l as extendedat its eighth
session,taking into accountthe importanceof the inter-
relationshipsbetween development,intemational trade
and the environmentand in accordancewith its mandate
in the areaof sustainabledeveloprnent.
4) UNITED
NATIONS
SUDANO-SAFIELIAN
OFFICE
38.21 The role of the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian
Office (UNSO), with addedresourcesthat may become
available, operating under the umbrella of UNDP and
with the supportof UNEP,shouldbe strengthenedso that
it can assumean appropriatemajor advisory role and
participateeffectively in the implementationof Agenda
21 provisionsrelatedto combatingdroughtand deserti-
fication andto landresourcernanagement. In this context,
theexperiencegainedcouldbe usedby all othercountries
affected by drought and desertification, in particular
those in Africa, with specialattentionto countriesmost
affectedor classifiedas leastdevelopedcountries.
5) SPECIALIZED
AGENCIES
OFTHEUNITED
NATIONS
SYSTEM
ANDRELATEDORGANIZATIONS
ANDOTHERRELEVANT
INTERGOVE
RNME NTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
38.28 All specializedagenciesof the United Nations
system,relatedorganizationsandotherrelevantintergov-
ernmentalorganizationswithin their respectivefields of
competencehave an important role to play in the im-
plementationof relevant parts of Agenda 2l and other
decisionsof the Conference.Their governingbodiesmay
considerways of strengtheningand adjusting activities
and programmesin line with Agenda 21, in particular,
regarding projects for promoting sustainabledevelop-
ment. Furthermore,they may considerestablishingspe-
cial arrangementswith donorsand financial institutions
for project implementationthat may require additional
resources.
ANDSUBREGTONAT
r) REGTONAL COOPERATION
ANDIMPLEMENTATION
38.29 Regional and subregionalcooperationwill be an
important part of the outcome of the Conference. The
regional commissions,regional developmentbanks and
regional economic and technical cooperationorganiza-
tions, within their respectiveagreedmandates,can con-
tribute to this processby:
(a) Promoting regional and subregional capacity-
building;
(b) Promoting the integration of environmentalcon-
cernsin regional and subregionaldevelopmentpolicies;
(c) Promoting regional and subregionalcooperation,
where appropriate,regarding transboundaryissuesre-
lated to sustainabledevelopment.
38.30The regionalcommissions,as appropriate,should
play a leading role in coordinating regional and sub-
regional activities by sectoraland other United Nations
bodiesand shallassistcountriesin achievingsustainable
development. The commissionsand regional pro-
grammeswithin the United Nations system,as well as
other regional organizations,shouldreview the needfor
modification of ongoing activities,as appropriate,in the
light of Agenda21.
38.3t There must be active cooperationand collabora-
tion amongthe regionalcommissionsand other relevant
organizations, regionaldevelopmentbanks,non-govern-
mentalorganizationsandotherinstitutionsat theregional
level. UNEPand UNDP, togetherwith the regionalcom-
missions,would havea crucialrole to play,especiallyin
providing the necessaryassistance, with particularem-
phasison building and strengtheningthe nationalcapac-
ity of Member States.
38.32 There is a need fnr closer cooperation between
UNEP and UNDP, together with other relevant institu-
tions, in the implementationof projectsto halt environ-
mental degradationor its impact and to suppoft training
programmesin environmentalplanningandmanagement
for sustainabledevelopmentat the regional level.
38.33 Regional intergovernmentaltechnical and eco-
nomic organizationshave an important role to play in
helping Governmentsto take coordinatedaction in solv-
ing environmentissuesof regionalsignificance.
38.34 Regional and subregional organizations should
play a major role in the implementationof the provisions
of Agenda 21 relatedto combatingdrought and deserti-
fication. UNEP. UNDP and UNSO should assist and
cooperatewith thoserelevantorganizations.
38.35 Cooperationbetweenregionaland subregionalor-
ganizations and relevant organizations of the United
Nations systemshould be encouraged,where appropri-
ate. in other sectoralareas.
J) NATTONAL
TMPLEMENTATTON
38.36 Stateshave an importantrole to play in the follow-
up of the Conferenceand the implementationof Agen-
da2l. National-levelefforts shouldbe undertakenby all
countriesin an integratedmanner so that both environ-
ment and developmentconcernscan be dealt with in a
coherentmanner.
38.37Policy decisionsandactivitiesat thenationallevel,
tailoredto supportand implementAgenda21, shouldbe
supportedby the United Nations systemupon request.
38.38 Furthermore,Statescould considerthepreparation
of national reports. In this context, the organs of the
UnitedNationssystemshould,uponrequest,assistcoun-
tries,in particulardevelopingcountries.Countriescould
also considerthe preparationof nationalaction plansfor
the implementationof Agenda21.
38.39 Existingassistance consortia,consultativegroups
and round tablesshouldmake greaterefforts to integrate
environmentalconsiderationsand related development
objectivesinto their developmentassistancestrategies
and shouldconsiderreorientingandappropriatelyadjust-
ing their membershipsand operationsto facilitate this
processand better support national efforts to integrate
environmentand development.
38.40 Statesmay wish to considersettingup a national
coordination structureresponsiblefor the follow-up of
Agenda 2 | . Within this structure,which would benefit
from the expertiseof non-govemmentalorganizations,
submissionsand other relevant information could be
made to the United Nations.
K) C@PERATTON
BETWEENUNTTED BODTES
NATTONS
ANDIMERNATIONAL
FINANCIAL IZATIONS
ORGAN
38.41The successof the follow-up to the Conferenceis
dependentupon an effective link betweensubstantive
action and financial support,and this requirescloseand
effectivecooperationbetweenUnited Nationsbodiesand
the multilateral financial organizations.The Secretary-
General and headsof United Nations prograrnmesand
or ganizations and the multi I ateralfinanci al organizations
havea specialresponsibilityin forgingsuchcooperation,
not only throughthe United NationshighJevel coordi-
279
nation mechanism(AdministrativeCommitteeon Coor-
dination) but also at regional and national levels. In
particular, representativesof multilateral financial in-
stitutions and mechanisms,as well as IFAD, should
activelybe associatedwith deliberationsof the intergov-
ernmental structure responsible for the follow-up to
A genda21.
