Musical Mathematics Table of Contents

Musical Mathematics
on the art and science of acoustic instruments
Cris Forster
MUSICAL MATHEMATICS
ON THE ART AND SCIENCE OF ACOUSTIC INSTRUMENTS
MUSICAL MATHEMATICS
ON THE ART AND SCIENCE OF ACOUSTIC INSTRUMENTS
Text and Illustrations
by Cris Forster
Copyright © 2010 by Cristiano M.L. Forster
All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from
the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available.
ISBN: 978-0-8118-7407-6
Manufactured in the United States.
All royalties from the sale of this book go directly to the Chrysalis Foundation, a public 501(c)3 nonprofit
arts and education foundation.
www.chrysalis-foundation.org
Photo Credits:
Will Gullette, Plates 1–12, 14–16.
Norman Seeff, Plate 13.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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And to Douglas Monsour
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Peter Boyer and Terry Gamble-Boyer

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Marie-Louise Forster
David Holloway
Jack Jensen and Cathleen O’Brien
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Douglas and Jeanne Monsour
Tim O’Shea and Peggy Arent
Fay and Edith Strange
Charles and Helene Wright
Ayrshire Foundation
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Because we see it; but what we do not see
We tread upon, and never think of it.
W. Shakespeare
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CONTENTS
Foreword by David R. Canright v

Introduction and Acknowledgments vii
Tone Notation ix
List of Symbols xi
Chapter 1 Mica Mass 1
Part I Principles of force, mass, and acceleration 1

Part II Mica mass definitions, mica unit derivations, and sample calculations 14
Notes 24
Chapter 2 Plain String and Wound String Calculations 27
Part I Plain strings 27

Part II Wound strings 36
Notes 41
Chapter 3 Flexible Strings 44
Part I Transverse traveling and standing waves, and simple harmonic motion in strings 44
Part II Period and frequency equations of waves in strings 54
Part III Length, frequency, and interval ratios of the harmonic series on canon strings 59
Part IV Length, frequency, and interval ratios of non-harmonic tones on canon strings 69
Part V Musical, mathematical, and linguistic origins of length ratios 79
Notes 94
Chapter 4 Inharmonic Strings 98
Part I Detailed equations for stiffness in plain strings 98

Part II Equations for coefficients of inharmonicity in cents 108
Part III General equations for stiffness in wound strings 113
Notes 115
Chapter 5 Piano Strings vs. Canon Strings 118
Part I Transmission and reflection of mechanical and acoustic energy 118

Part II Mechanical impedance and soundboard-to-string impedance ratios 120
Part III Radiation impedance and air-to-soundboard impedance ratios 126
Part IV Dispersion, the speed of bending waves, and critical frequencies in soundboards 130
Part V Methods for tuning piano intervals to beat rates of coincident string harmonics 135
Part VI Musical advantages of thin strings and thin soundboards 141
Notes 143
ii Contents
Chapter 6 Bars, Rods, and Tubes 147
Part I Frequency equations, mode shapes, and restoring forces of free-free bars 147
Part II Free-free bar tuning techniques 160
Part III Frequency equations, mode shapes, and restoring forces of clamped-free bars 174
Part IV Clamped-free bar tuning techniques 176
Notes 178
Chapter 7 Acoustic Resonators 182
Part I Simple harmonic motion of longitudinal traveling waves in air 182

Part II Equations for the speed of longitudinal waves in solids, liquids, and gases 186
Part III Reflections of longitudinal traveling waves at the closed and open ends of tubes 189
Part IV Acoustic impedance and tube-to-room impedance ratio 196
Part V Longitudinal pressure and displacement standing waves in tubes 200
Part VI Length and frequency equations of tube resonators 203
Part VII Theory of cavity resonators 212
Part VIII Cavity resonator tuning techniques 219
Notes 223
Chapter 8 Simple Flutes 227
Part I Equations for the placement of tone holes on concert flutes and simple flutes 227
Part II Equations for analyzing the tunings of existing flutes 242
Part III Suggestions for making inexpensive yet highly accurate simple flutes 246
Notes 248
Chapter 9 The Geometric Progression, Logarithms, and Cents 253
Part I Human perception of the harmonic series as a geometric progression 253

Part II Logarithmic processes in mathematics and human hearing 257
Part III Derivations and applications of cent calculations 265
Part IV Logarithmic equations for guitar frets and musical slide rules 271
Notes 276
Chapter 10 Western Tuning Theory and Practice 280
Part I Definitions of prime, composite, rational, and irrational numbers 281

Part II Greek classifications of ratios, tetrachords, scales, and modes 284
Part III Arithmetic and geometric divisions on canon strings 291
Part IV Philolaus, Euclid, Aristoxenus, and Ptolemy 299
Part V Meantone temperaments, well-temperaments, and equal temperaments 334
Part VI Just intonation 365
Notes 460
Chapter 11 World Tunings 485
Part I Chinese Music 485

Notes 504
Contents iii
Part II Indonesian Music: Java 508

Bali 522
Notes 535
Part III Indian Music: Ancient Beginnings 540

South India 564
North India 587
Notes 600
Part IV Arabian, Persian, and Turkish Music 610

Notes 774
Chapter 12 Original Instruments 788
Stringed Instruments:
Chrysalis 788
Harmonic/Melodic Canon 790
Bass Canon 800
Just Keys 808
Percussion Instruments:
Diamond Marimba 824
Bass Marimba 826
Friction Instrument:
Glassdance 828
Wind Instruments:
Simple Flutes 833
Chapter 13 Building a Little Canon 834
Parts, materials, labor, and detailed dimensions 834
Epilog by Heidi Forster 839
Plate 1: Chrysalis 845

Plate 2: Harmonic/Melodic Canon 846
Plate 3: Bass Canon 847
Plate 4: String Winder (machine) 848
Plate 5: String Winder (detail) 849
Plate 6: Just Keys 850
Plate 7: Diamond Marimba 851
Plate 8: Bass Marimba 852
Plate 9: Glassdance 853
Plate 10: Glassdance (back) 854
Plate 11: Simple Flutes 855
Plate 12: Little Canon 856
iv Contents
Plate 13: Cris Forster with Chrysalis 857

Plate 14: Heidi Forster playing Glassdance 858
Plate 15: David Canright, Heidi Forster, and Cris Forster 859
Plate 16: Chrysalis Foundation Workshop 860
Bibliography for Chapters 1–9 861

Bibliography for Chapter 10 866
Appendix A: Frequencies of Eight Octaves of 12-Tone Equal Temperament 879

Appendix B: Conversion Factors 880
Appendix C: Properties of String Making Materials 882
Appendix D: Spring Steel Music Wire Tensile Strength and Break Strength Values 884
Appendix E: Properties of Bar Making Materials 885
Appendix F: Properties of Solids 888
Appendix G: Properties of Liquids 890
Appendix H: Properties of Gases 892
Index 895
Foreword
I met Cris Forster more than thirty years ago. Shortly thereafter, I saw him perform Song of Myself,
his setting of Walt Whitman poems from Leaves of Grass. His delivery was moving and effective.
Several of the poems were accompanied by his playing on unique instruments — one an elegant
box with many steel strings and moveable bridges, a bit like a koto in concept; the other had a big
wheel with strings like spokes from offset hubs, and he rotated the wheel as he played and intoned
the poetry. I was fascinated.
Since that time, Cris has built several more instruments of his own design. Each shows exquisite
care in conception and impeccable craftsmanship in execution. And of course, they are a delight to
hear. Part of what makes them sound so good is his deep understanding of how acoustic musical
instruments work, and part is due to his skill in working the materials to his exacting standards.
But another important aspect of their sound, and indeed one of the main reasons Cris could not
settle for standard instruments, is that his music uses scales and harmonies that are not found in
the standard Western system of intonation (with each octave divided into twelve equal semitones,
called equal temperament). Rather, his music employs older notions of consonance, which reach
back as far as ancient Greek music and to other cultures across the globe, based on what is called
just intonation. Here, the musical intervals that make up the scales and chords are those that occur
naturally in the harmonic series of overtones, in stretched flexible strings, and in organ pipes, for
example.
In just intonation, the octave is necessarily divided into unequal parts. In comparison to equal
temperament, the harmonies of just intonation have been described as smoother, sweeter, and/or
more powerful. Many theorists consider just intonation to be the standard of comparison for con-
sonant intervals. There has been a resurgence of interest in just intonation since the latter part of
the twentieth century, spurred by such pioneers as Harry Partch and Lou Harrison. Even so, the
community of just intonation composers remains comparatively quite small, and the subset of those
who employ only acoustic instruments is much smaller still. I know of no other living composer who
has created such a large and varied ensemble of high-quality just intoned acoustical instruments,
and a body of music for them, as Cris Forster.
Doing what he has done is not easy, far from it. The long process of developing his instruments
has required endless experimentation and careful measurement, as well as intense study of the liter-
ature on acoustics of musical instruments. In this way Cris has developed deep and rich knowledge
of how to design and build instruments that really work. Also, in the service of his composing, Cris
has studied the history of intonation practices, not only in the Western tradition, but around the
world.
This book is his generous offering of all that hard-earned knowledge, presented as clearly as he
can make it, for all of you who have an interest in acoustic musical instrument design and/or musi-
cal scales over time and space. The unifying theme is how mathematics applies to music, in both the
acoustics of resonant instruments and the analysis of musical scales. The emphasis throughout is to
show how to use these mathematical tools, without requiring any background in higher mathemat-
ics; all that is required is the ability to do arithmetic on a pocket calculator, and to follow Cris’ clear
step-by-step instructions and examples. Any more advanced mathematical tools required, such as
logarithms, are carefully explained with many illustrative examples.
The first part of the book contains practical information on how to design and build musical
instruments, starting from first principles of vibrating sound sources of various kinds. The ideas are
explained clearly and thoroughly. Many beautiful figures have been carefully conceived to illumi-
nate the concepts. And when Cris gives, say, formulas for designing flutes, it’s not just something
he read in a book somewhere (though he has carefully studied many books); rather, you can be
v
vi Foreword
sure it is something he has tried out: he knows it works from direct experience. While some of this
information can be found (albeit in a less accessible form) in other books on musical acoustics,
other information appears nowhere else. For example, Cris developed a method for tuning the over-
tones of marimba bars that results in a powerful, unique tone not found in commercial instruments.
Step-by-step instructions are given for applying this technique (see Chapter 6). Another innovation
is Cris’ introduction of a new unit of mass, the “mica,” that greatly simplifies calculations using
lengths measured in inches. And throughout Cris gives careful explanations, in terms of physical
principles, that make sense based on one’s physical intuition and experience.
The latter part of the book surveys the development of musical notions of consonance and scale
construction. Chapter 10 traces Western ideas about intonation, from Pythagoras finding number in
harmony, through “meantone” and then “well-temperament” in the time of J.S. Bach, up to modern
equal temperament. The changing notions of which intervals were considered consonant when, and
by whom, make a fascinating story. Chapter 11 looks at the largely independent (though sometimes
parallel) development of musical scales and tunings in various Eastern cultures, including China,
India, and Indonesia, as well as Persian, Arabian, and Turkish musical traditions. As far as possible,
Cris relies on original sources, to which he brings his own analysis and explication. To find all of
these varied scales compared and contrasted in a single work is unique in my experience.
The book concludes with two short chapters on specific original instruments. One introduces
the innovative instruments Cris has designed and built for his music. Included are many details
of construction and materials, and also scores of his work that demonstrate his notation for the
instruments. The last chapter encourages the reader (with explicit plans) to build a simple stringed
instrument (a “canon”) with completely adjustable tuning, to directly explore the tunings discussed
in the book. In this way, the reader can follow in the tradition of Ptolemy, of learning about music
through direct experimentation, as has Cris Forster.
David R. Canright, Ph.D.

Del Rey Oaks, California
January 2010
Introduction and Acknowledgments
In simplest terms, human beings identify musical instruments by two aural characteristics: a par-
ticular kind of sound or timbre, and a particular kind of scale or tuning. To most listeners, these two
aspects of musical sound do not vary. However, unlike the constants of nature — such as gravita-
tional acceleration on earth, or the speed of sound in air — which we cannot change, the constants
of music — such as string, percussion, and wind instruments — are subject to change. A creative
investigation into musical sound inevitably leads to the subject of musical mathematics, and to a
reexamination of the meaning of variables.
The first chapter entitled “Mica Mass” addresses an exceptionally thorny subject: the derivation
of a unit of mass based on an inch constant for acceleration. This unit is intended for builders who
measure wood, metal, and synthetic materials in inches. For example, with the mica unit, builders
of string instruments can calculate tension in pounds-force, or lbf, without first converting the diam-
eter of a string from inches to feet. Similarly, builders of tuned bar percussion instruments who know
the modulus of elasticity of a given material in pounds-force per square inch, or lbf/in2, need only
the mass density in mica/in3 to calculate the speed of sound in the material in inches per second; a
simple substitution of this value into another equation gives the mode frequencies of uncut bars.
Chapters 2–4 explore many physical, mathematical, and musical aspects of strings. In Chapter
3, I distinguish between four different types of ratios: ancient length ratios, modern length ratios,
frequency ratios, and interval ratios. Knowledge of these ratios is essential to Chapters 10 and 11.
Many writers are unaware of the crucial distinction between ancient length ratios and frequency
ratios. Consequently, when they attempt to define arithmetic and harmonic divisions of musi-
cal intervals based on frequency ratios, the results are diametrically opposed to those based on
ancient length ratios. Such confusion leads to anachronisms, and renders the works of theorists like
Ptolemy, Al-Frb, Ibn Sn, and Zarlino incomprehensible.
Chapter 5 investigates the mechanical interactions between piano strings and soundboards, and
explains why the large physical dimensions of modern pianos are not conducive to explorations of
alternate tuning systems.
Chapters 6 and 7 discuss the theory and practice of tuning marimba bars and resonators. The
latter chapter is essential to Chapter 8, which examines a sequence of equations for the placement
of tone holes on concert flutes and simple flutes.
Chapter 9 covers logarithms, and the modern cent unit. This chapter serves as an introduction
to calculating scales and tunings discussed in Chapters 10 and 11.
In summary, this book is divided into three parts. (1) In Chapters 1–9, I primarily examine
various vibrating systems found in musical instruments; I also focus on how builders can customize
their work by understanding the functions of variables in mathematical equations. (2) In Chapter
10, I discuss scale theories and tuning practices in ancient Greece, and during the Renaissance and
Enlightenment in Europe. Some modern interpretations of these theories are explained as well.
In Chapter 11, I describe scale theories and tuning practices in Chinese, Indonesian, and Indian
music, and in Arabian, Persian, and Turkish music. For Chapters 10 and 11, I consistently studied
original texts in modern translations. I also translated passages in treatises by Ptolemy, Al-Kind,
the Ikhwn al-a, Ibn Sn, Stifel, and Zarlino from German into English; and in collaboration
with two contributors, I participated in translating portions of works by Al-Frb, Ibn Sn, a
Al-Dn, and Al-Jurjn from French into English. These translations reveal that all the above-
mentioned theorists employ the language of ancient length ratios. (3) Finally, Chapters 12 and 13
recount musical instruments I have built and rebuilt since 1975.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance and encouragement I received from Dr. David
R. Canright, associate professor of mathematics at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey,
vii
viii Introduction and Acknowledgments
California. David’s unique understanding of mathematics, physics, and music provided the foun-
dation for many conversations throughout the ten years I spent writing this book. His mastery of
differential equations enabled me to better understand dispersion in strings, and simple harmonic
motion of air particles in resonators. In Section 4.5, David’s equation for the effective length of stiff
strings is central to the study of inharmonicity; and in Section 6.6, David’s figure, which shows the
effects of two restoring forces on the geometry of bar elements, sheds new light on the physics of
vibrating bars. Furthermore, David’s plots of compression and rarefaction pulses inspired numerous
figures in Chapter 7. Finally, we also had extensive discussions on Newton’s laws. I am very grateful
to David for his patience and contributions.
Heartfelt thanks go to my wife, Heidi Forster. Heidi studied, corrected, and edited myriad ver-
sions of the manuscript. Also, in partnership with the highly competent assistance of professional
translator Cheryl M. Buskirk, Heidi did most of the work translating extensive passages from La
Musique Arabe into English. To achieve this accomplishment, she mastered the often intricate ver-
bal language of ratios. Heidi also assisted me in transcribing the Indonesian and Persian musical
scores in Chapter 11, and transposed the traditional piano score of “The Letter” in Chapter 12.
Furthermore, she rendered invaluable services during all phases of book production by acting as my
liaison with the editorial staff at Chronicle Books. Finally, when the writing became formidable,
she became my sparring partner and helped me through the difficult process of restoring my focus.
I am very thankful to Heidi for all her love, friendship, and support.
I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. John H. Chalmers. Since 1976, John has
generously shared his vast knowledge of scale theory with me. His mathematical methods and tech-
niques have enabled me to better understand many historical texts, especially those of the ancient
Greeks. And John’s scholarly book Divisions of the Tetrachord has furthered my appreciation for
world tunings.
I am very grateful to Lawrence Saunders, M.A. in ethnomusicology, for reading Chapters 3, 9,
10, and 11, and for suggesting several technical improvements.
Finally, I would like to thank Will Gullette for his twelve masterful color plates of the Original
Instruments and String Winder, plus three additional plates. Will’s skill and tenacity have illumi-
nated this book in ways that words cannot convey.
Cris Forster
San Francisco, California
January 2010
TONE NOTATION
32' 16' 8' 4' 2' 1' Z\x' Z\v' Z\,'
 

