IMPERIA+++++++L LEADERSHIP SCHOOL

COURSE OUTLINES:

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

• Nature of Database Management system (DBMS)
• Different types of DBMS
• Relational DBMS
• Files: Network, hierarchical, relational records, keys
• Types of Fields, Access Methods
• Database Model – Hierarchical, Relational, Network, Distributed
etc
• Data Storage and Retrieval
• Data Security and Integrity
• Further expectation of the meaning and users of Database
• Further examination of Database Management System
• Database Administration (DBA)
• Methods of Organization Data
WHAT IS DATABASE
Is a collection of logically related data organized in a manner that allows access
retrieval , use and maintenance of that data. An effective information system
provides users with accurate, timely, and relevant information. By information we
mean data that have been processed into a form that is meaningful and useful to
human beings. Data, by contrast, are a collection of raw items such as words,
numbers, images, and sounds that have not organized and arranged into a form that
people can understand and use. For example, your grade report is information,
which contains several data items, including your first name, your last name, your ID
number, course name, course number, credit hours, and course grade.
Information is a valuable resource for an organization to function. Because
information cannot be generated without data, an organization must organize,
manage, maintain, and protect its data resources just as it would do for any other
resource.
A database is a collection of related data organized in a manner that allows access,
retrieval, use, and maintenance of that data. Database software, called database
management system (DBMS), allows you to create a computerized database; add,
change, delete, and sort data; retrieve data from the database; and create forms and
reports using the data. A DBMS consists of a group of programs that manipulate the
database and provide an interface between the database and the user or the database
and other application programs. A database, a DBMS, and the application programs
that utilize the data in the database make up a database environment.
Understanding basic concepts of database management systems can enhance your
ability to use the power of a computerized database system to support organizational
IS goals.
WHY DATABASE?

Record keeping constituted the major part of the operation of most organizations
and corporate bodies. Businesses keep records on customers, employees, inventory,
taxes, payrolls, sales and so on. Schools keep records of students, teachers and class
attendance. Clubs keep tracks of membership meetings and dues. Records, such as
these constitute the database of an organization.
In the past, database were kept in paper and stored in ledgers and cabinets, clerks
were employed just to file and retrieve these paper records. Today, records are
increasingly kept as electronic images in a computer.

Advantage of Database.

• Data Independence
Low systems/programs maintenance
• Data Consistency
Due to the fact that each data item is held only once, there is no danger of an item
being updated on one system and not on the other
• Controlled Redundancy
This means reducing to a minimum the number of data items, which are duplicated
in a database. In a non-database system, the same
Information may be held on many different files, which not only
Wastes space but also makes updating much more time consuming.
Data Integrity
In a database, data are organized into a single, logical structure, with logical
relationships defined between associated data entities. This makes it easy for users
to relate one item of data to another.
The DBMS provides users with the ability to specify constraints on
data such as making a field entry essential or using a validation routine
• Data Security
The DBMS can ensure only authorized users are allowed access to the
data.

Disadvantage Of Database

New, Specialized Personnel

Frequently, organizations that adopt the database approach or purchase a database
management system (DBMS) need to hire train individuals to maintain the new
database software, develop and enforce new programming standards, design
databases to achieve the highest possible performance, and manage the staff of
new people.
Need for Explicit Backup
Minimal data redundancy, with all its associated benefits, may also fail to provide
Backup copies of data. Such backup or independently produced copies are helpful in
restoring damaged files and in providing validity checks on crucial data. To ensure
that data are accurate and available whenever needed, either database
management software or additional procedures have to provide these essential
capabilities.
Interference with Shared Data
The concurrent access to shared data via several application programs can lead to
some problems. First, when two concurrent users both want to change the same or
related data, inaccurate results can occur if access to the data is not properly
synchronized. Second, when data are used exclusively for updating, different users
can obtain control of different segments of the database and lock up any use of the
data (so called deadlock).

Components of the Database Environment

Repository Centralized knowledge base containing all data definitions, screen and
report formats and definitions of other organizations and system components.
• Database management system (DBMS)
Commercial software system used to create, maintain and provide controlled access
to the database and repository.
• Database
A shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet the information needs
of multiple users in an organization.
• Application programs
Computer programs that are used to create and maintain the database and provide
information to users.
• User interface
Languages, menu and other facilities by which users interact with various system
components.
• Data administrators
Persons who are responsible for the overall information resources of an organization.
• System developers
Persons such as system analysts and programmer who design new application
Programs.
• End users
Persons throughout the organization, who add, delete and modify data in the
database and who request or receive information from it.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A DBMS is a software application system that is used to create, maintain, and to provide
controlled access to user databases.

