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Effects of exercise on lipid metabolism and musculoskeletal
fitness in female athletes
Kung-Tung Chen, Rong-Sen Yang
Kung-Tung Chen, Department of Genenal Education, Ming Hsin
University of Science and Technology, Hsinchu 304, Taiwan, China
Rong-Sen Yang, Department of Orthopaedics, College of Medicine,
National Taiwan University, Taipei 10043, Taiwan, China
Supported by the National Science Council of Taiwan, NSC91-2413-
H-159-001
Correspondence to: Dr. Rong-Sen Yang, Department of Orthopaedics,
National Taiwan University Hospital, No.7 Chung-Shan South Road,
Taipei 10043, Taiwan, China. yang@ha.mc.ntu.edu.tw
Telephone: +886-2-2312-3456 Ext 3958 Fax: +886-2-23936577
Received: 2003-10-16 Accepted: 2003-11-20
Abstract
AIM: This study investigated the effects of intense training
on lipid metabolism, bone metabolism and bone mineral
density (BMD) in female athletes.
METHODS: Sixty-six female subjects participated in this study,
age ranging from 18 to 55 years. The sample group included
thirty-six athletic subjects and the control group comprised
thirty non-athletic individuals. Five athletes competed with
national level (5/36) and nine non-athletic subjects (9/30) were
postmenopausal women. The assessment items included body
composition, radius BMD, calcaneus BMD, lung function,
muscular endurance, renal and liver function, bone marker
assay and hormone status. All data were analysed, using SPSS
10.0 software, and were presented as mean rank statistical
difference, using the Kurskal-Wallis (K-W) test. After that the
non-parameter statistics were used. Either K value or P value
below 0.05 was considered significant.
RESULTS: Urine deoxypyridinoline/creatinine (Dpd/Cre) levels
increased significantly (5.93±2.31 vs 6.85±1.43, K<0.01),
sit-reach (29.30±9.48 cm vs 41.31±9.43 cm, K<0.001,
P<0.001), 1 minute sit-ups with bended knees (1 min sit-
ups) (17.60±9.34 count vs 30.00±10.38 count, K<0.001,
P<0.001), and vertical jump (25.27±6.63 cm vs 34.69±7.99
cm, K<0.001, P<0.001) improved significantly in the athletes
group. The athletes group also had a significantly increased
level of estriol (E3) (0.14±0.13 pg/mL vs 0.07±0.04 pg/mL,
K<0.01, P<0.01), radius BMD (1.37±0.49 gm/cm2 vs 1.19±0.40
gm/cm2, K<0.05) and calcaneus BMD (0.57±0.17 gm/cm2
vs -0.20±0.17 gm/cm2, K<0.01, P<0.05) compared with
those of the controls. The high density lipoprotein (HDL)
(65.00±14.02 mg/dL vs 52.26±4.84 mg/dL, K<0.05, P<0.05)
was significantly lower in postmenopausal inactive athletes
(5/36) than premenopausal active athletes (31/36). On the
other hand, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (98.35±23.84 mg/dL
vs 131.00±21.63 mg/dL, K<0.05, P<0.01), cholesterol (CHO)
(164.03±27.01 mg/dL vs 193.00±23.48 mg/dL, K<0.05,
P<0.05), triglyceride (TG) (63.00±26.39 mg/dL vs 147.00±
87.21 mg/dL, K<0.01), body fat % (BF%) (28.16±4.90% vs
34.84±4.44%, K<0.05, P<0.001) and body mass index (BMI)
(21.98±2.98 kg/m2 vs 26.42±5.01 kg/m2, K<0.05, P<0.001)
were significantly higher in postmenopausal inactive athletes
(5/36) than premenopausal active athletes (31/36). TG
(90.22±39.82 mg/dL vs 147.00±87.21 mg/dL), CHO
World J Gastroenterol 2004;10(1):122-126
World Journal of Gastroenterology
Copyright © 2004 by The WJG Press ISSN 1007-9327
• CLINICAL RESEARCH •
(186.44±24.90 mg/dL vs 193.00±23.48 mg/dL) were higher,
but the HDL was significantly lower (62.18±10.68 mg/dL
vs 52.26±4.84 mg/dL, P<0.05) in postmenopausal athletes
(5/36) group than in postmenopausal control group (9/30).
CONCLUSION: Postmenopausal athletes (5/36) who no
longer took competing exercises had reduced levels of
physical activity, faced increased risk of cardiovascular
disease compared to active athletes (31/36) and the
postmenopausal controls (9/30). We may thus concluded
that long term exercise effectively improves musculoskeletal
fitness and prevents BMD loss in female athletes.
Chen KT, Yang RS. Effects of exercise on lipid metabolism and
musculoskeletal fitness in female athletes. World J Gastroenterol
2004; 10(1): 122-126
http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/10/122.asp
INTRODUCTION
Weightlessness or immobilization, as experienced by astronauts
