UNIT 6: OPTICS

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection When light travelling in a medium strikes a reflecting surface, it goes back into the same
medium obeying certain laws. This phenomenon is known as reflection of light.

Laws of reflection of light

(i) The angle of incidence (i.e. ∠i ) is equal to the angle of
reflection (i.e. ∠ r).
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of
incidence and the reflected ray lie in the same plane.

Spherical mirror: The portion of a reflecting surface, which forms part of a sphere is called a
spherical mirror.
Concave Spherical mirror. A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of
the sphere, of which the mirror forms a part is called concave spherical mirror.

Convex Spherical mirror: A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is away from the centre
of the sphere, of which the mirror forms a part is called convex spherical mirror.

Centre of curvature. The centre of the sphere, of which the mirror forms a part, is called the
centre of curvature of the mirror.

Radius of curvature. The radius of the sphere, of which the mirror forms a part, is called the
radius of curvature of the mirror.

Pole. The centre of the spherical mirror is called its pole.

Principal axis: The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of the mirror is called the
principal axis of the mirror.
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 Aperture: The diameter of the mirror is called the aperture of the mirror.

Principal focus: The point at which a narrow beam of light which is incident on the mirror parallel
to its principal axis, after reflection from the mirror, meets or appears to come from, is called the
principal focus of the mirror.

Focal length: The distance between the pole and the principal focus of the mirror is called the focal
length of the mirror.
Sign convention

Relation between f and R

Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis striking the mirror at M.
Then CM will be perpendicular to the mirror at M. Let θ be the angle
of incidence, and MD be the perpendicular from M on the
principal axis. Then, ∠ MCP = θ and ∠ MFP = 2θ
MD MD
tan θ = and tan 2θ = ---------------------------------------- (1)
CD FD
For small θ, which is true for paraxial rays, tanθ ≈ θ, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ. Therefore, Eq. (1) gives
MD MD CD
=2 Or FD = --------------------------------------------- (2)
FD CD 2
Now, for small θ, the point D is very close to the point P. Therefore, FD = f and CD = R. Equation (2)
then gives f = R/2
Mirror Formula.

∆s ABC and A ' B ' C ' are similar

A ' B ' CB '
= ------------------------------ (1)
AB CB
∆s ABP and A ' B ' P are similar
A ' B ' PB '
= ------------------------------- (2)
AB PB
From equation (1) and (2)
PB ' CB ' PC − PB '
= = ----------------- (3)
PB CB PB − PC
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 PB = −u , PB ' = −v, PC = − R
−v −R+v vR + uR = uv + uv
= Or
−u −u + R But R = 2 f
v 2 f + u 2 f = 2uv
v f +u f = uv
Divide both side by u v f
1 1 1
= +
f u v
where u and v denote the object and image distances from the pole of the mirror.
Linear magnification: The ratio of the size of the image (formed by the mirror) to size of the
object is called linear magnification produced by the mirror.
I v f f −v
Mathematically, m= =− = =
O u u− f f
According to new Cartesian sign conventions, when the image formed is real (inverted), the
magnification produced by the mirror is negative and when the image formed is virtual (erect),
the magnification produced by the mirror is positive.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction: The phenomenon of change in the path of light as it goes from one transparent
medium to another transparent medium is called refraction.

Laws of refraction:
1. The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface
at the point of incidence and the refracted ray all lie in
the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is constant for any two
given media. It is called Snell’s law.
sin i
Mathematically, = n 21
sin r
Here, n21 is called the relative refractive index of medium 2 (in which the refracted ray travels)
w.r.t. medium 1 (in which the incident ray travels).

Absolute refractive index: The absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of
the velocity of light in the vacuum (c) to the velocity of light in that medium (v).
c
Mathematically: Absolute refractive index, n =
v
Principle of reversibility of light: It states that if light after suffering any number of reflections
and refractions has its final path reversed, it travels back along the same path in the opposite direction.
It leads to result that the refractive index of the medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1 is equal
to the reciprocal of the refractive index of the medium 1 w. r. t. the medium 2.
1
Mathematically: n 21 =
n12
REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SLAB
When a ray of light passes through a parallel-sided transparent slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the
incident ray, although there is a lateral displacement.

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Consider a parallel-sided slab KLMN having parallel faces KL and NM as shown in Fig. A ray of light
AO in air (medium ‘1’) is incident on the glass surface KL (medium ‘2’) at point O. The ray bends
towards the normal and follows the path OB. At point B, again refraction takes place and the ray
bends away from the normal, emerging out of glass follow path BC and the emergent ray BC becomes
parallel to the incident ray AO.
sin i1
At point O, n 21 = ----------------- (1)
sin r1
sin i 2
At point B, n12 = ------------------ (2)
sin r2
Now place a plane mirror at C perpendicular to
the emergent ray CB then refracted ray retrace its
path exactly then,
For reversed ray, apply snell’s law at point B on
surface MN
sin r2
n 21 = -------------------------------- (3)
sin i 2
From equation 1 and 3

sin i1 sin r2
= ------------------------------ (4)
sin r1 sin i 2
Q KL NM ∴r1 = i2
sin r1 = sin i 2
Equation (4 ) becomes
sin i1 sin r2
= ------------------------------ (5)
sin r1 sin r1
sin i1 = sin r2
i1 = r2
Thus when a ray of light passes through a parallel-sided transparent slab, the emergent ray is parallel
to the incident ray. However, it is laterally displaced.
Expression for lateral displacement
The perpendicular distance between the incident and the emergent rays, when the light is incident
obliquely on a parallel sided slab of a refracting material is called lateral shift / displacement.
Drop a ┴ BD on AO produced.
Let ∠ BOD = δ = Deviation on refraction at surface KL
In ∆ BOD,
BD = OB sin δ ----------------------- (6)
In ∆ OEB,
OE
OB = ---------------------------- (7)
cos r1
where OE = t = Thickness of glass slab
From equation (6)
t t sin (i1 − r1 )
BD = sin δ = = lateral shift / displacement
cos r1 cos r1

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 Real and apparent depth: When an object is placed in an optically denser medium, the apparent
depth of the object is always less than its real depth.
Re al depth
Mathematically: 1. = n 21
Apparent depth

 1 
Mathematically: 2. Normal shift, d = t 1 − 
 n 21 

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset due to atmospheric refraction.

Total internal reflection: The phenomenon of reflection of light that takes place when a ray of
light traveling in a denser medium gets incident at the interface of the two media at an angle greater
than the critical angle for that pair of media.
1
Mathematically: n 21 =
sin ic
Here, n21 is the refractive index of the denser
medium 2 w.r.t. the rarer medium 1 and ic is
the critical

Critical angle: for a given pair of media it

is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90o when light is traveling from denser
medium to rarer medium.
Mathematically:

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n21 = 1 Here, n21 is the refractive index of the denser medium 2 w.r.t. the rarer medium 1 and ic is the
sin ic
critical angle.
2
n1= sin i , i = ic and r=900
sin r
2 sin ic
n1= =sin ic
sin 90
1
n2 = 1
sin ic
Application of Total internal reflection
Mirage: a realistic image of an object that is either totally imaginary or that appears to be in a location
other than the true one.In hot areas, the layers of air near the earth surface becomes hotter as compared to
the layers above.As a result the upper layers of air become denser.When rays from a tree like object
passes from denser to rarer medium,it suffers total internal reflection.An observer notices an mirage of the
object being formed as if there is water around.

Optical fibre:it consist of thousands of strands of fine quality of glass or quartz of refractive index
1.7.The strands are coated with a layer of same material of lower refractive index (1.5).It works on the
principle of total internal reflection.