A database is an organized collection of data. The data are typically organized to

model relevant aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring this
information. For example, modeling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that
supports finding a hotel with vacancies.

Database management systems (DBMSs) are specially designed applications that

interact with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and
analyze data. A general-purpose database management system (DBMS) is a software
system designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and
administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, MariaDB, Postgre,
SQLite, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, SAP, dBASE, FoxPro, Office Base and
Microsoft Access.

The ultimate objective of a database management system is making information

storage and retrieval easier, cheaper, faster and flexible. A database should be a
repository (storing or databank) of the data needed for the organization’s data
processing. The data should be accurate. Private and protected from damage. It
should be organized so that diverse applications with different data requirements can
employ the data.

RELATIONAL DBMS
Relational Database Concept.
The principles of the relational model were first outlined by Dr. E. F. Codd in a June
1970 paper called A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks . In this
paper, Dr. Codd proposed the relational model for database systems.
A relational database stores all its data inside tables, and nothing more. All
operations on data are done on the tables themselves or produce another table as the
result. You never see anything except for tables.
Relational database management systems (RDBMS) soon became very popular
because of their ease of use and flexible structure.
Components of the Relational Model • Collections of objects or relations that store
the data • A set of operators that can act on the relations to produce other relations •
Data integrity for accuracy and consistency
Relational Database Definition.
A relational database uses relations or two-dimensional tables to store information.
Relational databases are organized by fields, records, and tables. A field is a single
piece of information; a record is one complete set of fields; and a table is a collection
of records.
Database
Course Table CourseID CourseDesp MentorID DCS Diploma In Computer Studies
1006 DIC Diploma In Computing 1006 DICT Diploma In Info-Comm Technology
1002 DIT Diploma In Information Technology 1001
diagram

Relational Database Terminology.

Before delve into the details of other areas, it is important for you to know some of
the common terminology that evolved from file systems to relational databases.
These terminologies will also being used throughout the course of your study.

Table
A relational database system contains one or more objects called tables. The data or
Information for the database is stored in these tables. Tables are uniquely identified
by their names and are comprised of columns and rows. Columns contain the column
name, data type, and any other attributes for the column. Rows contain the records
or data for the columns. In relational database, table is also known as relation.

Row
A single row or tuple representing all data required for a particular object. The
Student table (Figure 1.2), shows each row representing a piece of information about
a student. Each row in a table should be identified by a primary key, which allows no
duplicate rows. The order of rows is insignificant; specify the row order when the
data is retrieved. In another words, the rows of a table are considered to be in no
particular order so they are an unordered set.
Column
A column or attribute contains one particular type of information that is kept about
all the rows in the table. A column cannot, or should not, contain one type of
information for one row and another type for another row.
Each column has a name and it represents it own information. For example the
StudID column contains a list of student identification number
Each column has a name and it represents its own information. For example the
StudID column contains a list of student identification number.
A column may contain or not contain any key value. The column StudID (as example)
is a primary key . This student number identifies a unique student in the Student
table. Another type of key value is the foreign key . The CourseID column is a foreign
key ; a column that defines how tables relate to each other. A foreign key refers to a
primary key or a unique key in another table. In the example, CourseID uniquely
identifies a course in the Course table.
A column that is not a key value represents one kind of data in a table; in the example,
the last name of all the employees. Column order is insignificant when storing data;
specify the column order when the data is retrieved.
• Primary key
A primary key is a single field or combination of fields that uniquely defines a record.
None of the fields that are part of the primary key can contain a null value. A table
can have only one primary key.
General Guidelines:
• No duplicate values are allowed in a primary key.
• Primary keys generally cannot be changed.
• Foreign key
A foreign key is a field in a relational table that matches the primary key column of
another table. The foreign key can be used to cross-reference table.

