CURRICULUM STUDIES

By : Nisasharom

TOPIC 1 : Concept and Issues in Curriculum

Definition of  That which is taught in school;
curriculum  A set of subjects;
 Content;
 A programme of studies;
 A set of materials;
 Sequence of courses;
 A set of performance objectives;
 A course of study;
 Everything that goes on within a school;
 Everything that is planned by school personnel;
 That which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by
the school;
 A series of experiences undergone by learners in school; and
 That which an individual learner experiences as a result of
schooling.
Planned  open, or public, dimension and includes current and historical
curriculum interpretations, learning experiences, and learning outcomes.
(overt)  statements of what every student must know and be able to do by
some specified point in time.
 Content standard
 Textbook, lesson plan, learning kits
Hidden  which are learned but not openly intended
curriculum  transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the
classroom
Enacted  instruction (e.g. what happens in classrooms).
curriculum  what students get the chance to learn, as well as how teachers
"deliver" the content.
 daily curricular experience of a student within instructional settings
Null curriculum  When a topic is never taught:
 “too unimportant…”
 “too controversial…”
 “too inappropriate…
Forces that 1. Political
influence -selecting “the most important aspects of culture for transmission to
curriculum the next generation.
construction 2. Economic
- curriculum is constructed based on the needs of the economy.
3. Social
- responsive to students’ diverse social and cultural values and at the
same time capable of creating a national identity based on core
values and practices
Concerns of Special Interest Groups and Curriculum
different  Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about
shareholders in conservation and preservation and the inculcation of values to love
the Malaysian the environment. Eg : caring for our rivers, industrial pollution.
context  Substance abuse. Society has repeatedly emphasised the need
for substance abuse prevention programmes to be included in
school curriculum. Groups involved in prevention of drug addiction
are keen to see that students are taught about drug addiction in
the hope that they will be more aware of the problem and say “no”
to the habit.
 Consumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught
about their rights and responsibilities as consumers.
 Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce
programmes about HIV Aids awareness, nutritional information,
and other health related issues.
 Sex education has been a topic that has been proposed at various
points; especially when statistics and instances of teen pregnancy
and promiscuity are highlighted by the media and government
reports.
 Crime prevention by educating the community on crime prevention
techniques.
 Governments are also determined to ensure that students are
taught about their rights and responsibilities as citizens.
Citizenship education has been proposed in an effort to politically
socialise students with democratic ideals, principles and practices
TOPIC 2 : MODELS, PRINCIPLES AND DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
Definition of  consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedure
models for action.
Purpose of  To provide a structure for examining the elements that go to make
models up curriculum planning, and how these elements interrelate.
 The development of a curriculum involves the developer in
decisions about the nature and appropriateness of the
substantive(essential/fundamental) elements, eg the:
 outcomes
 content
 method
 assessment strategies(evaluation)
What is  Curriculum design is deciding about the “shape” or “configuration”
curriculum of a curriculum plan.
design  It involves the selection of content in line with the goals and
objectives of the curriculum.
 The selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will
help the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning
experiences for the classroom.
 Curriculum design is also referred to as “curriculum organisation”.
Elements in  Objectives
curriculum  Subject matter (content)
 Teaching-learning experiences
 Evaluation
What is a good  Balanced (Well-adjusted)
curriculum?  Rigorous (Demanding/Difficult)
 Coherent (Clear/Rational/Intelligible)
 Vertically integrated
 Appropriate (Suitable/Fitting)
 Focused/parsimonious (tightfisted)
 Relevant (Pertinent/Significant)
Principles of  Scope - Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and
curriculum includes all topics, learning experiences and organising threads
design found in the curriculum plan. Scope not only refers to cognitive
learning but also affective learning.
 Sequence - Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the
extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous learning. It
should be based on psychological principles and understanding of
human development and learning:
a) Simple to complex – Content is organised from simple
subordinate components to complex components depicting
interrelationships among components.
b) Spiral - In a spiral curriculum, concepts may be introduced on a
simple level in the early grades, and then revisited with more and
more complexity and application later on.
c) Prerequisites – It works on the assumption that bits of
information or learning must be grasped before other bits of
information can be understood.
d) Whole to part – Content is better understood if an overview
(whole) is first presented to show the connections between the
parts.
e) Chronology – This is a useful organiser for sequencing content
especially in subjects such as history, political science and world
events.
f) Vertical organisation - This simply means that content and skills
are arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with
the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate
what students have learned and what they will learn later.
g) Horizontal organisation - It involves how skills and content that
are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another.
 Integration - bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of
different subject areas to reinforce each other.