Prism: Prisms designed to bend light by 90º or by 180º make use of total internal reflection [Fig. (a) and
(b)]. Such a prism is also used to invert images without changing their size [Fig. (c)]. In the first two
cases, the critical angle ic for the material of the prism must be less than 45º

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Spherical refracting surface: The portion of a refracting medium, whose curved surface forms
the part of a sphere, is called a spherical refracting surface.
When object is situated in the rarer medium, the relation between n1 (refractive index of the rarer
medium), n2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) and R (the radius of curvature) with
the object and image distances ( u and v) is given by

n1 n 2 n2 − n1
− + =
u v R

When object is situated in the denser medium, the relation between n1 (refractive index of the rarer
medium), n2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) and R (the radius of curvature) with
the object and image distances ( u and v) can be obtained by interchanging n1 and n2. In that case, the
relation becomes
n n n − n2
− 2 + 1 = 1
u v R
Lenses
A lens is any transparent object having two non-parallel (normally) curved refracting surfaces
Lenses are nearly always made of glass and are of two types viz.
(i) Convex lens or converging lens
(ii) Concave lens or diverging lens

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Lens maker’s formula. The relation connecting the focal length of the lens with the radii of
curvature of its two surfaces and the refractive index of the material of the lens is called lens maker’s
formula.
Consider a point object O situated on the principal axis of the lens. A ray of light starting from O and
traveling along the principal axis falls normally on the first surface (XP1Y) and passes undeviated.
Another incident ray OA strikes the first surface at A and is refracted. The ray is again refracted at the
second surface (XP2Y) and meets the principal
axis at I. Therefore I is the final image of the
object O formed after refraction by the two
surfaces of the lens. We shall consider each
lens surface separately using the image formed
by first surface (XP1Y) as an object for the
second surface (XP2Y).

(i) Refraction at the surface XP1Y:

The refracting surface XP1Y forms the real
image I1 in the glass medium of the object O.
n2 n1 n2 − n1
− = ----------- (1)
v1 u R1
(ii) Refraction at the surface XP2Y:
The image I1 acts as virtual object (placed in denser medium) for the refracting surface XP2Y which
forms the final real image I in air.
n1 n1 n2 − n1
− = ------------- (2)
v v1 − R2
n n n n n −n n − n1
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get 2 − 1 + 1 − 1 = 2 1 + 2
v1 u v v1 R1 − R2
1 1  1 1 
⇒ n1  −  = (n2 − n1 ) −  ----------- (3)
v u  R1 R2 
If the object is at infinity, u = ∞ then the image I will be formed at focus, v = f.
1 1  1 1 
From .eq (3), n1  −  = (n2 − n1 ) − 
 f ∞  R1 R2 
1  n 2 − n2  1 1 
⇒ =   − 
f  n1  R1 R2 
1 n  1 1 
⇒ =  2 − 1 − 
f  n1  R1 R2 
1  1 1 
⇒ = (n 21 − 1) −  ----------- (4)
f  R1 R2 
1  1 1 
In general = (n − 1) − 
f  R1 R2 
This equation is called lens maker’s formula.
The focal length of a convex lens is taken as positive, while that of concave lens is taken as
negative.
Lens Formula. The relation between the focal length, the object and image distances is called
lens equation.
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 ∆s ABC and A ' B ' C ' are similar
A ' B ' CB '
= ------------------------------ (1)
AB CB
∆s CDF and A ' B ' F are similar
A ' B ' FB '
= = -------------------------- (2)
CD CF
But CD = AB
From equation (1) and (2)
CB ' FB ' CB ' − CF
= = ----------------- (3) CB = −u , CB ' = + v, CF = f
CB CF CF
v v− f
=
−u f
v f = −u v + uf
Divide both sides by u v f
1 1 1
= −
f v u
Linear Magnification. The ratio of the size of the image (formed by the lens) to the size of the
object is called linear magnification produced by the lens.
I v f f −v
Mathematically, m= = = =
O u f +u f
Power of a lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in metre.
1
Mathematically, 1. P =
f
 1 1 
2. P = (n − 1) − 
 R1 R2 
In the above two formulae; f, R1 and R2 are measured in metre.
Two thin lenses placed in contact. When two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed in contact,
the focal length of the combination is given by
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f 2

Power of equivalent lens: P = P1 + P2

Magnification produced by equivalent lens: m = m1 × m 2

DISPERSION

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Refraction through a prism: A prism is the portion of a transparent refracting medium bound by
two plane surfaces meeting each other along a straight edge. A ray of light incident on one face of the
prism suffers refraction successively at the two surfaces and then emerges out of it.
A+δ = i + e And A = r1 + r2
When the prism is placed in the minimum deviation position ( δ = δ m ) angle of incidence i is equal to the
angle of emergence e, i = e and r1 = r2 = r .
∴ A + δ m = 2i ⇒ i = 12 ( A + δ m ) And A = 2r ⇒ r = 12 A
According to Snell’s law for refracting surface AB
sin i
or AC, we have µ = , where µ is refractive
sin r
index of glass of prism. Putting the values of i and r,
 A + δm 
sin  
we get µ=  2 
 A
sin  
2

The variation between angle of incidence and angle of deviation is shown below

Dispersion: The phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colours is called
dispersion.

.
Rayleigh’s law of scattering: It states that the intensity of the light of wavelength λ in the scattered
light varies inversely as the fourth power of its wavelength.
Sky is Blue As sunlight travels through the earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered (changes its direction) by the
atmospheric particles. Light of shorter wavelengths is scattered much more than light of longer
wavelengths.(The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power
of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering). Hence, the bluish colour predominates in a
clear sky, since blue has a shorter wavelength than red and is scattered much more strongly. In fact, violet

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gets scattered even more than blue, having a shorter wavelength. But since our eyes are more sensitive to
blue than violet, we see the sky blue.
Sun appears reddish during sunset and sunrise
At sunset or sunrise, the sun’s rays have to pass
through a larger distance in the atmosphere
(Fig.).Most of the blue and other shorter wavelengths
are removed by scattering. The least scattered light
reaching our eyes, therefore, the sun looks reddish.
This explains the reddish appearance of the sun and
full moon near the horizon.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Human eye. It is the most valuable and sensitive sense organ. It is a remarkable optical instrument and
is called the natural optical instrument. It is because; eye has a capability of automatic adjustment of
the aperture and focusing.

Far point: It is the greatest distance beyond which the normal eye can not see the objects clearly.
For a normal eye, it is taken as infinity.

Near point: It is the closest distance up to which the objects can be seen clearly. For a normal eye,
it is 25 cm. It is also called the least distance of distinct vision.

Power of accommodation
It is the maximum variation of eye power for focusing on near and far distant objects. For normal eye, the
power of accommodation is about 4 dioptre.
Defects of vision
1. Myopia or nearsightedness: A person is said to be suffering from myopia, if he can see
only near objects clearly but can not see the objects beyond a certain distance clearly.

Cause of myopia
(i) The eyeball gets elongated along its axis so that the distance between the eye lens and retina becomes
larger.
(ii) The focal length of the eye lens becomes too short due to the excessive curvature of corena
This defect of eye can be corrected by using a concave lens of focal length, f = -x , where x is the
distance of its far point from the eye.

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.Hypermetropia or farsightedness: A person is said to be suffering from hypermetropia, if he can see
distant objects clearly but can not see the nearby objects.

Cause of Hypermetropia or far sightedness

(i) The eyeball becomes too small along its axis so that the distance between the eye lens and retina becomes
small.
(ii) The focal length of the eye lens becomes too large resulting in the low converging power of the eye lens

xD
This defect of eye can be corrected by using a convex lens of focal length, f =
x−D
where x is the distance of its near point from the eye and D is the least distance of distinct vision.
3. Presbyopia: This defect is similar to hypermetropia i.e. a person cannot see nearby objects distinctly, but
can see distant objects without any difficulty. This defect occurs to the elderly age persons because of the
decreasing effectiveness of the ciliary’s muscle and the loss of flexibility of the lens. (This defect of the eye) is
called presbyopia. It is corrected by using a converging lens for reading.
4. Astigmatism. The defect of vision, which arises due to non spherical shape of the cornea or the
crystalline lens is called astigmatism.
An eye suffering from astigmatism can be corrected by using a suitable cylindrical lens.