L) NON-C;OVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
38. 42Non -g o v e rn m e n ta lo rg a n i z a ti o n sand maj or
groups are important partnersin the implementationof
Agenda 21. Relevantnon-governmentalorganizations,
including the scientific community,the private sector
and women'sgroups,shouldbe given opportunitiesto
make their contributionsand establishappropriatere-
lationshipswith the United Nations system.Support
s hould be p ro v i d e d fo r d e v e l o p i n gc o u n tri es'non-
governmentalorganizationsand their self-organized
networks.
38.43The United Nations system, including interna-
tional financeand developmentagencies,and all inter-
governmentalorganizationsand forums should,in con-
sultation with non-governmentalorganizations,take
measuresto:
(a) Design open and effective meansto achievethe
participationof non-governmentalorganizations, includ-
280
ing thoserelatedto major groups,in the processestab-
lished to review and evaluatethe implementationof
Agenda2l at all levelsand promotetheir contribution
to it;
(b) Take into accountthe flndings of review systems
andevaluationprocesses of non-governmental organiza-
tions in relevantreportsof the Secretary-Generalto the
GeneralAssemblyandall pertinentUnitedNationsagen-
cies and intergovernmentalorganizationsand forums
concerningimplementationof Agenda2l in accordance
with the review process.
38.44Proceduresshouldbe establishedfor an expanded
role for non-governmentalorganizations, i ncludingthose
relatedto major groups,with accreditationbasedon the
proceduresusedin the Conf-erence.Suchorganizations
should have accessto reports and other information
producedby the United Nations system. The General
Assembly,at an early stage,should examine ways of
enhancingthe involvementof non-governmental organ-
izationswithin the United Nationssystemin relationto
the follow-up processof the Conference.
38.45The Conferencetakes note of other institutional
initiativesfor the implementationof Agenda21, suchas
theproposalto establishanon-governmental EarthCoun-
cil and the proposal to appoint a guardian for future
generations,as well as other initiatives taken by local
governmentsand businesssectors.
? O legolinstruments
Internotionol ond mechqnisms
\ / /
FORACTION
BASIS
39.1 The followingvital aspectsof the universal,multi-
lateral and bilateral treaty-makingprocessshould be
takeninto account:
(a) The further developmentof internationallaw on
sustainable development.giving specialattentionto the
delicatebalancebetweenenvironmentaland develop-
mentalconcerns;
(b) The needto clarify and strengthenthe relationship
betweenexistinginternationalinstrumentsor agreements
in the field of environmentand relevantsocialand eco-
nomic agreements or instruments,takinginto accountthe
specialneedsof developingcountries;
(c) At the global level, the essentialirnportanceof the
participationin and the contribution of all countries,
including the developingcountries,to treaty rnakingin
thefield of internationallaw on sustainabledevelopment.
Many of the existinginternationallegalinstrumentsand
agreementsin the field of environmenthave been de-
velopedwithout adequateparticipationand contribution
of developingcountries,and thus may requirereview in
order to reflectthe concernsand interestso1'developing
countriesand to ensurea balancedgovernanceof such
instrumentsand agreements:
(d) Developingcountriesshouldalsobe providedwith
technical assistancein their attemptsto enhancetheir
national legislativecapabilitiesin the field of environ-
mentallaw:
(et Futureprcrjects for theprogressivedevelopmentand
codificationof internationallaw on sustainable develop-
ment shouldtake into accountthe ongoingwork of the
International Law Commission;
(0 Any negotiationsfor the progressivedevelopment
andcodificationof internationallaw concerningsustain-
able developmentshould,in general,be conductedon a
universal basis"taking into account special circun"r-
stancesin the variousresions.
OBJECTIVES
'I'he
3L).2 overall ob.jectiveof the review and develop-
ment of internationalenvironmentallaw shouldbe to
evaluateand to promotethe efficacy of that law and to
promotethe integrationof environmentanddevelopment
policies through eff'ectiveinternationalagreementsor
instrumentstakinginto accountboth universalprinciples
and the particularand differentiatedneedsand concerns
of all countries.
39.3 Specificobjectivesare:
(a) To identify and addressdifficulties which prevent
some States,in particular developingcountries,from
participating in or duly implementing international
agreementsor instrumentsand, where appropriate.to
review and revisethem with the purposesof integrating
environmentaland developmentalconcernsand laying
down a sound basis for the implementationof these
agreements or instruments;
(b) To setprioritiesfor future law-makingon sustain-
able developmentat the global,regionalor subregional
level, u'ith a view to enhancingthe efficacy of interna-
tional law in this field through,in particular,the integra-
tion of environmentaland developmentalconcerns;
(c) To promoteand supportthe effectiveparticipation
of all countriesconcerned. in particulardeveloping coun-
tries, in the negotiation,implernentation.review and
governanceof internationalagreementsor instruments.
includingappropriate provisionof technicalandfinancial
assistance and other availablemechanismsfor this pur-
pose,as well as the useof differentialobligationswhere
appropriatel
(d) To promote,through the gradual developmentof
universallyand multilaterallynegotiatedagreementsor
instruments,internationalstandardsfor the protectionof
the environmentthat takeinto accountthe differentsitu-
ationsandcapabilitiesof countries.Statesrecognizethat
environmentalpoliciesshoulddeal with the root causes
of environmentaldegradation.thus preventingenviron-
281
mental measuresfrom resultingin unnecessary restric- Assembly.Thesesuggestionscould be reproducedin a
tions to trade.Tradepolicy measuresfor environmental separatecompilationon sustainable
development.
