Fire Fighting Calculations Part "1"

24 ‫ ص‬04:19 ‫ الساعة‬،2011 ،‫سبتمبر‬

Chapter 1: Water at Rest and In Motion

Six Principles of Fluid Pressure

1) Fluid pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts.

2) Beneath the surface of a liquid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions (upward,
sideward, downward).

3) Pressure applied to a confined fluid from without is transmitted equally in all directions.

4) The pressure of a liquid in an open vessel is proportional to its depth.

5) The pressure of a liquid in an open vessel is proportional to the density of the liquid.

6) Liquid pressure at the bottom of a vessel is unaffected by the size and shape of the vessel
as long as the height of water remains the same.

Pressure – Height – Density Relationship

Formulas

a. Pressure (P) = .434 X Height or P = .434H

b. Height / Head (H) = 2.31 X Pressure or H = 2.31P

Work Problems: Using the formulas above, solve the following:

a. Find the pressure at the bottom of a standpipe filled with water 100 feet high.

P = .434H

P = .434 (100)

P = 43.4 psi

* The pressure in this formula is often referred to as back pressure (BP) in pumping operations.
This back-pressure may be encountered during high-rise operations, while using dry standpipes,
or pumping up or down hills. BP = .434H

b. The static pressure in a fire hose connected to a standpipe is 150 psi. How high will that
static pressure raise the water in the standpipe?

H = 2.31P

H = 2.31 (150)

H = 346.5 ft
Back Pressure

1) Multi-Story Buildings

The average height per story is 10-12 feet

BP = .434H

Therefore, BP per story is .434 (12) or 5.2 psi per story

As a rule of thumb, 5 psi per story above the first floor is used for calculating BP in high-rise
buildings.

Work Problems: Using the rule of thumb, find the BP for the following:

a. Fire on the 10th floor level of a 20-story office building

BP = 5 X 9

BP = 45 psi

note: the fire is only 9 floors above ground level (this can be tricky)

b. Fire on the roof top of a 20-story office building

BP = 5 X 20
BP = 100 psi

Note: in this case, the fire is actually 20 floors above the ground floor

Because it is on the roof and not the floor level. (Tricky too)

2) Uphill vs. Downhill

A. Uphill:

When pumping on a grade, either uphill or downhill, pump operators must take into
consideration the pressure loss or gain caused by BP.

When pumping uphill, the pump has to work harder to get the water to the desired location
because gravity is acting on the water and holding it back. The pump pressure must be
increased to overcome the back pressure.

Example: A fire engine is pumping water uphill through a hoseline that is

80ft above the firetruck.

BP = .434H

.434 (80)

34.7 psi
The pump operator will have to increase the pump pressure by 34.7 psi to make up the
difference in back pressure.

B. Downhill

When pumping downhill, the pump does not have to work as hard because gravity is acting on
the water, helping to move it through the fire hose. This means that the BP gained will be in
addition to the pump pressure reading. You won’t see the pressure increase on your pump
gauge, but the hoseman will feel it on the hoseline.

Example: A fire engine is pumping water downhill through a hoseline that

is 60ft below the firetruck.

BP = .434H

.434 (60)

26.04 psi

The pump operator will have to decrease the pump pressure by 26.04 psi

To negate the pressure increase caused by back pressure.

3) Types of Pressure

a. Static Pressure - Pressure of water at rest

b. Flow Pressure - Pressure of water flowing from nozzle

c. Residual Pressure – Pressure remaining in water main or inlet side of

Fire pump after water is flowing

Chapter 2: Velocity and Discharge

Drafting Operations

1) Theory

Drafting is a way in which a fire pump uses atmospheric pressure to draw water into the fire
pump from a static water source (see figure 2.1). Atmospheric pressure, at sea level, is 14.7 psi.
Fire pumps are capable of expelling its air through use of a priming pump. If all the air within a
pump is displaced and a good seal is maintained (no leaks or loose fittings), the fire pump can
create a vacuum-like atmosphere within the fire pump. Once this vacuum-like atmosphere is
obtained, the atmospheric pressure outside the pump will be greater than the pressure within
the fire pump, and water will be forced into the pump through the drafting hose. This means
that using the formula H = 2.31P, we can see how atmospheric pressure will force water into the
fire pump up to 33.9 feet high (H = 2.31 X 14.7 psi).
Figure 2.1 – Drafting Operations

The theoretical lift of 33.9 feet is nearly impossible to obtain. Since the fire pump cannot
produce an absolute vacuum (0 psi), and there is friction loss in the drafting hose, a practical lift
of 22-25 feet is more realistic.