Simple microscope: A convex lens of small focal length is called a simple microscope or a
magnifying glass.
The magnifying power of a microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the
eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly, when both lie at the least distance of distinct
vision.

 D
Mathematically: M = 1 + 
 f 
Here, D is the least distance of distinct vision.
Compound microscope: A compound microscope is a two lens system (object lens and eye lens of
focal lengths fo and fe). Its magnifying power is very large, as compared to the simple microscope.
v  d  L d 
Mathematically: M = o 1 +  = − 1 + 
uo  fe  fo  fe 

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Here, uo is distance of the object from the object lens and vo (≈ L, is the length of the tube of the
microscope) is the distance at which the object lens forms the image of the object.

Astronomical telescope: It is a two lens system and is used to observe distant heavenly objects. It
is called refracting type astronomical telescope.
Normal adjustment. When the final image is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in
normal adjustment.

The magnifying power of a

telescope in normal adjustment is
defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended by the image at the eye as
seen through the telescope to the
angle subtended by the object seen
directly, when both the object and
the image lie at infinity.
Magnifying power in normal
f
adjustment, M = − o
fe
When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,

fo  f 
Magnifying power of the telescope, M = − 1 + e 
fe  D

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Reflecting type telescope: In a reflecting type telescope, the objective is a concave spherical mirror
of large aperture in place of a convex lens.
The expression for magnifying power of a reflecting type telescope is same as
that for refracting type astronomical telescope.

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1. A concave mirror is held in water. What should be the change in focal length of the mirror?
Ans No change because the focal length of a concave mirror does not depend on the nature
of the medium.
2. Why is a concave mirror preferred to a plane mirror for shaving/ make- up?
Ans a concave mirror is used as a shaving/make-up mirror because it forms a magnified and
erect image of face when it is held closer to the face.
3. Suppose that the lower half of the concave mirror's reflecting surface is covered with an opaque
(non reflective) material. What effect will this have on the image of an object placed in front of
the mirror?
Ans At first sight, it appears that the image will be half of the object, but taking the laws of
reflection of light to be true for all points of the mirror the image will be of the whole object.
However as the area of the reflecting surface has reduced, the intensity of the image will be
dim.
4. A person standing before a concave mirror cannot see his inverted image unless he stands beyond
the centre of curvature. Why?
Ans A concave mirror forms a real inverted image when the object is placed beyond C. i.e.
behind the man and man cannot the see his image. When he stands beyond C real inverted
image is formed between F and C i.e. infront of him and man can see his image.
5. A ray of light falls on a mirror normally. What are the values of the angle of incidence and the
angle of reflection?[Ans. Both the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are zero.]
6. When does a convex mirror produce a magnified image?[Ans. A convex mirror always
produces a diminished image.]
7. How is the focal length of a spherical mirror affected, when the wavelength of the light used is
increased? Ans. There is no effect of change in wavelength of light on the focal length of a
spherical mirror.
8. How is the focal length of a spherical mirror affected, when it is placed inside water?
Ans. The focal length of the spherical mirror will remain unchanged.
9. Give the ratio of velocities of two light waves traveling in vacuum and having wavelengths
4000A0 and 8000A0. Ans. In vacuum, light of all the wavelengths travel with the same
velocity i.e. 3 × 10 8 ms −1 . therefore; the ratio of the velocities of the two light waves is 1.
10. Is the ratio of frequencies of ultraviolet rays in vacuum and in glass more than, less than or equal
to one? Ans. It is one.

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11. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift produced by parallel sided glass plate is zero? Ans.
For i =0
12. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift produced by a parallel sided glass plate is maximum?
Ans. For i = 900, the lateral shift is maximum and is equal to thickness of the glass plate.
For i = 900, we have
t t
d= sin (90 0 − r ) = × cos r = t
cos r cos r
13. Which of the two main parts of an optical fibre has a higher value of refractive index?
Ans. The value of refractive index of the fibre material is higher than that of the coating
material.
14. What happens to the focal length of convex lens, when it is immersed in water?
Ans. The focal length of convex lens increases, when it is immersed in water.
15. Out of red and blue lights, for which colour is the refractive index of glass greater?
Ans. The refractive index of glass for blue light is greater than that for red light i.e. µb > µr
16. Write the relation for the refractive index of the prism in terms of the angle of minimum deviation
and the angle of prism.
sin ( A + δ m )
Ans. µ =
sin A 2
17. A glass prism is immersed in water. What happens to the value of angle of minimum deviation ?
Ans. When a prism is immersed in water,
w sin ( A + δ m )
µg =
sin A 2
w
Since the value of µ g is less than a µ g , the value of the angle of minimum deviation
decreases on immersing the prism in water.
18. What is the length of telescope in normal adjustment? Ans. The length of the telescope in
normal adjustment = f0 + fe.
19. How does magnifying power of a telescope change on decreasing the aperture of its objective
lens? Ans. The magnifying power of a telescope is independent of the aperture of the
objective lens.
20. What should be the position of an object relative to a biconvex lens so that it behaves like a
magnifying lens? Ans. The object should be placed between the optical centre and focus of
the lens at such a point that its image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
21. Name the type of lenses used for correcting a (i) myopic (ii) hypermetropic and (iii) an astigmatic
eye. Ans. (i) Concave lens (ii) Convex lens and (iii) Cylindrical lens
22. What is the function of rods in the eye? Ans. Being sensitive to light, the rods distinguish light
from dark in low light intensities.
23. What determines the colour of the eye? Ans. It is the pigment contained in the iris, which
determines the colour of the eye.
24. What do you mean by accommodation? Ans. It is the process by which the eye adapts itself for
objects at different distances.
25. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if monochromatic red light is used instead of
monochromatic blue light?
1  1 1 
Ans we know that from the lens maker’s formula = (n − 1) − 
f  R1 R2 
Q λR > λB , nR < nB ∴ f R > f B
26. When light undergoes refraction, what happens to its frequency?

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 Ans remains same
27. How does the frequency of a beam of ultraviolet light change when it goes from air into glass?
Ans remains same
28. What is the focal length of a plane mirror? Ans infinity
29. In the given figure, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens of refractive
index ng kept in a medium of refractive index nm is shown. Is (i) ng>nm or (ii) ng<nm or (iii) ng=nm
Ans ng=nm

30. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens of
refractive index ng kept in a medium of refractive index
nm is shown. Is (i) ng=nm, or (ii) ng>nm (iii) ng<nm?
Ans ng>nm

31. Vehicles moving in foggy weather use yellow colour headlights. Why?
Ans Yellow light is not absorbed by fog. It produces maximum sensation of light.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

32. A ray is to be deviated through 90° by a right- angled isosceles prism. What should be the
minimum refractive index of the material of the prism?
Ans Fig. shows the arrangement. A ray of light is incident normally on the face AB of the
right-angled isosceles prism. It travels straight on into the glass without deviation to strike
the face BC at D. From geometry, the angle of incidence at
face BC is 45°. In order to deviate the ray through 90°, it
should be totally reflected from the surface BC. For this to
happen, critical angle for the prism material/air interface
should not be more than 45°.
1 1
µ= = = 2 = 1.414
sin ic sin 45 o

33. Why convex mirror is used as driver’s mirror ? Is it a perfect driver’s mirror?
Ans. The convex mirror is used as a driver’s mirror as it gives a wide field of view of the
traffic. Because it always forms an erect and diminished image.
However, it does not give the correct idea of the speed of the vehicles coming behind. As the
convex mirror gives an erroneous idea of the traffic, it is not a perfect driver’s mirror.