pllrposcsshould not constitutea meansof arbitrary or
unjustifiablediscriminationor a disguisedrestrictionon
internationaltrade.Unilateralactionsto deal with envi- A) REVIEW,
ASSESSMENT OFAOIONIN
ANDFIELDS
INTE LAWFORSUSTAI
RNATIONAL NABLE NT
DEVELOPME
ronmentalchallengesoutsidethe jurisdictionof the im-
por t ing c oun try s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d . E n v i ronmental 39.5 While ensuring the elfective participationof all
measuresaddressinginternationalenvironmentalprclb- countriesconcerned,partiesshouldat periodicintervals
lems should,as far as possible,be basedon an interna- review and assessboth the past perforrnanceand effec-
tionalconsensus. Domesticmeasures targetedto achieve tivenessof existing internationalagreementsor instru-
cc:rtain e n v i r o n m e n t a o
l b j e c t i v e sm a y n e e d t r a d e mentsas well as the prioritiesfor future law-makingon
measuresto renderthem effective.Should tradepolicy sustainable development.This may includean examina-
nleasuresbe found necessaryfbr the enforcementof tion of the t'easibilityof elaboratinggeneralrights and
env ir onm en ta pl o l i c i e s ,c e rta i n p ri n c i p l e sand rul es obligationsof States,as appropriate,in the field of
shouldapply.Thesecould include,inter alia. the prin- sustainabledevelopment,as providedby GeneralAs-
ciple of non-discrimination; the principlethat the trade sembly resolution 441228.In certain cases,attention
measure chosen should be the least trade-restrictive shouldbe givento the possibilityof takinginto account
nec es s ar yt o a c h i e v eth e o b j e c ti v e s a ; n o b l i gati onto v arying circumstances through di fferential oblig ations
ensuretransparency in the use of trade measuresre- or gradualapplication.As an option f<rrcarrying out
lated to the envirclnment and to provide adequateno- this task, earlier UNEP practice may be followed
tification of natiorral regulations; and the needto give whereby legal experts designatedby Governments
c ons ider at i o nto th e s p e c i a l c o n d i ti o n sa n d devel op- could meet at suitableintervals,to be decidedlater,
m ent r equire m e n tso f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n tries as they with a broaderenvironmentaland developmentalper-
move towards internationally agreed environmental spective.
objectives: 39.6 Measures in accordancewith international law
(e) To ensuretheetfective.full andpromptimplemen- shouldbe consideredto address.in times of armedcon-
tation of legally binding instrumentsand to facilitate destructionof the environmentthatcan-
flict, large-scale
timely review and adjustmentof agreementsor instru- not be justified under internationallaw. The General
ntentsby the partiesconcerned,taking into accountthe Assembly and its Sixth Committeeare the appropriate
specialneedsand concernsof all countries,in particular forumsto dealwith this subject.The specificcompetence
dev c lopingc o u n tri e s : and role of theInternationalCommitteeof the Red Cross
(l) To improvethe effectiveness of institutions.mech- shouldbe takeninto account.
anismsand procedures for the administration of agree- 39.7 In view of the vital necessityof ensuringsafeand
mentsand instruments: environmentallysound nuclear power, and in order to
(g) To identifyandpreventactualor potentialconflicts, strengtheninternationalcooperationin this field, efforts
particularlybetweenenvironmentalandsociaVeconomic shouldbe madeto concludetheongoingnegotiationsfor
agreements or instruments, with a view to ensuringthat a nuclear safety convention in the framework of the
suchagreements or instrumentsare consistent.Where InternationalAtomic EnergyAgency.
conflictsarisethey shouldbe appropriatelyresolved,
(h) To studyand considerthe broadeningand strength-
B) IMPLEMENTATION
MECHANISMS
ening of the capacityof mechanisms, inter alia. in the
United Nations systemto facilitate, where appropriate 39.8 The partiesto intemationalagreements shouldcon-
andagreedto by the partiesconcerned,the identification, siderprocedures andmechanismsto promoteandreview
avoidanceand settlementof internationaldisputesin the their effective,full and prompt implementation.To that
l-ieldof sustainable development,duly taking into ac- effect,Statescould, inter alio:
for (a) Establishefficient and practicalreportingsystems
count existingbilateraland multilateralagreements
the settlement of suchdisputes. on the effective,full and prompt implementationof in-
ternationallegal instruments;
(b) Considerappropriateways in which relevantinter-
ACTIVITIES nationalbodies,suchasUNEP,might contributetowards
39.;l Activitiesandmeansof implementation shouldbe the furtherdevelopmentof suchmechanisms.
considered in the light of the abovebasisfor actionand
objectives,without prejudiceto the right of every State
to put lorward suggestionsin this regardin the General

16 I
cl EFFECTTVE PARTICIPATIONlN IMERNATIONAL IAW-MAKING
39.9 In all theseactivitiesandothersthat may be pursued
in the future, based on the above basis for action and
objectives,the effective participationof all countries,in
particular developing countries, should be ensured
through appropriate provision of technical assistance
and/orfinancial assistance. Developingcountriesshould
be given "headstart" support not only in their national
efforts to implement internationalagreementsor instru-
ments,but also to participateeffectively in the negotia-
tion of new or revisedagreementsor instrumentsand in
the actual internationaloperationof such agreementsor
instruments.Supportshouldincludeassistance in build-
ing up expertisein internationallaw particularlyin rela-
tion to sustainabledevelopment,and in assuringaccess
to the necessaryreference information and scien-
tifi c/technicalexpertise.
IN THEFIELD
D) DISPUTES DEVELOPMENT
OFSUSTAINABLE
39.10 In the areaof avoidanceandsettlementofdisputes,
Statesshould further study and consider methods to
broadenandmakemoreeffectivetherangeof techniques
availableat present,taking into account,among other
things,relevantexperienceunder existinginternational
agreements,instrumentsor institutionsand, where ap-
propriate,their implementingmechanismssuch as mo-
dalitiesfor disputeavoidanceand settlement.This may
includemechanismsand proceduresfor the exchangeof
data and inlbrmation. notificationand consultationre-
gardingsituationsthat might lead to disputeswith other
Statesin the field of sustainabledevelopmentand for
effectivepeacefulmeansof disputesettlementin accorcl-
ance with the Charterof the United Nations,including,
whereappropnate,recourseto the InternationalCourt of
Justice,and their inclusionin treatiesrelatingto sustain-
able development.
283
 fordecision-mcking
Informqtion
40
INTRODUCTION
40.1 In sustainable development,everyoneis a userand
provider of information consideredin the broad sense.
That includesdata,information, appropriatelypackaged
experienceand knowledge. The need for information
arisesat all levels,from thatof seniordecisionmakersat
thenationalandintemationallevelsto thegrass-roots and
individual levels. The following two programme areas
needto be implernentedto ensurethatdecisionsarebased
increasinglyon soundintormation:
(a) Bridging the datagap;
(b) Improving information availability.