2) Factors Affecting Priming Operations (trying to obtain a vacuum)

a. Loose hose connections, loose covers, open gates, open valves, too long or too small
suction hose

b. Defective priming pump

c. Depth of water source

note: 1250 gpm pumpers should only take 30 seconds to prime

1500 gpm pumpers should only take 45 seconds to prime

3) Factors Affecting Lift

a. Altitude

b. Weather

c. Water temperature
d. Too long or too small suction hose

Velocity

1) Formulas

For velocity, you will be given either the height of the water or the pressure. Therefore, two
formulas for velocity will be discussed.

a. Velocity = 8 X ÖHeight of water or V = 8ÖH

b. Velocity = 12.1 X ÖPressure of nozzle or V = 12.1ÖP

Work Problems:

What is the velocity of water flow is the nozzle pressure is 60 psi?

V = 12.1 ÖP

V = 12.1 Ö60

V = 12.1 (7.75)
 V = 93.78 fps

What is the velocity of water flow from a water tank 50 ft high?

V = 8 ÖH

V = 8 Ö50

V = 8 (7.07)

V = 56.56 fps

Flow Velocities

The velocity of water varies inversely with the cross section of the hoseline and nozzle tip. What
does this mean??

With the same nozzle pressure:

Changing to a smaller nozzle tip will increase nozzle velocity / pressure

Changing to a larger nozzle tip will decrease nozzle velocity / pressure

The inverse relationship between velocity and nozzle size simply means that when one increases,
the other decreases and vice versa.
Nozzle Discharge – Gallons per Minute (GPM)

1) Discharge Formulas

a. With Nozzle

Discharge (GPM) = 30 X Diameter of Nozzle2 X ÖNozzle Pressure

GPM = 30d2ÖP

Work Problem: How many GPMs are flowing through a 2 ½” hoseline with a

1 1/8” nozzle tip with a nozzle pressure of 50 psi?

GPM = 30d2ÖP

GPM = 30 (1.125)2 Ö50 (nozzle size converted into a decimal)

GPM = 30 (1.27) (7.07)

GPM = 269.37

b. Without Nozzle (open butt)

To find the discharge pressure of a hoseline without a nozzle, simply use 90% of the original
discharge formula. The hose diameter will substitute as the nozzle size in this case.

GPM (open butt) = 90% X 30 X Hose Diameter2 X ÖPressure

GPM (open butt) = 27d2 ÖP

Work Problem: How many GPMs are flowing through a 2 ½” hoseline

without a nozzle attached to it at 50 psi?

GPM (open butt) = 27d2 ÖP

GPM = 27 (2.5)2 Ö50

GPM = 27 (6.25) (7.07)

GPM = 1193.06

Nozzle Reaction

1) Formula

Nozzle Reaction (NR) = 1.57 X Nozzle Diameter2 X Nozzle Pressure

NR = 1.57d2 P

note: In theory, the nozzle reaction will always be greater than the actual

nozzle reaction felt by the firefighter because:

a. The hoseline is in contact with the ground, and this absorbs

some of the nozzle reaction.

b. Bends in the hoseline as it is laid out will help to absorb some

of the nozzle reaction.

Work Problem: What is the nozzle reaction of a 2 ½” hoseline with a

1 1/8” nozzle tip flowing 50 psi?

NR = 1.57 d2 P

NR = 1.57 (1.125)2 (50) (nozzle size converted to a decimal)

NR = 1.57 (1.27) (50)

NR = 99.70 lbs
2) Safety Factors to Consider

a. Handling Hose Lines

i. Bends near the nozzle tend to straighten out. The

hoseline should be straight at least 10 feet back of the nozzle

ii. Nozzle reaction from fog streams is less than

straight streams

iii. Open and close nozzle slowly because:

1. Initial nozzle reaction is greater than the nozzle reaction when water is flowing

2. Sudden closing of nozzle sends pressure surges backwards. This is called a “water
hammer”. A water hammer can break the hoseline, fire pump, and/or water main.

iv. When using handlines on ladders, the nozzle

reaction could cause the ladder to lift-off and fall away from the building. To help avoid this
dangerous situation from occurring firefighters should:

1. Fasten the ladder to the window sill

2. Set the base of the ladder further away from the building

b. Ladder Truck Operations

 i. If the hose should burst, the ladder / boom will
whip violently

ii. Always try and shoot the fire stream in-line with
the ladder. Never turn the nozzle more than 15 degrees from the center of the ladder.