Development of  National Philosophy of Education

the Malaysian -“Education in Malaysia is a continuous effort towards enhancing
Curriculum potentials of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner in
order to create individuals who are well-equipped intellectually,
spiritually and emotionally. This effort aims to produce
knowledgeable, ethical and responsible Malaysian citizens who
are can contribute towards the harmony and prosperity of the
community and nation.”
- acts as a guide for all educational activities in Malaysia.
Study of the  KSSR has one new word in it ‘Standard’. In this new curriculum,
current there are set standards of learning that our children have to
Malaysian achieve at the different levels of their schooling.
English  The new curriculum has also been designed to go beyond
Language school acquiring communication skills, self-development and the child’s
curriculum immediate environment as in the KBSR.
 to enhance and embrace the use of science and technology,
develop values, understand humanitarian issues and also focus on
the child’s physical and aesthetical development.
 For Level 1 the modules taught are:
-Module 1 (Listening and Speaking)
-Module 2 (Reading)
-Module 3 (Speaking)
-Module 4 (Language Arts)
 Level 2 (+ grammar)
 Apart from the 3Ms (reading, writing and counting), the new
curriculum has 4Ms, with ‘Reasoning’ added to the original 3Ms.
 The long-term objective of the KSSR is to produce individuals who
have positive self-image and high self-esteem.
The Integrated  divided into two phases that is Phase 1 (Year1-3) and Phase II
Primary School (Year 4-6).
Curriculum  The content is divided into six components: basic skills,
(ICPS) – KBSR humanities, art and recreation, values and attitudes, living skills
and communication skills.
The Integrated  put emphasis on providing a general education and consolidation
Secondary of skills acquired in the primary grades.
School  continued to focus on the development of positive attitudes and
Curriculum values among students.
(ICSS) – KBSM

Topic 3 : CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A CURRICULUM

1. Need  refers to the activities that are involved in collecting information
analysis that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will
meet the needs of a particular group of students.
 aware of the learners’ strengths and weaknesses.
 process of collecting and analyzing information about learners in
order to set goals and contents of a language curriculum based on
their needs
 It examines what learners already know and what they need to
know
 therefore, the needs analysis can guarantee that the course will
contain the relevant and useful things for students to learn.

2. Target group Who is the target audience? For whom we design our curriculum?
Consider the pupils’
 Individual needs
 Abilities
 Interests
 Potentials
  Multiple intelligence (visual, auditory or kinesthetic learner)
 Various learning styles or learning modes (hands on, discovery
learning, experiential; learning, distance learning )
 Curriculum should be appropriate for:
- personal development (attitudes, behaviours)
- social development (communication)
- aesthetic development
- interpersonal/intrapersonal development
- physical development
- Intellectual development
- Multiple intelligence
3. Aims and  aims should relate to the combined impact of the curriculum, the
objectives pedagogy and the assessment of the various elements.
 desired learning outcomes need to be student oriented, and
should point to the knowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes
of those students who successfully complete the course.

4. Content  Principles of content selection :

selection 1) it should be relevant to the outcome of the curriculum (what do
-topic we seek to achieve, in line with aims/ objectives)
- - purposive and focus on the planned outcomes
issues/subjects 2) the content should be appropriate to the level of the target
that will be group
covered (simple ->complex, basics ->advanced)
3) it should be up-to-date.
4) the content should be valid
- authentic
5) feasibility (capable of being done)
- take into consideration the constraints of time, expertise of
staff, funding, and other educational resources

5. Learning  Subject-centered design

theories,  Learner-centered design
methods and
 Problem-Centred Design:
approaches

5.1 Subject- 1.Academic subject designs :

Centred Designs: - based on the belief that humans are unique because of their intellect and
the quest for and acquisition of knowledge is to feed this intellect
- it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials.
- critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking away
their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them.