34. Why are mirrors used in search lights parabolic and not concave spherical?

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 A search light is used to provide an intense beam of light. If a concave mirror of large
aperture is used to for this purpose by placing a light source at its focus, then it does not
reflect all the rays falling on it in the form of a parallel beam due to spherical aberration. A
concave mirror can reflect only those rays in the form of a parallel beam, which travel near its
principal axis. However a parabolic mirror is free from spherical aberration and it is made
use of in search lights.
35. Two thin lenses of power +7D and -3D are in contact.What is the focal length of the combination?
Ans. P=P1+P2=7-3 P=4D F=25cm.
36. A thin prism of 60o angle gives a deviation of 30o .What is the refractive index of the material of
prism?
sin( A + Dm)
Ans. A=60o,Dm=30o n= =sin45o /sin30o =1.414
sin A / 2
37. Explain how the focal length of a convex lens changes with increase in wavelength of incident
light.
Ans. The refractive index of the material of a lens decreases with increase in wavelength of
incident light. Since focal length of a lens is given by
1  1 1 
= (n − 1) − 
f  R1 R2 
It follows that focal length of the lens will increase with increase in wavelength of incident
light.

38. A thin converging lens has a focal length f in air. If it is completely immersed in a liquid, briefly
explain how the focal length of the lens will vary?
Ans. The focal length of the lens in air is given by
1  1 1 
= (n − 1) −  __________________(i)
f  R1 R2 
If n ′ is refractive index of the material of the lens w.r.t. liquid, then focal length of the lens,
when placed in liquid is given by
1  1 1 
= (n ′ − 1) −  _________________(ii)
f′  R1 R2 
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
f ′ (n − 1)
=
f (n ′ − 1)
Since n ′ < n, f ′ >f i.e. focal length of the lens will increase on immersing it in liquid.

39. Draw a ray diagram showing the formation of image by a concave lens. Discuss the nature of the
image.
Ans.

163
 The image is always virtual, erect and diminished.

40. Why does the sky appear blue?

Ans. According to Rayleigh’s scattering law, when the light traverses the atmosphere, the
intensity of light scattered is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of
light. Therefore, the scattering is prominent due to its small wavelength. Due to this, sky looks
blue.
41. On what factors does (i) magnifying power and (ii) resolving power of a compound microscope
depend?
L D
Ans. (i) Magnifying power, M= − 1 + 
fo  fe 
Therefore, magnifying power of a compound microscope depends upon the focal lengths
of the objective and the eyepiece of the microscope.
2 n sin θ
(ii) Resolving power =
λ
Therefore, resolving power of a compound microscope depends upon the wavelength of
light used to illuminate the object, refractive index of the glass forming the objective and the
semi vertical angle of the cone, in which the rays from the object enter the objective.

42. How will the magnifying power of a refracting type astronomical telescope be affected on
increasing for its eyepiece (i) the focal length and (ii) the aperture? Justify your answer.
f
Ans. (i) Magnifying power of a telescope is given by M = − o
fe
1
Since Mα , therefore, magnifying power of the telescope will decrease on increasing the
fe
focal length of the eye-piece.

(ii) The resolving power of the telescope depends upon the aperture of its objective. It does not
depend upon the aperture of the eyepiece.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

43. What do you understand by the phenomenon of total internal reflection? Give two conditions for it
to take place. Derive the relation connecting refractive index and critical angle for a given pair of
media.
Ans. When a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, at a particular angle
of incidence, the incident ray gets reflected back internally into the same medium.
Conditions:
(a) Ray should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle for the pair of media.
d
n r= 1
sin ic
44. What changes in the focal length of a (i) concave mirror and (ii) convex lens occur, when the
incident violet light is replaced with red light?
Ans. When violet light is replaced with red light
164
 (i) focal length of a concave mirror remains same
(ii) focal length of a convex lens increases as
1
µα
λ
as λr > λv ⇒ µ r < µ v

1  1 1 
= ( µ − 1) − 
f  R1 R2 
1
i.e., λα
µ −1
45. You are given three lenses having powersP and Apertures A as follow :
P1 = 6D, A1 = 3cm
P2 = 3D, A2 = 15cm
P3 = 12D, A3 = 1.5cm
Which two of these will you select to construct
(i) a telescope and (ii) a microscope ?State the basis for your answer in each case.
Ans. (i) For constructing a telescope the objective lens should have large aperture. Hence
lens 2 will be preferred as objective. The eye piece should have small focal length. So lens 3
will be preferred as the eye piece
(ii) For constructing a microscope both the objective and eye piece should have short focal
lengths and the focal length of the objective should be shorter than the focal length of eye
piece. Therefore lens 3 will be used as objective and lens 1 should be used as an eye piece .
46. Explain mirage effect produced in very hot deserts with the help of diagram.
Ans. Mirage: a realistic image of an object that is either totally imaginary or that appears to
be in a location other than the true one.In hot areas, the layers of air near the earth surface
becomes hotter as compared to the layers above.As a result the upper layers of air become
denser.When rays from a tree like object passes from denser to rarer medium,it suffers total
internal reflection.An observer notices an mirage of the object being formed as if there is
water around.

165
47. A right angled crown glass prism with critical angle 41 is placed before an object , PQ, in two
0

positions as shown in the figure(i) and (ii).Trace the paths of the rays from P and Q passing
through the prisms in the two cases.

Ans

48. What is dispersion of light? Explain why white light is dispersed when passing through a prism.

Ans. (i) A Splitting of white light into its constituent colours on passing through a medium is
called dispersion of light and the medium causing dispersion is called the dispersive medium.
Dispersion of light is due to the fact that velocity of light of different wave lengths is
different in a material medium.

(iii) Angle of dispersion depends upon angle of prism and the material of prism.

(iv) According to Cauchy’s formula:

B C
µ = A+ + where A, Band C are constants.
λ λ4
2

49. Draw the ray diagram of an compound microscope, when the final image is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision. Write the formula for magnifying power in the above noted case.
vo  D L D
Ans. Magnifying power, M= 1 +  = − 1 + 
uo  fe  fo  fe 

166
50. The refractive index of the material of a concave lens is n . It is immersed in a medium of
1
refractive index n2. A parallel beam of light is incident on the lens. Trace the path of emergent
rays when (i) n2 = n1 (b) n2 > n1 (c) n2 < n1
51. An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15
cm. Find the position, nature, and magnification of the image in each case.
. Ans. The focal length f = –15/2 cm = –7.5 cm
1 1 1
(i) The object distance u = –10 cm. Then = +
f u v
1 1 1
or = +
− 7.5 v − 10

10 × 7.5
v= = −30cm
− 2.5
The image is 30 cm from the mirror on the same side as the object.
v (−30)
Also, magnification m = − = − = −3
u (−10)
The image is magnified, real and inverted.
(ii)
1 1 1
The object distance u = –5 cm. Then = + ,
f u v
1 1 1
or = +
− 7.5 − 5 v
5 × 7. 5
v= = 15cm
7.5 − 5
This image is formed at 15 cm behind the mirror. It is a virtual image.
v (15)
Magnification m = − = − = +3
u (−5)
The image is magnified, virtual and erect.

52. What focal length should the reading spectacles have for a person for whom the least distance of
distinct vision is 50 cm?
Ans. The distance of normal vision is 25 cm. So if a book is at u = –25 cm, its image should
be formed at v = –50 cm. Therefore, the desired focal length is given by
1 1 1
= −
f v u
1 1 1 1
= − =
f − 50 − 25 50
or f = + 50 cm (convex lens).