P R O G R A M MAER E A S
A) BRIDGINGTHE DATA GAP
BASIS
FORACTION
40.2 While considerable dataalreadyexist,asthevarious
sectoralchaptersof Agenda21 indicate,more anddiffer-
ent types of data need to be collected, at the local,
provincial, nationaland intemationallevels,indicating
the statusand trendsof the planet'secosystem,natural
resource,pollution and socio-economicvariables.The
gapin theavailability.quality,coherence,standardization
and accessibilityof databetweenthe developedand the
developingworld hasbeenincreasing,seriouslyimpair-
ing thecapacitiesof countriesto makeinformeddecisions
concerningenvironmentand development.
40.3 There is a generallack of capacity.particularlyin
developingcountries,and in many areasat the interna-
tional level,tbr thecollectionand assessmentof data,for
284
their transfbrmationinto useftrlinformation and for therr
dissemination.There is also needfor improvedcoordi-
nation among environmental,demographic,social and
developmentaldataand informationactivities.
40.4 Commonly used indicatorssuch as the gross na-
tional product (GNP) and measurements of individual
resource or pollution flows do not provide adequate
indicationsof sustainability.
Methodsfor assessing inter-
actionsbetweendiff'erentsectoralenvironmental,demo-
graphic, social and developmentalparametersare not
sufficientlydevelopedor applied. Indicatorsof sustain-
able developmentneedto be developedto provide solid
basesfor decision-makingat all levelsand to contribute
to a self-regulatingsustainabilityof integratedenviron-
ment and developmentsystems.
OBJECTIVES
40.5 The following objectivesare important:
(a) To achieve more cost-effectiveand relevant data
collection and assessmentby better identification of
users,in both the public and privatesectors,and of their
informationneedsat the local, provincial, nationaland
international levels:
(b) To strengthenlocal, provincial,nationaland inter-
nationalcapacityto collect and use multisectoralinfor-
mation in decision-makingprocessesand to enhance
capacitiesto collectand analysedataandinformationfor
decision-making, particularlyin developingcountries;
(c) To developor strengthenlocal,provincial,national
and internationalnreansof ensuringthat planning for
sustainable developmentin all sectorsis basedon timely,
reliableand usableinfbrmation;
(d) To makerelevantinformationaccessible in theform
and at the time requiredto facilitateits use.
AC"IIVITIES
OF TNDTCAIORS
A) DEVELOPMENT OF
BLEDEVELOP
SUSIA'NA MENT
40.6 Countries at the national level and international
governmentalandnon-governmentalorganizationsat the
internationallevel shoulddevelopthe conceptof indica-
tors of sustainabledevelopmentin order to identify such
indicators.In orderto promotethe increasinguseof some
of those indicators in satellite accounts,and eventually
in nationalaccounts,the developmentofindicatorsneeds
to be pursued by the Statistical Office of the United
NationsSecretariat,asit drawsuponevolving experience
in this regard.
B) pROMOilONOF GLOBAI.UsE OF IND|CATORS
DEVELOPMENT
OF SUSTA|NABI.E
40.7 Relevant organs and organizationsof the United
Nations system,in cooperationwith other intemational
governmental,intergovernmentalandnon-governmental
organizations,should use a suitableset of sustainable
developmentindicators and indicators related to areas
outsideof nationaljurisdiction,suchasthe high seas,the
upper atmosphereand outer space.The organs and or-
ganizationsof theUnitedNationssystem,in coordination
with other relevant international organizations,could
provide recommendationsfor harmonizeddevelopment
of indicatorsat the national, regional and global levels,
and for incorporationof a suitablesetof theseindicators
in common, regularly updated, and widely accessible
reports and databases,for use at the internationallevel,
subjectto nationalsovereigntyconsiderations.
c) TMPROVEMENT
OF DATACOLLECTION
AND USE
40.8 Countries and, upon request,international organ-
izations should carry out inventoriesof environmental,
resourceand developmentaldata,basedon nationallglo-
bal priorities for the managementof sustainabledevel-
opment. They should determine the gaps and organize
activitiesto fill thosegaps. Within the organsand organ-
izationsof the United Nations systemand relevantinter-
nationalorganizations,data-collectionactivities,includ-
ing thoseof Earthwatchand World WeatherWatch,need
to be strengthened,especially in the areasof urban air,
freshwater,land resources(including forestsand range-
lands), desertification,other habitats, soil degradation,
biodiversity, the high seasand the upper atmosphere.
Countries and internationalorganizationsshould make
use of new techniquesof datacollection,including sat-
ellite-basedremote sensing.In addition to the strength-
ening of existing development-related data collection,
specialattentionneedsto be paid to such areasasdemo-
graphic factors, urbanization,poverty, health and rights
aswell asspecialgroups,inciuding
of accessto resources,
women, indigenouspeoples,youth, children and the
disabled,andtheirrelationships with environmentissues.
D) IMPROVEMENI
OF METHODSOF DATA
ASSESSMENIAND ANAI.YS/S
40.9 Relevant international organizationsshould de-
velop practical recommendationsfor coordinated,har-
monizedcollectionandassessment of dataat the national
and intemational levels. National and internationaldata
and information centres should set up continuous and
accuratedata-collectionsystemsand make use of geo-
graphicinformation systems,expertsystems,modelsand
a variety of other techniquesfor the assessmentand
analysisof data.Thesestepswill be particularlyrelevant,
aslargequantitiesof datafrom satellitesourceswill need
to be processedin the future. Developedcountriesand
internationalorganizations,as well as the private sector,
shoul d cooperate, i n parti cul ar w i th developing
countries,uponrequest,to facilitatetheir acquiringthese
technologiesand this know-how.
E) ESTABL/SHMENI
OF A COMPREHENSIVE
INFORMAT'ONFRAMEWORK
40.10 Governments should consider undertaking the
necessaryinstitutionalchangesat the national level to
achievethe integrationof environmentaland develop-
mentalinformation.At the internationallevel. environ-
mentalassessment activitiesneedto be strengthenedand
coordinatedwith effortsto assessdevelopmenttrends.