2. Discipline designs :
- specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of inquiry, has its
specialised words and terminology, has a tradition and a collection of
 literature, and the persons involved in the field are theoreticians and
practitioners.
- a student who studies biology would approach the subject as a biologist
- the school is a mini version of the world of intellect and that the disciplines
reflect that world

3.Broad field designs :

- interdisciplinary design
- subjects taught were too compartmentalised and fragmented
- issues : breadth versus depth. some may argue whether students need
such in- depth knowledge of a particular subject.

4.Correlation designs
- lies in between the academic design model and the broad fields design.
- Eg: in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese occupation of
Malaysia. During the literature class, students read novels about life during
that time period. However, each subject retains its own distinct identity.

5. Process designs.
- stress the learning of general procedures and processes that are not
applicable to any particular discipline.
- the teaching of thinking skills.

5.2 Learner 1. Child-centred

Centered Design - learners should actively participate in the teaching-learning process.
- Learning should be related closely to the daily lives of students, unlike
the subject-centred design which tends to separate content from the daily
lives of learners.
- John Dewey argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with
them four basic impulses – the impulse to communicate, to compare and
contrast, to inquire and to express themselves through language.
- teaching and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast
amount of information they bring to the classroom.
- teachers and students negotiate what is of interest to learners and what
content is to be included in the curriculum.
- Teachers and students participate in planning lesson units, its purposes,
the focus of the content and the learning activities to be introduced in the
teaching and learning situations

2. Romantic/radical designs
- the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the child- centred design;
the difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the need for the
curriculum to reform society.
 - assume that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be
educated towards the goal of social reform.
- Paulo Freire opposed treating students as empty vessels to be filled with
knowledge by the teacher.
- He objected to the teacher-student dichotomy (contrast) and proposed the
relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal (mutual), which is,
“the teacher who learns and the learner who teaches”.
- learning is reflective and not externally imposed by those in power.
Knowledge is not the finished product to be acquired by learners because
this is indoctrination.
- Learners should challenge content and be allowed to give their opinions.

3. Humanistic designs.
- The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to be involved in
the process of realising their potential.
- Greater emphasis was placed on the affective domain to permit students
to feel and to value.
- Carl Rogers argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of learning.
To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons, placing
importance on their feelings and their opinions; while caring for them.
- With such a curriculum, learners become fully functional persons capable
of intelligent choice; are critical learners able to approach problem
situations with flexibility; and are able to work cooperatively with others
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
- focuses on the interconnectedness of the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains.
5.3 Problem 1. Life-situations design
centered design - It was argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise
a curriculum around such life situations (healthy living, ethics, racial
tolerance, citizenship skills)
- Students will direct relevance in studying such social issues when they
are related to their world. Also, having students study social or life situations
will encourage them to seek ways to improve society.
- The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will depend on
what students need before they enter the working world and assume adult
responsibilities.
- The life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because
students do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the
model state that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the
traditional subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows
students to see problems faced by society. In addressing society's pressing
problems, content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find
solutions to current issues
 2. Core design
- Focus is still on the pressing problems of society; the difference being that
certain problem are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before
students enter school and adjusted when necessary.

3.Social problems design.

6. Personnel  Curriculum developers need to think at a strategic level about the
and material resources required and how these can be used effectively and
selection efficiently.
 there should be sufficient staff to deliver and support the delivery
and assessment of the course.
 Equipment including IT and AV equipment, models and simulators,
laboratory and clinical equipment, whiteboards, flip charts.
 Finances
 Books, journals and multimedia resources
 Teaching rooms, office space, social and study space
 Requirements for supervision and delivery of practical teaching
(practicum) – availability of schools, mentors, supervisors
7. Assessment  Assessments must check that students have achieved the learning
and evaluation outcomes in various contexts and thus that the content has been
covered.
 Why do we need to evaluate our courses?
-To identify successes and failures of the curriculum with a view to
correcting deficiencies.
-To measure if stated objectives have been achieved.
-To assess if the curriculum is meeting the needs of learners,
community etc.
-To measure the cost effectiveness of the curriculum.
 Some questions to ask when evaluating a course or programme:
-Whether the learning objectives are realistic and relevant.
-Whether the different parts of the course relate to each other
meaningfully in terms of sequence and organisation.
-Whether the subject matter and content is relevant, accurate and
up to date.
-Whether the learners’ entry requirements are well defined and at
the right level.
-Whether the materials and delivery are pitched at the right level for
the learners at different points in the course.
-Whether the balance of teaching and learning methods is
appropriate and whether there is enough time to ensure learning.
-Whether teachers have the knowledge and skills required to deliver
the curriculum.
 -Whether the learning resources that have been identified are
adequate, appropriate and available.