53. A compound microscope with a objective of 1.0 cm focal length and an eye-piece of 2.0 cm focal
length has a tube of length of 20 cm. Calculate the magnifying power of the microscope, if the
final image is formed at the near point of the eye.
Ans. Here, L = 20 cm; fo = -1.0 cm; fe = 2.0 cm
When the image is formed at the near point of the eye, the magnifying power of a
microscope is given by

167
 L D 20  25 
M =− 1 +  = − 1 +  = 20 × 13.5 = 270
fo  fe  − 1.0  2.0 
54. The following data was recorded for values of object distance and the corresponding values of
image distance in the experiment on study of real image formation by a convex lens of power
+5D. One of these observations is incorrect. Identify this observation and give reason for your
choice:

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Object distance 25 30 35 45 50 55
(cm)
Image distance 97 61 37 35 32 30
(cm)

Ans. Here, power of the lens, P=+5D

1
Therfore, focal length of the lens, f = = 0.2m = 20cm
P
When an object is placed between f and 2f i.e. between 20 cm and 40 cm, its image should be
formed beyond 2f i.e. beyond 40 cm. The observation 1 and 2 satisfy this condition but the
observation 3 is not in agreement with it.
On the other hand, when an object is placed beyond 2f i.e. beyond 40 cm, its image should be
formed between 20 cm and 40 cm. The observations 4, 5 and 6 satisfy this condition. The
observation 3 is incorrect.
55. What is myopia and hypermetropia? How the eyes of a person suffering from these defects can be
corrected? Explain with the help of diagrams.
Ans. Myopia: If the light from a distant object arriving at the eye-lens may get converged
at a point in front of the retina. This type of defect is called nearsightedness or myopia.
A divergent (concave) lens is needed to correct this defect in vision.

A myopic eye Corrected eye

Hypermetropia: If the eye-lens focusses the incoming light at a point behind the retina, then
this defect is called farsightedness or hypermetropia.
A convergent (convex) lens is needed to correct this defect in vision.

A hypermetropic eye Corrected eye

168
 LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

56. Define the angle of minimum deviation. Derive the expression for the refractive index of the
material of the prism in terms of angle of prism and the angle of minimum deviation. When does a
ray incident on a prism deviate away from the base?
57. Derive a relation between the focal length of a lens and its radii of curvature.

58. You are given two convex lenses of short aperture having focal lengths 4 cm and 8 cm
respectively. Which one of these will you use as an objective and which one as an eye piece for
constructing a compound microscope? Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image of
a small object due to a compound microscope. Derive an expression for its magnifying power.

59. With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the structure of eye and explain the function of its
various parts. What are the various defects of vision? Explain in brief.

60. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of image of an object placed between the pole and and
focus of a concave mirror. Write two characteristics of the image formed. Using the diagram,
derive the relation between object distance u, image distance v and focal length f of the concave
mirror. Draw the graph showing the variation of v with u.

*************************************************************************************

169
 WAVE OPTICS

HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE

Wave front. The locus of the points in the medium, which at any instant are vibrating in the
same phase, is called wave front. Ray of light is the line drawn
perpendicular to the wave front.

Huygens’ Principle.
1. Each point on a given wave front acts as a source of secondary wavelets, sending
out disturbance in all directions in a similar manner as the original source of light does.
2. The new position of the wave front at any instant is the envelope of the secondary
wavelets at that instant. It is also called Huygens’ construction and it is used to find the new
position of the wave front at a later time.

REFRACTION AND REFLECTION OF PLANE WAVES USING HUYGENS

PRINCIPLE
Refraction of a plane wave
Let PP′ represent the surface separating medium 1 and medium 2, as shown in Fig. Let v1 and v2 represent
the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively. We assume a plane wave front AB
propagating in the direction A′A incident on the interface at
an angle i as shown in the figure. Let τ be the time taken by
the wave front to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = v τ
In order to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront,
we draw a sphere of radius v2τ from the point A in the
second medium (the speed of the wave in the second
medium is v2). Let CE represent a tangent plane
drawn from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v2 τ
and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If we now
consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain
BC v1τ
sin i = =
AC AC
sin i v1
and Thus we obtain = = n 21 This is Snell’s Law of refraction.
sin r v 2
AE v2τ
sin r = =
AC AC

170
 Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface
Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN.

If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium

and if τ represents the time taken by the wave front
to advance from the point B to C then the distance
BC = v τ
In order the construct the reflected wave front we
draw a sphere of radius vτ from the point A as shown
in Fig. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn
from the point C to this sphere. Obviously AE = BC = v τ
now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they are congruent and therefore, the angles i
and r (as shown in Fig.) would be equal. This is the law of reflection.
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
When two or more than two waves traveling through a medium and superimpose then they
loose their individual identity and a resultant wave is formed, whose displacement is equal to
the vector sum of the displacement of individual waves.
→ → → →
Y = Y1 + Y2 + − − − − − − − Yn
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
It is the phenomena of redistribution of light energy on account of superposition of light waves
coming from the two coherent source of light.
The point, at which intensity of light is maximum, is called constructive interference.
The point, at which intensity of light is minimum, is called destructive interference.

Coherent sources. Two sources of light waves which emit the light waves of same frequency,
same wavelength and zero phase difference or constant phase difference are called coherent
sources of light.
Condition for sustained Interference
1. Two sources of light should emit light continuously.
2. The light wave should be of same wavelength.
3. The waves should be of same amplitude.
4. The two waves must be in same phase or bear a constant phase difference.

Young’s double slit experiment. Consider that two coherent sources are separated by a
distance d so as to produce interference fringes on a screen held at a distance D from the plane of
the slits. When the slits are illuminated with a monochromatic light of wavelength λ, then alternate
dark and bright fringes are formed on the two sides of the central bright fringe. Let φ be the phase
difference and x, the path difference between the two light waves reaching a point P on the screen.

Young’s arrangement to produce interference

171
1. Condition for maximum intensity at point P :
Phase difference, φ = 2nπ or path difference, x = n λ, where, n = 0, 1, 2,3…….

2. Condition for minimum intensity at point P :

λ
Phase difference, φ = (2n+1) π or path difference, x = (2n + 1) , where, n = 0, 1, 2,3…….
2
I max (a + a 2 ) 2
3. Ratio of the maximum and minimum intensity : = 1
I min(a1 − a 2 ) 2
Here, a1 and a2 are amplitudes of the two light waves.
Also, ratio of intensity of light due to the two slits of widths w1 and w2 is given by :
I 1 w1 a12
= =
I 2 w2 a 22
nDλ
4. (a) Distance of nth bright fringe from the centre of the screen : y n =
d
yn n λ
(b) Angular position of the nth bright fringe : θ n = =
D d
(2n + 1) D λ
5. (a) Distance of nth dark fringe from the centre of the screen : y n =
2d
y (2n + 1) λ
(b) Angular position of the nth dark fringe : θ n = n =
D 2d
Dλ
6. Fringe width : β =
d
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

Diffraction. The phenomenon of bending of light around the sharp corners and spreading into
the regions of the geometrical shadow is called diffraction.

Diffraction from a slit. A narrow slit of width a is placed at a distance D from the screen.
When the slit is illuminated with a monochromatic light of wavelength λ , then alternate bright and
dark bands of light are formed on both the sides of the central maximum.

Figure1
Path difference between the secondary waves reaches at point P
BN = AB sin θ = a sin θ
If BN = λ and θ = θ 1
λ = a sin θ 1
λ
sin θ 1 = , θ 1 is the angle up to which the central maxima can extends.
a

172
 Such angular position on the screen will represent the first sec minimum. We assume the silt to be
divided into two equal halves, the wavelets from the corresponding points of the two halves of the silt will
λ
have a path difference of ,i.e., they reach point P in opposite phase. Hence for second sec minimum,
2
2 λ = a sin θ 2
2λ nλ
sin θ 2 = and sin θ n = for nth sec. minima
a a
If yn is the distance of nth sec.minimum from the screen, then
OP yn
tan θ n = =
CO D
For small θ n,
sin θ n = tan θ n
yn nλ
=
D a
nλ D
yn =
a
λD
therefore β = yn − yn − 1 =
a
For first sec. maxima
3λ
sin θ 1’ = {Since the wavelets from each half will reach point P such that out of three
2a
equal parts two will cancel out leaving one parts of wavelet to produce the bright fringes.
5λ
Similarly , sin θ 2’ =
2a
(2n + 1)λ
sin θ n’= fore nth sec. maxima
2a
λD
Therefore β ′ = y ′n - y ′n − 1 = Both sec.maxima and minima are of same width.
a

