Transport measurement of GdBCO sample

Seolhwa Kim∗
January 2, 2018

Abstract
We saw superconductive phase transition in resistance of GDBCO(one of high Tc superconductors) by
raising and lowering temperature. Quench(at 1A) and open-loop hysteresis(Tc-cooling=92K > 82K=Tc-
warming) are also observed.

Contents
1 Superconductivity 2
1.1 Zero Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Meissner Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Perfectconductor vs Superconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Flux Quantization -Macroscopic Quantum Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Cooper Pairing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 What is Cooper pair? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 s-/p-/d-/f-wave pairing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 Unconventional superconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Cooling and Thermometry 4

2.0.1 Cryoliquid Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.0.2 Others below 1 mK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Thermometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 4-point Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Quench and Hysteresis 6

3.1 Quench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Experimental procedure and Discussion 6

4.1 Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Temperature-time Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Zero point voltage of GDBCO wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Quench effect and warming up sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5 Resistance Temperature Plot and temperature hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Ways to improve experiment 8

∗ KAIST, Department of Physics, Contact: liiberty@kaist.ac.kr

1 Superconductivity
Superconductivity is often featured by zero resistance and Meissner effect - loss of magnetic field inside
conductor. This session examins each phenomenon and explains superconductivity in terms of spontaneous
symmetry breaking and resulting cooper pairs.

*Ref[1, 2] are relevant.

BCS theory is well accepted description of superconductivity in which G = U (1) electromagnetic gauge
symmetry is spontaneously broken to its subgroup H = Z2 . It pushes massless Nambu-Goldstone boson
to the degenerate groud state, which corresponds to the phase of whatever representation of U (1), e.g.
one-electron field ψ(x), or cooper pair field φ̃(x), by ψ(x)/φ̃(x) → e iqφ(x)
~ ψ(x)/φ̃(x) where q is charge of
reperesentation field. This Nambu-Goldstone boson(φ(x)) indeed corresponds to broken symmetry generator
and lives in the coset G/H forming equivalence class φ(x) ≡ φ(x) + π~q and transforms under G = U (1):

φ(x) → φ(x) + Λ (1)

Aµ (x) → Aµ (x) + ∇Λ (2)

One can write down gauge-invariant Lagrangian for superconductor + electromagnetic field as
Z
1 2
L = d3 x − Fµν + Lm [A − ∇φ, A0 + φ̇] + gauge-invariant terms (3)
4
The argument of Lm is chosen to respect gauge symmetry.

1.1 Zero Resistivity

Zero Electrical resistance means that there is no voltage difference across the superconductor when it is
placed in an electric circuit with steady current source. Our equaiton(3) can explain this phenomenon.
Let’s first consider Euler-Lagrange equation of this lagrangian which leads charge density
δLm δLm
(x) = =− (4)
δA0 δ φ̇(x)

Therefore one can think charge density (x) as canonical conjugate of Goldstone field φ(x) ˙ and try
δH
cannonical transformation φ̇(x) = − δ(x) .
Right hand side, the matter Hamiltonian divided by charge density, can also be interpreted as potental
difference. So
δH
V (x) = = −φ̇(x) (5)
δ(x)
If V (x) 6= 0, the field and its gradient(which is current) become time-dependent. This can’t happen with
the external steady current. Therfore the potentialV (x) across the superconductor must vanish.

1.2 Meissner Effect

That magnetic field is zero almost everywhere inside the superconductor below critical temperature is called
Meissner effect. Let’s explain this phenomenon with our model.

Lm in Equation(3) can be written as

Z
1
Lm = Lm0 + − Cij (x, x0 )(Ai (x) − ∇i φ(x))(Aj (x0 ) − ∇j φ(x0 ))d3 xd3 (x0 ) (6)
2