F/ SIRENGTHEN/NG OF THECA,PAC\TY
FOR
IRADIIIONAI.'NFORMAI'ON
40.11 Countries,with the cooperationof international
organizations,shouldestablishsupportingmechanisms
to provide local communitiesand resourceuserswith the
information and know-how they need to managetheir
environmentand resourcessustainably,applying tradi-
tional and indigenousknowledge and approacheswhen
appropriate.This is particularly relevant for rural and
urban populationsand indigenous,women's and youth
groups.
285
MEANSOF IMPLEMENTATION
A/ F/NANCINGAND COSTEVALUATTON
40.12The secretariatof the Conferencehasestimatedthe
averagetotal annual cost (.1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$1.9 billion
from the international community on grant or conces-
sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-
tude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments.Actual costsand financialterms,includ-
ing anythatarenon-concessional, will dependupon,inter
alia, the specific strategiesand programmesGovern-
mentsdecide upon for implementation.
8/ /N5I/IUIIONAI.MEANS
40.l3 Institutionalcapacityto integrateenvironmentand
developmentandto developrelevantindicatorsis lacking
at both the national and internationallevels. Existing
instin-rtionsand programrnessuch as the Global Environ-
mental Monitoring System(GEMS) and the Global Re-
source Information Database(GRID) within UNEP and
different entities within the system-wideEarthwatchwill
needto be considerablystrengthened.Earthwatchhasbeen
an essentialelementfor environment-related data. While
programmesrelatedto developmentdataexistin a number
of agencies, betweenthem.
therei s insufficientcclordination
The activitiesrelatedto developmentdataof agenciesand
institutionsof the United Nationssystemshouldbe more
effectively coordinated,perhapsthroughan equivalentand
complementary"Development Watch", which with the
existing Earthwatchshould be coordinatedthrough an ap-
propriateoffice wittrin the United Nationsto ensurethe full
integrationof environmentand developmentconcerns.
MEANS
AND IECHNOTOGICAL
C/ SCIENI/F'C
40.14Regarding transfer of technology,with the rapid
evolution of data-collectionand information technol-
ogies it is necessaryto developguidelinesand mecha-
nisms for the rapid and continuoustransfer of those
technologies,particularly to developing countries,in
conformity with chapter34 (Transferof environmentally
sound technology,cooperationand capacity-building)'
and for the trainingof personnelin their utilization.
D) HUM A NR ES O U R CDEEV EL OP M EN T
40.15 Internationalcooperationfor training in all uu'eas
and at all levelswill be required,particularlyin develop-
286
ing countries.That training will haveto includetechnical
trainingof thoseinvolved in datacollection,assessment
and transformation,as well as assistanceto decision
makersconcerninghow to use such information.
E) CAPACITY-BUILDING
40.16 All countries,particularly developingcountries,
with the support of international cooperation, should
strengthentheir capacityto collect, store,or ganrze,assess
and use data in decision-makingmore effectively.
B) I'VIPROVINGAVAltABltlrY oF INFOR.'YIATION
FORACTION
BASIS
40.17There alreadyexistsa wealth of dataand informa-
tion that could be usedfor the managementof sustainable
development.Finding the appropriateinformation at the
required time and at the relevantscaleof aggregationis
a difficult task.
40.18 Information within many countries is not ade-
quately managed,becauseof shortagesof financial re-
sourcesand trained manpower,lack of awarenessof the
value and availability of such information and other
immediateor pressingproblems,especiallyin develop-
ing countries. Even where information is available, it
may not be easily accessible, eitherbecauseof the lack
of technologyfor effectiveaccessor becauseof associ-
ated costs,especiallytor information held outside the
country and availablecommercially.
OBJECTIVES
40.19 Existingnationaland internationalmechanismsof
information processingand exchange,and of related
technical assistance,should be strengthenedto ensure
effective and equitableavailability of information gener-
ated at the local, provincial, national and international
levels,subjectto nationalsovereigntyand relevantintel-
lectual property rights.
40.20National capacitiesshould be strengthened,as
shouldcapacitieswithin Governments,non-govemmen-
tal organizationsand the private sector,in information
handl i ng and communi cati on, parti cul a r ly wit hin
developingcountries.
40.21Full participation of, in particular, developing
countriesshouldbe ensuredin any internationalscheme
underthe organsand organizationsof the United Nations
systemfor the collection,analysisand use of data and
information.
ACTIVITIES
USABLE
OF /NFORMATTON
A) PRODUCilON
FORDEClSION.A4AKING
40.22Countries and international organizationsshould
review and strengtheninformation systemsand services
in sectorsrelatedto sustainabledevelopment,at the local,
provincial,nationaland internationallevels.Specialem-
phasisshouldbe placedon thetransformationof existing
information into forms more useful for decision-making
and on targeting information at different user groups.
Mechanismsshould be strengthenedor establishedfor
transforming scientific and socio-economicassessments
into information suitable for both planning and public
information. Electronic and non-electronic formats
shouldbe used.
AND
OF STANDARDS
B) ESTABLISHA4ENT
METHODS FORHANDT/NGINFORMATION
40.23Governmentsshould considersupportingthe ef-
forts of governmentalas well as non-governmentalor-
ganizationsto develop mechanismsfor efficient and
harmonized exchangeof information at the local, na-
tional, provincial and international levels, including
revisionandestablishment of data,accessanddissemina-
tion formats,and communicationinterfaces.
OF DOCUMENTATION
c) DEVELOPMENT
ABOUTINFORMAI/ON
40,24The organsand organizationsof the United Na-
tionssystern,aswell asothergovernmentalandnon-gov-
emmental organizations,should document and share
information about the sourcesof available information
Existing prografiImes,
in their respectiveorganizations.
suchas thoseof the Advisory Committeefor the Coordi-
nationof InformationSystems(ACCIS) andthe Interna-
tional Environmental Information System (INFOTER-
RA), shouldbe reviewedand strengthened as required.
Networking and coordinatingmechanismsshouldbe
encouragedbetweenthe wide variety of other actors,
including arrangementswith non-governmentalor-
ganizationsfor information sharing and donor acti-
vities for sharinginformationon sustainabledevelop-
mentprojects.The privatesectorshouldbe encouraged
to strengthenthe mechanismsof sharingits experience
and informationon sustainabledevelopment.