173
 nλ
1. (a) Angular position of the nth secondary minimum : θ n =
a
nDλ
(b) Distance of the nth sec min from the centre of the screen: y n =
a
(2n + 1) λ
2. (a) Angular position of the nth secondary maximum : θ n′ =
2a
(2n + 1) Dλ
(b) Distance of the nth sec max from the centre of the screen: y n′ =
2a
Dλ
3. (a) Width of a secondary maximum or minimum : β =
a
2D λ
(b) Width of a central maximum : β 0 =
a
4. Half angular width of central maximum : The angular position of first secondary minimum is
known as half angular width of the central maximum. Thus,
λ
half angular width of the central maximum, θ1 =
a
5. Fresnel distance : It is defined as the distance of the screen from the slit, beyond which the
spreading of light due to diffraction becomes quite large as compared to the size of the slit. It is
denoted by ZF.
a2
Mathematically: ZF =
λ
6. Limit of resolution : The smallest separation between the two point objects, at which they
appear just separated, is called the limit of resolution.
λ
The limit of resolution of a microscope : d =
2 µ sin θ
Here, θ is semi vertical angle of the cone formed by the object at the objective of the
microscope, µ is the refractive index of the medium between the object and the objective and λ is
wavelength of the light used.
1.22λ
The angular limit of resolution of a telescope : dθ =
D
Here, D is the diameter of the objective of the telescope and λ is the wavelength of the
light used.
7. Resolving power : It is defined as the reciprocal of the limit of resolution.
1 2 µ sin θ
Resolving power of a microscope : =
d λ
1 D
Resolving power of a telescope : =
dθ 1.22λ
POLARISATION OF LIGHT

Polarisation. The phenomenon due to which vibrations are restricted in a particular plane is called
polarization.
Unpolarised Light:
Unpolarised light consists of components polarized in all possible directions perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave. Each of these polarizations directions can be resolved into
components along two
mutually perpendicular
directions. Thus, an
unpolarised beam can be
174
thought of as two plane polarised beams of equal magnitude perpendicular to one another. For example
incandescent bulb, sun etc.
Plane-polarised (or linearly polarised) light:
When all the vibrations of a light wave are in a single plane which contains the direction of propagation of
the wave, the wave is said to be plane-polarised (or linearly polarised)
Suppose an unpolarised light beam of intensity I0 is allowed to fall normally on a Tourmaline crystal or
Nicole prism as shown in Fig. The
vibrations of electric vector parallel to the
transmission axis of the Polaroid are
allowed to pass while those perpendicular
to the transmission axis are absorbed.
Therefore, the light beam that emerges
from the Polaroid has only half the
intensity (i.e. I0 / 2) of the original
unpolarised beam. Thus, the unpolarised
light is polarised or plane polarised i.e.,
vibrations of the electric vector are confined to one plane.
Experimental Verification of Polarisation of light and transverse nature
Consider two Polaroids P1 and P2 as shown in Fig. The first Polaroid P1 is called polarizer because it
polarizes the unpolarised light. The second Polaroid P2 is called the analyzer because it is used to
determine whether the light is polarised or not.

Fig.1 (a)

Fig.1 (b)
The unpolarised light of intensity I0 is allowed to fall normally on the polariser P1. The polariser P1
eliminates half of the light so that the intensity of the emergent light is reduced by half i.e., it becomes I0 /
2. This beam of intensity I0 / 2 is incident on the analyser P2. If the transmission axes of the polariser and
the analyser are parallel [See Fig.1 (a)], the beam that emerges from P2 has the same intensity i.e. I0 / 2.
If the analyser P2 is slowly rotated about the direction of propagation, the intensity of light that emerges
from it decreases and becomes zero when the transmission axis of the analyser becomes perpendicular to
the transmission axis of the polariser [See Fig.1 (b)]. This means that polariser P1 has polarised the
175
unpolarised light incident on it. Had it not been so, the analyser would have passed the same amount of
light irrespective of its orientation.
The following points may be noted carefully:
(i) If on rotation of the analyser, the intensity of light decreases and becomes zero at one orientation (i.e.,
when the axes of P1 and P2 are perpendicular to each other), then the light is 100% plane polarised. If the
emergent light from P2 merely reaches a minimum, the light is partially plane polarised.
(ii) The change of intensity of light emerging from P2 due to its rotation about the direction of
propagation leads to one important conclusion viz. the vibrations in light waves are transverse. If the
light waves were longitudinal, then intensity of light emerging from P2 would have been the same due to
rotation of P2.
POLARISATION OF LIGHT BY REFLECTION
When unpolarised light is reflected from a plane surface (e.g., air–glass or air–water surface), the
reflected ray is partially polarised, unpolarised or completely
polarised. This would depend on angle of incidence .For the
angle of incidence made by the unpolarised light is 0° or 90°, the
reflected ray remains unpolarised.
The degree to which the reflected ray is polarised depends upon
the angle of incidence and the indices of refraction of the two
media.
The angle of incidence at which light is completely polarised is
called angle of polarisation, its value depends on wavelength of
light. Therefore monochromatic light is used for complete polarisation.
MALUS’S LAW
According to Malus, when completely plane polarised light is incident on the analyser, the intensity I of
the light transmitted by the analyser is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of angle between
the transmission axes of the analyser and the polarizer i.e.
I ∝ cos 2 θ
Suppose the angle between the transmission axes of the analyser and the polarizer is θ [See Fig]. The
completely plane polarised light from the polarizer is incident on the analyser. If E0 is the amplitude of
the electric vector transmitted by the polarizer, then intensity I0 of the
2
light incident on the analyser is I O ∝ EO
The electric field vector E0 can be resolved into two rectangular
components viz. E0 cos θ and E0 sin θ. The analyser will transmit only that
component (i.e., E0 cos θ) which is parallel to its transmission axis.
However, component E0 sin θ will be absorbed by the analyser.
Therefore, the intensity I of light transmitted by the analyzer is
I ∝ (E O cos θ )
2

I (E cos θ ) 2

= O 2 = cos 2 θ
IO EO
I = I O cos 2 θ
Therefore, I ∝ cos 2 θ. This proves law of Malus.
(i) When θ = 0° (or 180°), I = I0 cos2 0° = I0. That is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyser is
maximum when the transmission axes of the analyser and the polariser are parallel.

(ii) When θ = 90°, I = I0 cos2 90° = 0. That is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyser is minimum
when the transmission axes of the analyser and polariser are perpendicular to each other.

176
Brewster’s law
According to this law tangent of the polarizing angle of incidence of a transparent medium is equal to its
refractive index .i.e. n = tan i p

Experimentally it has been found that the reflected component

along OB and refracted along OC are perpendicular to each other,
then
∠BOY + ∠YOC = 90 O
(90 − i p ) + (90 − r ) = 90
90 − i p = r
According to Snell’s law
sin i
n=
sin r
When
i = i p and r = (90 − i p )
sin i p sin i p
n= =
sin (90 − i p ) cos i p
n = tan i p

For example (i ) a n g = 1.5 , 1.5 = tan i p , i p = tan −1 (1.5), i p = 56.4 o

Thus the reflected light from the surface of glass is completely polarized when the unpolarised light
incident on the glass surface at an angle 56.3o.
(ii ) a n w = 1.33 ,1.33 = tan i p , i p = tan −1 (1.33) , i p = 53.1o
Thus the reflected light from the surface of water is completely polarized when the unpolarised light
incident on the water surface at an angle 53.1 o.
Polaroid:
Polaroid is a material which polarizes the light .The natural occurring material is Tourmaline or Nicole
prism. Now a days artificial Polaroids are also made by using quinine iodosulphate.
Uses:
Polaroids have several uses in daily life:
(i) They are used in sunglasses to reduce the intensity of light and to eliminate glare.
(ii) Polaroids are used for watching three dimensional movies.
(iii) Polaroids are used in optical stress analysis.
(iv) Polaroids are used to control the intensity of light entering trains and aero planes.
(v) Polaroids are used in wind shields of automobiles.