2
 For superconductors, Cij (kernel) 6= 0 and two terms of (Ai (x) − ∇i φ(x))(Aj (x0 ) − ∇j φ(x0 )) have non-zero
overlap only within a specific range ξ called penetration depth.
This point is well illustrated by a popular Ginzburg-Landau model
1 2 λ
L = − Fµν + |Dµ φ̃(x)|2 − m2 |φ̃| − |φ̃|4 (7)
4 4
where φ̃ is cooper-pair field(sorry for confusing notation with Goldstone boson field φ(x)) whose charge is
2e and m2 ≈ T − Tc describes second-order phase transition, and Dµ = ∂µ − i2eAµ is typical q covariant
2
derivative. Below critical temperature, vacuum bears non-vanishing cooper pair field value hφ̃i = 2m λ to
minimize the potential.
This choice is consistent withqour literature where G = U (1) is spontaneously broken to its subgroup H = Z2 .
2m2
Plugging the value φ̃ = v = λ yields

1 2 m2
L = − Fµν + A A2µ (8)
4 2
where m2A = 8e2 v 2 and we set Goldstone bosone field φ = 0 after spontaneous symmetry breaking below
Tc . We can see this lagrangian examplifies Equation(3) with Cij = m2A 6= 0.
m2
Here 2A A2 gives energy density of the system. If B = ∇ × A 6= 0 over a finite range of space, this energy
will grow up significantly. When it costs more than expelling the magnetic field inside the superconductor,
the nature choose to the later option which is called Meissner effect.

Back to our generic description(equation (3)), let’s turn on a small background magnetic field which
penetrates the superconductor, leading A − ∇φ ≈ A. It will grow the energy up to penetration depth by

Energy = −Lm = CA2 ξ 3 L3 = Cξ 3 (BL)2 L3 (9)

If Cξ 3 (BL)2 L3 >> B 2 L3 = energy required to expel magnetic field inside the superconductor, it will be
energetically favorable to have ∇φ − A = 0 inside the superconductor. Thus

B = ∇ × A = ∇ × ∇φ = 0 (10)

1.2.1 Perfectconductor vs Superconductor

*Ref[4] is relevant.
Perfectconductor also have exactly zero electrical resistance but can have zero or nonzero constant mag-
netic field inside. The vanishing magnetic field inside is one of distinguising features of superconductor.
Perfectconductor doesn’t exist in the nature.

1.3 Flux Quantization -Macroscopic Quantum Phenomenon

In a thick superconducting ring whose thickness is greater than penetration depth, the change in Goldstone
boson field φ around some closed contour is
Z Z Z
∆φ = ∇φ · dl = A · dl = (∇ × A) · dS ≡ Φ (11)
C C A
In a simply connected superconductor, Goldstone field can be eaten by gauge field so it is irrelevant,
however, in a multiply connected superconductor, Goldstone field can jump by multiples of π~e. This jump
is discrete so the continuous gauge transformation of Goldstone boson is not possible. Plugging this value
to above equation yields Flux Quantization

3
 Φ = nπ~e. (12)
where n is integer.

1.4 Cooper Pairing

1.4.1 What is Cooper pair?
One can regard Goldstone boson in our model as phonon, and U (1) representation in Ginzburg-Landau
theory, φ̃ as Cooper pair.
In the Ginzburg-Landau effective field theory description(Eq.(7)), the phase transition is understood as due
to attractive interaction between electrons through phonon exchange. In this sense, φ is identified with pairs
of electrons, φ̃ ≈ e− e− , which are known as Cooper pairs or BCS pairs[2].

1.4.2 s-/p-/d-/f-wave pairing

*Ref[7] is relevant.
One can factorize superconductor wavefunction to spin and orbital(spatial) component. Depending on the
spin alignment of electrons within a cooper pair, spin component can be in a singlet state(Cooper pairs of
opposite spin, S=0) or in a triplet state(Cooper pairs of the same spin, S=1). The orbital wavefunction
involves spherical harmonics with angluar momentum l = 0(s), l = 1(p), l = 2(d), l = 3(f ) due to rotational
symmetry. To antisymmetrize the whole wavefunction, the spatial part must be symmetric(l = 0, 2, . . . ) for
a spin singlet state and anti-symmetric for triplet state(l = 1, 3, . . . ). In Ref[7], Inna Vishik categorized some
examples:

• s-wave (S=0,l=0): all elemental superconductors such as Al, Nb, and Pb

• p-wave (S=1,l=1): Sr2 RuO4
• s-wave (S=0,l=2): Curprate high temperature superconductors
• s-wave (S=1,l=3): UPt3 (Unconventional)

The momentum dependent phase of wavefunction is described in Fig.1.4.2

1.4.3 Unconventional superconductor

According to Wikipedia article, Unconventional superconductor are materials that display superconductivity
which does not conform to either the conventional BCS theory or Nikolay Bogolyubov’s theory or its ex-
tensions. They include high-Tc superconductors and many artificial compounds most of which have d-wave
paring instead of conventional s-wave pairing.