 

 

 

1. C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
2. C C C c c c c c cV

 
3. C2 C1 C0 c0 c1 c2 c3 c4 c5
1. American System, used throughout this text.
2. Helmholtz System.
3. German System.
ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Latin
12-TET 12-tone equal temperament

a Acceleration; in/s2
a.l.r. Ancient length ratio; dimensionless
B Bending stiffness of bar; lbfin2, or micain3/s2
B¢ Bending stiffness of plate; lbfin, or micain2/s2
BA Adiabatic bulk modulus; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
BI Isothermal bulk modulus; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
b Width; in
¢ Cent, 1/100 of a “semitone,” or 1/1200 of an “octave”; dimensionless
¢ Coefficient of inharmonicity of string; cent
cB Bending wave speed; in/s
cL Longitudinal wave speed, or speed of sound; in/s
cT Transverse wave speed; in/s
c.d. Common difference of an arithmetic progression; dimensionless
c.r. Common ratio of a geometric progression; dimensionless
cps Cycle per second; 1/s
D Outside diameter; in
Di Inside diameter of wound string; in
Dm Middle diameter of wound string; in
Do Outside diameter of wound string; in
Dw Wrap wire diameter of wound string; in
d Inside diameter, or distance; in
E Young’s modulus of elasticity; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
F Frequency; cps
Fc Critical frequency; cps
Fn Resonant frequency; cps
Fn Inharmonic mode frequency of string; cps
f Force; lbf, or micain/s2
f.r. Frequency ratio; dimensionless
g Gravitational acceleration; 386.0886 in/s2
h Height, or thickness; in
I Area moment of inertia; in4
i.r. Interval ratio; dimensionless
J Stiffness parameter of string; dimensionless
K Radius of gyration; in
k Spring constant; lbf/in, or mica/s2
L Length; in, cm, or mm
M Multiple loop length of string; in
S Single loop length of string; in
l.r. Length ratio; dimensionless
lbf Pounds-force; micain/s2
lbm Pounds-mass; 0.00259008 mica
xi
xii List of Symbols
M/u.a. Mass per unit area; mica/in2, or lbfs2/in3

M/u.l. Mass per unit length; mica/in, or lbfs2/in2
m Mass; mica, or lbfs2/in
n Mode number, or harmonic number; any positive integer
P Pressure; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
p Excess acoustic pressure; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
psi Pounds-force per square inch; lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
q Bar parameter; dimensionless
R Ideal gas constant; inlbf/(mica°R), or in2/(s2°R)
r Radius; in
S Surface area; in2
SHM Simple harmonic motion
T Tension; lbf, or micain/s2
TA Absolute temperature; dimensionless
t Time; s
U Volume velocity; in3/s
u Particle velocity; in/s
V Volume; in3
v Phase velocity; in/s
W Weight density, or weight per unit volume; lbf/in3, or mica/(in2s2)
w Weight; lbf, or micain/s2
YA Acoustic admittance; in4s/mica
ZA Acoustic impedance; mica/(in4s)
Zr Acoustic impedance of room; mica/(in4s)
Zt Acoustic impedance of tube; mica/(in4s)
ZM Mechanical impedance; mica/s
Zb Mechanical impedance of soundboard; mica/s
Zp Mechanical impedance of plate; mica/s
Zs Mechanical impedance of string; mica/s
ZR Radiation impedance; mica/s
Za Radiation impedance of air; mica/s
z Specific acoustic impedance; mica/(in2s)
za Characteristic impedance of air; 0.00153 mica/(in2s)
Greek
 Correction coefficient, or end correction coefficient; dimensionless

 Correction, or end correction; in, cm, or mm
 Departure of tempered ratio from just ratio; cent
 Ratio of specific heat; dimensionless
 Angle; degree
 Conductivity; in
 Bridged canon string length; in
A Arithmetic mean string length; in
G Geometric mean string length; in
H Harmonic mean string length; in
List of Symbols xiii
 Wavelength; in
B Bending wavelength; in
L Longitudinal wavelength; in
T Transverse wavelength; in
 Poisson’s ratio; dimensionless
 Fretted guitar string length; mm
 Pi; » 3.1416
 Mass density, or mass per unit volume; mica/in3, or lbfs2/in4
 Period, or second per cycle; s
© 2000–2010 Cristiano M.L. Forster All rights reserved.
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Chapter 12
Writings on Cris Forster
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San Diego, California.
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Videos on Cris Forster
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composer, musician, inventor. One Way Films/Videos, San Francisco, California.
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California.
© 2000–2011 Cristiano M.L. Forster All rights reserved.
February 18, 2011
Index
Internet Version: no diacritics
A Latin ratios; superparticular and superpartient,

Abul-Salt, 628, 630–632 384–385
Acceleration Ptolemy, 321–322
of bar, 156–158 string length of 120 parts, 316–317
definition, 4 Ramamatya, 568–573
dimensional analysis, 4, 6 Rameau, 431–434, 442–447, 452
English Gravitational System, 9. Ssu-ma Ch’ien, 486–487
consistent system, 9–10, 14–15 vs. frequency ratios, 75–76, 91, 93, 305, 307, 427,
experiment, 8–11, 15 431, 487, 576–577, 587
gravitational, 6–7, 10–12, 14 vs. modern length ratio, 305–307, 427, 440–441
of mass vs. “vibration ratios,” 85–86, 93, 435–436
mica, 14–16 vs. “weight ratios,” 83, 85–86, 93
slug, 10–11
Zarlino, 378, 436, 452
Newton, 5–6
Antinodes. See Bars, rods, and tubes; Flexible
standard gravity, 11–12
strings; Just intonation, Sauveur; Resonators,
of string, 2–3
Adiabatic bulk modulus tube
of air, 22 Arabian musical terms. See also Scales, Arabian
definition, 21–22 24-TET
Admittance. See Flutes 5 nim (Pers. lowered) notes, 756, 759
Ahobala, 93, 587–591 5 tik (Pers. raised) notes, 756, 759
Al-Din, Salah, 761–762 7 fundamental notes; naghamat (notes),
Al-Farabi, Abu Nasr, 93, 326, 354–355, 366, 375, asasiyyah (fundamental), 756, 759
378, 401, 610, 622, 625, 628, 632–666, 669, 7 half notes, or “semitones”; arabat (sing.
673–674, 676–677, 679–681, 696, 701–707, arabah, half note), 756, 759
709–710, 712, 715, 717, 720–722, 727, 733–736, 24 quarter tones, Mashaqah, (sing. rub,
749–752, 754–755, 757–758, 771 quarter; pl. arba, quarters), 756, 759
Al-Faruqi, Lois I., 641–642, 648, 760 interval
Al-Isfahani, Abul-Faraj, 619–620, 624 Al-Farabi
Al-Jurjani, 401–403, 448, 610, 626–631, 707, awdah (whole step), 355, 647
717–722, 726–727, 731–733, 744, 746, 748 fadlah (half step), 355, 647
Al-Khulai, M. Kamil, 749, 755 Al-Jurjani
Al-Kindi, Ishaq, 93, 334, 611–617, 619–620, baqiyyah, limma, [L], 721–723
642–643, 646, 709–710, 755 fadlah, comma of Pythagoras, [C], 722–723
Al-Mauaili, Ishaq, 619–620, 622 mutammam, apotome, [L×C], 722–723
Al-Sanusi, Al-Manubi, 402, 720 tanini, double-limma plus comma,
Alexander the Great, 610 [L×L×C], 721–723
Ambisonance, 779n.74 tatimmah, double-limma, [L×L], 722–723
Ancient length ratios (a.l.r.) mode
definition, 75–77, 287 6 hierarchical functions of tones: qarar,
Al-Farabi, 378 quwwah, zahir, ghammaz, markaz, mabda,
Needham, 487 738
equations, for stopped (bridged) string, 77 46 Modern Maqamat (sing. maqam, position
Euclid, 76, 81–82, 302–307 or place; mode), 738, 761–771, 786n.209
Greek ratios; multiple, epimore, and epimere, Al-Farabi, 8 Ajnas (sing. jins, genus or kind;
286–287 mode), 640, 646–655
895
896 Index
Arabian musical terms (Continued) “minor third,” oldest ud tuning, 3-limit ratio,
Al-Munajjim 620–622
8 majari (sing. majra, course or path; Persian middle finger fret, Al-Farabi’s ud s,
mode), 622–625 17-limit ratio, 634–639, 650–651, 653
and Philolaus’ diatonic scale, 624 “neutral second”
Ibn Sina Arabian theory, modern
12 shudud (sing. shadd), primary or 46 Maqamat, 763–766
principal mode, 727 of basic 16-tone scale, 770–771
Mustaqim (direct, straight, or regular mode), Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second
Melodic Mode 8, 681–682, 685, 727, Ud Tuning; in six of nine unchanged
754 modes, 767–768
majra (course or path; mode), 617, 622. tik Zirkulah [D], 756
Safi Al-Din origins in near-equal divisions of intervals;
6 awazat (sing. awaz; also shubah), Ptolemy, Al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina,
secondary or derived mode, 727, 677–681
730–733, 744 Persian theory, modern
12 shudud (sing. shadd), primary or of basic 17-tone scale, 770
principal mode, 726–731, 737, 740–743, Farhat
767–768 of 2 tars and 3 setars, two different
Rast (Pers. direct, straight, or regular kinds, 686–689
mode), Melodic Mode 40, 727–730, 12 Dastgaha, 692–696
733, 740–741, 746–748 as tone on ud
Arabian ratios. See also Greek ratios; Latin ratios Al-Farabi
apotome Fret 5 on 12-fret ud, 641–643
Al-Farabi, 636, 655 Frets 3 and 4, Mujannab frets, on 10-fret
Al-Jurjani, 722–723 ud, 632–635, 639, 673–674
Al-Kindi, 334, 611, 615–616 Ibn Sina
apyknon, Al-Farabi, 659–663 Fret 2, Assistant to the middle finger of
comma of Pythagoras (ditonic comma) Zalzal fret, 668, 671, 673–674
Arabian theory two different kinds, 672
Al-Farabi, 655, 702–706 Safi Al-Din, Fret 2, Mujannab, Anterior
Al-Jurjani, 722–723 fret, Second Ud Tuning, 714–716
Al-Kindi, 611, 615–616, 620 as tone or interval of a genus or mode
of tunbur and ud, ancient, 696–697 Al-Farabi, Jins 2/Jins 8, 651–654, 676–677,
variants of, notation, 697–701 679–680
Al-Farabi’s tunbur of Khurasan and Ibn Sina
original tunbur, 696–706 11 Melodic Modes, 681–685
Safi Al-Din, First Ud Tuning, 712–713 Diatonic Genus 4 and 7, 674–677
Turkish theory, modern Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second Ud
of tunbur, 733–737 Tuning, 724–725, 729
variants of, notation, 734 “neutral seventh”
epimere, Al-Farabi, 661–663 Arabian theory, modern
epimore Awj [B], 749, 756, 758–759
Al-Farabi, 661–663 of basic 16-tone scale, 770
Ibn Sina, 673–676, 678–679 used to justify 24-TET
limma D’Erlanger, 755–758
Al-Farabi, 633, 636–640, 643, 655–656, Marcus, 760–761
702–707 historical context of, Al-Farabi’s and Ibn
Al-Jurjani, 722–723 Sina’s ud s, 749–754
Al-Kindi, 334–335, 611, 615–617 “neutral third”
double-limma, 697, 699–700, 703–705, 722–723 Arabian theory, modern
Ibn Sina, 667–668, 671, 682–685 of basic 16-tone scale, 770
Safi Al-Din, 708–713, 722–723, 741–743 Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second
triple-limma, 722–723, 739–745, 767 Ud Tuning; in six of nine unchanged
Turkish theory, modern, 736–737 modes, 767–768
triple-limma, 739–745, 767 Sikah [E], 749, 756, 758–761
Index 897
fasilah (genus), 761–762, 765 schisma

maqam, 767–769 definition, 373, 697
used to justify 24-TET variants of, notation, 697–701
D’Erlanger, 755–758 Al-Farabi’s tunbur of Khurasan and original
Marcus, 760–761 tunbur, 696–707
historical context of, 749, 754–755, 761
Safi Al-Din
Farmer, 716
First Ud Tuning, 373–375, 710–713, 717
origins in near-equal divisions of intervals;
Ptolemy, Al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina, Second Ud Tuning, 716
677–681 superparticular (epimore)
Persian theory, modern Al-Farabi, 660–661
of basic 17-tone scale, 770 Ibn Sina, 678–679
Farhat superpartient (epimere), Al-Farabi, 661
of 2 tars and 3 setars, two different Arabian scales. See Scales, Arabian
kinds, 686–689 Arabian tetrachords
12 Dastgaha, 692–696 Al-Farabi
as tone on ud 8 Ajnas
middle finger of Zalzal fret description of, 646–648
Al-Farabi, 11-limit ratio
fractional and integer parts of tones,
Fret 8 on 10-fret ud, 634–640
Fret 9 on 12-fret ud, 641–645 Aristoxenian theory, 648–649
Ibn Sina, 13-limit ratio, Fret 5, 667, interpretation of
671–674, 676–677 as length ratios on ud, 650–655
Safi Al-Din, Fret 5, Persian middle finger modern, in cents, 650
fret, Second Ud Tuning, 714–717 Jins 2, 676–677, 679–680
as tone or interval of a genus or mode Jins 8, 679–680
Al-Farabi, Jins 2, 651–654, 676–677, conjunct, three standard modes, 644–645
679–680 genera, soft genus and strong genus, 659–660
Ibn Sina classification of 15 tetrachords
11 Melodic Modes, 681–686 soft ordered consecutive and non-
Diatonic Genus 7, 675–677 consecutive, 660–663
Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second Ud strong doubling, strong conjunct, and
Tuning, 724–725, 729 strong disjunct, 661–663
Ptolemy’s classifications in Greater Perfect System. See also Greek
Al-Farabi, 658–659 tetrachords
Ibn Sina, 678–679
three conjunct/disjunct systems for the
Safi Al-Din, 711–713
distribution of, 662–666
emmelic/melodic intervals
inversion of intervalic order
B (baqiyyah or fadlah), 721–723, 740
Aristoxenus’ tetrachords, 648
J (tatimmah or mutammam), 721–723,
740, 744 Philolaus’ tetrachord, 648–649
T (tanini), 721–723, 727, 740, 744 Al-Kindi’s ud, 612
pyknon, Al-Farabi, 659–663 description of, 613
“quarter-tone” Philolaus’ tetrachord, three harmoniai,
4 modern musical symbols of, 713–714 616–617
half-flat and half-sharp signs, Racy, 760 classification, modern
koron and sori signs, Farhat, 640 9 fasail (genera): seven tetrachords, one
Arabian theory trichord, and one pentachord, 762
Al-Farabi, origin and function of ratio CC|cx, 46 Maqamat, 763–766
354–355 Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second Ud
Ibn Sina, origin and function of ratio CN|cb, Tuning
679 9 modern maqamat, interval patterns
Marcus identical to, 767–768
ambiguity of “quarter-tones” in musical 32 modern tetrachords and modes,
practice, 760–761 traceable to, 763–768
description of Mashaqah’s twenty-four fasail (sing. fasilah, family or genus), maqamat
“quarter” tones, 759 with similar lower tetrachords, 761–762
898 Index
Arabian tetrachords (Continued) Rameau, 434–436, 441–444