177
 VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1. How is a wavefront to the direction of corresponding rays?

Ans. The wavefront is perpendicular to the direction of rays.
2. What is the phase difference between any two points on a wavefront?
Ans. Zero.
3. If a wavefront undergoes refraction, what happens to its phase?
Ans. There is no change in its phase.
Name the shape of a wavefront originating from (i) point source (ii) a line source.
Ans. (i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Cylindrical wavefront.
4. What is the geometrical shape of the wavefront in each of the following cases?
(a) Light diverging from a point source.
(b) Light emerging out of a convex lens, when a point source is placed at its focus.
(c) The portion of the wavefront of light from a distant star intercepted by the earth.
Ans. (a) Spherical in shape (b) Plane wavefront (c) Plane wavefront
5. State two conditions which must be satisfied for two light sources to be coherent.
Ans. 1. The two light waves should be of same wavelength.
2. The two light waves should either be in phase or should have a constant phase
difference.
6. What happens to the interference pattern, if the phase difference between the two sources
continuously varies?
Ans. If the phase difference between the two sources continuously varies, the position of minima
and maxima will also vary. Such an interference pattern will not be a sustained one and it will
not be observed.
7. State the condition for constructive interference.
Ans. Path difference, x = n λ, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………….
8. State the condition for destructive interference.
λ
Ans. Path difference, x = (2n + 1) , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………….
2
9. The phase difference between two light waves from two slits of Young’s experiment is π radian. What
will be the nature of the central fringe in the fringe pattern?
Ans. It will be dark.
10. State the condition for diffraction of light to occur.
Ans. The size of the obstacle should be of the order of the wavelength of light used.
11. What is the condition for first minimum in case of diffraction due to a single slit?
λ
Ans. The angular position of first minimum, θ 1 = .
a
12. How does resolving power of a telescope change on decreasing the aperture of its object lens? Justify
your answer.
D
Ans. Resolving power of a telescope =
1.22λ

Therefore, on decreasing aperture (D) of the objective lens, the resolving power of the
telescope decreases.
13. What is the basic difference between interference and diffraction of light?
Ans. Interference is the result of superposition of light waves from two sources, whereas diffraction
takes place due to interference of light waves from the different parts of the same source of
light.

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14. Coloured spectrum is observed, when we see through muslin cloth. But no such spectrum is observed,
when we see through coarse cloth. Why?
Ans. The coloured spectrum is observed due to diffraction of light. In a coarse cloth, the slits
formed due to threads are very wide and hence no such spectrum is seen.
15. Sound waves can not be polarized. Why?
Ans. It is because, sound waves are longitudinal in nature .
16. Which phenomenon establishes that light waves are tranverse in nature?
Ans. Only transverse waves can be polarised . Since light waves can be polarized, they must
be transverse in nature.
17. Can you detect by the naked eye, whether given light is polarized or not?
Ans. No.
18. A ray of light is incident on a medium at polarizing angle. What is the angle between the reflected and
refracted rays?
Ans. It is 900.
19. What are the uses of Polaroid?
Ans. Polaroids are used in sunglasses, in wind shields of automobiles, in window panes, in making
three dimensional motion pictures.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (TYPE I - 2 MARKS)

20. What is meant by a wavefront? What is the shape of of the wavefront of a beam of parallel rays?
Ans. A wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase.Corresponding to a beam of
parallel rays of light, the wavefront is plane in shape.

21. Is the speed of light in glass independent of the colour of light? If not, which of the two colours (red
and violet) travels slower in a glass prism?
Ans. No, the speed of light is not independent of the colour (wavelength) of the light. The violet
colour travels slower than the red light in a glass prism.
22. Why no interference is observed, when two coherent sources are (i) infinitely close to each other (ii)
far apart from each other?
Dλ
Ans. We know, β =
d
(i) When the two sources are close to each other (d quite small), sufficiently wide fringes are
formed. In case the two sources are infinitely close to each other, general illumination will
take place.
(ii) When the two sources are moved far apart (d very large), the fringe width will be very
small and they will not be separately visible.
23. What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double slit experiment due to each of the
following operations?
(a) The screen is moved away from the plane of the slits.
(b) The source is replaced by another source of shorter wavelength.
Dλ
Ans. We know that β =
d
(a) When the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits, D increases. Hence, fringe
width will increase.
(b) The decrease in λ will decrease fringe width.
24. What will be the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double slit if
(a) the apparatus is immersed in water,
(b) white light is used instead of monochromatic light.
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 Dλ
Ans. (a)When the apparatus in air, β air =
d
λ
When the apparatus is immersed in water, the wavelength of light decreases to
µ
Dλ
Therefore, β water =
µd

β water Dλ d 1
Hence, = × =
β air µ d Dλ µ
Hence, the fringe width decreases.

(b) The different colours of white light will produce different interference patterns but the
central bright fringes due to all colours are at the same position. Therefore, the central bright
fringe is white in colour. Since the wavelength of the blue light is smallest, the fringe closest on
the either side of the central white fringe is blue and the farthest is red. Beyond a few fringes,
no clear fringe pattern is visible.

25. Draw the intensity pattern obtained in Young’s double slit experiment.
Ans.

26. Give two differences fringes formed in single slit diffraction and Young’s double slit experiment.
Ans. 1. In Young’s experiment, all the bright fringes formed are of same intensity, whereas in
single slit diffraction experiment, the bright fringes are of varying intensity.
2. In Young’s experiment, fringes of minimum intensity are perfectly dark, whereas in
single slit diffraction experiment, fringes of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark.
27. How does the resolving power of a compound microscope change on
(i) decreasing the wavelength of light used, and
(ii) decreasing the diameter of its object lens?
2 µ sin θ
Ans. Resolving Power of a microscope =
λ
(i) On decreasing the wavelength of light, resolving power will increase.
(ii) On decreasing diameter of objective lens, semi vertical angle θ will decrease and hence
resolving power will decrease.
28. Define critical angle and polarizing angle. What is the relation between the two?
Ans. Critical Angle (C): It is the angle of incidence in denser medium, at which the ray of
light after undergoing refraction at the surface of separation of the two media, becomes
parallel to the surface of separation.

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 Polarizing angle (p) : The angle of incidence, at which when ordinary light is incident on
transparent refracting medium, the reflected light becomes maximum rich in plane polarized
light is called polarizing.
1
tan p =
sin C
29. Draw a sketch showing the incident, reflected and transmitted rays, when light is incident at the
polarizing angle on a glass slab.
Ans.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (TYPE II - 3 MARKS)

30. State Huygen’s principle. Prove the laws of reflection on the basis of wave theory.
Ans. Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets
emanating from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave. These
wavelets emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary wavelets and if
we draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at
a later time.

For proof of the laws of reflection on the basis of wave theory refer to theory.
31. Verify Snell’s law of refraction on the basis of wave theory.
Ans.

For proof of the laws of refraction on the basis of wave theory refer to theory

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 32. In a single slit diffraction pattern, how is the width of central bright maximum changed,
when
(i) the slit width is decreased,
(ii) the distance between the slit and the screen is increased and
(iii) light of smaller wavelength is used. Justify your answer.
2 Dλ
Ans. The width of central maximum is given by β 0 =
a
1
(i) Since β 0α . Therefore, as the slit width is decreased, the width of the central maximum
a
will increase.
(ii) Since β 0 α D . Therefore, as the distance between the slit and the screen is increased, the
width of the central maximum will also increase.
(iii) Since β 0 α λ . Therefore, as the light of smaller wavelength is used, the width of the
central maximum will decrease.
33. Stars are often photographed through a blue filter. What is the advantage of this?
D
Ans. The resolving power of a telescope = . where D is diameter of the telescope’s
1.22λ
objective.
If the light of shorter wavelength is used, the resolving power of the telescope will be
more and like wise the stars which subtend a smaller angle at the earth, will also be resolved
and seen distinctly as separate ones. The use of blue filter allows only blue light (shorter
wavelength) from the star to enter the telescope.