2 Cooling and Thermometry

2.0.1 Cryoliquid Cooling
The method of expansion, in which a gas or liquid at pressure P1 flows into a region of lower pressure P2
without significant change in kinetic energy, is called the JouleThomson expansion[6]. This is irreversible
process in real gas and the temperature decreases.
This cooling method is widely and conventionally utilized in many laboratories with Helium or Nitrogen gases.

• Con: This is simplest way to achieve temperature below 10K.

4
Figure 1: s-wave vs 2 types of d-wave gaps. Top row: momentum space representation showing the regions
of the Brillouin Zone having (+) phase (pink) or (-) phase (blue). Red and blue circles are schematic of
large and small Fermi surfaces which are considered in lower panels. Middle row: superconducting gap on
a large Fermi surface (FS). s-wave has isotropic gap, dx2y2dx2y2 has gap which is maximum along zone
boundary direction and identically zero in diagonal directions, dxydxy has gap which is maximum along
diagonal and identically zero along boundary. Bottom row: superconducting gap on small Fermi surfaces
located at positions in Brillouin zone indicated in top panel. Note that despite identical gap symmetry,
different Fermiology can affect the presence/absence of nodes in the superconducting gap around the Fermi
surface. Image made by Inna Vishik.

• Pros: Cooling power is weak. Entry is cumbersome - pumping system and lines(pressure over the liquid
must be decreased).

2.0.2 Others below 1 mK

Disordered magnetic dipoles: tempereatures can go well below 1K by means of the adiabatic demagnetization
of paramagnetic salts (0.27 K in 1933).In principle this method can drop the temperature to a few microkelvin.

2.1 Thermometry
Diode thermometer measures the forward voltage drop of p-n jnuction and maps it to the temperature as
such voltage increases as the temperature falls. Junction diodes are Si, GaAs or AlGaAs commercial elec-
tronic components. They can be used above 1 K, but the voltage is almost linear above 20 K.

5
 Among thermometers working at temperature below 77K, diode thermometer is easy to use and possess
reasonable sensitivity.

2.2 4-point Probe

If we connect the multimeter only withi two probes(connecting ampere and voltmeter to the same two
points), the impedence of both ampre- and voltmeters affects each measurement. On the other hands, 4-
point probe(seperates probes of ampere- and voltmeter) measures voltage or current independently that
measurement is not affected by another gauge’s impedence.

3 Quench and Hysteresis

3.1 Quench
Quench in superconductivity means abrupt loss of superconductivity due to joule heating induced by in-
creasing magnetic field strength and eddy current. Quench can occur as sample is exposed to high current
which results in large strength of magnetic field.

3.2 Hysteresis
Phase transition can onset in different point for different processes. In our experiment, critical tempera-
ture(Tc) can display hysteretic behaviour because superconductivity is more suppressed during rapid warm-
ing temperature changes faster than the decay rate of microscopic state, thus system breaks down more
easily than adiabatic heating. Meanwhile, the sample can get into ordered phase more easily in rapid cool-
ing(exchange gas in our case) because it helps form superconductivity. These two explain why Tc for cooling
is greater than Tc for warming.

4 Experimental procedure and Discussion

4.1 Setup
Setup- Pressure and Temperature We used vacuum pump to surrounded GDBCO sample with vacuum.
We follow 3 steps sequentially to cool the sample:

• Temperature drops slightly as pressure decreases

• When it reached lower enough pressure, we immersed it in a liquid nitrogen(N2 ) to further cool down
and keep the temperature stable.
• To facilitate cooling, we injected exchange gas(He) into the sample chamber. As exchange gas diffuses
in the chamber, surrounding temperature drops quickly.