in space, is a well known cause of significant and rapid bone
mineral loss[1-24]. Furthermore sedentary individuals generally
have a lower bone mass than physically active individuals,
moderate exercise is known to increase skeletal mass[3]. The
above effect is most obvious in sports that place a significant
stress on the skeleton. Investigations of athletes have identified
physical activity as a major determinant of bone mass in the
general population.
Physical fitness significantly influences quality of life. In
Taiwan, medical care quality and public health environment
have improved markedly over recent decades. The incidence
of fatal infectious diseases thus has reduced significantly and
the life span of Taiwanese has enlongated. Simultaneously,
the incidence of chronic diseases has increased, yet people
remain ignorant of the importance of exercise[1-5].
Exercising for 20-60 min per day, three days per week, at
moderate intensity level of 3-6 Metabolic Equivalent units (METs)
for most individuals derives at least some health-related benefits,
including improved cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength and
endurance, flexibility and body composition, as well as associated
psychological benefits. Consequently, lifelong physical exercise
is recommended to optimize health-related benefits[2-8]. And
the influence of physical activity and exercise training on BMD
in females previously has been assessed in cross-sectional,
retrospective longitudinal and controlled trial studies[3-13].
Even though no relationship about growth hormone and
BMD was found. But the effect of E3 significantly improved
BMD by inhibiting bone resorption, female athletes with low
estradiol (E2) level take a risk for increased lipid peroxidation
following exercise[11-15]. Thus hormone status and lipid metabolism
may play an important role in the protection against cardiovascular
disease, this physiological response has implications for risks of
heart disease. Longitudinal information on associations between
life style factors and age-related bone loss remains quite
controversial. Some studies have found no relationship between
bone loss and body composition or body weight, while others
 Chen KT et al. Lipid metabolism and musculoskeletal fitness in female athletes
have shown them to predict bone mass changes[3-16].
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the
physiological function of female athletes, including BMD, renal
function, liver function, hormone status, bone marker assay,
lipid metabolism and muscle biology related to the effectiveness
of exercise intervention for the health status of female athletes
compared with controls.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
Sixty-six female subjects participated in this investigation, with
ages ranging between 18 and 55 yrs. The sample group was
the athlete group (n=36), while the control group comprised
non-athletic individuals (n=30). Inclusion criteria were that
the female athletes had participated in high-intensity resistance
or impact activities (e.g., basketball, dancing). Exclusion
criteria for both the subjects and the controls were that the
subjects had no major medical illnesses, including coronary
artery disease which could influence lipid metabolism, and
were free of other risk factors that are associated with
influencing lipid metabolism, such as smoking or ethanol intake
or treatment within the last two years with systemic gluco-
mineralocorticoids, anticonvulsants, bisphosphonates,
oestrogen, or raloxifene. Five athletes competed with national
level (5/36) and nine non-athletic subjects (9/30) were included
in the analysis of postmenopausal women. The parameters to
be measured included body composition, radius BMD and
calcaneus BMD, lung function, muscular endurance, renal
function, liver function and hormone status.
Anthropometric measurement of body composition
Anthropometric measurements were taken based on conventional
criteria. The measurement procedures of body weight (Wt)
and body height (Ht) were estimated to the nearest 0.1 kg and
0.5 cm, respectively. Finally BMI was calculated using the
formula: BMI (kg/m2)=Wt (kg)/Ht (m2).
Health related fitness