Field
A field can be found at the intersection of a row and a column. There can be only one
value in it. It is the smallest part of a table and it cannot be broken down into smaller
parts. A field contains one single piece of data, a single unit of information.
Null value
A field may have no value in it. This is called a null value. In the Student table, those
who are a group leader are not eligible to be assigning group leader identification to
them because they themselves is a group leader. For example S005, the group leader
field is with NULL value because he is not being lead by any leader.

The interactions catered for by most existing DBMS fall into four main groups:

• Data definition: Defining new data structures for a database, removing data
structures from the database, modifying the structure of existing data.

• Update: Inserting, modifying, and deleting data.

• Retrieval: Obtaining information either for end-user queries and reports or

for processing by applications.

• Administration: Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security,

monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency
control, and recovering information if the system fails.

A DBMS is responsible for maintaining the integrity and security of stored data, and
for recovering information if the system fails.

DEFINITIONS
Fields A field can be said to be an item of data. E.g. Surname, Address etc.
Record – A record is a collection of fields about a particular object.
Database structure – A database structure is a description of each field that
makes up a data record. Each field description is composed of the following.
Field Name – The name for a particular field (for example, first name, middle
names last names, Address, phone etc) field names can contain up to 64 characters
(letters numbers and space) however, field name must to be unique within the table.
Field Type (data type) – whether the field will contain numbers, text, and
date/time. Memo etc.
Field Width – the maximum width of an entry allowed for a field.
Communicating with a RDBMS by Using SQL.
Relational database management system or RDBMS in short is a software or
environment that acts as the middleman for the user to communicate to the
database. User need to issue the SQL statement at the RDBMS and then
RDBMS will sent this statement to the database and return a list of result to the
user at the RDBMS interface. SQL is used to interact with your database's data.
Access uses SQL for many tasks: whenever a query is run it uses SQL to filter
the data; whenever a report is displayed SQL is used to gather the data to be
displayed; SQL provides the data displayed on Access form.
DIAGRAM

Comparison Operator Meaning

= Equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal

<> Not equal to

!= Not equal to

What is SQL?
SQL (pronounced "sequel") stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is used
to Communicate with a database. According to ANSI (American National
Standards
Institute), it is the standard language for relational database management
systems.
SQL statements are used to perform tasks such as update data on a database,
orRetrieve data from a database. Some common relational database
management systems
that use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc.
Although most database systems use SQL, most of them also have their own
Additional proprietary extensions that are usually only used on their system.
However, The standard SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update",
"Delete", "Create", and "Drop" can be used to accomplish almost everything
that one needs to do with a Database. Throughout this module, it will teach you
the basics of each of these commands as well as allow you to put them to
practice using the SQL view in Microsoft Access.
SQL statements
SQL statement can be group into few category based on their functionality.
Category SQL statement
• Data Retrieval Language (DRL) SELECT
• Data Manipulation Language (DML) INSERT DELETE
UPDATE
• Data Definition Language (DDL) CREATE ALTER DROP
RENAME TRUNCATE
• Transaction Control COMMIT ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT
• Data Control Language (DCL) GRANT REVOKE
1) Creating a database
mysql> CREATE database 134a;
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)
2) Deleting a database
mysql> DROP database 134a;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Creating a Table
3) After we have created the database we use the USE statement to
change the current database;
mysql> USE 134a;
Database changed
4) Creating a table in the database is achieved with the CREATE table
statement
mysql> CREATE TABLE president (
-> last_name varchar(15) not null,
-> first_name varchar(15) not null,
-> state varchar(2) not null,
-> city varchar(20) not null,
-> birth date not null default '0000-00-00',
-> death date null
-> );
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Create Database student;
Query ok,
Create a table students(Fname varchr(50),Lname varchar(50),Dept varchar(50),
Course Varchar(30), Gender char(30));
Create table Employee( empid int, empname varchar(50), empdept varchar(50),
empaddres varchar(40), empsal int);

Text Text, number, or a combination up to 255

characters
Memo Similar to the text field, can contain text,
numbers, or a combination up to 2 GB of data.
Number Numbers up to 16 bytes of data
Date/Time Date and Time information
Currency Currency up to 8 bytes and precise to 4 decimal
places
AutoNumber Access creates a unique number for each new
record. This is often the primary key for the
table
Yes/No Yes and No, stored as -1 for yes and 0 for no
OLE Object Images, documents, graphs up to 2 GB
Hyperlink Web addresses
Attachment Attachments such as images, spreadsheets,
documents, and charts.
Data Types
There are many types a data that a field can be predefined to hold. When you create
 a new field in a database you should closely match the data type to what will be
entered into the field.