4.2 Temperature-time Plot

Temperature time plot is obtained by integrating sensitivity(dV/dT). Sensitivity data are provided in DT675
Series webpage(DT-670)s databook(http://www.lakeshore.com/products/cryogenic-temperature-sensors/silicon-
diodes/dt-670/pages/Specifications.aspx). Fig.4.2(a) shows the plot and its trend-line equation for order 3
polynomial fitting of these data. After integration one gets V[T] graph and inverting its 3rd order polynomial

6
fit function gives T[V] graph(Fig.4.2(b)). In this experiment, we estimated temperature using the trend-line
equation of T[V] and thermometer voltage(measured values). This is given in Fig.4.2(c).

(a) Sensitivity data from web (b) T(V) and its polynomial fitting

meas.png
(c) Temperature-time using thermometer voltage

4.3 Zero point voltage of GDBCO wire

To get a resistance of sample for the various currents, measurement of sample voltage must be calibrated by
zero point(calibration, See Fig.4.3). GDBCO sample is assumed to be isotropic so that the zero point would
be mid point of voltages under ±10mA and ±100mA of source current.In our case, this zero point voltage
is 2.86×10−6 V. All sample voltages in later measurements were calibrated with this value. This calibration
however, can’t be accurate since this was average over small voltages including relevant sized error, and as
a result the negative resistances in some parts were inevitable(see next session). That sample can slightly
devitate from isotropy can be attributed for this, too.

4.4 Quench effect and warming up sample

Fig.4.4(a) shows sample voltage under increasing source current, from 10mA to 1A, and back to 10mA.
Quench effect is manifest at I= 1A with critical current Ic ranging from 50mA - 1A.

In this experiment, large nearby magnetic field(by large current) induces small break-up of superconduc-
tivity, through which fast moving charges within superconducting patch can leak and heats up the sample
by interaction with lattice(finite resistance). System will enter to non-equilibrium dynamics and such extra

7
 wire voltage.png

Figure 2: Calibration: GDBCO Wire voltage for (±10, 100mA)

heat further breaks superconducting patch. This happens like avalanche at critical current, Ic=1A in our
experiment.

We dropped the current back to 10mA after quench effect and took the sample container out of liquid
N2 chamber to warm it up. Fig.4.4(b) shows sample voltage during warming.

(a) Sample voltage and quench effect (b) Sample voltage during warming

4.5 Resistance Temperature Plot and temperature hysteresis

Fig4.5(a) shows Resistance of sample versus temperature for the entire experimental procedure cooling,
quenching and warming. Phase transition while cooling(yellow star) is clearly shown. Fig.4.5(b) is rescaled
version of Fig4.5(a) near phase transitions. Yellow and blues star indicates Tc for cooling(Tc=82K) and
warming(Tc=92K), displaying hysteresis. Quench is more manifest in figure 4.2 by looking at change of R
of source current from 1A(yellow inverted triangles) to 1mA(green triangles).

5 Ways to improve experiment

One can reduce every contact point - probe and wire - which can be source of heat and electric noise to
improve the accuracy of measurement. Using high-quality thermometer can also work.

8
 (c) R-T over the whole experiment (d) R-T near phase transition and Hysteresis: Yellow star in-
dicates Tc in cooling and Blue is Tc in warming featuring hys-
teresis.

References
[1] S. Weinberg, ”Superconductivity for Particular Theorists”, Prog.Theor.Phys.Suppl. 86 (1986) 43

[2] Matthew D. Schwartz. Quantum Field Theory and the Standard model. Cambridge, 2014.
[3] A. Zee, Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press, 2010.
[4] Wikipedia - Perfectconductor
[5] Wikipedia - Superfluidity

[6] Wikipedia - Thomson-Joule Effect

[7] Quora posting by Inna Vishik, P.h.D. Applied Physics, Stanford University (2013)
https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-d-wave-superconductor-vs-an-s-wave-superconductor

[8] G. Ventura, L. Risegari The Art of Cryogenics Low-Temperature Experimental Techniques. Elseiver, 2008.