8. Monitoring What should be monitored?

and support  Student recruitment and selection processes: Do the candidates
meet the selection criteria? Do the criteria provide students who are
appropriate for the course?
 Teaching staff – are the teachers available, motivated and capable
of teaching the new course?
 Have any training needs for teachers been identified and
addressed?
 The teaching and learning process:
– How is the written curriculum translated into practice?
– Are the teaching and learning methods appropriate?
– Is the balance between different types of learning mode
appropriate in achieving the stated outcomes?
 Assessment
– Are the assessments appropriate in terms of level, reliability and
validity and do they discriminate between assessing skills,
knowledge and attitudes?
– Are the regulations and procedures appropriate and are
they being followed?
 Learning resources
- Are the recommended books and journals and other teaching
materials available?
- Is access to the library and other resources adequate?
 Performance standards – Are the minimum performance standards
being reflected and achieved?

9. Constraints  What are the program constraints? Technological: ICT, lab, LCDs
etc.
-Timing: Implementation, Readiness
- Duration: Length – lectures,
- Co-curriculum, practicum, internship, etc
 Who is going to provide the cost of the training? Allowances, other
payments etc

Topic 4 : Curriculum and the teacher

topics to be  Programme philosophy : How it will affect the stakeholders
addressed in  Content : Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with
designing which they are unfamiliar
professional
development  Pedagogy : Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with
opportunities the new programme's pedagogical approach
for teachers  Components of the programme : Teachers will need opportunities
who are to learn about the components of the new programme early in the
implementing a implementation phase.
new curriculum
Factors  School ethos : school beliefs towards new curriculum
influencing the  Adequacy of resources : resources, facilities required for
implementation implementing new curriculum
of a curriculum
in schools  Professional support : support for teachers within the school and
outside
 Professional knowledge : Knowledge and understanding which
teachers possess of the new curriculum
 Professional attitudes : Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the
new curriculum
 Time : Time available for preparing and delivering the requirements
of the new curriculum
 Interest : Teachers’ own ability and competence to teach the
curriculum
Important Roles  Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and
of Teacher in referent power but never coercive power.
Curriculum  The teacher empower students and get them to do things of which
Development
they did not think they were capable.
 Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and
insights.
 Disseminator of knowledge and skills
 Role model to the student; practises what he preaches.
 Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and
individuality in his students.
Code of ethics  Ethical responsibilites to students - Teachers will educate students
to high standards of achievement. Teacher shall use best
professional practices and materials and the teacher is
knowledgeable of and delivers the standards-based curriculum.
 Ethical Responsibilities to Family/Community - The teacher shall
inform families of program philosophy, policies and personnel
qualifications and explain why we teach as we do, which should be
in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to students.
 Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues - The teacher shall show
respect for personal dignity and for the diversity found among staff
members, and to resolve matters collegially. The teacher shall
exercise care in expressing views regarding the professional
behavior.
Knowledge and  The teacher is a professional is an educator and a practitioner in
skill knowledge and skills. He is an effective practitioner and analyst
practitioner who, through teacher education, is competent in applying his
theoretical knowledge in various pedagogic contexts.
 understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of
the discipline he teaches and creates learning experiences that
make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.
 understands how children learn and develop and can provide
learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and
personal development.
 eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely
select what is available.
 adopt technology as a means for becoming more effective in
producing his own materials, accessing the Internet to gain
information, ideas and core materials which will provide the basis
for presentation to the students.
Educare and  Educare is ‘to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe/uncover.
educere  - What or where are we trying to lead students to? - What are we
(Practitioner) trying to bring out of them? - Can we truly draw out some pre-
determined intellectual and personal qualities? - Do we really think
that children are all really alike, the same inside, and that if we
locate the best method, then we can teach them all and they will
learn the same thing?
 Educere is to rear or bring up; allow to emerge as needed.
 What will emerge? ; Can we control what emerges? and should we
try and control what learning emerges or what the student’s
response to your teaching will be?’
 Educere is very parental, almost feminine approach to education
because it focuses on the nurturing and caring or what emerges
when a student is engaged in the learning process.
Social Agent  The student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the
(Analyst) learning environments.
 The teacher’s role may be include the management of the social
interaction that is conducted as part of the learning process.
 The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving
them as appropriate.
Agent of  A change agent is an individual who influences clients’ innovation
change decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency.
(decision  Agent of change develops his/her own professional learning which
maker)
has encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for
managing change within the school.
 Through significant steps, one has to update and improve the
culture of the school, to influence the staff to become more
 collaborative and reflective in their practice, to be flexible and more
responsive to the positive outcomes of change and the
development of their own professional learning, creating a learning
community.
Researcher  involves the commitment to systematic questioning of one’s own
teaching as a basis for development.
 The commitment and skills to study one’s own teaching and
concern to questioning and testing theory in practice by using skills
and readiness to allow other teachers to observe your work directly
or through recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest
basis.
 The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in
their own classrooms are:
- the development of clearer theory of language and learning
- increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice,
and increased teaching skills
- easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a
shared commitment to the desired improvements