TYPES OF DBMS:
There are four main types of database management systems (DBMS) and these are
based upon their management of database structures. In other words, the types of
DBMS are entirely dependent upon how the database is structured by that particular
DBMS, these are:
• Hierarchical DBMS.
• Network DBMS.
• Object-Oriented DBMS. And
• Relational DBMS.
• HIERARCHICAL DBMS:

A DBMS is said to be hierarchical if the relationships among data in the database are
established in such a way that one data item is present as the subordinate of another
one or a sub unit. Here subordinate means that items have "parent-child"
relationships among them. Direct relationships exist between any two records that
are stored consecutively. The data structure "tree" is followed by the DBMS to
structure the database. No backward movement is possible/allowed in the
hierarchical database.

The hierarchical data model was developed by IBM in 1968 and introduced in
information management systems. This model is like a structure of a tree with the
records forming the nodes and fields forming the branches of the tree. In the
hierarchical model, records are linked in the form of an organization chart. A tree
structure may establish one-to-many relationship.....

ADVANTAGES OF HIERARCHICAL DBMS:

1.Simplicity: Since the database is based on the hierarchical structure, the
relationship between the various layers is logically simple.
2.Data Security :Hierarchical model was the first database model that offered the
data security that is provided by the DBMS.
 3.Data Integrity: Since it is based on the parent child relationship, there is always a
link between the parent segment and the child segment under it.

4.Efficiency: It is very efficient because when the database contains a large number
of 1:N relationship and when the user require large number of transaction.

DISADVANTAGES OF HIERARCHICAL DBMS:

1. Implementation complexity: Although it is simple and easy to design, it is
quite complex to implement.

2.Database Management Problem: If you make any changes in the database

structure, then you need to make changes in the entire application program that
access the database.

3.Lack of Structural Independence: there is lack of structural independence

because when we change the structure then it becomes compulsory to change the
application too.

• NETWORK DBMS:

A DBMS is said to be a Network DBMS if the relationships among data in the

database are of type many-to-many. The relationships among many-to-many appears
in the form of a network. Thus the structure of a network database is extremely
complicated because of these many-to-many relationships in which one record can
be used as a key of the entire database. A network database is structured in the form
of a graph that is also a data structure. Though the structure of such a DBMS is
highly complicated however it has two basic elements i.e. records and sets to
designate many-to-many relationships. Mainly high-level languages such as Pascal,
C++, COBOL and FORTRAN etc. were used to implement the records and set
structures.

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK DBMS:

• Conceptual Simplicity: just like hierarchical model it also simple and easy to
implement.
• Capability to handle more relationship types: the network model can
handle one to one 1:1 and many to many N: N relationship.
• Ease to access data: the data access is easier than the hierarchical model.
• Data Independence: The network model is better than hierarchical model in
case of data independence.
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORK DBMS:
• System Complexity: All the records have to maintain using pointers thus the
database structure becomes more complex.
• Operational Anomalies: As discussed earlier in network model large number
of pointers is required so insertion, deletion and updating more complex.
• Absence of structural Independence: there is lack of structural
independence because when we change the structure then it becomes compulsory
to change the application too.
ADVANTAGES OF RELATIONAL DBMS:
1. Data is only stored once. The advantages of this are
• No multiple record changes needed
• More efficient storage
• Simple to delete or modify details.
• All records in other tables having a link to that entry will show the change.

2. Complex queries can be carried out. A language called SQL has been
developed to allow programmers to 'Insert', 'Update', 'Delete', 'Create', 'Drop' table
records.
3. Better security. By splitting data into tables, certain tables can be made
confidential. When a person logs on with their username and password, the system
can then limit access only to those tables whose records they are authorized to view.
For example, a receptionist would be able to view employee location and contact
details but not their salary. A salesman may see his team's sales performance but not
competing teams.