They were tested using a modified Guthrie R test[6]. Health
related fitness tests included vertical jump, 3 min steps, sit-
reach, hand grip and 1 min sit-ups items.
Lung function
Respiratory muscle strength and pulmonary function were
assessed by spirometry. The flow volume and respiratory
muscle forces were measured using a Fukuda, microspiro HI-
501 model spirometer.
Renal and liver function
Sixty-six blood samples per subject were drawn from an
antecubital vein with the subjects in the seated position. Routine
complete blood counts (CBC) were taken using a Sysmex-E9000
(TOA Electronic, Inc., Tokyo, Japan) and renal and liver function
tests were performed using a Hitachi 7170 instrument (Hitachi
Electronic, Inc., Tokyo, Japan) by clinical chemistry laboratory
staff at Li-Shin Hospital, Taoyuan County, Taiwan.
Hormone status
E2, E3, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH), parathyroid hormone (PTH), cortisol and
human growth hormone (HGH) were assayed in basal
conditions, using commercial radioimmunoassay (RIA) and
enzymeimmunoassay (EIA) Kits.
Bone marker assay
Serum bone specific alkaline phosphatase (BAP) activity was
123
measured using an EIA kit obtained from Metra Biosystems
(Monutain View, CA, USA). Urine Dpd level was measured
using enzyme immunoassay (Ciba-Corning ACS-180) kits
purchased from Bayer international (Bayer Diagnostics,
Tarrytown, NY, USA).
BMD determination
Calcaneus site BMD was measured via speed of sound (SOS)
equipped for a bone mineral densitometry (Aloka Medical Ltd,
modelAOS-100, Tokyo, Japan) and all BMD values were also
expressed as a T-score, accurately reflecting the BMD. Distal site
BMD was measured using the osmometer DTX-100 (SPA, Single
Photon Absorptiometry, Osmometer, Rodovre, Denmark). The
scanners were calibrated daily against the standard calibration
block supplied by the manufacturer to control baseline drift.
Statistical analysis
All data were analysed, using SPSS 10.0 software, and were
presented as mean rank statistical difference, using the Kurskal-
Wallis (K-W) test. After that the non-parameter statistics were
be used. The confidence interval was set at 95% and the
significance level used was K<0.05 (two sides). All statistical
analyses were carried out with SPSS statistical package. The
Kruskal-Wallis test does not use any information on the relative
magnitude of each observation when compared with every other
observation in the combined sample. This comparison is replaced
in each observation by its rank in the pool sample. The smallest
observation is replaced by its rank 1, the next smallest by rank
2, and so on, the largest by its rank n. Since the test is an
extension of the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon (M-W-W) test.
Either K value or P value below 0.05 is considered significant.
RESULTS
No difference in body composition
The thirty-six female athletes enrolled in this cross- sectional
study did not differ significantly in terms of BF, BF%, BMI
and resistance compared with the control group (Table 1).
Table 1 Body composition of two groups
66 females
Variables Control group Athlete group K-Value
n=30 n=36
mean rank
Body fat 31.68 35.01 0.483
BF% 33.83 33.22 0.898
BMI 32.45 34.38 0.685
Resistance 34.95 32.29 0.575
Exercise improvements muscular endurance in female athletes
These two different groups did not differ significantly in muscular
endurance. The hand grip (28.06±6.14 kg vs 26.85±5.73 kg),
3 min steps (55.32±6.90 count/min vs 57.82±7.21 count/min) and
vital capacity (86.86±15.98 L vs 88.23±12.05 L) in athlete group
were better than those in control group, but did differ significantly
in terms of sit- reach (29.3±9.48 cm vs 41.31±9.43 cm, K<0.001,
P<0.001), 1 min sit-ups (17.60±9.34 count vs 30.00±10.38 count,
K<0.001, P<0.001) and vertical jump (25.27±6.63 cm vs
34.69±7.99 cm, K<0.001, P<0.001) as listed in Table 2.
Lipid metabolism
Table 3 shows that the results were not significantly different
between both groups. But lipid metabolism including HDL
(59.36±12.23 mg/dL vs 63.23±13.83 mg/dL) and Hb (12.95±1.22
g/dL vs 13.43±1.09 g/dL) in the athlete group was higher than
 124 ISSN 1007-9327 CN 14-1219/ R World J Gastroenterol January 1, 2004 Volume 10 Number 1