D) ESTABLISHMENI
AND SIRENGIHEN/NG
LITIES
NEIWORKINGCAPABI
OF ELECTRON'C
40.25Countries,internationalorganizations,including
organsand organizationsof the United Nations system,
andnon-governmental organizations shouldexploitvari-
ous initiatives for electroniclinks to supportinformation
sharing,to provide accessto databasesand other infor-
mation sources,to facilitate communicationfor meeting
broaderobjectives,suchasthe implementationof Agen-
da 21, to facilitate intergovernmentalnegotiations,to
monitor conventionsand efforts for sustainabledevelop-
ment to transmit environmental alerts, and to transfer
technicaldata. Theseorganizationsshouldalsofacilitate
the linkage of different electronicnetworks and the use
of appropriatestandardsand communicationprotocols
for the transparentinterchangeof electronic communi-
cations. Where necessary,new technology should be
developedand its useencouragedto permit participation
of those not servedat presentby existing infrastructure
and methods.Mechanismsshouldalsobe established to
carry out the necessarytransfer of information to and
from non-electronicsystemsto ensurethe involvement
of thosenot able to participatein this way.
E) MAKTNGUSEOF COMMERCTAL
/NFORMAIIONSOURCES
40.26Countriesand internationalorganizationsshould
considerundertakingsurveysof informationavailablein
the private sector on sustainabledevelopmentand of
presentdisseminationarrangementsto determinegaps
and how those gaps could be filled by commercialor
quasi-commercialactivity, particularly activities in
and/or involving developingcountrieswhere feasible.
Whenevereconomicor other constraintson supplying
and accessinginformationarise,particularlyin develop-
ing countries,innovativeschemesfor subsidizingsuch
information-relatedaccessor removing the non-eco-
nomic constraintsshouldbe considered.
MEANSOFIMPLEMENTATION
A/ FTNANC/NG
AND COSTEVALUATTON
40.27The secretariatof the Conferencehasestimatedthe
averagetotal annualcost (1993-2000)of implementing
the activitiesof this programmeto be about$ 165million
from the internationalcommunity on grant or conces-
sional terms.Theseare indicativeand order-of-magni-
tude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by
Governments.Actual costsand financialterms,includ-
287
ing any that arenon-concessional,wil I depend upon,inter
alia, the specific strategiesand prograrnmesGovern-
mentsdecideupon for implementation.
B/ 'NSilTUilONALMEANS
40.28The institutional implications of this progralnme
concern mostly the strengtheningof already existing
institutions,as well as the strengtheningof cooperation
with non-governmentalorganizations,and need to be
consistentwith the overalldecisionson institutionsmade
by the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and
Development.
C) CAPACITY-BUILDING
40.29Developedcountriesand relevantinternationalor-
ganizationsshouldcooperate,in particularwith develop-
288
ing countries,to expand their capacity to receive, store
and retrieve, contribute, disseminate,use and provide
appropriatepublic accessto relevantenvironmentaland
developmentalinformation,by providing technologyand
training to establishlocal information servicesand by
supportingpartnershipandcooperativearrangements be-
tween countriesand on the regionalor subregionallevel.
D' SCTENilF'C MEANS
AND TECHNOLOG\CAL
40.30 Developedcountriesandrelevantinternationalor-
ganizationsshould supportresearchand developmentin
hardware, software and other aspects of information
technology,in particularin developingcountries,appro-
priateto their operations,nationalneedsandenvironmen-
tal contexts.
 FOREST
PRINCIPLES
N o n J e g o l lby i n d i n g
outhoritotive stotement of principles
for o globolconsensus on the
monogement, conservotion ond sustoinoble
development of oll typesof forests
Non-legollB y i n d i n gA u t h o r i t o t i vSe t o t e m e notf P r i n c i p l e s
F o r o G l o b oI C o n s e n s uosn t h e M o n o g e m e n t ,
C o n s e r v o t i oonn d S u s t o i n o b lD e e v e l o p m e notf A l l T y p e s
of Forests
PREAMBLE
(a) The subjectof forestsis relatedto the entirerange
of environmentaland developmentissuesand oppor-
tunities,including the right to socio-economicdevelop-
ment on a sustainable basis.
(b) The guiding objectiveof theseprinciplesis to con-
tributeto the management, conservationand sustainable
developmentof forestsand to providefor their multiple
and complementaryfunctionsand uses.
(c) Forestryissuesand opportunitiesshouldbe exam-
ined in a holisticand balancedmannerwithin the overall
context of environrnentand development,taking into
considerationthe multiple functionsand usesof forests,
including traditionaluses,and the likely economicand
socialstresswhentheseusesareconstrained or restricted.
as well as the potentialfor developmentthat sustainable
forest managementcan offer.
(d) Theseprinciplesreflect a first globalconsensuson
forests. In committing themselvesto the prompt im-
plementationof theseprinciples,countriesalsodecideto
keep them under assessment for their adequacywith
regardto further internationalcooperationon forest is-
SUCS.
(e) Theseprinciplesshouldapplyto all typesof forests,
both naturaland planted,in all geographicalregionsand
climatic zones,including austral,boreal,subtemperate,
temperate,subtropicaland tropical.
(fl All types of forestsembody complex and uniqure
ecologicalprocesses which arethebasisfor their present
and potential capacity to provide resourcesto satisfy
humanneedsaswell asenvironmentalvalues,atrdassuch
their soundmanagement andconseryationareof concem
to theGovernmentsof the countriesto which theybelong
andareof valueto localcommunities andto theenviron-
mentas a whole.
(g) Forestsareessentialto economicdevelopmentand
the maintenanceof all forms of life.
(h) Recognizingthat the responsibilityfbr f orestrlan-
agement,conservationand sustainabledeveloprnentis in
many States allocated among tederal/national,state/
provincialandlocallevelsof government, eachState,in
accordancewith its constitutionand/ornaticlnallegisla-
tion, should pursuetheseprinciples at the appropriate
level of government.
PRINCIPLES/ELEMENTS
1. (a) Stateshave,in accordance with the Charterof
theUnitedNationsandtheprinciplesof intemational law.
the sovereignright to exploit their own resourcespur-
suantto their own environmental policiesand havethe
responsibilityto ensurethat activitieswithin theirjuris-
dictionor controldo notcausedamageto theenvironment
of other Statesor clf areasbeyondthe limits ol' national
j unsdi cti on.