Work Problem: What is the nozzle reaction of a ladder pipe

operation flowing 80 psi from a 2” nozzle tip?

NR = 1.57 d2 P

NR = 1.57 (2)2 (80)

NR = 1.57 (4) (80)

NR = 502.4 lbs (force)

Friction Loss

1) Effect of Flow Pattern

a. Laminar Flow – Low Flow Velocities

b. Turbulent Flow – High Flow Velocities

 i. Friction loss in hose affected by:

1. Inner lining of hose

2. Age of hose

3. Thickness of hose lining

4. Type of hose jacked weave (will it expand or not)

2) Friction Loss in Hoses

a. Friction loss varies with quality of hose

b. Friction loss varies directly with length of hose line (the longer the hoseline, the greater the
friction loss).

c. Friction loss varies approximately as the square of the velocity of flow (the faster the flow
velocity, the greater the friction loss)

Example:

If the flow velocity is doubled – Friction loss is 4 times

greater (2)2 = 4
If the flow velocity is tripled – Friction loss is 9 times

greater (3)2 = 9

d. For a given velocity, friction loss varies inversely as the fifth power of the hose diameter
(the bigger the hose diameter, the less the friction loss)

Example:

If the hose size was doubled from 1 ½” to 3”

We see how 1 ½” X 2 = 3”

Inverting the 2 we get ½

Now we take the ½ and multiply it to the fifth power

½ 5 = ½ X ½ X ½ X ½ X ½ = 1/32

We can now conclude that if the hose size is doubled, the

New friction loss is only 1/32 as much as the original figure.

e. For a given velocity of flow, friction loss is nearly independent of pressure. In other words,
he velocity of flow, and not the pressure, is the determining factor in friction loss.
3) Formulas (more details in Chapter 5)

a. Friction Loss = 2 X Q2 + Q

FL = 2Q2 + Q Q = GPM ¸ 100

note: This formula is only for 2 ½” diameter hoselines.

The friction loss figure represents friction loss per 100 ft of 2 ½” hose.

i.e. If the hoseline is 600 ft, the friction loss figure must be

Multiplied by 6 to get the total friction loss in that hoseline.

Work Problem: Find the friction loss in a 2 ½” hoseline 100 ft in length

Flowing 300 gpm.

FL = 2Q2 + Q Q = GPM ¸ 100

FL = 2 (3)2 + 3 Q = 300 ¸ 100

FL = 2 (9) + 3 Q=3
 FL = 21 # per 100 ft length

FL = 21# (since there is only 100 ft of hoseline)

c. Engine Pressure = Friction Loss + Nozzle Pressure

EP = FL + NP

Work Problem: An engine is pumping through 600 ft of 2 ½” hoseline to a nozzle that is flowing
200 gpm at 100 psi nozzle pressure. Find the engine pressure.

EP = FL + NP FL = 2Q2 + Q Q = GPM ¸ 100

EP = FL + 100 FL = 2(2)2 + 2 Q = 200 ¸ 100

EP = 60 + 100 FL = 2(4) +2 Q=2

EP = 160 psi FL = 10 per 100ft hoseline

FL = 10 X 6 (# of hundreds of feet of hose)

FL = 60

d. Engine Pressure = Friction Loss + Nozzle Pressure + Back Pressure

EP = FL + NP + BP

Work Problem: An engine is pumping through 300 ft of 2 ½” hoseline

to a nozzle that is flowing 200 gpm at 100 psi nozzle

Pressure. The nozzle is on a hill that is 60 ft higher

Than the fire pump. Find the engine pressure.

EP = FL + NP + BP

FL = 2Q2 + Q Q = GPM ¸ 100 BP = .434H

FL = 2 (2)2 + 2 Q = 200 ¸ 100 BP = .434 (60)

FL = 2 (4) + 2 Q=2 BP = 26.04

FL = 10 per 100 ft hoseline

 FL = 10 X 3 ( # of hundreds of feet of hose)

FL = 30

EP = FL + NP + BP

EP = 30 + 100 + 26

EP = 156 psi

Note: If the nozzle was below the fire pump (downhill or in a Basement),
the BP would have to be subtracted from the EP.