in the control group. However, LDL (105.93±30.76 mg/dL vs Table 4 Serum enzyme activities related to renal and liver
102.89±25.92 mg/dL), TG (81.53±49.53 mg/dL vs 74.60±48.31 metabolism
mg/dL) and CHO (170.20±32.20 mg/dL vs 168.06±28.13 mg/dL)
were lower in the athlete group than those of the control group. Group n ALP Cre ALB DBIL
Thus exercise could improve the lipid metabolism, and it is
good for health. Control group (mean rank) 30 27.07 27.88 27.77 27.65
Athlete group (mean rank) 36 38.86ac 38.18ab 38.28a 38.38a
Table 3 No significant differences in blood CHO and lipid
variables between both groups a
K<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared with con-
trol group. bP<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared
Group n HDL LDL CHO TG Hb with control group. cP<0.01 vs statistically significant when
compared with control group.
Control group 30 31.92 34.65 34.92 35.02 28.75
(mean rank)
Athlete group 36 34.82 32.54 32.32 32.24 37.46
Renal and liver function
Table 4 shows that no difference between the data (data not
(mean rank)
shown here) of the two groups in terms of blood enzymes such

Table 2 Muscular strength and endurance assessment among controls and athlete groups

Group n Sit-reach 1 min sit-ups Vertical jump Hand grip 3 min steps Vital capacity

Control group (mean rank) 30 22.18 22.05 22.23 31.27 29.60 30.58
Athlete group (mean rank) 36 42.93ab 43.04ab 42.89ab 35.36 36.75 35.93

a
K<0.001 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. bP<0.001 vs statistically significant when compared with
control group.

Table 5 BMD, urine electrolytes, blood electrolytes in two groups

Group n Urine-Cre Blood-Ca BMD/radius BMD /calcaneus Blood-Cl

Control group (mean rank) 30 26.87 42.42 28.38 26.23 45.90

Athletes group (mean rank) 36 39.03ad 26.07b 37.76a 39.56bd 23.17c

a
K<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. bK<0.01 vs statistically significant when compared with
control group. cK<0.001 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. dP<0.05 vs statistically significant when
compared with control group.

Table 6 Hormonal findings in athletes with significance by non-parameter statistics test compared with controls

Group n Cortisol E3 T3 T4 PTH HGH

Control group (mean rank) 30 32.28 25.78 31.77 36.43 31.37 35.65
Athletes group (mean rank) 36 34.51 39.93ab 34.94 31.06 35.28 31.71

a
K<0.01 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. bP<0.01 vs statistically significant when compared with
control group.

Table 7 Biochemical bone turnover markers and BMD in athletes with significance by non-parameter statistics test as compared
with controls

Group n Dpd Urine-Cre (24 hrs) Dpd/Cre BAP BMD/radius BMD/Calcaneus

Control group (mean rank) 30 25.87 27.23 25.72 20.10 28.38 26.23
Athletes group (mean rank) 36 39.86be 38.72ad 39.99b 43.83cf 37.76a 39.56b

a
K<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. bK<0.01 vs statistically significant when compared with
control group. cK<0.001 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. dP<0.05 vs statistically significant when
compared with control group. eP<0.01 vs statistically significant when compared with control group. fP<0.001 vs statistically
significant when compared with control group.

Table 8 Postmenopausal female athlete lipid metabolism compared to premenopausal active athletes

Athletes group n BF% BMI HDL LDL CHO TG Hb

Premenopausal (mean rank) 31 16.84 17.08 20.15 16.74 16.98 16.55 18.79
Postmenopausal (mean rank) 5 28.60ac 27.30be 8.30ac 29.40ad 27.90ac 30.60b 16.70