Mentor  guides and supports students to ease them through difficult

transitions
 Individual engaged in a one-to-one teaching/learning relationship
 nurturing process in which a more skilled or more experienced
person, serving as a role model, teachers, sponsors, encourages,
counsels and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for
the purpose of promoting the latter’s professional and/or personal
development.
 develop individual’s strengths to maximize their professional and
personal potential
Manager  structures the learning environment.
 Teachers are environmental engineers who organize the classroom
space to fit their goals and to maximize learning.
 It involves modeling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and
towards school and learning in general.
 Teachers are required to manage and process great amounts of
clerical work.
Relationship  Teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster better
between learning.
teacher beliefs  The key to getting teachers committed to a curriculum is to enhance
and curriculum
implementation their knowledge of the curriculum.
 teachers need to be trained and workshops have to be organised
for professional development.
Useful terms to  Fidelity of Use: Staying very close to the prescribed written
remember for document. leads teachers to become curriculum transmitters
curriculum who use the student’s book as the only source of instructional
implementation: content.
 Mutual-Adaptation: Individual, creative versions of the written
curriculum. Teachers become curriculum-developers who use
various sources in addition to curriculum materials. They adapt
existing materials and topics, add new topics, leave out irrelevant
elements, use flexible lesson plans, respond to student differences
and use various teaching techniques.
Topic 5 : Current Issues and Curriculum Implementation
Definition of  Putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of study,
curriculum syllabuses and subjects.
implementation  The process involves helping the learner acquire knowledge or
experience.
 Pupils as the learner, teacher as the implementing agent.

Factors that 1. The teacher

Influence - the teachers view their role in curriculum implementation as an
Curriculum autonomous one.
Implementation - The teacher need to understand the curriculum document well in order
to implement the curriculum effectively.
- Teacher must be involved in curriculum planning and development so
that they can implement and modify the curriculum for the benefit of their
learners.

2. The Learners
- The learners hold the key to what is actually transmitted and adopted
from the official curriculum.
- The learner factor influences teachers in their selection of learning
experiences, hence the need to consider the diverse characteristics of
learners in curriculum implementation.

3. Resource Materials and Facilities

- Ministry of Education should supply schools with adequate resource
materials such as textbooks, teaching aids and stationery.
- provide physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops,
libraries and sports fields in order to create an environment in which
implementation can take place.
- The availability and quality of resource material and the availability of
appropriate facilities have a great influence on curriculum implementation.

4. Interest groups (stakeholders)

-Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required materials.
-Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum.
-Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the
interests of the group.
 5. The school environment
- concerns the particular circumstances of each school eg : economic
background

6. Culture and Ideology

- Some communities may resist a domineering culture or government
ideology and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned
curriculum.
7. Instructional Supervision
- Supervisory function of the school head :
 deploying staff,
 allocating time to subjects taught at the school,
 providing teaching and learning materials, and
 creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and
learning.