DISADVANTAGES OF RELATIONAL DBMS:

• Performance: A major constraint and therefore disadvantage in the use of
relational database system is machine performance. If the number of tables
between which relationships to be established are large and the tables
themselves effect the performance in responding to the SQL queries.
 2. Physical Storage Consumption: With an interactive system, for
example an operation like join would depend upon the physical storage also. It
is, therefore common in relational databases to tune the databases and in such
a case the physical data layout would be chosen so as to give good
performance in the most frequently run operations. It therefore would
naturally result in the fact that the lays frequently run operations would tend
to become even more shared.
3. Slow extraction of meaning from data: if the data is naturally
organized in a hierarchical manner and stored as such, the hierarchical
approach may give quick meaning for that data.

METHODS OF ORGANIZATION OF DATA IN DBMS:

There are 3 principal methods to organize data in DBMS these are:–
• Serial File Organization
• Sequential File Organization
• Direct Access File Organization
• » Serial File Organization:
This is the simplest file organization scheme. In this method, records can be
arranged one after another in chronological order.
» Serial organization is commonly found in transaction files.
» Sometimes, records in a serially organized file are processed in the order in which
they occur.
» In this scheme, a new customer is given the next highest account number that has
not been issued. Data about new customer are placed at the end of the existing
customer account file.
» When this approach is used, it is easy to distinguish old customers from new ones
because old customers have lower account numbers.
• Sequential File Organization:
In sequential file organization, all records are arranged in ascending or descending
order by a record key. For example, in Payroll master file, records will be arranged in
ascending order by employee number.
» To locate an individual record, a sequential search is performed, beginning from
the first record. Thus each individual record must be examined until the required
record is located.
 » Such a search is time consuming. Therefore, sequential file organization can’t
provide immediate access to individual records.
» Sequential organization is suitable for master files in a normal batch processing
environment where all or most of the records are processed.
» Certain storage media, like magnetic tape and paper tape allow sequential file
organization only. However, direct access storage devices like floppy disk, CD, DVD
etc. allow sequential file organization as well as direct access file organisation.
• Direct Access File Organization:
Direct access file organization allows immediate access to individual records on the
file. There are some devices which can provide direct access and are called Direct
Access Storage Devices (DASD). They can directly reach any required location.
Discs are the most widely used direct access storage devices. Most widely used direct
access techniques are shown below:
Direct Sequential Access Methods:
A. Self (Direct) Addressing method:
» Under self (direct) addressing system, a record key is used as its relative address.
» Therefore, we can compute the record’s address directly from the record key and
the physical address of the first record in the file.
» This method is suitable for fixed length records.
B. Indexed Sequential File Organisation: (M96 – 5M, RTP)
» The indexed sequential file organization or Indexed Sequential Access Method
(ISAM) is a hybrid between sequential and direct access file organisations.
» The records within the file are stored sequentially but direct access to individual
records is possible through an index. This index is similar to a card catalog in a
library.
» This organization permits both sequential as well as random access.
» For direct access of a record, the key is located by the operating system, in the
index file and the
address so obtained is used accessing the record. For sequential access, the index is
not required.
» If it is needed to add additional records, they can be stored in a special overflow
area.
» It combines the best features of sequential file organization and directs access.
Random Access Organisation:
In this method, transactions can be processed in any order and written at any
location throughout the file. To access a record, prior records need not be examined
first. Generally this method is used by CPU. The CPU can go directly to the desired
location using randomising procedure.
Under randomising procedure records are stored in such a way that there does not
exist any relationship between keys of adjacent records. This technique provides for
converting the record key number into physical location represented by a disk
address through computational procedures.
FACTORS TO CONSIDERED FOR METHODS OF ORGANIZATION OF
DATA IN DBMS:
Several factors must be considered in determining the best file organization. These
factors are:
a. File volatility: It refers to number of additions and deletions to the file in a given
period of time. For
example payroll file of a construction company, where employees are constantly
changing, is a highly
volatile file. In such a situation ISAM is not a good choice and other direct access
methods would be better.
If there are no interrogation requirements, even sequential file organisation would be
appropriate.(M08-1M)
b. File activity: It is the proportion of master file records that are actually used or
accessed in a given period
of time. Some times each transaction will be processed immediately and hence, at a
time, only one master
record is accessed. In such a situation direct access method is best suited. At some
other times almost
every record in master file is accessed. For example, when weekly payroll is
processed, every record in
payroll master file is accessed. In such a situation, it is sufficient to arrange the file
sequentially.
c. File interrogation: It refers to retrieval of information from a file. If the
retrieval of individual records must be fast,
to support a real-time operation (such as airline reservation) then some kind of
direct access file organization is
 required. On the other hand, if requirements for data can be delayed then all the
individual requests can be
processed under batch processing mode. In such a situation, sequential file
organisation is best suited.
d. File Size: Large files that require many individual references to records, with
immediate responses must be organised under some type of direct access method. In
case of small files it may be more efficient to search
The entire file sequentially.