34. What is a Polaroid? How is plane polarized light obtained with its help? How will you use it to
distinguish between unpolarized and plane polarized light.
Ans. Polaroids are thin and large sheets of crystalline polarizing material (made artificially)
capable of producing plane polarized beams of large cross – section.
If a Polaroid P1 is placed in front of a source of light, then light coming out of it is plane
polarized. When unpolarised light falls on a Polaroid, only the vibrations parallel to the
transmission plane get transmitted.
To distinguish between unpolarized and plane polarized light another Polaroid P2 is
placed and rotated. If the intensity of light varies, then the light obtained is plane polarized
light.

35. Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed
polaroids?
Ans. Let I0 be the intensity of polarised light after passing through the first polariser P1. Then
the intensity of light after passing through second polariser P2 will be I =I0cos2 θ ,
where θ is the angle between pass axes of P1 and P2. Since P1 and P3 are crossed the angle
between the pass axes of P2 and P3 will be (π/2–θ ). Hence the intensity of light emerging
π 
from P3 will be I =I0cos2 θ cos 2  − θ  = I 0 cos 2 θ sin 2 θ = ( I 0 4) sin 2 2θ
2 
Therefore, the transmitted intensity will be maximum when θ = π/4.
36. In a Young’s double experiment, red light of wavelength 6000 A0 is used and the nth bright fringe is
obtained at a point P on the screen. Keeping the same setting, the source is replaced by green light of
5000A0 and now (n+1)th bright fringe is obtained at the point P. Calculate the value of n.
Ans. When red light (λ) is used:
nDλ nD × 6000 × 10 −10
y= = − − − − − − − − − −(i )
d d

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 When blue light (λ’) is used:
(n + 1) Dλ ′ (n + 1) D × 5000 ×10 −10
y= = − − − − − (ii )
d d
Solving (i) and (ii), we get n = 5

37. In a single slit diffraction experiment, first minimum for red light (660 nm) coincides with first
maximum of some other wavelength λ′. Find the value of λ′.
Ans. The angular position of first minimum for red light of wavelength λr is given by
λ
sin θ1 = r − − − − − −(i )
a
The angular position of first maximum for light of wavelengthλ ′ is given by
′ 3λ ′
sin θ1 = − − − − − (ii )
2a
As the first minimum for red light coincides with the first maximum for wavelengthλ ′ ,
sin θ1 = sin θ1′
Therefore, from (i) and (ii), we have
3λ ′ λr 2λ
= orλ ′ = r
2a a 3
2 × 660
λ′ = = 440nm
3
38. Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What is the fringe
separation when blue green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
Dλ 1 × 500 × 10 −9
Ans. Fringe spacing = = m = 5 × 10 − 4 m = 0.5mm
d 1 × 10 −3
39. Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface. What should be the angle of incidence
so that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other?
Ans. For i + r to be equal to π/2, we should have tan iB = µ = 1.5.
This gives iB = 57°. This is the Brewster’s angle for air to glass interface.

40. In Young’s double slit experiment, two slits are separated by 3 mm distance and illuminated by light
of wavelength 480 nm. The screen is at 2 m from the plane of the slits. Calculate the separation
between the 8th bright fringe and the 3rd dark fringe observed with respect to the central bright fringe.
Ans.
8 Dλ 5 Dλ 11Dλ
y8 − y 3′ = − =
d 2d 2d
−9
11 × 2 × 480 × 10
= −3
= 1.76 × 10 −3 m = 1.76 mm
2 × 3 × 10

41. When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and refracted
light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why?
Ans. Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with the atomic
constituents of matter. Atoms may be viewed as oscillators, which take up the frequency of
the external agency (light) causing forced oscillations. The frequency of light emitted by a
charged oscillator equals its frequency of oscillation. Thus, the frequency of scattered light
equals the frequency of incident light.
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42. When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does the reduction in speed
imply a reduction in the energy carried by the light wave?
Ans. No. Energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of
wave propagation.
43. What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment when
(a) the source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane;
(b) the width of the source slit is increased?

Ans. (a) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits. For
interference fringes to be seen, the condition s/S < λ/d should be satisfied; otherwise,
interference patterns produced by different parts of the source overlap and no fringes are
seen. Thus, as S decreases (i.e., the source slit is brought closer), the interference pattern gets
less and less sharp, and when the source is brought too close for this condition to be valid, the
fringes disappear. Till this happens, the fringe separation remains fixed.

(b) Same as in (a). As the source slit width increases, fringe pattern gets less and less sharp.
When the source slit is so wide that the condition s/S ≤ λ/d is not satisfied, the interference
pattern disappears.

44. In a two slit experiment with monochromatic light, fringes are obtained on a screen placed at some
distance from the slits. If the screen is moved by 5 × 10 −2 m towards the slits, the change in fringe
width is 3 × 10 −5 m. If the distance between the slits is 10-3 m, calculate the wavelength of the light
used.
Ans. d= 10-3 m; ∆ D = 5 × 10 −2 m ; ∆β = 3 × 10 −5 m.
If D is decreased by ∆ D , the fringe width will also decrease by ∆β , such that
∆Dλ
∆β =
d
∆β d 3 × 10 −5 × 10 −3
or λ = = = 6 × 10 − 7 m
∆D 5 × 10 − 2
45. In a Young’s double slit experiment, 12 fringes are observed to be formed in a certain segment of the
screen, when light of wavelength 600 nm is used. If the wavelength is changed to 400 nm, then what
is the number of fringes observed in the same segment of the screen?
Dλ
β= .....................(i )
d
Dλ ′
Ans. β′ = .....................(ii )
d
β ′ λ ′ 400 2
= = =
β λ 600 3
3
Therefore, the fringe width decreases. Now, in the same segment of screen × 12 = 18 fringes
2
will be observed.

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KVS Jaipur Region Special Study Material For Under Scorer In Physics For Class XII For the Session 2009-10
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

46. State the principle which helps us to determine the shape of the wavefront at a later time from its
given shape at any time. Apply this principle to
(i) Show that a spherical/ plane wavefront continues to propagate forward as a spherical/plane
wave front.
(ii) Derive Snell’s law of refraction by drawing the refracted wavefront corresponding to a plane
wavefront incident on the boundary separating a rarer medium from a denser medium.

47. What do we understand by ‘polarization’ of a wave? How does this phenomenon help us to decide
whether a given wave is transverse or longitudinal in nature?
Light from an ordinary source (say a sodium lamp) is passed through a polaroid sheet P1.
The transmitted light is then made to pass through a second polaroid sheet P2 which can be rotated so
that the angle (θ) between the two polaroid sheets varies from O0 to 90o. Show graphically the
variation of the intensity of light, transmitted by P1 andP2, as a function of the angle. Take the
incident beam intensity as I0. Why does the light from a clear blue portion of the sky, show a rise and
fall of intensity when viewed through a polaroid which is rotated?

48. What is interference of light? Write two essential conditions for sustained interference pattern to be
produced on the screen.
Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity versus the position on the screen in Young’s
double slit experiment, when
(a) both the slits are opened and
(b) one of the slits is closed.
What is the effect on interference pattern in Young’s double slit experiment, when
(i) screen is moved closer to the plane of slits,
(ii) separation between two slits is increased?
Explain your answer in each case.

49. What is diffraction of light? Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity with angle in a single
slit experiment.
Write one feature which distinguishes the observed pattern from the double slit interference
pattern. How would the diffraction pattern of a single slit be affected, when
(a) the width of the slits is decreased,
(b) the monochromatic source of light is replaced by a source of white light?

50. What do you mean by diffraction of light? Explain diffraction at a single slit and deduce expression
for width of its central maxima.

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