jins al-asl or jins al-jidh, primary lower of “octave,” ratio X|z, 91–93, 437
tetrachord, 761, 767–769 of “triple-octave,” ratio -|z, Rameau, 428–433
jins al-far, secondary upper tetrachord, 761, of harmonic series, 254–255
767–769 length ratios
munfasil, disjunct, 767 of “double-octave and a fifth,” ratio N|z
mutadakhil, overlapping, 767 Rameau, in context of dual-generator,
muttasil, conjunct, 767 444–446
Ibn Sina Salinas, 402–403
11 Melodic Modes, 681–686 Stifel, 386–390
12 Dastgaha, Persian theory, modern, 692–696 Zarlino, 392, 394
16 tetrachords, based on strong and soft of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 325, 396, 437
genera, 676 Rameau, 442–444, 446–448
construction of, with epimore ratios, Safi Al-Din, 381
673–674 Stifel, 401
diatonic genus, preferred over chromatic and Zarlino, 377–378, 382–384, 385–386,
enharmonic genera, 673 399–401
Diatonic Genus 4 and 7, 13-limit ratios, of five tetrachords, Ptolemy, 328
674–677, 679–681 of “fourth,” ratio V|c, 297, 325
Rast or Mustaqim, 727–731 Ptolemy’s Even Diatonic, 329
modal origins of “octave,” ratio X|z, 87–89, 91, 295–296, 437
Arabian, on Al-Farabi’s and Ibn Sina’s ud s, ancient length ratios vs. frequency ratios,
747–754 87–91
Turkish, on Safi Al-Din First Ud, 732–733, Ibn Sina, 379–381
744–748 Ptolemy, 295–297, 324
Safi Al-Din Rameau, 431–432
84 Melodic Modes Zarlino, 382–383
First and Second Ud Tunings, 724–725 of “whole tone,” ratio =|,
35 modes, conjunct tetrachord/ Al-Farabi, 354–355, 636
pentachord combinations of, Cardan, 355
722–726 Galilei, Vincenzo, 355–356
49 modes, conjunct tetrachord Mersenne, 356
combinations of, 722–726 Ptolemy, 354, 636
of seven-by-twelve matrix system, 728–729 Zarlino, compound unities, 390–391
6 Awazat (secondary or derived), Aron, Pietro, 342, 345, 347, 352–353
730–733 Ayyar, C. Subrahmanya, 586
12 Shudud (primary or principle),
726–727, 730–733 B
Turkish theory, modern, on First Ud Bach, Johann S., vi, 350
5 of 6 ‘Variant’ Maqamat, 744–745 Barbera, Andre, 82, 308
10 of 13 Basic Maqamat, 740–744 Barnes, John, 349–350
Archimedes, 265, 610 Bars, rods, and tubes
Archytas, 86–89, 92, 280, 283, 288–289, 297, 311, antinode (clamped-free bar)
318 bending (BA), 175
Area moment of inertia. See Bars, rods, and tubes location of, first four modes (bar, rod, and
Arel, H. Sadettin, 738 tube), 177
Aristoxenus, 280, 289, 308–321, 624–625, 642, displacement (DA), 175
646–649, 651, 655 local reduction at, tuning process, 176–177
Arithmetic divisions/progressions. See also Cents, antinode (free-free bar)
harmonic series; Means bending (BA), 153–154
definition, 253–254 bending moment at, 155–157
Archytas, 86–87 local reduction at, tuning process, 160–163
frequency ratios location of, first five modes (bar, rod, and
of “double-octave and a fifth,” ratio N|z, tube), 162
426–428 displacement (DA), 153
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 437 experiment, 153–154
Index 899
area moment of inertia (bar, rod, and tube), 159 shear force, 154–158, 160–161
bending tuning effect on, 160
stiffness, 158 tuning process (clamped-free bar), 176–177
and bending moment, direct mass loading, bars vs. reeds, 178
proportionality, 159–160 tools and techniques, 177
effect on mode frequencies, 159 tuning process (free-free bar), 160–161
as restoring force, 148, 152 bass marimba bar
tuning effect on, 160 frequencies, first three modes; before,
wave speed, 149–150, 159 during, and after tuning, 165
and bending wavelength, inverse frequency changes
proportionality, 149 eighteen analysis/decision steps, 168–170
and dispersion, 148–149 eighteen tuning steps, 165–168
effect on inharmonic frequencies, 148–149 length limitations of, 164–165
triple-arch design, bar profile, 161–163
experiment, 149, 153–154
tuning function of first three antinodes,
stiffness effect on, 147–148
161–163
tuning effect on, 160
higher mode frequencies
wavelength, 150
effect on pitch perception of fundamental,
effect on bending moment, 154 163–164
experiment, 149 tuning possibilities of, 164
dispersion tools and techniques, 164
definition, 149 treble marimba bar
variables, indicators of, 152–153 frequencies, first two modes; before and
mode after tuning, 171
frequency (clamped-free bar), 174–175 length limitations of, 171
ratios of second, third, and fourth modes, single-arch design, bar profile, 171
174 tuning function of first two antinodes,
frequency (free-free bar), 148–149, 151–152 170–171
and bending moment, 154 Bass Canon
and height, direct proportionality, 158–160 construction of, 800, 805
ratios of second, third, and fourth modes, dimensions, 805
148 Plate 3, 847
theoretical vs. actual, rosewood test bar, Bass Marimba
163 24 bars of, frequency ratios, 827
tuning effect on, 160–161 dimensions of, longest and shortest bars, 826
shape (clamped-free bar), of first three modes, mode tuning of, 161–165
175 properties of, Honduras rosewood, 172–173,
shape (free-free bar), of first three modes, 153 885–886
node (clamped-free bar) C2 cavity resonator, Resonator II, 221
bending moment and shear force at, 175 dimensions
local reduction at, tuning process, 176–177 inside, 217
locations of, first four modes (bar, rod, and outside, 220
tube), 177 tuning of, 219–222
node (free-free bar) dimensions, 826
bar mounting considerations, 163, 170–171 Plate 8, 852
locations of, first five modes (bar, rod, and Beat rates. See also Inharmonic strings
tube), 162 of 12-TET, 136
shear force at, 155–157 “fifth,” 136
plane sections (bar, rod, and tube), 159 “fourth,” 137
radius of gyration (bar, rod, and tube), 159 “major third,” 136–137, 139–140, 146n.28
restoring forces (clamped-free bar), 154 beating phenomenon, 135–137, 365
bending moment, 175–176 effect on musical quality, 108, 118, 135
shear force, 175–176 limits of human perception, 136
tuning effect on, 176–177 Huygens, on the consonance of 7-limit ratios: M|b,
restoring forces (free-free bar), 154 Z?|m, and M|v, 364–365
bending moment, 154–161 Ramamatya, description of dissonance on vina,
effect on geometry of bar elements, 156 572
900 Index
Beat rates (Continued) Euclid, 76, 81–82

of shimmering “octave,” 509, 515 Plato, 91–92
Balinese gamelan Ptolemy, 78
gender rambat, 529 Canright, David R., v–vi, 101, 156, 877
penjorog (beat rate), 524 Plate 15, 859
Javanese gamelan Cardan, Jerome, 355
gender barung, 516, 519–522 Cents
saron demung, 509–511 calculation
of string adding and subtracting, 269
consonance vs. dissonance, 365 conversion
flexible canon strings vs. stiff piano strings, cents to decimal ratio, 270
140–142 cents to integer ratio. See Euclidean
small integer ratios vs. large integer ratios,
algorithm
138–140
frequency ratio to cents, 268–269
harmonics
Ellis, 1200th root of 2, 267
coincident, 136.
intermediate, 137. increasing or decreasing frequency by cents,
Beeckman, Isaac, 406 270–271
Benade, Arthur H., 126, 235, 247 interval comparison, 270
Bending moment. See Bars, rods, and tubes, definition, 268
restoring forces exponent
Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 415–416 definition, 257–258
Bernoulli, Daniel, 426 exponential function, 257
Bharata, 540–550, 552–562, 564, 572, 577, 598–599 as logarithmic function, three aspects, 258
Bhatkhande, V.N., 581, 587, 594–596 first law of, 259
Boehm, Theobald, 235 four laws of, 277n.11
Boethius, 284, 380 Stifel’s description, 276n.6
Break strength harmonic series
definition, 35 as arithmetic progression, 254–255
of string human process of adding intervals in
high-carbon spring steel music wire, 884 sequences, 260–265
plain, 35, 111, 134 no human perception of interval patterns,
wound, 40 254
Brothers of Sincerity (Ikhwan al-Safa), 620–622 as geometric progression, 254–255
Brown, Robert E., 528 human perception of interval patterns,
Brun, Viggo, 458 254–255
Buskirk, Cheryl M., viii mathematical process of multiplying
frequencies in sequences, 256–262,
C 263–265
Canons. See also Bass Canon; Harmonic/Melodic intervals of, verbal terms vs. mathematical
Canon; Little Canon terms, 64–65, 256
Arabian qanun, ancient instrument, 628 logarithm
Abul-Salt, 628, 630–632 antilogarithm., 259, 262.
Al-Farabi, 632 common
Al-Jurjani, 629–631 base 1.00057779, 109, 267–268
hamila (moveable bridge), 628, 631–632 base 2, 262–264, 274
Ibn Sina, 670–672 base 10, 258–262
Ibn Zaila, 628 definition, 258
from qanun to ud, evolutionary process, 632, four laws of, 278n.13
669–670 guitar frets, 271–273
construction requirements and human hearing, adding process, 262
bridge, 65 logarithmic function, 258
original design, 792–794 as exponential function, three aspects, 258
string, 65, 118 musical slide rule, 273–275
function of, 77–78, 80, 792 Napier, inventor of, Greek logos + arithmos,
Greek kanon 257
definitions, 65 natural, base e, 109, 258
Index 901
“octave” equivalence D
definition, 257 D’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 423
as human trait, 257 Dattila, 545, 548–549, 558
ratio, simplification of, 257 de Fontanelle, Bernard Le Bovier, 438
Chalmers, John H., viii, 308 de Villiers, Christophe, 406
Cheve System D’Erlanger, Baron Rodolphe, 625, 666, 675, 755,
cipher and cipher-dot notation, 508, 535n.2 758–760
letter-dot notation, 599 Descartes, Rene, 404
Chiao Yen-shou, 502 Diamond Marimba, 13-Limit
49 bars + 5 bars of, frequency ratios, 824–825
Ch’ien Lo-chih, 502
dimensions of, longest and shortest bars, 825
Ch’in (qin)
mode tuning of, 171–172
construction of, 488–489
properties of, Honduras rosewood, 172–173,
as microtonal instrument, 496
885–886
Chinese scales. See Scales, Chinese construction of, 825–826
Ching Fang, 502 dimensions, 825
Chrysalis expansion of
construction of, 788–789 Meyer’s 7-limit Tonality Diamond, 824
dimensions, 790 Partch’s 11-limit Diamond Marimba, 824
Plate 1, 845 Plate 7, 851
Plate 13, 857 resonator
score, excerpt from Song of Myself, 800–802 airtight seal, making, 211
stringing and tuning of, for Song of Myself, dimensions of lowest, G3 at 196.0 cps, 198
794–797 Didymus, 280, 319, 329–332, 664
Chrysalis Foundation, 839, 841, 843 Dieterici, Friedrich, 620
New Music Studio, 842–843 Dispersion
Workshop, Plate 16, 860 definition, 104, 149
Chu Hsi, 492 variables, indicators of, 152–153
Chu Tsai-yü, 354, 502–504, 542, 569, 749 Downbearing force
Chuquet, Nicolas, 339–341 of string on canon bridge, 792
Cleonides, 309–310, 649, 655 string’s angle of deflection, 794
Cohen, H.F., 139
Comma of Didymus. See Greek ratios, comma E
Comma of Pythagoras. See Arabian ratios; Greek el-Hefni, Mahmud, 612
Ellis, Alexander J., 265, 267
ratios, comma
End corrections. See Flutes, corrections;
Compression and rarefaction
Resonators, cavity; Resonators, tube
alternating regions
Equal temperaments
of plane wave, in solid, liquid, gas, 186–187
12-TET, 361–362
of sound wave, 183–184 !|1@ ditonic comma
of bar-to-cavity resonator coupling, 214, 222 calculation of, 352–353
of bar-to-tube resonator coupling, 196 cumulative reduction of twelve consecutive
definition, 130–131, 183, 200 “fifths,” 353–354
dependence on wave speed, 131 cent comparisons
in infinite tube, 200–203 to 3-limit, 5-limit, 7-limit, and !|$-Comma
in resonator Meantone scales, 376–377
cavity, 213, 219 Ramis vs. Stevin, 375–376
tube, 190–196, 203–208 discovery of
of soundboard, inefficient regions, 133 Chu Tsai-yü, 502–504
of string, leading and trailing surfaces, 130–131, Stevin, 358–362
183–184 ditonic comma (comma of Pythagoras),
Conductivity. See Flutes, admittance definition, 335, 350
Cremer, L., 123, 131 “fifths”
Cristofori, Bartolomeo, 118, 130 circle of 12, That produces, 352–353
Crocker, Richard L., 308 spiral of 12 flat “fifths,” That closely
Crusoe, Robinson, 788 approximates, Liu An, 500–501
902 Index
Equal temperaments (Continued) Eratosthenes, 280, 318, 329–332

frequencies of eight octaves, 879 Euclid, 76, 81–82, 86, 92–93, 280, 283, 287–289,
frequency ratios, powers of the 12th root of 2, 297–298, 302–308, 311, 318, 337–339, 341,
271 610–611, 619, 624–625, 759
fret equations for, 272–273 Euclidean algorithm
on fretted lutes and viols, 340, 348 12-TET, eleven integer ratio approximations,
“major third” of, two integer ratio 459
approximations, 140 Brun, 458
“semitone” of and continued fractions, 484n.364
approximate value, rational, ratio Z-|zm for converting irrational decimal ratio to rational
Al-Farabi, 354–355 integer ratio approximation, 458–459
Cardan, 355 Exponent. See Cents
lute fretting instructions
Galilei, 355–356 F
Mersenne, 356–359 Farhat, Hormoz, 677, 686–696, 744, 759, 771–772
lutenists’ preference over exact value, Farmer, Henry George, 366, 379, 401, 610, 619–621,
357 623–628, 635, 668, 709, 716, 727
origin of, Ptolemy’s arithmetic division Flageolet tones
of “whole tone,” ratio =|, 354 of ch’in, 488–492
exact value, irrational, 353–354 experiments
12th root of 2, 353–354 Roberts, 421
Chu Tsai-yü, 503 Sauveur, 424–426
Stevin, 360–361 of trumpet marine, 408–409
vs. eleven integer ratio approximations, to the Fletcher, Harvey, 99–100, 113, 135
nearest cent, 459 Flexible strings
vs. frequencies of the harmonic series, 63–64 antinode
22-TET, Indian theory, ancient definition, 53, 55
Bharata formation of, as regions of maximum motion,
22-sruti scale, 540–543, 544–547 47–48, 51–54
logarithmic pramana sruti, 541–542 locations of, first six modes, 58
no basis in fact, 542–543, 572–573 equations, for stopped (bridged) string
24-TET, Arabian theory, modern, 755–758 frequency, 77
formulaic imposition of, 749, 755–758 length, 77
on fretless ud, as moot issue, 760–761 equilibrium position, dynamic, 48–49
Marcus frequency. See also Flexible strings, mode
ambiguity of “quarter tones” in musical definition, 55, 57
practice, 760–761 dimensional analysis, 55
description of Mashaqah’s twenty-four as function of wavelength, 80
“quarter” tones, 759 harmonic series
used to justify “incorporation” of “quarter definition
tones,” D’Erlanger and Marcus, 755–758, mathematical: length ratios of subdividing
760–671 string, 63–64, 427–428
31-TET verbal: frequency ratios of subdividing
Huygens, logarithmic calculations, 362–364 string, 63–64, 427–428
spiral of 31 “fifths,” That closely discovery of
approximates, 362–363 infinite series, first thirty-two harmonics,
53-TET Sauveur, 423–424
spiral of 53 “fifths,” That closely limited series, first six harmonics,
approximates, Ching Fang, 502 Mersenne, 404–408
Turkish theory, modern, close approximations first sixteen harmonics, two series, 64
of 4-, 5-, 8-, 9-, and 12-comma intervals, intervals of, verbal vs. mathematical, 64–65,
736–737 256
60-TET, spiral of 60 “fifths,” That closely harmonics
approximates, Chiao Yen-shou, 502 definition, 63–64
360-TET, spiral of 360 “fifths,” That closely first six on bridged canon string, 66
approximates, Ch’ien Lo-chih, 502 first sixteen of subdividing string, 64
Index 903
frequency ratio, 73 of particle motion, in cord/string, 50–51