a
K<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared with premenopausal group. bK<0.01 vs statistically significant when com-
pared with premenopausal group. cP<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared with premenopausal group. dP<0.01 vs
statistically significant when compared with premenopausal group. eP<0.001 vs statistically significant when compared with
premenopausal group.
 Chen KT et al. Lipid metabolism and musculoskeletal fitness in female athletes
as glutamic oxalocetic transminase (GOT), glutamic pyruvic
transminase (GPT), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid (UA),
total protein (TP), globulin (GLO) and bilirubin (BIL). But
the control group displayed significantly lower alkaline
phosphatase (ALP) (61.03±13.99 U/L vs 70.81±15.23 U/L,
K<0.05, P<0.01), ALB (4.52±0.18 g/dL vs 4.62±0.27 g/dL,
K<0.05), Cre (0.75±0.09 mg/dL vs 0.81±0.10 mg/dL, P<0.05,
K<0.05) and direct bilirubin (DBIL) (0.25±1.11 mg/dL vs
0.29±0.8 mg/dL, K<0.05) than the athlete group.
Electrolytes and BMD
According to non-parameter statistical tests, both the radius BMD
(1.37±0.49 gm/cm2 vs 1.19±0.40 gm/cm2, K<0.05) and calcaneus
BMD (0.57±0.17 gm/cm2 vs -0.20±0.17 gm/cm2, K<0.01,
P<0.05), increased significantly in the athlete group compared
with those of the control group. Moreover, the athlete group’s
body electrolytes such as urine-Cre (132.22±72.30 mg/dL vs
166.83±62.52 mg/dL, K<0.05, P<0.05), blood calcium (Ca)
(8.76±0.32 mg/dL vs 8.43±0.37 mg/dL, K<0.01) and chloride
(Cl) (99.94±2.41 meq/L vs 102.83±1.97 meq/L, K<0.001)
significantly decreased compared to the control group.
Hormone status
HGH and T4 were lower in the athlete group than in the control
group (8.95±1.51 µg/dL vs 9.38±1.51 µg/dL), but cortisol
(11.39±4.03 µg/dL vs 10.75±3.42 µg/dL), E2 (88.82±66.42 pg/mL
vs 80.56±63.10 pg/mL), T3 (112.07±13.52 ng/dL vs 114.78±17.16
ng/dL) and PTH (39.07±16.97 pg/mL vs 34.70±11.66 pg/mL)
levels were higher. Notably, E3 level (0.14±0.13 pg/mL vs
0.07±0.04 pg/mL, K<0.01, P<0.01) significantly increased in
the athlete group compared to those of the control group.
Bone marker assay and BMD
All biochemical and bone turnover markers, for example,
(67.97±39.67 nmol/mmol vs 102.63±46.97 nmol/mmol,
K<0.01, P<0.01), Dpd/Cre ratio (5.93±2.31 vs 6.85±1.43,
K<0.01), and BAP (14.04±3.31 µg/L vs 20.93±6.17 µg/L,
K<0.001, P<0.001) significantly increased in the female
athlete group compared to those of the control group. The
athletes displayed positive correlation of regional radius BMD
(K<0.05) and calcaneus BMD (K<0.01, P<0.05) with these
results (Table 7).
Lipid metabolism in postmenopausal athletes
Table 8 displays levels of LDL (98.35±23.84 mg/dL vs
131.00±21.63 mg/dL, K<0.05, P<0.01), CHO (164.03±27.01
mg/dL vs 193.00±23.48 mg/dL, K<0.05, P<0.05), TG (63.00
±26.39 mg/dL vs 147.00±87.21 mg/dL, K<0.01), BF%
(28.16±4.90% vs 34.84±4.44%, K<0.05, P<0.001) and BMI
(21.98±2.98 kg/m2 vs 26.42±5.01 kg/m2, K<0.05, P<0.001)
increased in the postmenopausal (5/36) inactive athletes group
compared to the premenopausal (31/36) active athletes. Then
the level of HDL (65.00±14.02 mg/dL vs 52.26±4.84 mg/dL,
K<0.05, P<0.05) markedly decreased in the postmenopausal
(5/36) inactive athletes.
Table 9 Lipid metabolism of postmenopausal female athletes
Postmenopausal n BMI HDL LDL CHO TG Hb
group
Control group 9 6.56 9.00 7.11 7.06 6.44 7.61
(mean rank)
Athletes group 5 9.20 4.80a 8.20 8.30 9.40 7.30
(mean rank)
P<0.05 vs statistically significant when compared with post-
a subjects. Specifically, this group displayed decreased HDL
menopausal control group.
125
Lipid metabolism in postmenopausal females
Results from this study show higher levels of TG (90.22±39.82
mg/dL vs 147.00±87.21 mg/dL), CHO (186.44±24.90 mg/dL
vs 193.00±23.48 mg/dL), but lower levels of HDL (62.18±10.68
mg/dL vs 52.26±4.84 mg/dL, P<0.05), Hb (13.82±0.88 g/dL
vs 13.52±0.21 g/dL) in postmenopausal athletes (5/36) group
compared with the postmenopausal control group (9/30). This
implies that the effect is a cardiovascular disease risk for
postmenopausal retired female athletes (Table 9).
DISCUSSION
The data in this study were expressed as mean x±s. Statistical
significance in the mean values was evaluated by the Student’s
t test. But in our study, only sixty-six female subjects participated
in this investigation. Therefore, we use K-W test to analyze
the results of all tests. The Kruskal-Wallis test does not use
any information on the relative magnitude of each observation
when compared with every other observation in the combined
sample. This comparison is replaced in observation by its rank
in the pool sample. The smallest observation is replaced by its
rank 1, the next smallest by rank 2, and so on, the largest by its
rank n. Since the test is an extension of the M-W-W test. Either
K value or P value below 0.05 was considered significant.
Exercise is important for maintaining skeletal health.