ACCESS METHODS IN DBMS:

• SEQUENTIAL ACCESS:
» Sequential Access refers to the method in which records are accessed in a sequence
i.e. in the order in which they are stored. If a particular record is required to be
accessed, all previous records should be passed.
» Under sequential access method, all the records are kept in sequence either in
ascending order or in descending order on the basis of key field.
» For E.g..: Magnetic tape devices.
• DIRECT ACCESS:
» In Direct access method (or Random Access Method), access of data is
independent of the storage sequence. Individual records There are 2 principal ways
to access data – Direct Access and Sequential Access.
can be accessed at random, in no particular order or sequence.
» Under this method, any record can be accessed at random without passing through
intervening records.
» For E.g..: Magnetic disk, Optical disk, etc.

DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA):

DBA is a database professional who actually creates and maintains the
database and also carries out the policies developed by Data
Administrator. DBA is responsible for defining the internal layout of the
database and also for ensuring that the internal layout optimizes system
performance.
To design the database, DBA must know the data requirements of users.
Then he can decide the schedule, accuracy requirements, frequency of
data access, search strategies, physical storage requirements of data,
level of security needed, response time requirements, etc. He may also
identify the source of data and the person responsible for originating and
updating data. The database administrator then converts these
requirements into a physical design.
Following are other functions of a DBA.
» To assist in the creation and maintenance of database.
» To carrying out the policies developed by Data Administrator.
» To look after the technical aspects of database management.
» Defining internal layout of the database.
» Designing a system as per the requirement of the organization.
» Defining the contents of the database.
» Using Data Definition Language (DDL) to define the various data
elements and their usage.
» Maintain standards and control access to database are important
aspects to be looked after by DBA.
» To ensure proper preparation of documents to help the end user to use
the database effectively.
» To perform routine jobs like taking a back up, maintenance and
security procedures, scheduling database following a restart and
recovery procedure are done in a proper way.
» To ensure conduct of periodic audit to check for identifying and
correcting violation of standards, documents and correct errors.
» To incorporate new system to access and control the database.
» To manage all activities relating to the schema controls the validity and
access rights for sub-schemas, and
preparation of requisite documentation.
» To ensure availability of data for sharing by the entire organisation and
to ensure that the database is developed for management purposes.
» To co-ordinate discussions between user groups to determine the
contents and format of the database so that data redundancy is kept to
minimum.
» To demonstrate the benefits and the database technology to other
managers of the organization and to
educate them in the uses of DBMS.

SECURITY AND INTEGRITY OF DATA

• DATA SECURITY:

• The security of data means the protection of data.

• Security involves protecting data and software from being:
• Lost losing disks, badly named
• Destroyed fire or flood, deletion
• Corrupted scratches on disk
• Modified written over, updated by mistake
• Disclosed unauthorised access
Possible threats to data security:
• Hacking means obtaining access to a computer system without authority.
• It is now illegal. There are 3 main offences:
• Gaining unauthorised access
• Altering programs and data
• Gaining access to commit fraud
• A computer virus is a program which copies itself without the user intending it
to.
• They usually affect .exe files, can delete files on a hard disk.
• Macro viruses affect data in programs such as Word
Ways to protect data:
• A backup file is a copy of a file which is kept in case anything happens to the
original file.
• Can be kept on a floppy or a different hard disk
• Can be kept on a backup data tape
• Archive files are kept in long term storage in case they are required.
 • Often from a back up data tape
Physical safeguards for data protection:
• Physical safeguards for data include:
• Locking files in a fireproof safe
• To protect files being overwritten use the write protect tab on disks &
tapes
• Keeping unauthorised people from entering secure areas by using locks
and security passes etc.