Remember that the gravity would cause the pressure to increase, thus giving the firefighter
on the hoseline too much pressure.

Chapter 3: Water Distribution System

General Remarks
1) Public Water Systems are designed to perform two functions.

a. Provide water for domestic, commercial and industrial use

b. Provide water for fire protection

i. Combination systems use same water source for

both functions

ii. Separate systems use “potable” water for domestic

use and use brackish, salt or treated sewage water for firefighting.

2) Fire hydrants must be installed and maintained in accordance to standards set forth by the
American Water Works Association.

3) The term “Fire Plug” originated from the old days when pipes were made from hollowed
out wood and buried underground. These pipes were gravity fed from water sources located in
the area. If there were a need for water, the fire department would expose the pipe by digging
up the ground. Once exposed, a hole was drilled into the wooden pipe. Water would then flow
out of the hole by means of gravity. When the fire was out, a tapered wooden plug was inserted
into the hole and the pipe would be re-buried.

Fire Hydrants

1) Dry Barrel Hydrants (see figure 3.1)

a. Dry barrel hydrants do not have water stored in the fire hydrant itself. Instead, the water is
stored in the piping below the hydrant. When the operating stem is opened, water will begin to
fill the hydrant. This type of hydrant is used in areas where freezing can occur. If the water is
stored in the hydrant, it could freeze and that hydrant would be useless in a fire situation.
Because the water in the piping below the hydrant is constantly moving, it usually does not
freeze.

b. Main Parts:

i. Dry Barrel

ii. Footpiece

iii. Bonnet

iv. Operating Stem

v. Main Valve

vi. Drain

2) Wet Barrel Hydrants (see figure 3.2)

a. Unlike the dry barrel hydrant, the wet barrel hydrant has water in the hydrant right up to
the discharge outlet. These hydrants should not be used in areas where freezing could occur.
These are the types of hydrants commonly used in Hawai`i. However, there are some dry barrel
hydrants in use today in Hawai`i.

b. Wet barrel hydrants have fewer parts than dry barrel hydrants.

c. Each outlet has an independent valve on a threaded stem with

 operating nut on opposite side of barrel.

Figure 3.1 – Dry Barrel Hydrant

Figure 3.2 – Wet Barrel Hydrant

3) Other Information

d. Hydrant Outlets

i. Every hydrant must have at least two outlets.

1. One pumper suction hose outlet (usually 4”)

2. One regular hose outlet (usually 2 ½”)

ii. Outlets must not be less than 18 inches from the

ground level.

iii. Outlets must have a cap and chain.

e. Hydrant Spacing

i. Hydrants should not be spaced more than 250 ft

apart in commercial / industrial areas and should have a minimum flow of 1000 gpm.
 ii. Hydrants should not be spaced more than 350 ft
apart in residential areas and should have a minimum flow of 1000 gpm.

iii. Hydrants should not be spaced more than 700 ft

apart in rural areas and should have a minimum flow of 1000 gpm.

f. Branch Connection

i. The minimum size water main supplying fire

hydrants in Honolulu is 8 inches. Main sizes smaller than 6 inches are not suitable for providing
fire protection.

ii. Each wet barrel hydrant has its own gate valve.
This gate valve is located somewhere near the hydrant, and its location is indicated on the fire
hydrant. In case the hydrant should be damaged (if a car knocks one over) the gate valve can be
used to stop the flow of water to that one hydrant without interrupting the flow to other
hydrants on that same water main.

4) Estimating Available Flow From Fire Hydrants

a. In order to estimate the amount of flow we have available in a hydrant, we must first find
the percentage of drop in pressure between static and residual pressure.

i. Open hydrant with suction hose connected to fire

truck. At this time take note as to what your intake (suction) pressure gauge is reading. This is
the hydrant’s static pressure.

ii. Open a discharge gate for one hoseline. Again look

at your suction gauge. The pressure will be lower because some of the static pressure will have
been used for the first firefighting line. This is the hydrant’s residual pressure.
 iii. Subtract the residual pressure from the static
pressure and convert that number into a percentage. This is the percentage of drop in pressure
between static and residual.