(b) The agreedfull incremental costof achievingbene-
flts associatedwith forest conservationand sustainable
developmentrequires increasedintemational cooper-
ationandshouldbe equitablysharedby the international
community.
2. (a) Stateshavethe sovereignand inalienableright
to utilize,manageanddeveloptheirf orestsin accordance
with their developmentneedsand level of socio-eco-
nomic development andon the basisof nationalpolicies
consistent with sustainabledevelopment andlegislation,
including the conversionof such areasfor other uses
within theoverallsocio-economic development planand
basedon rationalland-usepolicies.
(b) Forestresources andforestlandsshouldbe sustain-
ably managedto meetthe social,econclnric, ecolclgical,
291
cultural and spiritualneedsof presentand future gener- 6. (a) All types of forestsplay an important role in
ations. Theseneedszuefor forestproductsand services. meetingenergyrequirementsthroughthe provisionof a
such as wood and wood products,water, food, fodder, renewablesourceof bio-energy,particularlyin develop-
medicine,fuel, shelter,employment,recreation,habitats ing countries,and the demandsfor fuelwood for house-
for wildli-fe,landscapediversity, carbonsinks and reser- hold and industrialneedsshouldbe met throughsustain-
voirs, and for other forest products. Appropriate able forest management,afforestationand reforestation.
measuresshouldbe takento protectforestsagainstharm- To this end, the potentialcontributionof plantationsof
ful effects of pollution, including airborne pollution, both indigenousandintroducedspeciesfor the provision
fires, pestsand diseases,in order to maintain their full of both fuel and industrialwood shouldbe recognized.
multiple value. (b) Nationaipoliciesandprogralnmesshouldtakeinto
(c) The provisionof timely,reliableanclaccurateinfor- account the relationship,where it exists. betweenthe
mation on forestsand forestecosystemsis essentiallbr conservation, management and sustainable development
public understanding andinformeddecision-rnaking and of forests and all aspectsrelated to the production,
shouldbe ensured. consumption,recyclingand/orfinal disposalof forest
(d) Governmentsshouldpromoteand provide oppor- products.
tunitiesfor the participationof interestedparties,includ- (c) Decisionstakenon the management, conservation
ing local communitiesandindigenouspeople,industries, and sustainabledevelopmentof forestresourcesshould
labour,non-governmental organizations andindividuals, benefit,to the extentpracticable,frotn a comprehensive
forest dwellers and women, in the development, im- assessment of economic and non-economicvalues of
plementationand planning of national forest policies' forestgoodsand servicesandof the environmentalcosts
3. (a) National policiesand strategiesshouldprovide and benefits. The developmentand improvementof
a framework for increasedeffofts, including the devel- methodologies for suchevaluationsshouldbe promoted.
opm ent an d s tre n g th e n i n go f i n s ti tu ti o nsatrd pro- (d) The role of plantedforestsand permanentagricul-
grammesfbr the management, conservationand sustain- tural crops as sustainableand environmentallysound
able deve-lopment of ftlrests ancl forestlands. sourcesof renewableenergyand industrialraw material
(b) lnterttationalinstitutionalarrangements.truilding should be recognized,enhancedand prornoted. Their
on thoseorganizationsandmechanismsalreadyirl crist- contributionto the maintenance of ecologicalprocesses,
ence, as appropriate,should facilitate internationalco- to offsettingpressureon primary/old-growthforestsand
operationin the field of forests. to providingregionalemploymentanddevelopmentwith
(c) All aspectsof environmentalprotectionand social the adequateinvolvementof local inhabitantsshouldbe
and economicdevelopmentas they relateto forestsand recognizedandenhanced.
forestlandsshouldbe integratedand comprehensive. (e) Naturalforestsalsoconstitutea sourceof goodsand
4. The vital role of all typesof fbrestsin maintaining services,andtheirconsen'ation,sustainable management
the ecologicalprocessesand balanceat the local' na- and useshouldbe promoted.
tional,regionalandglobal levelsthrough,inter alia,theit 1. (a) Efforts should be madeto promote a supportive
role in protecting fragile ecosystems,watershedsand intemationaleconomicclimate conduciveto sustained
freshwaterresourcesand asrich storehouses of biodiver- and environmentallysounddevelopmentof forestsin all
sity and biological resources and sources of genetic countries,which include, inter alia, the promotion of
materialforbiotechnology products, as well as photosyn- sustainablepatternsof productionand consumption,the
thesis,shouldbe recognized. eradicationof povertyandthe promotionof food security.
5. (a) Nationalforestpoliciesshouldrecognizeandduly (b) Specificfinancialresourcesshouldbe providedto
support the identity, cuhure and the rights of indigenous developingcountrieswith significantforestareaswhich
people,theircommunitiesandothercommunitiesandforest establishprograrnmesfor theconservation of forestsinclud-
dwellers. Appropriateconditionsshouldbe promotedfor ing protectednaturalforestareas.Theseresourcesshould
thesegroupsto enablethem to have an economic stakein bedirectednotablyto economicsectorswhichwouldstimu-
forest use,perfoffn economicactivities,and achier"eand lateeconomicand socialsubstitutionactivities.
maintaincultural identity and socialorganization,as well 8. (a) Efforts shouldbe undertakentowardsthe green-
as adequatelevels of livelihood and well-being,through, ing of the world. All countries,notablydevelopedcoun-
inter alia, thoseland tenureiurangementswhich serveas tries,shouldtakepositiveandtransparent actiontowards
incentivesfor the sustainable managementof forests. reforestation.afforestationand forest conservation,as
(b) The full participationof womenin all aspectsof the appropriate.
management, conservationand sustainable development ft) Efforts to maintain and increaseforest cover and
of forestsshouldbe actively promoted. forestproductivityshouldbe undertakenin ecologically,

292
 economicallyand socially soundways throughthe reha-
bilitation, refbrestationand re-establishmentof treesand
forestson unproductive,degradedand deforestedlands,
as well as through the managementof existing forest
resources.