Other safeguards:
• Software safeguards include giving users:
• A user identity and a password.
• Users of this type of system have to log in and log out every time
they use it.
• Other safeguards include:
• Password individual files.
• Data encryption.
• To encrypt data is to encode it so that it is unreadable by anyone
else who does not have the ‘key’.
• DATA INTEGRITY:
The integrity of data means its accuracy and completeness. Data has integrity if it
has not been corrupted in any way. Common causes of errors are:
• Mistakes in data capture (faulty sensors etc)
• Transmission errors (over the internet etc)
• Transcription errors (transposition of letters)
Data is said to be corrupt if errors are introduced into it. Usually the errors have
been introduced by faulty equipment.

Ways of checking data integrity:

• A check digit is an extra digit added to a number so that, if a number is
changed, the error will be detected.
• Method
• Starting from the right, multiply the first digit by 1, the second
by 2 etc
 • Add the results together
• Use the last digit of the result and add to end of number.
• Example: 56037 becomes 560372
• Example: 50637 becomes 506376
• Verification is checking data which has been copied from one place to
another to see if that it is still the same.
• Verification of keyed data may involve re-keying it.
• Double-entry verification involves 2 people keying in the same data and
then comparing the data for anomalies.
• Validation is checking data before processing to see that it is acceptable for
the process and include:
• Type checks (e.g. numeric or alphanumeric)
• Length checks (right number of characters)
• Range checks (days between 1-31; months 1-12)
Both Databases and spreadsheet programs have methods of validating data
input so that obviously incorrect data is not accepted by the software which
then warns the user.

SECURITY AND INTEGRITY OF DATA

• DATA SECURITY:

• The security of data means the protection of data.

• Security involves protecting data and software from being:
• Lost losing disks, badly named
• Destroyed fire or flood, deletion
• Corrupted scratches on disk
• Modified written over, updated by mistake
• Disclosed unauthorised access
Possible threats to data security:
• Hacking means obtaining access to a computer system without authority.
• It is now illegal. There are 3 main offences:
• Gaining unauthorised access
 • Altering programs and data
• Gaining access to commit fraud
• A computer virus is a program which copies itself without the user intending it
to.
• They usually affect .exe files, can delete files on a hard disk.
• Macro viruses affect data in programs such as Word
Ways to protect data:
• A backup file is a copy of a file which is kept in case anything happens to the
original file.
• Can be kept on a floppy or a different hard disk
• Can be kept on a backup data tape
• Archive files are kept in long term storage in case they are required.
• Often from a back up data tape
Physical safeguards for data protection:
• Physical safeguards for data include:
• Locking files in a fireproof safe
• To protect files being overwritten use the write protect tab on disks &
tapes
• Keeping unauthorised people from entering secure areas by using locks
and security passes etc.

Other safeguards:
• Software safeguards include giving users:
• A user identity and a password.
• Users of this type of system have to log in and log out every time
they use it.
• Other safeguards include:
• Password individual files.
• Data encryption.
• To encrypt data is to encode it so that it is unreadable by anyone
else who does not have the ‘key’.
• DATA INTEGRITY:
The integrity of data means its accuracy and completeness. Data has integrity if it
has not been corrupted in any way. Common causes of errors are:
 • Mistakes in data capture (faulty sensors etc)
• Transmission errors (over the internet etc)
• Transcription errors (transposition of letters)
Data is said to be corrupt if errors are introduced into it. Usually the errors have
been introduced by faulty equipment.

Ways of checking data integrity:

• A check digit is an extra digit added to a number so that, if a number is
changed, the error will be detected.
• Method
• Starting from the right, multiply the first digit by 1, the second
by 2 etc
• Add the results together
• Use the last digit of the result and add to end of number.
• Example: 56037 becomes 560372
• Example: 50637 becomes 506376
• Verification is checking data which has been copied from one place to
another to see if that it is still the same.
• Verification of keyed data may involve re-keying it.
• Double-entry verification involves 2 people keying in the same data and
then comparing the data for anomalies.
• Validation is checking data before processing to see that it is acceptable for
the process and include:
• Type checks (e.g. numeric or alphanumeric)
• Length checks (right number of characters)
• Range checks (days between 1-31; months 1-12)
Both Databases and spreadsheet programs have methods of validating data
input so that obviously incorrect data is not accepted by the software which
then warns the user.