Work Problem: A hydrant is connected to your fire truck with no

Firefighting lines flowing. Your suction gauge reads 60

psi. After opening one firefighting line, your suction

Gauge now reads 55 psi. What is the percentage of drop in pressure?

Static Pressure = 60 psi

Residual Pressure = 55 psi

Pressure Difference = 5 psi

To find the drop in a %, simply divide the difference in

pressure by the static pressure.

5 psi ¸ 60 psi = .083 or 8.3%

b. Applying percentage of drop in pressure to practical situations.

 i. Once the percentage of drop between static and
residual pressure is found, that number can be used to help estimate the number of additional
hoselines the hydrant can supply. The estimates are based on hoselines of the same diameter
utilizing nozzles of the same diameter also. The following chart shows the general rule of thumb
regarding additional hoselines:

10% or less 3 more hoselines

11-15% 2 more hoselines

16-25% 1 more hoseline

more than 25% no more hoselines

Chapter 4: Fire Service Pumps

Introduction

1) Three Basic Types of Fire Pumps

a. Piston Type Fire Pump

b. Rotary Type Fire Pump

c. Centrifugal Type Fire Pump

2) Pump Mounting on Apparatus

a. Mid-ship (middle) – 2 ways

i. Between road transmission and rear axle in line

with drive shaft (most common)

ii. Ahead of clutch and transmission with flywheel

and power take off. This type allows for direct engine power to pump transmission connection.
It allows for driving and pumping simultaneously.

b. Front Mounting

i. From front of engine crankshaft connected to

pump transmission. This type also allows for driving and pumping simultaneously.

3) Pump Ratings

a. Standard pumper capacity ratings start from 500 gpm and increase in 250 gpm increments
(NFPA 19 Specification) up to 2000 gpm.

i. 500 gpm, 750 gpm, 1000 gpm, 1250 gpm, 1500

gpm, 1750 gpm, 2000 gpm
 ii. Pumpers must have one 2 ½” gated outlet per 250
gpm rated capacity.

b. Fire pumps are designed to perform as follows:

100% of rated capacity at 150 psi net pumps pressure

70% of rated capacity at 200 psi net pumps pressure

50% of rated capacity at 250 psi net pumps pressure

Net pump pressure is found by subtracting suction or inlet pressure from the discharge pressure.

Work Problem: A fire pump is discharging 200 psi through a 2 ½”

Hoseline and is receiving 50 psi from a fire

Hydrant. What is the net pump pressure?

Net Pump Pressure = Discharge Pressure – Intake Pressure

Net Pump Pressure = 200 psi – 50 psi

Net Pump Pressure = 150 psi

 Work Problem: A pumper has a capacity rating of 1000 gpm.

Using net pump pressure finds the efficiency of the pump:

At 150 psi net pump pressure _______gpm

At 200 psi net pump pressure _______gpm

At 250 psi net pump pressure _______gpm

The answers are 1000 gpm (1000 gpm X 100%), 700 gpm

(1000 gpm X 70%) and 500 gpm (1000 gpm X 50%).

note: Fire pumps are most efficient at 150 psi or less.

4) Cavitation

a. Causes of cavitation

i. Lift too high for volume and pressure discharged

ii. Suction hose too small for volume and pressure

discharged
 iii. Suction strainer or hose clogged

iv. Partial collapse of hose lining

v. Temperature of water too high

b. Signs of cavitation

i. Pump vibrations with loud pinging noises. This is

caused by air bubbles that form in the pump that collapse violently when they enter the
impeller.

ii. “Pump running away” This happens when the

pump is pumping air or steam instead of water. The pump speed will increase with no increase
in discharge pressure or volume. The pump operator will hear the engine revving and running
away. If this should occur, shut down pumping operations immediately.

Centrifugal Fire Pumps

1) General Information

a. Water enters the centrifugal pump through the eye and is delivered to the impeller through
the vanes. The impeller increases the speed of the water and discharges it through the volute.
(see figure 4.1)

figure 4.1 – Centrifugal Fire Pump

c. Centrifugal pumps may be connected in stages to each other. Centrifugal pumps can have
1 – 4 stages. Each impeller and volute is one stage in a multi-stage centrifugal pump.
2) Capabilities and Limitations

a. Volume (gpm) varies directly as the pump speed. The faster the pump speed, the greater
the volume.

b. Pressure (psi) varies as the square of the pump speed. If you double the pump speed, the
pressure increases 4 times (22 = 4)

c. Centrifugal pumps are not self-priming. A separate rotary vane priming pump unit is used
to prime centrifugal pumps.