ideal characteristics, 44 superposition
impedance, mechanical wave, 121 definition, 48
loop interference
count (mode number), 59, 105 constructive, 47–48
definition, 59 destructive, 48–49
multiple loop length, 70 standing wave, production of, 48, 51–54
ratio, 73 wave
pattern, 59 standing
single loop length, 59–60 definition, 2, 48, 51–52
ratio, 73 of first six modes, 58
mode motion of, 52–53
definition, 98 and sound production, 53–54
frequency transverse traveling
definition, 59, 62 in cord, 50–51
and mode wavelength, inverse definition, 50, 183
proportionality, 61 in string, 2–3, 44–53, 58
shape, first six modes, 58 superposition of, 51–54
node wave speed, transverse traveling, 60–61
definition, 53, 55 wave train (waveform)
formation of, as points of minimum motion, definition, 50–51
48–49, 51–54 frequency of, 55, 57
function of, 53, 116n.5 period of, 54, 56
locations of, first six modes, 58 as transverse traveling wave, 50–51
two different kinds, 55–56 wavelength
period definition, 54
definition, 54, 56 equations, 60, 71
dimensional analysis, 54 of first six modes, 58
pulse, transverse traveling as function of frequency, 80
crest and trough, 44–46 Flutes
collision, 46–49 admittance
reflection, 45–46 complex/non-complex, 233
definition, 44 definition, 233
and Pythagoras, 44 terminating, 234
ratios. See also Ancient length ratios and cutoff frequency, 247
frequency of embouchure hole and flute bore, 235
definition, 62, 72 of tone hole, flute bore, and tube-piece, 236
as function of length ratio, 80, 93 conductivity
of harmonics, 73 definition, 233
and length ratio, inverse proportionality, of duct, fictitious and actual, 234–236
63, 80 of embouchure hole and flute bore, 234
of non-harmonic tone, 73 of tone hole diameter, limitations, 233–234
interval corrections, 232
definition, 67 at embouchure hole, 228, 231–232
of harmonics, right sides of bridged canon empirical data
strings, 68–69 concert flute, 235
of non-harmonic tone, 74 simple flute, 240
length at key pad, 228
complementary, 69, 78 Nederveen and Benade, 237
definition, 59, 69–70 at open tube end (end correction), 228,
and frequency ratio, inverse proportionality, 231–233
63, 80 at tone hole, 228, 231–232, 236, 244–245
human comprehension of, 79, 80, 93 Nederveen, 238
of non-harmonic tone, 73 cutoff frequency, Benade, 247
simple harmonic motion (SHM) embouchure hole, typical dimensions
definition, 50 concert flute, 235
904 Index
Flutes (Continued) of tension, 18–19

simple flute, 240 unit, 10, 14–15
frequency Forster
when known, predicting flute dimension and Cris, v–viii, 839–844
tone hole location, 229–241 Plate 13, 857
when unknown, determining from flute Plate 15, 859
dimension and tone hole location,
Heidi, viii, 839–844
242–246
impedance, acoustic, non-complex, 233 Plate 14, 858
intonation, 227 Plate 15, 859
at embouchure hole Forster instruments. See Bass Canon; Bass
airstream, 227, 240 Marimba; Chrysalis; Diamond Marimba,
blowing technique, 236 13-Limit; Glassdance; Harmonic/Melodic
lip coverage, 227, 233, 240 Canon; Just Keys; Little Canon; Simple Flutes
flute tube effect on, 235–236 Franklin, Benjamin, 828
making, simple flute, 236, 246–248 Frequency
critical variables of bar
embouchure hole correction, 240 clamped-free, 174–175
flute wall thickness, effect on timbre, 247
mass loaded, 178
musical interval, Nederveen, 237–238
free-free, 148, 151–152, 158
tone hole diameter, 239, 240–242
speed of sound in, 229 definition, 54–55
subharmonic series, 246 dimensional analysis, 55
standing wave, 231, 234, 245, 248n.10 of longitudinal mode: in plain string, uniform
substitution tube, Nederveen, 229–230 bar, and fluid in tube, 187
two different kinds, 230–232 of resonator
tone hole cavity, 215–217
dimension and location tube
concert flute, 239 closed, 210
simple flutes, 241 closed-closed, 230
from embouchure hole, strategy for length open, 209
calculation, 231–232 of spring-mass system, 185, 219, 223n.9
tube length of string
closed-closed (substitution tube), acoustic and flexible, 58–62, 102–103
effective, 230–232 stiff, 99, 105–107, 112
effective and wavelength
at embouchure hole, approximate, 234–235 as function of, 80–93
Nederveen, 233 inverse proportionality, 61–62
at tone hole, exact, 236 Frequency ratios. See Flexible strings, ratios
Nederveen, 237 Freud, Sigmund, 557
open, measured vs. effective, 229–231
tuning process, simple flute, 236 G
variables, twenty-seven symbols, 228–229 Gaffurio, Franchino, 367
Force. See also Restoring force; Weight; Weight Galilei
density Galileo, 283, 338, 356
definition, 5–6, 8 Vincenzo, 315, 355–356, 358
English Engineering System, 9, 12, 16 Gamelan. See also Scales, Indonesian
pounds-force (1 lbf), 7–9 instruments
inconsistent system, 9–10 Bali
English Gravitational System, 9 bar percussion instruments, built in pairs:
pounds-force (1 lbf), 10. pengumbang (low) and pengisep (high),
consistent system, 9–11, 14–15 524, 532–533
experiment, 7–8, 10, 15 penjorog (beat rate) of, 524
of gravity, 6–8, 10–12 shimmering “octaves” of, tuned
of muscular effort, 5, 8, 16 sharp, 524
Newton, 2, 5 sharp and flat, 529–530
of spring, 11 gangsa (saron), 533
Index 905
gender Euclid’s mean proportional, 297–298

dasa, 523 Zarlino, 338–339
jegogan, 524 of “whole tone,” ratio =|,
rambat, 529–530, 532 Ptolemy’s rational approximation, 320
tjalung (jublag), 530–534 Zarlino, 338–339
wayang, 522 Ghosh, M., 549, 556–557, 559
suling gambuh, 524–528, 530, 532 Glassdance
trompong, 523–524, 527–528, 532 48 crystal glasses, frequency ratios, 830–831
Java Ptolemy’s Soft Diatonic, 832
bar percussion instruments, beat rates construction of, 828–830
four different kinds, 522 dimensions, 832
of tumbuk tuning, 519–522 Plates 9, 10, and 14, 853–854, 858
gender tuning process, of brandy snifter glasses,
barung, 513–517, 519–521 830–831
panerus, 519 Govinda, 565, 574–576, 578–584
saron Greek ratios
demung, 509–511, 517–520 classification
ritjik (saron barung), 510–511 epimere, 285, 287
shimmering “octaves,” tuned epimore, 284, 287
sharp, 509–511 Euclid, 287
sharp and flat, 515–516, 519–521 Ptolemy, 288, 321–323, 325–326, 328–329,
orchestras, 508 354
Bali Pythagoreans, 288, 323
Court of Tabanan, 526 Zarlino, 397
Kuta Village, 523 equal, 284
Pliatan Village, 524, 530–534 Ptolemy, 324
Puri Agung Gianyar, 529–530 multiple, 284, 286
Tampak Gangsal, 523, 527 Euclid, 287
Java Mersenne, 417
Kangjeng Kyahi Sirat Madu, 520 Ptolemy, 288, 321, 323
Kyahi Kanjutmesem, 509–510, 515–516, Pythagoreans, 288
519–522 multiple-epimere, 285–286
Geometric divisions/progressions. See also Cents, Ptolemy, 288, 319
harmonic series Pythagoreans, 288, 319
definition, 254 multiple-epimore, 284–285
Archytas, 86–87 comma
of harmonic series, 254–255 of Didymus (syntonic comma), 315, 350, 363,
length ratios 400, 547, 697
of 12-TET Aron, 344–345
Chu Tsai-yü’s solution, 503–504, 542 definition, 344
Stevin’s solution, 358–362, 542 Ramamatya, 572
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, Chuquet, 339–341 Safi Al-Din, 372–374
of “fourth,” ratio V|c of Pythagoras (ditonic comma), 319–320, 487,
Aristoxenus, 309–318 542
Al-Farabi’s interpretations of, especially 12-TET, 352–354
Jins 8, 646–655 Al-Farabi, 655
arithmetic-geometric asymptote, tunbur of Khurasan and original tunbur,
313–315, 318 697–706
modern interpretations of, 309–313, Al-Jurjani, 722–723
466n.75, 655 Al-Kindi, 334, 611, 615–616, 620
Ptolemy’s interpretation of, 316–317 Aristoxenus, 314, 318
of “major third,” ratio B|v; meantone ratio, definition, 314–315, 334–335
342–343 Ramamatya, 571–572
of “minor third,” ratio N|b, Chuquet, 339–341 Safi Al-Din, 372–374
of “octave,” ratio X|z, 297–299 Turkish theory, modern, 736–737
Chuquet, 399–341 Werckmeister, 350–351
906 Index
Greek ratios (Continued) Greek scales. See Scales, Greek

Euclid, 76, 81–82, 287 Greek tetrachords
interval Aristoxenus, six different kinds, 309–310
apotome, 314–315, 319 fractional and integer parts of tones, 309–310
‘Apotome Scale’, 336, 418–419 interpretation of
Ptolemy, 314–315, 319 arithmetic-geometric asymptote,
Ramamatya, 571 313–315, 318
apyknon, 326–327, 659–660 modern, in cents, 310
Al-Farabi, 660–663 Ptolemy, as length ratios, 313, 316–317,
Ptolemy, 328–329, 334 320–321
diesis, modern, 464n.48
conjunct, Terpander’s heptachord, 289, 291–293
Aristoxenus, 314–315, 318
definition, 289
Philolaus, 299–300
disjunct, Pythagoras’ octachord, 289, 293
diplasios, 81, 86, 286–287
genera of; diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic,
diapason, 81, 407, 416
disdiapason, 407, 410 289–290
ditonon, 384 Archytas, 289
ditone, 314, 416, 633–634 Aristoxenus, 289, 309–310
epi prefix, 81, 384 Ptolemy, 326–332
epitetartos (epitetartic), 286–288, 657 Greater Perfect System (GPS)
epitritos (epitritic), 81–82, 86, 286–287 composed of four different kinds, 289–292
diatessaron, 81, 384 diatonic genus, in context of
epogdoos (epiogdoos), 81–82, 86, 287 Euclid, 303–304
tonon, 82, 384 Philolaus, 301
hemiolios, 81–82, 86, 287 Ptolemy, 333
diapente, 81, 382, 384, 412–413 Euclid, description of 15-tone “double-
limma, 300, 314–315, 319 octave,” 289, 302–303
Aristoxenus, 315–316 harmoniai (modes) of, seven different kinds,
‘Limma Scale’, 336 290–292
Ptolemy, 314–315, 319–320 standard “octave” of
Ramamatya, 571 Dorian Mode, Greek, 301
pyknon, 326–327, 659–660 Lydian Mode, Western, 301
Al-Farabi, 660–663 three scales, based on three genera, 292
Didymus, 329–330 Lesser Perfect System (LPS), composed of three
Eratosthenes, 229–330 different kinds, 289–291
Ptolemy, 326–329 Philolaus
schisma, 372–373 Diatonic, ancient and original division,
“schismatic fifth,” 372–375 299–301, 462n.17, 464n.47
Nicomachus on Al-Kindi’s ud, 615–617
classification, translated as Latin ratios, 486 in Euclid, 302–307
dimoirou (two-thirds), 84, 96n.30 plagiarized by Plato, 91–92
hemiseias (half), 84, 96n.30 Ptolemy
sound (frequency) and string length, inverse Catalog of Scales, 318–319, 330–332
proportionality, 84–85 Even Diatonic, origin of Arabian “neutral
“vibration ratio,” 85 second” and “neutral third” tetrachords,
“weight ratio,” 82–84, 86 329, 679–681
Plato, 91–92 pyknon and apyknon, three conceptual
Ptolemy. See also Arabian ratios principles for the division of tetrachords,
classification, 323 326–330
emmelic/melodic (epimores smaller than Soft Diatonic, unique musical quality of a
V|c), 288–289, 323–326 minor scale, 334, 832
homophonic (multiples), 295, 323–324 Tense Diatonic, origin of Western major scale,
symphonic (first two epimores, C|x and V|c), in Zarlino, 333, 832
322–326 theory of graduated consonance,
“quarter-tone,” origin and function of ratios CX|cz mathematical/musical basis for the
and CZ|c/, 290–292 division of tetrachords, 321–326
Index 907
Guitar frets. See Cents, logarithm soundboard

Gullette, Will, viii, 845–856, 858–860 critical frequency, 132–133
Gupta, Abhinava, 550 dimensions, typical
surface area, 129
H thickness, 125
Harmonic divisions/progressions. See also Means impedance
definition, Archytas, 86–87 plate vs. soundboard, 124, 126
frequency ratios radiation, of air at soundboard, 129
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 437 sound radiation, 133
Rameau, 435 string, D4 (d')
of “octave,” ratio X|z, 91–93, 437 dimensions and tension, typical, 125
harmonic series, context of, 63–64, 80, 427–428 Hubbard, 144n.10
length ratios impedance, 125–126
of “double-octave and a fifth,” ratio N|z, Harrison, Lou, v
426–427 Heath, Thomas L., 308
Rameau, in context of dual-generator, Helmholtz, Hermann, 212
444–446 resonator. See Resonators, cavity
Salinas, 403 Hitti, Philip K., 611
Stifel, 378, 386–390 Hood, Mantle, 512, 517–519, 521, 524
Zarlino, 378, 392–395 Hsu Li-sun, 486, 492
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 397, 437 Huang Ti, 485
Rameau, 440–443, 446–448 Hubbard, Frank, 125
Safi Al-Din, 381 Huygens, Christiaan, 289, 362–365
Stifel, 401
Zarlino, 377–378, 382–383, 386, 399–401 I
of “octave,” ratio X|z, 89–91, 437 Ibn Al-Munajjim, 619–624, 644–645
ancient length ratios vs. frequency ratios, Ibn Khallikan, 619
87–91 Ibn Misjah, 619
Ibn Sina, 379–381 Ibn Sina, 93, 326, 366, 378–380, 384, 435, 610, 614,
Rameau, 431–432 625, 628, 636, 666–689, 692–696, 703, 715–716,
Zarlino, 382–383 722, 727, 744, 749–755, 758–759
of “triple-octave,” ratio -|z, Rameau, 430, Ibn Suraij, 619–620
Ibn Zaila, Al-Husain, 628
432–433
Ikhwan al-Safa (Brothers of Sincerity), 620–622
Zarlino, sonorous quantities, 390–391
Impedance
Harmonic/Melodic Canon. See also Canons
acoustic
construction of, 790–792
complex, 197
bridge, original design, 792–794 non-complex, 197
dimensions, 794 of duct, 233
Plate 2, 846 of room, 199
score, excerpt from Song of Myself, 800, 803–804 of tube, 198
stringing and tuning of, for Song of Myself, definition, 120, 127, 129, 197, 233
794–795, 798–799 mechanical
Harmonic series. See Cents; Flexible strings; Just complex, 120–121, 124
intonation radiation impedance, 129
Harmonics. See Flexible strings; Inharmonic of soundboard, vs. infinite plate, 122–124
strings, tone quality; Just intonation non-complex
Harpsichords. See also Pianos, vs. harpsichords of air at soundboard (radiation impedance),
Huygens, keyboard for 31-TET, 363–364 129
impedance ratio of plate, 123
air-to-soundboard, 129 of string, 121
soundboard-to-string, 126 specific acoustic
inharmonicity complex, 127
analysis of, 110–111 non-complex, 127–128
coefficients of, plain strings, 111, 126 of air (characteristic impedance), 128–129
908 Index
Indian musical terms. See also Scales, Indian Matanga, 556