(c) The implementationof nationalpolicies and pro-
grarnmesaimed at forest management,conservationand
sustainabledevelopment,particularly in developing
countries,shouldbe supportedby internationalfinancial
and technicalcooperation,including throughthe private
sector,whereappropriate.
(d) Sustainableforestmanagementand use shouldbe
carried out in accordancewith national development
policiesandprioritiesandon thebasisof environmentally
sound national guidelines. In the formulation of such
guidelines,accountshouldbe taken,as appropriateand
if applicable,of relevant internationallyagreedmeth-
odologiesand criteria.
(e) Forestmanagement shouldbe integratedwith man-
agementof adjacentareasso as to maintainecological
balanceand sustainable productivity.
(0 National policiesand/orlegislationaimed at man-
agement,conservationand sustainabledevelopmentof
forestsshould include the protectionof ecologically
viable representative or uniqueexamplesof forests,in-
cludingprimary/old-growthfbrestsandotheruniqueand
valued forestsof national,cultural, spiritual,historical
and religiousimportance.
(g) Accessto biological resources,including genetic
material,shallbe rvith due regardto the sovereignrights
of the countrieswherethe forestsare locatedand to the
sharing on mutually agreedterms of technologyand
profits from biotechnologyproductsthat arederivedfrom
theseresources.
(h) Nationalpoliciesshouldensurethatenvironmental
impact assessments shouldbe carriedout whereactions
are likely to have significantadverseimpactson impor-
tant fbrestresources,and wheresuchactionsare subject
to a decisionof a competentnationalauthority.
9. (a) The effbrtsof developingcountriesto strengthen
the management, conservationand sustainable develop-
mentof their forestresourcesshouldbe supportedby the
internationalcommunity,taking into accountthe irnpor-
tance of redressingexternal indebtedness, particularly
where aggravatedby the net transfer of resourcesto
developedcountries,aswell asthe problemof achieving
at least the replacementvalue of forests through im-
provedmarketaccessfor forestproducts,especiallypro-
cessedproducts.In this respect,specialattentionshould
alsobe given to the countriesundergoingthe processof
transitionto marketeconomies.
(b) The problemsthat hinder efforts to attain the con-
servationand sustainable useof forestresourcesand that
stemfrom thelack of alternativeoptionsavailableto local
communities,in particularthe urbanpoor and poor rural
populationswho are economicallyand sociallydepend-
ent on forestsand forestresources,shouldbe addressed
by Governmentsand the internationalcommunity.
(c) Nationalpolicy formulationwith respectto all types
of forests should take accountof the pressuresand de-
mandsimposedon forestecosystemsand resourcesfrom
influencingfactorsoutsidethe forestsector,and intersec-
toral meansof dealingwith thesepressuresand clemands
shouldbe sought.
10. New and additionalfinancial resourcesshould be
provided to developingcountriesto enablethem to sus-
tainably manage,conserveand developtheir forestre-
sources,including through afforestation,reforestation
andcombatingdeforestationandforestandlanddegrada-
tion.
I 1. In orderto enable,in perticular,developingcountries
to enhancetheir endogenous capacityand to betterman-
age, conserveand develop their forest resources,the
accessto and transferof environmentallysound tech-
nologies and correspondingknow-how on favourable
terms,includingon concessional and preferentialterms,
as mutually agreed,in accordancewith the relevant
provisionsof Agenda21, shouldbe promoted,facilitated
and financed,as appropriate.
12. (a) Scientificresearch,forest inventoriesand as-
sessments carriedout by nationalinstitutionswhich take
into account,whererelevant,biological,phvsical,social
and economicvariables,as well as technological devel-
opment and its applicationin the field of sustainable
forest management,conservationand development,
shouldbe strengthened througheff'ectivemodalities,in-
cluding internationalcooperation.In rhiscontext,atten-
tion shouldalsobe given to researchanddevelopmentof
sustainablyharvestednon-woodproducts.
(b) National and, where appropriate,regionaland in-
ternationalinstitutionalcapabilitiesin education,train-
ing. science,technology,economics,anthropologyand
socialaspectsof forestsand forestmanagementare es-
sentialto the conservationand sustainabledeveloprnent
of forestsand shouldbe strengthened.
(c) Internationalexchangeof informationon theresults
of forest and forestlnanagementresearchand develop-
ment shouldbe enhancedandbroadened,asappropriate,
making full use of educationand training institutions,
includingthosein the privatesector.
(d) Appropriateindigenouscapacityandlocalknowledge
regardingtheconservation andsustainabledevelopmentof
forestsshould,throughinstitutionalandfinancialsupport
and in collaborationwith the peoplein the local com-
munitiesconcerned,be recognized,respected, recorded,
developedand, as appropriate,introducedin the im-
293
plementationof programmes. Benefits arising from the
utilization of indigenousknowledgeshouldthereforebe
equitably sharedwith such people.
13. (a) Trade in forest products should be based on
non-discriminatoryand multilaterally agreedrules and
proceduresconsistentwith international trade law and
practices. In this context, open and free international
tradein forest productsshould be facilitated.
(b) Reductionor removal of tariff barriersand impedi-
mentsto the provision of bettermarket accessand better
prices for higher-value-addedforest productsand their
localprocessingshouldbeencouraged to enableproducer
countriesto betterconserve and manage their renewable
forestresources.
(c) Incorporationof environmentalcosts and benefits
into market forces and mechanisms,in order to achieve
forestconservationand sustainable developrnent, should
be encouragedboth domesticallyand internationally.
?94
(d) Forest conservationand sustainabledevelopment
policies should be integratedwith economic,trade and
other relevantpolicies.
(e) Fiscal, trade, industrial, transportationand other
policiesand practicesthat may leadto forestdegradation
shouldbe avoided. Adequatepolicies,aimedat manage-
ment, conservation and sustainabledevelopment of
forests,including, where appropriate,incentives,should
be encouraged.
14. Unilateral measures,incompatible with interna-
tional obligations or agreements,to restrict and/or ban
intemational trade in timber or other forest products
should be removed or avoided, in order to attain long-
term sustainableforest management.
15. Pollutarts,particularly airbornepollutants,includ-
ing thoseresponsiblefor acidic deposition,that areharm-
ful to thehealthof forestecosystemsat thelocal, national,
regional and global levels should be controlled.