3) Single-Stage Centrifugal Fire Pumps

a. Basic Designs

i. Single suction impeller

1. Limited up to 750 gpm pumpers

ii. Double suction impeller

1. 1000 – 1500 gpm pumpers

iii. Double Volute design

1. Limited to single stage pumps

2. High efficiency at rated capacity

b. In general, single stage pumps have a high efficiency rating (about 70%), which is generally
slightly higher than multi-stage pumps.

4) Two-Stage Centrifugal Fire Pumps

a. Basic design

i. Two impellers with separate volute chambers for

each impeller

b. Limited use in fire service

i. Pumps may be front mounted for smaller trucks

1. Provides vehicle movement while pumping

2. Able to provide high-pressure for operations (300-400 psi).

5) Parallel – Series Two-Stage Centrifugal Pumps

a. Basic design

i. Two impellers with separate volutes

 ii. Addition of transfer or changeover valve for
parallel or series pumping operations

iii. The efficiency of parallel – series two-stage pumps

is around 65-70%. This is slightly less than a single stage pump.

b. Parallel (Volume) Operations (see figure 4.2)

i. When a pump is placed in the parallel position,

water enters both stages of the pump simultaneously from the suction side. This means that the
pump will be able to deliver twice the volume at half of the pressure.

ii. An example of this is: A 1000 gpm rated capacity

pumper operating at 150 psi net pump pressure. In the parallel position, each impeller will
deliver 500 gpm at 150 psi. Note that the pump will double the volume of water, but at half the
speed.

figure 4.2 – Parallel – Series pump in parallel position

c. Series (Pressure) Operations (see figure 4.3)

i. When a pump is placed in the series position,

water enters one stage of the pump from the suction side. The water is then delivered to the
second stage via the first stage of the pump. This means that the pump will be able to deliver
half the volume at twice the pressure.

ii. An example of this is: A 1000 gpm rated capacity

pumper operating at 150 psi net pump pressure. In the series position, the first impeller will
deliver 500 gpm at 150 psi to the second stage. The second impeller will discharge the 500 gpm,
but it will double the pressure. In the series position, this pump will deliver 500 gpm at 300 psi.
Note that the pump will double the pressure, but at half the volume.

figure 4.3 – Parallel – Series pump in series position

d. Transfer Valve

i. A transfer valve is the device that is used to

change a pump from series to parallel or vice versa. The pump operator must decide which
position would best meet the needs of a given situation.

ii. Transfer valves may be either powered or manual

iii. Transfer valves may be disk type or cylinder type

iv. Transfer valves are normally left in the series

position for normal day-to-day operations.

v. As a general rule, the transfer valve should be kept

in the series position when pumping up to 70% of the pump’s capacity. The transfer valve should
be switched to the parallel position when evolutions or circumstances require a pump to deliver
more than 70% of it’s rated capacity.

vi. When switching the transfer valve from one

position to another, the pump pressure should be lowered to below 60 psi. This is especially
crucial when switching from parallel to series because the pressure will immediately double.
This sudden increase in pressure could damage the pump, hoses, or seriously injure the
firefighters on the hoselines.
6) Piston Pumps

a. General Remarks

i. Piston pumps were the first pumps developed for

firefighting.

ii. Piston pumps are preferred by fire departments

that get their water supply mostly by drafting operations.

iii. Piston pumps have a high efficiency (around 75-

80%)

b. Basic Design

i. Use of piston to displace water

1. Single action (water gets moved on piston’s up stroke)

2. Double action (water gets moved on up stroke and down stroke)

ii. Piston pumps are positive displacement pumps.

This means that they are self-priming

iii. Different gear ratios between engine and pump

are needed to obtain higher pressure.
7) Rotary Fire Pumps

a. General Remarks

i. Rotary fire pumps were first used by the fire

service around the 1600’s. In the 1900’s they were adapted to work with the steam engines.

ii. Rotary pumps are preferred where all pumping

operations involve drafting, high lift conditions, or long suction hoses.