ancient 4 suddharagas (pure ragas), 562–563
Bharata, 540 raga (elements of melodic sound), first
grama (tone-system, tuning, or parent formal definition, 561–562
scale), 547 Narada, 559
jati (melodic mode), three different types 7 gramaragas, first complete compilation,
(1) samsarga (combined), 549–550 559
(2) suddha (pure), 548–550, 552–554 gramaraga
(3) vikrta (modified), 548–550, 552, first formal definition, 560
555–556 or gana (song), 559–561, 563–564
4 hierarchical functions of tones: graha, guna (qualities) of, 560
amsa, apanyasa, nyasa, 548, 552, Sarngadeva, 548
gramaraga, 562–564
560, 576, 602n.30, 691
suddha jatis and laksana, definition, 548
laksana (properties) of, 547–548, 552,
svaras
554–555, 558–559, 602n.30
suddha, 566
possible influence on, 556–557 vikrta, 566
dastgah, 691 North India
maqam, 738 Bhatkhande, 587
patet, 512 10 most popular Thats, 581, 596
rasa (qualities) of, 547, 557–560 Bilaval That, modern suddha scale, 592–593,
raga (charm) of a note, 560–561 600
songs, of the theater Narayana and Ahobala, 587
dhruva, 558–560 12-tone vina tuning, 587–592
gana, spurious text, 559–560 samvaditva (consonant intervals),
characteristics of, 560 590–592
gitaka, 558 suddha svaras (pure notes), 587
sruti (interval) vikrta svaras (modified notes), 590
of 22-sruti scale, ratio analysis of Sa- raga, 558, 564, 576, 585
grama and Ma-grama, 544–547, Roy, 595
550–551 32 Thats, of eight-by-four matrix system,
definition, 540 595–596
of harp-vina tuning experiment, 541, chromatic Thats, not used, 593–594
543–544 sitar
of jatis, 554–555 construction of, 597
pramana (typical), 541–543, 547 melodic, drone, and cikari strings,
of Sa-grama and Ma-grama, 540–541, 597–599
544–545 moveable frets, 597–598
svaras (notes) definition, Sachs, 597
7 svaras of Sa-grama and Ma-grama, letter-dot notation, based on Cheve
540–541 System, 598–599
of 22-sruti scale, ratio analysis of Sa- Shankar’s mastery of String II, Junius, 597
grama and Ma-grama, 544–547 tuning of, example, 598
definition, 540 That
suddha (pure), 566 definition
of svarasadharana (overlapping note), Bhatkhande, 594
ratio analysis of An and Ka, Kaufmann, 594
549–551 vs. modern mela of South India, 594
vina (harp-vina), 541–544, 547, 550–551, South India
553, 564 Govinda, 565
gramaragas mela raga
definition, 562 14 most popular mela ragas, 581
and laksana 72 abstract raga-categories, 565
of Kudimiyamalai inscription, 562–564 72 musical heptatonic scales, first formal
of Matanga, 562–564 implementation of, 565
of Narada, 562–564 krama (straight) or vakra (zigzag)
of Sarngadeva, 562–564 sequences, 565
Index 909
two-directional krama (straight) Venkatamakhi’s avoidance of, Iyer,

sampurna (complete) principle, 582–583
579–582 denominative raga, definition, 574
alphanumeric prefixes, 580 example of, Mela Gaula and Raga Gaula,
Kanakangi-Ratnangi system, 580–581 574
critique of janya (born, or derived) raga
Iyer, 582–584
definition, 574
K.V. Ramachandran, 584–585
N.S. Ramachandran, 580 laksana properties, absence of, 576
Mela musical raga, 564–565
Chakravakam, 580–581 Raga Gaula, 574–575
Kharaharapriya, 574, 581 melakartas
Mayamalavagaula, 574, 580–581 14 most popular mela ragas, 581
Natabhairavi, 576, 581 abstract raga-categories, 565
vs. Venkatamakhi’s melakartas, 580 definition, 577–579
raga, 558, 564, 576, 585 Mela
Ramamatya, 565 Bhairavi, 576, 579, 581
12-tone practical scale, suddha mela vina Gaula, 579, 581
tuning, 569–573
Malavagaula, 575, 579, 581
Antara Ga and Kakali Ni, elimination of,
Sri-raga, 575, 579, 581
572
14-tone theoretical scale, 566–567 Indian scales. See Scales, Indian
7 suddha svaras, 566–568 Indian tetrachords. See also Scales, Indian
7 vikrta svaras, 566–568 North Indian theory
denominative raga, definition, 574 Bhatkhande, 587
example of, Mela Sri-raga and Sri-raga, 10 most popular Thats, 581, 596
574–576 Roy, 595
janaka (parent) raga, abstract raga- 32 Thats, of eight-by-four matrix system,
category, 574 595–596
janya (born, or derived) raga chromatic Thats, not used, 593–594
definition, 574 South Indian theory
laksana properties, absence of, 574, 576 Govinda, 565
musical raga, 565 72 musical heptatonic scales, first formal
Raga Mechabauli, 574–575 implementation of, 565
Raga Suddhabairavi, 574–575 Kanakangi-Ratnangi system, 580–581
Sri-raga, 575–576 Venkatamakhi, 565
modern Sadjagrama, Rao, 576 72 Melakartas, of twelve-by-six matrix
svara system, 565, 576–579, 581
anya (foreign note), 575–576 36 vivadi melas, chromatic melas, not
vakra (note out of order), 575 used, 579, 582, 593–594, 607n.119
varjya (omitted note), 575 Indonesian scales. See Gamelan; Scales, Indonesian
mela (unifier) ragas Ingard, K. Uno, 149
abstract raga-category, 565 Inharmonic strings
definition, 574 coefficient of inharmonicity
Mela Malavagaula, 574–575 diameter effect on, 110, 118, 134–135, 808–809
Mela Sri-raga, 574–576 frequency effect on, 110, 809
vs. Venkatamakhi’s melakartas, 578 length effect on, 110, 809
Venkatamakhi, 565 steel stringing constants, logarithmic
12-tone scale; new and modern svara plain string, 110
names; ratios by Ramamatya, 576–577 wound string, 115
72 Melakartas, of twelve-by-six matrix of string
system, 565, 577–579, 581 harpsichord, average values, 111
19 melakartas, most popular in piano, average values, 110–111
Venkatamakhi’s time, 577–579 piano vs. harpsichord, 126
36 vivadi (dissonant) melas, or chromatic plain, 110–111
melas, not used, 579, 582, 593–594, wound, 114–115
607n.119 tension effect on, 110–111
910 Index
Inharmonic strings (Continued) perception of, dissonance effect, 108, 118, 135,
dispersion 138–141
definition, 104 thick string vs. thin string, 104, 118, 135,
and wave speed, effective, 104–107 141–142
inharmonicity wave speed, effective, 106
analysis of, stringing and restringing, 110–111, and dispersion, 104–105
118 experiment, 104
cent calculation, strings and modes, 108–112 mode number effect on, 105–106
length, effective stiffness parameter effect on, 106
Inharmonicity. See Inharmonic strings
and effective wavelength, 99, 101–102
Interference
stiffness parameter effect on, 101–102
definition, 48
vs. measured length, 101–102
in infinite tube, constructive and destructive,
mode
200–203
cents equation, 110 in string
definition, 98 constructive, 47–48, 51–52
frequency equations, 99 destructive, 48–49, 51–52
shape, first four modes, 101–102 Interval ratios. See Flexible strings, ratios
node, two different kinds, 101–102 Isothermal bulk modulus, liquids, 188
piano tuning, 118, 135–137 Iyer, T.L. Venkatarama, 582
stretched octaves
in bass, tuned flat, 112–114 J
in treble, tuned sharp, 111–112 Jairazbhoy, N.A., 541, 594, 596
restoring force Junius, Manfred M., 597
experiment, 104 Just intonation
tension and stiffness, composite force, 104–105 commensurable numbers of, 365–366
stiffness effect Galileo, 283
experiment, 104 definitions, two different kinds, 365
on mode Mersenne
cents, 110 harmonic-diatonic system, 404–405, 408, 436
frequencies, 98 harmonic series
shape, 101–102 as infinite series, not defined, 404–406, 420
on wave speed, effective, 99, 104–106 as limited series
on wavelength, effective, 99, 101–102 discovery of the first six harmonics,
stiffness parameter 404–408
diameter effect on, 100 influenced by
frequency effect on, 100 personal convictions, religious and
length effect on, 100, 105 moral, 407–408
steel stringing constant Ptolemy’s Tense Diatonic, 407
plain string, 100 Zarlino’s Senario, 407
wound string, 114 harmonics
of string first 14 trumpet harmonics vs. length ratios
plain, 99–100, 111 of “old” trumpet marine, 410–412
wound, 113 “leaps” of natural trumpet vs. harmonics of
tension effect on, 99–100, 111 monochord, four identical ratios, 406
tone quality. See also Beat rates “leaps” of trumpet marine vs. harmonics of
beat rate, 108, 135–136, 138, 140 monochord, five identical ratios, 406
of harmonics length ratios of “new” trumpet marine vs.
coincident, 136. “old” trumpet marine, 410–415
flexible canon strings, 141–142 with prime numbers greater than 5, not
stiff piano strings, 140–141 acknowledged, 408, 412, 415
intermediate, 137. problems comprehending cause of; no
of keyboard instrument knowledge of traveling waves, 404,
Benade, 126 422–423
Fletcher, 135 solved by D’Alembert, 423
mode number effect on, 140–142 three different terms for, 404
Index 911
theory of consonance subharmonic series, Rameau’s recantation

based on Benedetti’s observations, of, 446
mechanical motions of strings, 415–416 Generation harmonique (1737)
contemplated ratios vs. endorsed ratios, 7-limit ratios, rejection of, 440
416–419 generator (dual-generator), function of,
7-limit ratios 444–446
detailed analysis and conflicted harmonic progression of fractional string
rejection of, 417–420 lengths, modern length ratios, 440–443
qualified acceptance of ratios -|m and and Zarlino’s ancient length ratios, same
M|n, 420 definition of major tonality, 441
origin of, Ptolemy’s theory of graduated harmonic series
consonance, 321–326 consonances produced by nature,
Meyer 440–441
7-limit Tonality Diamond, original design, major tonality, directly related to
448–452, 824 fundamental, 441
8 tonalities of, 449–451 minor tonality, not directly related to
13-tone scale of, 449 fundamental, 441–446
minor tonality as inversion of major subharmonic series, fallacy of, 441–446
tonality, 452 Nouveau systeme... (1726)
moveable boundaries of, 451–452 harmonic generation, theory of, 436
origins of harmonic series
in Rameau’s dual-generator, 444–446, hierarchy of consonances, 438
448–449, 452 “major third,” directly related to
in triangular tables of fundamental, 438
Al-Jurjani, 401–402, 448 “minor third,” not directly related to
Salinas, 402–403, 448, 452 fundamental, 439–440
“table of spans,” original description, 451 of single strings, 436–438
on 11-limit ratios, 448 Mersenne and Sauveur, acknowledged,
plagiarized by Partch, 452–453 436
Partch Traite de l’harmonie (1722)
11-limit Diamond Marimba 7-limit ratios, rejection of, 434
36 bars of, frequency ratios, 452–455 arithmetic progression of vibration
minor tonality as inversion of major numbers, frequency ratios, 428–434
tonality, 454 vs. Zarlino’s ancient length ratios,
Otonality and Utonality, theory of, 453–454 diametrically opposed descriptions
43-tone scale, 454–457 of major and minor tonalities,
7 ratio pairs, to fill chromatic gaps of 434–436
11-limit Tonality Diamond, 454–455 harmonic generation, theory of, 428–429,
29 ratios, 67% of 11-limit Tonality 434
Diamond, 454–455 harmonic progression
tuning lattice of, Wilson, 455–457 of fractional string lengths (length
Meyer’s 7-limit Tonality Diamond, three ratios)
changes to, 452–453, 824 knowledge of, 433–434
Monophony, theory of, 453 not included, 431
Zarlino’s philosophy of Unita (Unity), 429, of Stifel’s string length integers (length
484n.359 ratios), 428–430, 432–434
Rameau’s dual-generator, 444–446, 454 least common multiple (LCM), of length
Rameau numbers, 432–433
Demonstration du principe... (1750) Zarlino’s
minor tonality philosophy of Unita (Unity), 429–431
attempted to rationalized, 446–447 Senario, 434, 440
failed to rationalize, 447 Ramis
as inversion of major tonality, Shirlaw, 5-limit ratios, four different kinds, 366–367
448, 452 12-tone scale, 367–373
‘relative’ minor, origin of, 447–448 with a default schismatic fifth, 372–375
912 Index
Just intonation (Continued) Zarlino

vs. Safi Al-Din’s scale, with six schisma major and minor tonalities, origins of,
variants, 373–375 377–378, 391–397, 399–401
vs. Stevin’s 12-TET, 375–377 arithmetic and harmonic divisions of
Roberts “fifth,” ratio C|x, 399–400
harmonic series Stifel’s arithmetic and harmonic divisions
as infinite series of ratio N|z, 392–397
of discrete flageolet tones, 421 numero Senario (Number Series 1–6),
of natural trumpet tones, 421 377–378, 381–384, 390–397
as series of simultaneously sounding rationalized consonance of “major sixth”
harmonics, not defined, 421–422 and “minor sixth,” 397–399
Western theory of consonance, modern,
harmonics, with prime numbers greater That
400–401
5, considered defective, 421
philosophy of Unita (Unity), corporeal or
Salinas
spiritual manifestations, 429, 484n.359
7-limit ratios, rejection of, 403 Just Keys
harmonic division of ratio N|z, 403 Plate 6, 850
triangular table, 402–403 score, “The Letter,” from Ellis Island/Angel
arithmetic division of ratio N|z, 402–403 Island
origin of, Al-Jurjani, 401–402 description of, 811, 824
Zarlino’s Senario, 401–403 tablature score, 812–817
Sauveur traditional score, 818–823
‘acoustique’, science of sound, 422 tuning of, 808–811
discoveries on vibrating strings
‘noeuds’ (nodes) and ‘ventres’ (antinodes), K
422 Kanon. See Canons
significance to other vibrating systems, Kasyapa, 562
426 Kaufmann, Walter, 490, 578, 594
simultaneous subdivisions/mode Kepler, Johannes, 336, 418
frequencies, 422–423 Khan, Vilayat, 599
‘sons harmoniques’, consistent with Kitharas
intervals of harmonic divisions and description
harmonic series, 422, 427–428 Maas and Snyder, 618–619
standing wave of fifth harmonic, 424–426 Sachs, 617–618
harmonic series, as an infinite series tension, only variable after stringing, 323
discovery of, 422–424 tuning limitations
historic significance of, 426–427 four significant structural problems, 617–619
no knowledge of traveling waves, 423 GPS not tunable, 619
first thirty-two harmonics of strings and of gut strings, 618
wind instruments, 423–424 Krishan, Gopal, 599
scales Kudimiyamalai inscription, 561–564
3-, 5-, and 7-limit scales vs. !|$-Comma
Meantone and 12-TET scales, 376–377 L
prime number limit of, 282. See also Limit of Lachmann, Robert, 612
3; Limit of 5; Limit of 7 Lath, Mukund, 545, 550
Stifel Latin ratios
division of “double-octave and a fifth,” classification
ratio N|z, into four arithmetic and four multiple-superparticular, 284–285
harmonic means, 386–390 multiple-superpartient, 284–286
on the importance of both divisions, 401 superparticular (epimore), 284, 385
plagiarized by Zarlino, 378, 389 Al-Farabi, 661
Wallis Ibn Sina, 678–679
experiments, sympathetic resonance, 420–421 Mersenne, 417–418
nodes Zarlino, 397
discovery of, 420–421 superpartient (epimere), 285, 385
Sauveur’s acknowledgment, 426 Al-Farabi, 661
infinite number of, not defined, 421–422 Zarlino, 398
Index 913
interval Mersenne
sesqui prefix, definition, 384 conflicted rejection of, 417–420
sesquialtera, 384–385 qualified acceptance of ratios -|m and M|n, 420
Mersenne, 417 Meyer, of original Tonality Diamond, or “table
Zarlino, 385–386, 392 of spans,” 448–451
sesquioctava, 384–385 Ptolemy, of Soft Diatonic Scale, 334, 832
sesquiquarta, 384–385 Rameau, rejection of, 440
Mersenne, 417 Salinas, rejection of, 403
Zarlino, 385–386, 399 Limit of 11
sesquiquinta, 385 Al-Farabi
Mersenne, 417 of Jins 2 tetrachord, 653–654, 679–680
Zarlino, 385–386, 398–399 of middle finger of Zalzal fret on ud s, 636–339,
sesquitertia, 384–385 643
Mersenne, 417 Javanese slendro and pelog scales, close rational
Zarlino, 398 approximations, 510–511
Length ratios. See Flexible strings, ratios Partch, of Diamond Marimba, 452–454
Lieberman, Fredric, 486, 492, 496 Ptolemy
Limit of 3 of Even Diatonic Scale, 329, 679–680
Al-Kindi, of original 12-tone “double-octave” ud of Tense Chromatic Scale, 331
tuning, 615 Limit of 13
Chinese 12-tone scale, spiral of eleven ascending Forster
“fifths,” 487–488 of Bass Marimba, 827
compared to 12-TET, 377 of Diamond Marimba, 824–825
definition, 282 of Glassdance, 831
Philolaus, of original Diatonic Tetrachord, Ibn Sina
299–301 of Diatonic Genus 4 and 7 tetrachords, 676,
Pythagorean theory, 288, 336, 367 679–680
Safi Al-Din, of original 17-tone ud tuning, 712 influence on modern Persian dastgahs,
tunbur of Khurasan, 704 686–689, 692–696
Western and Eastern music, two 12-tone scales, of Zalzal frets on ud, 671, 674
spirals of ascending and descending “fifths,” Limit of 17
335 Al-Farabi, of Persian middle finger fret on ud s,
Limit of 5 636–639, 643, 674
Al-Farabi, on consonance of ratios B|v and N|b, Limit of 19
Eratosthenes, of Enharmonic and Chromatic
326, 655–658
Scales, 330–331
Bharata, of Sadjagrama and Madhyamagrama,
Forster
546
of Chrysalis, 796–797
compared to 12-TET, 377
of Harmonic/Melodic Canon, 798–799
Gaffurio, rejection of, 367 Ibn Sina, of Chromatic Genus 11 tetrachord, 676
Mersenne, of 12-tone lute scale, 358–359 Ling Lun, 485
Ptolemy Litchfield, Malcolm, 308–309, 311, 317
argumentative acceptance of, 288 Little Canon
original emmelic/melodic classification of, construction of, 834–836
325–326 dimensions, 837–838
of Tense Diatonic Scale, in Zarlino, 233 Plate 12, 856
Pythagoreans, rejection of, 288–289 tuning of, 837
Ramis, of original 12-tone monochord scale, Liu An, 500–501
372–373, 376 Locana, 594
Zarlino, of numero Senario, 381–384, 397–399 Logarithm. See Cents
Limit of 7 Loops. See Flexible strings
compared to 12-TET, 377 Lutes. See also Tunbur; Ud
Forster, of Just Keys, 808–811 description of, Sachs, 597
Huygens, consonance of ratios M|b, Z?|m, and M|v, etymology of, Farmer, 610
364–365 experiment with, Wallis, 421
914 Index
Lutes (Continued) Rameau, harmonic progression of modern length