However, the ability of exercise to influence bone might not
be entirely related to hormone status. This study has shown
that hormones and exercise interact to influence bone
adaptations, and thus raise E3 level related to increased BMD
following exercise in female athletes. For example, serum E2,
cortisol, PTH and T3 levels in the athlete group were higher
than those of the controls, and the major finding of this study
was that increased radius BMD (K<0.05) and calcaneus BMD
(K<0.01, P<0.05) were significantly and positively related to
serum E3 (K<0.01, P<0.01) concentrations[10-12]. Therefore, a
clear understanding the interaction suggested by the present
data between E3 concentration and the adaptation of bone to
exercise is important, and provides an interaction through
which the estrogen receptors involved in the early response of
bone cells might increase their responsiveness to loading[11,12].
These results indicate that physical exercise positively affects
the maintenance of radius BMD (K<0.05), calcaneus BMD
(K<0.01, P<0.05) in female athletes, thus increased E3 level
can prevent BMD loss and possible risk of osteoporosis[12].
The athletes have higher levels of all the biomarkers than the
controls, including Dpd (K<0.01, P<0.01), urine-Cre (K<0.05,
P<0.05), Dpd/Cre ratio (K<0.005), BAP (K<0.001, P<0.001)
and lower levels of blood-Ca (K<0.01), blood-Cl (K<0.001)
these results were associated with markedly increased radius
BMD and calcaneus BMD[13-22].
Further studies are required to examine a larger population,
and also to consider the effects of BMD marker assay (for
example insulin-like growth factors).
Physical inactivity has been designated by the American
Heart Association as a major modifiable risk factor for
cardiovascular disease. Numerous studies have examined
individual morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease.
The results presented here indicate that exercise can improve
physiological characteristics, such the lowering levels of serum
CHO and TG in female athletes, all of which may improve
cardiovascular fitness and reduce morbidity and mortality from
cardiovascular disease[12-16,23-26].
But the findings regarding the renal function, liver function
and lipid metabolism of retired female athletes were surprising.
Enzyme activity indicates that this group (5/36) may not have
the same health benefits from physical exercise as the control
(K<0.05, P<0.05), Hb and increased LDL (K<0.05, P<0.01),
 126 ISSN 1007-9327 CN 14-1219/ R
CHO (K<0.05, P<0.05), TG (K<0.01) compared to the
premenopausal active athletes (31/36). Postmenopausal retired
female athletes (5/36) engaged in less physical activity than
previously, displayed increase rates of liver and renal dysfunction,
which require further investigation[17,23-28].
An understanding of the dyslipidemia and ensuing
atherosclerosis has implications for the pathophysiology of
coronary heart disease (CHD). Risk of cardiac morbidity and
mortality is directly related to concentration of plasma total
CHO or LDL. Lipid lowering therapy has been shown to reduce
the risk of cardiovascular events in both high risk individuals
and patients with manifest CHD[17-22,24-28]. The present study
has found that postmenopausal retired female athletes (5/36)
who were no longer engaged in strenuous physical activity,
they had a significantly higher BF% (K<0.05, P<0.001) and
BMI (K<0.05, P<0.001) compared to the active female athletes
(31/36) group, specifically, in lipid dysfunction marker with
the postmenopausal retired female athletes. Results from this
study show higher levels of TG, CHO, but lower levels of HDL,
Hb in athletes (5/36) group compared with the control group
(9/30). Then, five postmenopausal athletes (5/36), who had
retired from competition, and were engaged in less physical
activity than previously, had significantly higher BF%, BMI
and lipid dysfunction markers had a significantly decreased
level of HDL (P<0.05) compared to the controls (9/30). This
suggest that the effect is a cardiovascular disease risk for
postmenopausal retired female athletes.
Future studies should recruit more numbers of female
athletes, who have retired from competition but still maintained
high levels of physical activity, and then compare this group
with the low physical activity group that serves as the control
group. Lipid metabolism related apolipoprotein E (ApoE)
genotypes with an allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) based
microarray system may interact with exercise training to affect
their plasma lipid profiles. To clarify the atherogenic risk of
different lipoprotein phenotypes, the relations among total
CHO, LDL, HDL and CHD risk in older female athletes should
be investigated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Li-Shin Hospital in Taoyuan County, Taiwan
that provided all laboratory tests in this study, which helped
us to complete the research subjects.
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