inheritance of, from the Arabian Renaissance, ratios, 440–443
610–612 of dual-generator, 444–446
moveable frets of Marcus, Scott Lloyd, 749, 759–762, 767–771
lute and ud, 632, 669–670 Marimba bars. See Bars, rods, and tubes
sitar, 586 Marimbas. See Bass Marimba; Diamond Marimba
tunbur of Khurasan, 696, 701–704 Martopangrawit, Raden Lurah, 513, 517, 519–521
of North India Mashaqah, Mikhail, 759
sarangi, 600 Mass, 5–6, 12, 17, 23. See also Mass per unit area;
sitar, 597–598 Mass per unit length; Mica mass
of Persia, tunbur of Khurasan, 696 air mass, of cavity resonator, 212–215, 221
of South India, vina, 543, 586 definition, 1–2, 8
tuning density, 1, 23
!|$-comma meantone vs. approximation of 12- of air, 23, 892
TET, 340, 348–349, 354 of the earth, 6
of “semitone,” ratio Z-|zm of fluid (liquid or gas), 4, 21
Al-Farabi of solid, 4, 16
12 equal “semitones” per “octave,” 355 English Engineering System, 9, 12, 16
on two different ud s, 354–355, 639, 643 pounds-mass, 7.
approximation of 12-TET experiment, 7–8
in concert music, Cardan, 355 inconsistent system, 9, 16
fretting instructions lbm-to-mica conversion factor, 14, 880
Galilei, 356 English Gravitational System, 9–10
Mersenne, 356–359 slug, 1, 9.
origin of, Ptolemy, 354–355 consistent system, 9–10
Lyres experiment, 10–11
description slug-to-mica conversion factor, 880
Maas and Snyder, 618–619 English mass unit, undefined, 1, 13, 16
Sachs, 617–618 experiment, 7–10, 15
tension, only variable after stringing, 323 and frequency, 1, 4, 16, 18–21
tuning of glass, snifter, 830–831
designs inertial property, 1–2, 4, 8
of ancient Greece, 289 metric system
of Arabian simsimiyya, modern, 787n.228 gram, 1
of Pythagoras, 293 gram-to-mica conversion factor, 880
of Terpander, 291–293 kilogram, 1
limitations kg-to-mica conversion factor, 24, 880
four structural problems, 617–619 Newton, 1–2, 5–7
GPS not tunable, 619 of spring-mass system, 183–184, 223n.9
of gut strings, 618 of string
plain, 2–3, 18–19, 338, 792
M wound, 806
Maas, Martha, 618 Mass per unit area
Major tonality. See also Minor tonality of plate, 123
of 7-limit ratios of soundboard
16-tone scale, 420 harpsichord, 125–126
Meyer’s tonality diamond, 449–452 piano, 123–124
of 11-limit ratios, Partch Mass per unit length
43-tone scale, 454–457 of bar, 158
Diamond Marimba, 453 of cylinder
Otonality, 453–454 hollow, 38
Al-Farabi’s ‘Diatonic Mode’, 645 solid, 38
definition, harmonic division of “fifth,” of of stiffness parameter
ancient length ratios C|x, 396–397 plain string, 100
Zarlino, 377–378, 399–401 wound string, 113–114
Index 915
of string Zarlino, 401

plain, 4, 18–19, 27–29 vs. X|m-comma meantone temperament, 343
wound, 36–41 based on irrational length ratios; geometric
Mass per unit volume. See Mass, density; Mica division of canon strings, 336–337
mass, density Euclid’s method, mean proportional, 297–298
Matanga, 556, 561–562, 572 interpretation of
McPhee, Colin, 522–528, 530–533 Chuquet, 399–341
Means, 86 Zarlino, 338–339
arithmetic, and minor tonality, 90–91 on keyboard instruments, 336, 340
vs. fretted lutes and viols, 348
arithmetic-geometric asymptote, 313–314
meantone, definition, 342
definition; arithmetic, harmonic, and geometric,
geometric division of “major third,” ratio B|v,
86
on canon string, 342–343
Archytas, 87–89
origin of, Ramis’ advocacy of 5-limit “major
harmonic, and major tonality, 90 third,” ratio B|v, 340–342, 375
interpretations of, ancient length ratio vs. Mersenne, Marin, 338, 349, 356, 358–359, 377,
frequency ratio, 87–91, 93 404–408, 410–420, 422–423, 428, 436, 438, 610,
Plato, description of, 91–92 642
explanation by Meyer, Max F., 448–453, 824
Nicomachus, 92 Mica mass, 14–16, 18, 23
Plutarch, 93 acronym, 14–15
Stifel, division of “double-octave and a fifth,” consistent system, 14–15
ratio N|z, into four arithmetic and four definition, 14–15
harmonic means, 386–390, 401 user defined units, 23
Zarlino, arithmetic and harmonic divisions of density
“fifth,” ratio C|x, 399–400 of bar making materials, 885
incorporation of Stifel’s arithmetic and of bronze, modified, 37
harmonic divisions of ratio N|z, 390–397 of copper, modified, 40
origins of major and minor tonalities, dimensional analysis, 23
377–378, 396–397, 399–401 of gases, 892
Meantone temperaments of liquids, 890
Aron’s !|$-Comma Meantone Temperament, 342, of solids, 888
347 of string making materials, 882
!|$ syntonic comma dimensional analysis, 17–20, 22–23
calculation of, 344 experiment, 15
cumulative reduction of four consecutive mica-to-kg conversion factor, 24, 880
“fifths,” 344–345 mica-to-lbm conversion factor, 14, 880
comparisons to 3-limit, 5-limit, 7-limit, and new mass unit, need for, 1, 13, 25n.19
12-TET scales, 376–377 Minor tonality. See also Major tonality
harmonic analysis of, twelve usable keys, of 7-limit ratios
346–347, 349–350 16-tone scale, 420
Huygens Mersenne, conflicted acceptance/rejection of,
cent comparisons 418–420
comparable intervals of 31-TET, 363–364 Meyer’s tonality diamond, 448–452
“fifth” of 31-TET, 363 of 11-limit ratios, Partch
three septimal ratios; M|n, M|b, and M|v, 364 43-tone scale, 454–457
key color of, unequal temperament with two Diamond Marimba, 453
different “semitones,” 349 Utonality, 453–454
syntonic comma (comma of Didymus), Al-Farabi’s ‘Persian Mode’, 645
definition, 343–344 definition, arithmetic division of “fifth,” of
tuning ancient length ratio C|x, 396–397
lattice, 345 Zarlino, 378, 399–401, 452
sequence, three steps, 344–346 as inversion of major tonality
vs. Werckmeister’s No. III Well-Temperament, Meyer, 449–452
352–353 Rameau, 444–446, 452
“wolf fifth” and “wolf fourth” of, 346–347 Shirlaw, 448, 452
916 Index
Minor tonality (Continued) gushe, individual mode, 690.

Rameau, arithmetic progression of ancient vs. raga, 690
length ratios, 441–444 musical notation sign
of dual-generator, 444–448 koron, 636–640
Mode shape, 98 sori, 636, 640
Modes. See Scales Persian scales. See Scales, Persian
Modulus of elasticity. See Young’s modulus of Persian tetrachords, modern
elasticity all 12 Dastgaha on Ibn Sina’s ud, 687–689,
Mohammed, 610 692–696
Monsour, Douglas, Dedication Page, 843 Farhat
Morse, Philip K., 149 of 12 Dastgaha, 692–693
Musical slide rule. See Cents, logarithm chromaticism, not used, 687
of Mahur, intervalic structure, 771–772
N Philolaus, 91, 280, 288, 299–301, 304, 333, 617,
Napier, John, 257, 340 624–625, 648–649, 662, 681, 686, 758–759
Narada, 559–560, 564, 572 Pianos
Narayana, 93, 587–592 Cristofori, gravicembalo col piano e forte, 118,
Nederveen, Cornelis, J., 227–230, 233, 235–238, 244 130
Needham, Joseph, 487 design change ideas, 142
Newton, Isaac, 1, 428 impedance ratio
laws of motion air-to-soundboard, 129
first, 2, 5, 8, 11, 158, 186 soundboard-to-string, 125
second, 5–7, 9, 15 inharmonicity
Nicomachus of Gerasa, 82–85, 92–93, 284, 286, analysis of, 110–111
293–294, 299, 319, 380, 610, 624–625 coefficients of, plain strings, 111
Nijenhuis, E. Wiersma-Te, 545, 556, 560 effect on
Nodes. See Bars, rods, and tubes; Flexible strings; beat rates, uncontrollable, 105, 108, 135
Inharmonic strings; Just intonation, Sauveur; timbre, 110–111, 118, 135
Just intonation, Wallis; Resonators, tube tuning, 111–112, 118
Numero Senario. See Just intonation, Zarlino tuning possibilities, 105, 108, 118, 135,
808–809
O limitations, structural and musical
“Octave” equivalence. See Cents soundboard, thickness, 133–134
Old Arabian School, 619–620, 636 string tension, total force, 134–135
Ornstein, Ruby Sue, 524, 530–531 tuning, inharmonicity, 134–135
soundboard
P bending wave speed, 131–132
Palisca, Claude V., 356, 415 components
Partch, Harry, v, 452–457, 824, 840 bridges, 124
Period. See Flexible strings liners, 124
Persian musical terms. See also Scales, Persian ribs, 123–124
dastan (fret), 628, 630–632 critical frequency, 130–133
dastgah Mahur, pishdaramad (overture), 771–773 dimensions, typical
instruments surface area, 129
tar and setar (three strings), 597, 687–689 thickness, 123
tunbur of Khurasan, 696–697, 701–704 impedance
ud al-farisi, ancient lute, 619 data, Wogram, 122–124, 129–130, 132–133
mode plate vs. soundboard, 123–124
5 hierarchical functions of tones: aqaz, shahed, radiation, of air at soundboard, 129
ist, [finalis], and moteqayyer, 690–694, sound radiation, 132–133
772 spruce
vs. laksana, 691 European (Picea abies), 886n.8
12 Modern Dastgaha (sing. dastgah), Farhat, Sitka (Picea sitchensis), 123, 885
692–696 stringing scale
dastgah, group of modes/dominant mode, 1.88 : 1, need for, 34
690. 2:1, structural problems of, 33
Index 917
strings Poisson’s ratio

coefficients of inharmonicity, 109–111, 126 of hardwood plywood, 222
dimensions and tension, typical of Sitka spruce, 123
bass, G2, 40 Powers, Harold S., 580–582, 586
treble Praetorius, Michael, 336, 349, 610
D4, 121 Pressure
G3 and C4 ... G7 and C8, 111 adiabatic bulk modulus, 21–22
energy transfer, to soundboard, 118–119, 125 in cavity resonator, 212–214, 216–219, 226n.50
impedance, D4, 122 definition, 22
dimensional analysis, 22
length vs. diameter, changes in, 115
driving
stiffness parameters, 111
of acoustic (wave) impedance, complex, 197
tension equation
specific, 127–128
plain, 31
of bar, 196, 214, 217–218
wound, 41 definition, 127
wound, need for, 27, 34 of soundboard, 128
tuning process, general, 302 of tube resonator, 198–199
12-TET, 136 English system
of “fifth,” 136 of air
of “fourth,” 137 at 1 standard atmosphere, 22
of “major third,” 136–137, 139–140, adiabatic bulk modulus, 22
146n.28 psi, 13, 22
vs. harpsichords at flute embouchure and tone hole, 240–241
coefficient of inharmonicity, average values, of gas, 188
126 wave
critical frequency of soundboard, 132–134 in air, 130–131, 182–184
impedance ratio of bar, 214, 217
air-to-soundboard, 129–130 in flute, 230, 234, 239, 247
soundboard-to-string, 125–126 of plane wave, 186–187
sound radiation, 133 in tube resonator, 189–195, 198–199, 200–208
soundboard thickness, string tension, and Young’s modulus of elasticity, 13
inharmonicity, 130 Ptolemy, Claudius, vi, 78, 86, 90, 93, 280, 287–289,
Plain strings 295, 312–314, 316–334, 338, 354–355, 358–359,
equations 399–401, 403–404, 407–408, 413, 415, 553, 564,
diameter, 31 610, 624–625, 628, 636–637, 642, 646–647, 651,
frequency, 27, 31 657–659, 661, 664–665, 674, 677, 679–681, 707,
length, 31 712, 759, 792, 832
mass per unit length, 28–29 Pulse. See Waves
tension, 31 Pythagoras, vi, 44, 82–83, 280, 284, 288–289,
four laws of, 31–32 293–295
length Pythagoreans, 288, 308, 318–319, 322–324, 336, 657
and frequency, inverse proportionality, 32–33
piano stringing, structural problems, 33–34 Q
piano stringing scale, treble strings, 34 Quadrivium, 630
tension
break strength R
calculation, 35, 40, 134 Racy, Ali Jihad, 760–761
definition, 35 Radius of gyration. See Bars, rods, and tubes
considerations; structural, technical, and Rai, I Wayan, 524–525, 529–530
musical, 35 Ramachandran
instrument limitations, 35 K.V., 584–585
Plane sections. See Bars, rods, and tubes N.S., 580
Plato, 91–93, 288, 308, 610–611, 624–625, 759 Ramamatya, 93, 565–580, 582, 584, 586–587, 599
Plutarch, 82, 85, 91–93 Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 90–91, 428–436, 438–449,
Poerbapangrawit, Raden Mas Kodrat, 513, 451–452, 454
517–519, 521–522 Ramis, Bartolomeo, 93, 340, 342, 358, 366–377, 401
918 Index
Rao, T.V. Subba, 576 tuning process

Rarefaction. See Compression and rarefaction attack tone vs. decay tone, 222
Ratio of specific heats at opening, 215–217, 222
of adiabatic bulk modulus, 22 at sidewalls, with tuning dowels, 219–221
of gases, 892 tube
of liquids, 890 antinode (closed tube), 203
Ratios. See also Ancient length ratios; Arabian displacement (DA), 205, 207–208
ratios; Flexible strings, ratios; Greek ratios; pressure (PA), 205
Latin ratios antinode (infinite tube)
integer, definition, 71, 281 displacement (DA), 201–203
numbers That compose pressure (PA), 201–203
commensurable vs. incommensurable, 365–366 antinode (open tube), 203
Galileo, 283 displacement (DA), 204
composite pressure (PA), 204
definition, 281 closed, 203
prime factorization, 281–282 airtight seal, making, 211
irrational end correction, 207–209
cube root of 3, Archytas, 283 and diameter, direct proportionality, 208
definition, 283 and frequency, inverse proportionality,
square root of real 211
Chuquet, 339–341 frequency
Euclid, 283, 297–298 actual, 210
Zarlino, 338–339 theoretical, 207
positive natural; odd, even, and prime, 281 length
prime cut, 210
definition, 281 measured vs. effective, 207–208
factorization, 281–282 theoretical, 207
limit, definition, of intervals and scales, closed-closed
282. See also Limit of 3 frequency, theoretical and actual, 230
rational length, measured and effective, 230
definition, 281 impedance, acoustic wave, 197
two types, 282–283 bar-to-resonator relation, 198
Ray, Satyajit, 600 of resonator, 196–197
Resonators
of room, 199
cavity
of tube, 198
air mass, in neck, 212–213
tube-to-room ratio, 199
actual, 215, 221
node (closed tube), 203
theoretical, 214
air spring displacement (DN), 205
in cavity, 212–213, 215–216 pressure (PN), 205, 207–208
at sidewalls, 217–219, 221 node (infinite tube)
air spring-air mass system, two different displacement (DN), 201–203
kinds, 212–213, 217–219 pressure (PN), 201–203
end correction node (open tube), 203
of duct opening, 214 displacement (DN), 204
of flange opening, 214 pressure (PN), 204
and frequency, inverse proportionality, 215 open, 203
frequency, 215 end correction, 209
equation, limitations of, 212 frequency
theoretical vs. actual, 217 actual, 209
Helmholtz, 212 theoretical, 206
making, size considerations, 218–221 length
neck, effective length of, 212–215 cut, 209
reason for, 212 measured vs. effective, 229–230
sidewall stiffness, 221–222 theoretical, 206
Index 919
pulse reflection tetrachords; Turkish musical terms; Turkish

at closed end tetrachords; Well-temperaments
compression, 190, 192 Arabian
rarefaction, 190–191, 193 8 tetrachords, origins in near-equal divisions
at open end of intervals; Ptolemy, Al-Farabi, and Ibn
compression, 191, 194 Sina, 677–681
rarefaction, 191, 195 24-TET, modern scale, 755–761
reason for, 196 46 Modern Maqamat, 761–771, 786n.209
standing waves, pressure/displacement 9 fasail, for the construction of, 762
closed, 203, 205, 208 16-tone scale, for the playing of, 770–771
closed-closed, 230 of Al-Farabi
infinite, 201 3 standard modes, 7-tone scales, 644–646
open, 203–204, 230 3 tetrachordal conjunct/disjunct systems;
Restoring force in the context of GPS, 662–666
of bar 8 Ajnas, tetrachords, 640–641, 646–655
clamped-free, 174–177 10-fret ud tuning, theoretical, 632–639
free-free, 147–148, 154–162 15 tetrachords, 2 genera, 658–663
bending stiffness 17-tone scale
of bar, 152, 154–155, 158–160 original tunbur, 703–707, 735
of plate, 123 tunbur of Khurasan, 696–697, 701–704
of rod and tube, 158 22-tone scale, ud tuning, 640–643
of soundboard of Al-Kindi, original 12-tone scale, ud tuning,
harpsichord, 125 611–617
piano, 123, 130–132 of Al-Munajjim, 8 majari, 7-tone scales,
of cavity resonator, 226n.50 621–625
definition, 2 of Brothers of Sincerity, 9-tone scale, ud
elastic property, 2–4, 21 tuning, 620–622
of fluid, 4 of Ibn Sina
of glass, snifter, 830–831 11 Melodic Modes, 681–686
of plane wave, 186–187 16 tetrachords, 3 genera, 673–676
of solid, 4 17-tone scale, ud tuning, 666–673
of spring-mass system, 226n.50 of Safi Al-Din
of string. See also Downbearing force 17-tone scale
flexible, 1–4, 18–19 ascending spiral of “fourths,” original
stiff, 104–105, 107–108 construction, 731–733
Roberts, Francis, 421–422 First Ud Tuning, 707–713
Robinson, Kenneth, 503 monochord/ud tuning, 717–719
Rods. See Bars, rods, and tubes tunbur/ud tuning, 720–721
Roy, Hemendra Lal, 595–597 Second Ud Tuning, 714–717
19-tone scale, theoretical; ascending and
S descending spirals of “fifths,” 710–713
Sachs, Curt, 489, 556, 597, 617–618 84 Melodic Modes, 721–726, 728–729, 768
Safi Al-Din, 93, 326, 366, 373–375, 379, 381, 384, 6 Awazat, 730–731
401–402, 610, 622, 626–627, 673, 696, 705, 12 genera, for the construction of, 726
707–733, 735, 737, 740–745, 747–749, 754–755, 12 Shudud, 727–730, 737, 740–744,
758–759, 763–768, 771 767–768
Salinas, Francisco, 401–403, 448, 452 Chinese
Sarngadeva, 548, 562, 566–567, 572, 576 1-lu interval
Saunders, Lawrence, viii two different kinds, 497–499
Sauveur, Joseph, 390, 422–428, 436, 438 of two tiao (mode tuning) cycles, 496–499
Scales, 86. See also Arabian musical terms; 5-tone (pentatonic) scale
Arabian ratios; Arabian tetrachords; on ch’in
Equal temperaments; Greek ratios; Greek 12 tiao (mode tunings)
tetrachords; Indian musical terms; Indian ascending cycle of six; descending
tetrachords; Just intonation; Meantone cycle of six, 496–499
temperaments; Persian musical terms; Persian interval sequences of, 497, 500
920 Index
Scales (Continued) Bhatkhande, 10 most popular Thats, 581,

open strings 596
post-Ming, new scale, 490–493 letter-dot notation, after cipher-dot
pre-Ming, old scale, 490–493 notation of the Cheve System, 508,
String III as chiao, dual identity of, 535n.6, 598–599
492 Narayana and Ahobala, 12-tone vina
tuning sequence of, 492 tuning, 591
stopped strings (hui fractions), pre-Ming, Roy, 32 Thats, of eight-by-four matrix
old scale, 492–496 system, 581, 595–596
cipher notation of, Cheve System, 490, 493, sitar tuning and fret locations, 598
496, 508 South India
original, 487–488, 490–493 14 most popular mela ragas, 581
12-TET, discovery of, Chu Tsai-yu, 502–504 Govinda
12-tone scale
72 musical heptatonic scales, first formal
formula of, Ssu-ma Ch’ien, 486
implementation of, 565
generation of, 486–487
Kanakangi-Ratnangi system, 580–581
lu, definition, 487
spirals of “fifths,” That closely approximate Ramamatya
equal temperaments, 500–502 12-tone practical scale, suddha mela vina
Greek tuning, 573
Archytas, three means for the construction of 14-tone theoretical scale, 567
tetrachords, 86–87 Venkatamakhi
of Aristoxenus, 309–311 12-tone scale, 577
Catalog of Scales, seven theorists, 330–332 72 Melakartas, of twelve-by-six matrix
Dorian and Lydian modes, 292, 301, 333 system, 579, 581
of Euclid, 304 Indonesian. See also Gamelan
Greater Perfect System (GPS), 289–292, Bali
301–304, 333 gamelan Semar Pegulingan, 525–530
Lesser Perfect System (LPS), 289–291 patutan, definition, 523, 537n.43
of Philolaus, 300–301, 304 pelog
of Ptolemy, 328–329 7-tone scale (saih pitu), 523–530
of Pythagoras, 289, 293 5-tone scale (saih lima), derived,
seven harmoniai (modes), 290, 292 524–530
ecclesiastical names of, 290, 292 pemero (two auxiliary tones),
of Terpander, 289, 291–293 penyorog and pemanis, 525
three genera, Archytas and Aristoxenus, cipher notation of, 523
289–292 intervals of, 523
Indian patutan Selisir, 525–530
ancient six-tone, Pliatan Village, 530–534
Bharata cipher notation of, 532
Madhyamagrama (Ma-grama), 540–541, penyorog, 525, 531–534
546 Patutan Tembung, Selisir, Baro, Lebeng,
and svarasadharana, 549–551 525–529
Sadjagrama (Sa-grama), 540–541, 546 and Sunaren, 527–529
Suddha Jatis, 554 slendro, 5-tone scale
Arsabhi and Naisadi vs. Ptolemy’s cipher notation of, 522–523
Tense Diatonic, 553 intervals of, 523
Vikrta Jatis, 555 saih gender wayang; shadow puppet
Gandhari vs. original Chinese theater only, 522–523
pentatonic scale, 556 solmization, slendro and pelog, 525
gramaragas and laksana Java
of Kudimiyamalai inscription, 563 patet, definition, 512–513
of Matanga, 563 pelog, 7-tone scale
of Narada, 563 5-, 7-, and 11-limit ratio analyses of, 511
of Sarngadeva, 563 cipher notation of, 510–511
North India definition, 510
12-tone scale, modern svaras of, 592 intervals of, 510–512, 517–521
Index 921
Patet Lima, Nem, and Barang, 517–521 of Mersenne’s

gong tones and cadences, 517, harmonic-diatonic system, 403–405
519–521, 537n.29 lute, 356–359
slendro, 5-tone scale “old” and “new ” trumpet marines,
5-, 7-, and 11-limit ratio analyses of, 510 410–415
cipher and cipher-dot notation of, Cheve of Meyer, 449
System, 508–511, 535n.6 minor scale, Ptolemy’s Soft Diatonic, 334, 832
definition, 509 of Partch, 454–457
intervals of, 509–517 Pythagorean ‘Apotome Scale’ and ‘Limma
Patet Nem, Sanga, and Manyura, Scale’, 336
513–514, 516 of Ramis, 366–377
gong tones and cadences, 513–516 of Spechtshart, first twelve-tone 3-limit scale,
solmization, slendro and pelog, 525 334–335
tumbuk (common tone) between slendro spirals of twelve “fifths,” ascending and
and pelog, 519–522 descending, for the construction of,
Persian 335–336
12 Modern Dastgaha, Farhat, 690–696 of Stevin, 358–362, 375–376
9 intervals of, 686–688 of Werckmeister, 349–353
Schisma. See Arabian ratios; Greek ratios, interval;
basic 17-tone scale of, 770–771
Just intonation, Ramis; Tunbur
dastgah, definition, 690
Schlesinger, Kathleen, 227
on Ibn Sina’s ud, 692–696
Seeff, Norman, 857
17-tone scale Senario. See Just intonation, Zarlino
modern cent averages of two tar and three Shankar, Ravi, 597, 600
setar tunings, 687–689 Sharma, P.L., 561
tunbur of Khurasan, 696–697, 701–704 Shear force. See Bars, rods, and tubes, restoring
Turkish forces
24-tone modern scale Shirlaw, Matthew, 428, 434, 448, 452
6 modern musical symbols of, 735–736 Signell, Karl L., 736, 738–739, 741–745
53-TET, theoretical model, 736–737 Simple Flutes, 833
comma-limma equivalents of, 736–736 Acrylic Flute
vs. Al-Farabi’s original tunbur tuning, Flute 1
733–736 construction of, 246
vs. Safi Al-Din’s First Ud Tuning, 735 dimensions, 241
basic 18-tone scale, 770–771 tuning of, 239–241, 833
Signell Flute 3, tuning of, 833
6 ‘Variant’ Maqamat, 744–745 Amaranth Flute, Flute 2
5 of 6 on Safi Al-Din’s First Ud, 744–745 dimensions, 243
13 Basic Maqamat, 740–743 tuning of, 245–246
10 of 13 on Safi Al-Din’s First Ud, Plate 11, 855
740–743 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
Western definition, 50, 182
of particle motion
7-tone modes, ecclesiastical names of, 290, 292
in air, 182–184
12-tone scale
in cord/string, 50–51
five examples of, 376–377
in solid, liquid, gas, 186–187
origins of, Chinese and Arabian sources, of spring-mass system, 183–186
334 Sindoesawarno, Ki, 512
transformation from 3-limit to 5-limit scale, Sitar. See Indian musical terms, North India
418–419 Smith, Page, Dedication Page, 839
of Anonymous, in Pro clavichordiis faciendis, Snyder, Jane McIntosh, 618
first twelve-tone 5-limit scale, 473n.175 Sound waves. See Waves, sound
of Aron, 342–347, 353, 364 Soundboards
of Halberstadt organ, Praetorius, 336 instrument
of Huygens, 362–365 Bass Canon, 800, 805
of Kepler, 336 ch’in, top piece, 489
major scale, Zarlino’s advocacy of Ptolemy’s Chrysalis, 788–789
Tense Diatonic, 319, 333, 832 Harmonic/Melodic Canon, 790–793
922 Index
Soundboards (Continued) Spechtshart, Hugo, 334

harp-vina, 543 Speed of sound. See also Wave speed, longitudinal
harpsichord, 123, 125–126, 129, 132–133 in air, 23, 126–127, 131–132
Just Keys, 808–809 at 68°F, 189
kithara and lyre, 617–618 at 86°F, 189
Little Canon, 834–836 per degree rise of, 189
piano, 123, 125–126, 129, 132–133 as constant, 188, 208
qanun, ancient, 628–631 inside played flute, 229
sitar, 597 in rosewood, 21
trumpet marine, 408 in spruce vs. steel, 886n.8
ud, top plate, 619–620, 626 temperature effect on, gas, 188–189
vina, 586 Spring constant
violin, top plate, 626 acoustical, of cavity resonator, two different
piano. See also Pianos, soundboard kinds, 212–219, 221
bending wave, 122, 128 definition, 183–185
speed, 119, 131 mechanical, 183–185, 216, 218, 221–222
and bending wavelength, inverse Spring-mass system
proportionality, 131–132 acoustical, of cavity resonator
and critical frequency, 132, 134 definition, two different kinds, 212–213,
and dispersion, 130–132 217–219, 221
effect on acoustic radiation, 123–124, elastic and inertial components, 212–213,
131–133 217–219, 221
experiment, 131 excess pressure of, 226n.50
of plate, 131–132 frequency of, 215–217
dispersion restoring force of, 226n.50
definition, 131 mechanical
effect on radiation, 130, 132 definition, 183–185
energy transfer (coupling) elastic and inertial components, 183–185
soundboard-to-air, 127–128 frequency of, 185, 223n.9
string-to-soundboard, 119, 121, 127–128 two springs in series and one mass, 218–219
impedance, mechanical wave, 120–121, 124 restoring force of, 226n.50
data, Wogram, 122–124, 129–130, 132–133 Ssu-ma Ch’ien, 93, 334, 486
experiment, thick soundboard Stapulensis, Jacobus Faber (Jacques Le Febvre),
and thick piano string, 133–134 396
Stevin, Simon, 354, 358–362, 375–376, 502–503,
and thin canon string, 142
542, 569, 749
fluctuations, 122
Stifel, Michael, 276n.6, 378, 386–390, 392, 396–397,
of plate, 123
401, 403, 427, 429, 432–433, 435
radiation, of air at soundboard, 124, String Winder. See also Wound strings
129–130 construction of, basic components, 805–807
ratio dimensions, 807
air-to-soundboard, 129–130, 134 Plates 4 and 5, 848–849
soundboard-to-string, 125–126, 134–135, Strings. See Flexible strings; Inharmonic strings;
142 Plain strings; Wound strings
reactance and resistance, 122–123 Subharmonic series. See Flutes; Just Intonation,
resonance and resonant frequency, 122–124, Rameau
132–133 Sumarsam, 512
radiation, 119 Superposition. See Flexible strings
bending wave speed effect on, 131–132 Surjodiningrat, Wasisto, 509–511, 516, 521–522
critical frequency effect on, 132–133
data, Wogram, 124, 129–130 T
stringing effect on, 125, 130 Temperaments. See Equal temperaments;
thickness effect on, 130, 134 Meantone temperaments; Well-temperaments
wood Temperature
European spruce (Picea abies), 886n.8 conversion factors, 189, 881
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), 885 effect on
T’ung wood (Paulownia imperialis), 489 density vs. pressure, 188
Index 923
frequency, 189 schisma and comma variants of, 696–707

speed of sound in gas/air, 188–189, 225n.26 of Turkey, modern tuning and musical symbols
per degree rise of, in air, 189 of, 733–736
inside played flute, 229 Turkish musical terms
Tensile strength, 32 6 hierarchical functions of tones: karar, tiz durak,
and break strength calculation, 35 yeden, guclu, asma karar, giris, 738
definition, 35 Turkish scales. See Scales, Turkish
of spring steel, 35 Turkish tetrachords, modern
of string materials, 882 of Rast, 727, 746–747, 749
gut strings, thick vs. thin, 883n.1
modal origins on Safi Al-Din First Ud,
high-carbon spring steel music wire, 884
726–728, 730–733, 744–748
temper classifications; copper, brass, bronze, and
Signell
steel, 883
6 basic tetrachords/pentachords, 738–739
Tension. See Plain strings
Tenzer, Michael, 533 6 ‘variant’ (non-“basic”) tetrachords/
Terpander, 289, 291–293 pentachords, 738–739
Tetrachords. See Arabian tetrachords; Greek Tyagaraja, 578, 583–584, 604n.73, 606n.97
tetrachords; Indian tetrachords; Persian
tetrachords; Turkish tetrachords U
Theon of Smyrna, 284, 286, 318, 380 Ud. See also Lutes
Tonality Diamond. See Diamond Marimba; Just bridge
intonation, Meyer; Just intonation, Partch dama, 628
Tone notation, ix faras, 626–628
Toth, Andrew F., 524 hamila, 626–628, 631–632
Touma, Habib H., 760 hamila of canon functions as dastan of ud;
Trumpet marines vice versa, 628, 632, 670–672
description, 408 musht, 626–628
flageolet tones of, 408–409 construction and tuning of, earliest, 620–622,
Mersenne 775n.27
harmonics of, 406 fret (Pers. dastan), 628, 630–632
illustration of two, 411 Al-Farabi, frets of ud function as bridges of
as monochord, 410 canon, 632
length ratios of “old” and “new” trumpet binsir (ring finger), 615, 617.
marines, 410–415 khinsir (little finger), 615, 620–622.
Roberts, flageolet tones of, 421–422 middle finger of Zalzal
Sauveur, rejection of, 422 Al-Farabi’s ud s, 634–640, 643–645, 650–653
Trumpets Ibn Sina’s ud, 667–673, 681–683
harmonics of, first fourteen, 412 Safi Al-Din’s First and Second Ud Tunings,
Mersenne, 404–405, 414–416 709–712, 714–716
harmonics of, 406, 413 mujannab (neighbor; also anterior or
“leaps” of natural trumpet vs. harmonics assistant), 615, 620, 634.
of monochord, five identical ratios, Persian (ancient) middle finger
406–407 Ibn Sina’s ud, 667–672
with prime numbers greater than 5, not Safi Al-Din’s First Ud Tuning, 709–713
acknowledged, 408, 412, 415 Persian middle finger
Roberts, harmonics of, infinite series, 421 Al-Farabi’s ud s, 634–639, 642–645
Sauveur, harmonics of, first thirty-two, 424 Safi Al-Din’s Second Ud Tuning, 714–717
Tubes sabbaba (index finger), 615, 617.
instrument. See Bars, rods, and tubes wusta (middle finger), 615, 617.
resonator. See Resonators, tube zaid (surplus), 709.
Tunbur. See also Lutes of Persia, ud al-farisi, precursor of classic
bridge and string holder (hitch pin), two Arabian al-ud, 619, 775n.27
separate components, 626–628, 696 Pythagorean diatonic scale, playable on all
of Khurasan, Al-Farabi ancient ud s, 755
frets of, fixed and moveable, 701–704 string
strings and frets of, 696 Bamm, String I, 612.
924 Index
Ud (Continued) W
Hadd, String V Wallis, John, 420–421, 426
Al-Farabi’s ud, 641. Wave speed
Ibn Sina’s ud, 669. bending
Safi Al-Din ud s, 708. in bar, 149–150, 159–160
Mathlath, String II, 612. and bending wavelength, inversely
Mathna, String III, 612. proportionality, 149
mutlaq (free; open string), 615, 617. and dispersion, 147–149
tuning of, 612–613, 621–622, 633–634, effect on inharmonic mode frequencies,
641–642, 644–647, 667–668, 681–683, 148–151
702, 708–709 experiment, 149
Zir tuning effect on, 160
1st string, only on Ikhwan al-Safa’s ud, 621
in soundboard (infinite plate), 131–132
String IV, 633.
and bending wavelength, inverse
‘Zir 2’, String V, only on Al-Kindi’s ud, 612.
proportionality, 131
V and critical frequency, 131–132, 134
Vaziri, A.N., 640, 691, 772 and dispersion, 131–132
Velocity driving pressure of, 128
definition, 4 effect on acoustic radiation, 124, 131–133
dimensional analysis, 4, 20, 22 experiment, 131
equations, 5, 7 phase velocity of, 119
particle, 2–3 stiffness effect on, 131–132
of bar, 156–158 longitudinal
of complex impedance in fluid (liquid or gas), 3–4, 21, 188
mechanical (wave), 120–121 in gases, 892
specific acoustic (wave), 127 in liquids, 890
of cord, 2–3, 50–51 and mica mass unit; to simplify all
of plane wave, 186–187 calculations of, 21
of solid and fluid, 119–120 in solid, 3–4, 21, 188, 888
of sound wave, in air, 183–184 transverse
phase in solid, 3–4
of solid and fluid, 119–120 in string
of string, 131 flexible, 3–4, 60–61, 102–104
volume, complex acoustic (wave) impedance, 197 as constant, 60–61, 103–104
Venkatamakhi, 565–566, 574–584, 586, 594–596 stiff, 99, 104–107
Muddu, 577 and dispersion, 104
Vina as variable, 105–107
ancient Wave train. See Flexible strings
alapini vina, 543, 568–569 Wavelength. See also Dispersion
Bharata, 540 bending
vina (harp-vina), 543–544 of bar, 149–150
tuning experiment on, 541, 544 experiment, 149
kinnari vina, 569, 586 of soundboard, experiment, 131
zither-vina, development of, 568–569 definition, 54, 60
North India dimensional analysis, 54–55
bin, modern stick-zither, 543 of flute tube, half-wavelength
Narayana and Ahobala, 587 approximate, 229, 231.
12-tone vina tuning, 591 exact, substitution tube, 229–232
tuning instructions, 587, 590 and frequency
vicitra vina, 585, 599 as function of, 80
South India inverse proportionality, 61–62
Ramamatya, 565 of longitudinal traveling wave, in air, 183–184
suddha mela vina, 569 of string
12-tone tuning, 570, 573 flexible, 60–62, 71
tuning instructions, 569–570 as constant, 61–62
vina, modern lute, 543, 586 of transverse standing wave, 51–53, 58
Index 925
stiff, 99, 101–102 pressure, in tube resonator

of transverse standing wave, 102 closed, 203, 205–208
as variable, 101–102, 116n.6 infinite, 200–203
of transverse traveling wave, wave train, 50–51, open, 203–204, 206, 230
54–57 transverse
of tube resonator in bar (clamped-free), 175
closed-closed, theoretical and actual, 230 in bar (free-free), 153
closed (quarter-wavelength) definition, 48, 51–53
actual, 210 in soundboard, 122
measured vs. effective, 207–209 in string
theoretical, 207 discovery of, Sauveur, 424–426
open (half-wavelength) and flageolet tones, 408–409
actual, 209 flexible, 51–55, 58–59, 182–183
measured vs. effective, 229–230 mathematical model of, D’Alembert, 423
theoretical, 206 stiff, 101–102
Waves traveling
bending frequency of, 55
in bar, 147–151 longitudinal
in soundboard, 119, 122, 124, 131. in air, 182–184
definition, 44 definition, 183
pulse in fluid, 119
longitudinal, in tube resonator in solid, liquid, or gas, 186–188
at closed end, compression and rarefaction, in tube resonator, 189–191, 196–197
192–193 closed, 203–207
at open end, compression and rarefaction, infinite, 200–203
194–195 open, 203–206
transverse, in string period of, 54–56
crest and trough, 44–45 transverse
collision of, 46–49 definition, 50–51, 182–183
incident and reflected, 45–46 in solid, 119
sound in string, 2, 44–53, 58, 80
beating phenomenon, 135–137 Weight. See also Weight density
as longitudinal traveling wave, 21, 130, definition, 6
182–184, 186–188 equations, 6, 8, 16, 18
speed of of mica, 14
in air, 23, 128, 131, 188, 203 of object, standard weight, 11–12
and critical frequency, 131–133 of rosewood test bar, 173
in solid, liquid, gas, 119, 188 of slug, 11
temperature effect on, in gases, 188–189 as string tension, experiment
standing flexible, 18–19, 336–337
displacement, in tube resonator stiff, 108
closed, 203, 205, 207–208 as “weight ratio”
closed-closed, 230, 248n.10 Nicomachus, description of, 82–86, 93, 294
infinite, 200–203 Ptolemy, rejection of, 319
open, 203–204 Weight density
frequency of, 55, 58–59 of bar making materials, 885
longitudinal definition, 16
definition, pressure/displacement, 200 English Engineering System, inconsistent
in flute, 231, 234, 245 system, 16
in tube resonator of gases, 892
close, 196, 205, 208 of liquids, 890
closed-closed, 230 of rosewood test bar, 173
infinite, 200–203 of solids, 888
open, 204, 230 of string making materials, 882
period of, 54–56 Weight per unit volume. See Weight density
926 Index
Well-temperaments of custom string, three different materials,

based on irrational length ratios; geometric 39–40
divisions of canon strings, 336–337 of piano string, two different materials, 40–41
Euclid’s method, mean proportional, 297–298 tuning process, piano, 113
interpretation of wrap wire, modified density
Chuquet, 339–341 of bronze, 37
Zarlino, 338–339 of copper, 40
Werckmeister’s No. III Well-Temperament, Wright, Owen, 622–625
349–350, 352
!|$ ditonic comma Y
Young
calculation of, 350
Robert W., 99
cumulative reduction of four non-
Thomas, 181n.38(B)
consecutive “fifths,” 350–351
Young’s modulus of elasticity
Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier tuning, Barnes,
of bar making materials, 885
349 definition, 21
ditonic comma (comma of Pythagoras), elastic property, 4
definition, 335, 349–350 of hardwood plywood, 221–222
harmonic analysis of, twenty-four usable keys, heat effect on, 164, 177
351–353 of solids, 888
“key color” of, unequal temperament with of spruce, 123, 885
four different “semitones,” 352 grain direction factor, 123
tuning of steel, Thomas Young, 181n.38(B)
lattice, 350–351 of string making materials, 882
sequence, 471n.140 vibration test for, 180n.38(A)
vs. Aron’s !|$-Comma Meantone rosewood bar, 172–173
Temperament, 352–353 water effect on, 172
Werckmeister, Andreas, 350–353
Western scales. See Scales, Western Z
Whitman, Walt, v, 788, 794–799, 802–804, 840 Zalzal, Mansur, 636, 716, 755
Widdess, Richard, 558–559, 560–562 Al-Farabi’s ‘Mode of Zalzal’, 645
Wienpahl, Robert W., 397 Zarlino, Gioseffo, 93, 319, 333, 338–340, 342–343,
Wilson, Erv, 455–457, 887n.12 349, 377–379, 381–382, 384–387, 389–401, 403,
Winnington-Ingram, R.P., 308 407–408, 428–429, 431–432, 434–436, 440–441,
Wogram, Klaus, 122–124, 129, 132 446, 452, 553, 832
Wound strings Ziryab, 614
Bass Canon, 39–40, 800, 805
break strength of, 40
coefficient of inharmonicity, 114–115
experiment, 61–62
inharmonicity, difficulties analyzing, 113
length, 36
making with String Winder, 805–807
mass per unit length, 36–37
composite, 36–38
of custom string, three different materials,
39–40
of piano string, two different materials,
40–41
of cylinder
hollow, 38
solid, 38
of stiffness parameter, 113–114
mode frequency, 27–28
stiffness parameter, 34, 113–114
tension, 36, 41

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Musical Mathematics

on the art and science of acoustic instruments

Text and Illustrations

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available.

Manufactured in the United States.

Chronicle Books LLC

And to Douglas Monsour

our constant friend

Peter Boyer and Terry Gamble-Boyer

Foreword by David R. Canright v

Chapter 1 Mica Mass 1

Part I Principles of force, mass, and acceleration 1

Chapter 2 Plain String and Wound String Calculations 27

Part I Plain strings 27

Chapter 3 Flexible Strings 44

Chapter 4 Inharmonic Strings 98

Part I Detailed equations for stiffness in plain strings 98

Chapter 5 Piano Strings vs. Canon Strings 118

Part I Transmission and reflection of mechanical and acoustic energy 118

Chapter 6 Bars, Rods, and Tubes 147

Chapter 7 Acoustic Resonators 182

Part I Simple harmonic motion of longitudinal traveling waves in air 182

Chapter 8 Simple Flutes 227

Chapter 9 The Geometric Progression, Logarithms, and Cents 253

Part I Human perception of the harmonic series as a geometric progression 253

Chapter 10 Western Tuning Theory and Practice 280

Part I Definitions of prime, composite, rational, and irrational numbers 281

Chapter 11 World Tunings 485

Part I Chinese Music 485

Part II Indonesian Music: Java 508

Part III Indian Music: Ancient Beginnings 540

Part IV Arabian, Persian, and Turkish Music 610

Chapter 12 Original Instruments 788

Chapter 13 Building a Little Canon 834

Parts, materials, labor, and detailed dimensions 834

Epilog by Heidi Forster 839

Plate 1: Chrysalis 845

Plate 13: Cris Forster with Chrysalis 857

Bibliography for Chapters 1–9 861

Appendix A: Frequencies of Eight Octaves of 12-Tone Equal Temperament 879

David R. Canright, Ph.D.

32' 16' 8' 4' 2' 1' Z\x' Z\v' Z\,'

2. C C C c c c c c cV

1. American System, used throughout this text.

12-TET 12-tone equal temperament

M/u.a. Mass per unit area; mica/in2, or lbfs2/in3

 Correction coefficient, or end correction coefficient; dimensionless

McLeish, J. (1991). Number. Bloomsbury Publishing Limited, London, England.

Stiller, A. (1985). Handbook of Instrumentation. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.

Tropfke, J. (1921). Geschichte der Elementar-Mathematik. Seven Volumes. Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher

Wogram, K. (1981). Akustische Untersuchungen an Klavieren. Teil I: Schwingungseigenschaften des Reso-

Wood, A. (1940). Acoustics. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1966.

Asselin, P. (1985). Musique et Tempérament. Éditions Costallat, Paris, France.

Solomon, J., Translator (2000). Ptolemy Harmonics. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands.

Martopangrawit, R.L. (1972). Catatan-Catatan Pengetahuan Karawitan [Notes on Knowledge of Gamelan

Junius, M.M. (1974). The Sitar. Heinrichshofen’s Verlag, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

Arabian, Persian, and Turkish Music

Writings on Cris Forster

Hopkin, B. “Review.” Experimental Musical Instruments. April, 1990, p. 4. Nicasio, California.

Videos on Cris Forster

February 18, 2011

A Latin ratios; superparticular and superpartient,

fasilah (genus), 761–762, 765 schisma

Arabian tetrachords (Continued) Rameau, 434–436, 441–444