8. Assessment
- Due to the great value given to public examination certificates by
communities and schools, teachers have tended to concentrate on
subjects that promote academic excellence and little else. This action by
the teacher obviously can affect the achievement of the broad goals and
objectives of the curriculum.

Current Issues 1. Literacy

in Curriculum - Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called
Implementation illiteracy or analphabetism.
- Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and use
the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community
development.

2. Access to Education
- the ability of people to have equal opportunity in education, regardless
of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or physical and mental
disabilities.
- encourages a variety of pedagogical approaches to accomplish the
dissemination of knowledge across the diversity of social, political,
cultural, economic, national and biological backgrounds.
- Equitable access
- UNICEF is committed to nothing less than full and complete access to
free, quality education for every child. Universal access to quality
education is not a privilege – it is a basic human right.
- UNICEF supports the Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium
Development Goals 2 and 3 to ensure that all children have access to and
complete a full course of primary schooling, and to eliminate gender
disparity in education by 2015.

3. Equity in Education
- equity refers to the principle of fairness.
- “equity is the process; equality is the outcome,”
3.1 Socio economic equity in education
3.1.1 Income and class
- Those who come from a family of a higher socioeconomic status (SES)
are privileged with more opportunities than those of lower SES.
- Parents of a higher SES are more willing to donate large sums of
money to a certain institution to better improve their child's chances of
acceptance, along with other extravagant measures. This creates an
unfair advantage and distinct class barrier.

3.1.2 Costs of education

- High-achieving low-income students do not have the means to attend
selective schools that better prepare a student for later success.

3.1.3 Tracking (class streaming)

- Tracking sorts students into different classes or groups based on ability
or future plans.
- This separation, however, creates an inequality within itself. Starting at
an extremely young age, the sorting of students mimics hierarchy similar
to one which will form later on in life.

3.1.4 Racial equity in education

- the assignment of students to public schools and within schools without
regard to their race. This includes providing students with a full
opportunity for participation in all educational programs regardless of their
race.

3.1.5 Higher education

- preparing students for the employment market and active citizenship
both nationally and internationally.

3.1.6 Gender equity in education

- gender bias against women in the developing world.
- Global Campaign for Education (GCE) followed a survey called "Gender
Discrimination in Violation of Rights of Women and Girls" states that one
tenth of girls in primary school are 'unhappy' and this number increases to
one fifth by the time they reach secondary schools.
- Reasons : harassment, restorations to freedom, and an inherent lack of
opportunities, compared to boys.
- UN Special Rapporteur Katarina Tomasevki developed the '4A'
framework on the Right to Education. The ''4A' framework encompasses
availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability as fundamental to
the institution of education.

Causes of gender discrimination in education

 Community Level Obstacles: school environment. This includes
restraints due to poverty and child labour, soil-economic
constraints, lack of parental involvement and community
participation. Harmful practices like child marriage and
predetermined gender roles are cultural hindrances.
 School and Education System Level Obstacles: Lack of
investment in quality education, inappropriate attitudes and
behaviors, lack of female teachers as role models and lack of
 gender-friendly school environment are all factors that promote
gender inequity in education.

4. Multilingualism
- A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than
one language, either actively (through speaking, writing, or signing) or
passively (through listening, reading, or perceiving).

4.1 Diglossia : the languages are closely related, and could be

considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in Scotland
where, in formal situations, English is used.
4.2 ambilingualism: a region is called ambilingual if this functional
distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly
impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting.
Malaysia and Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and
India. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger
states that have both a clearly dominant state language (be it de jure or
de facto) and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of
distribution of speakers within the country.
4.3 bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be heard in a small
area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little
contact with speakers from neighbouring ethnic groups, an area is called
'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans

5. Technological innovations
Types of technology used in the classroom
1. Use of computers in the classroom.
 can be used by teachers to assign work to students and study
groups in a classroom.
 to illustrate visual related subjects which help students to learn
easily.
 installed applications can help students study well.
2. Creating class websites and blogs
 Teachers can create class blogs were they post assignments.
3. Use of digital microphones in the classroom
 Big classrooms are characterized by endless noise, so teachers
can resort to these wireless digital microphones.
 Students can use it during presentation.
4. Use of mobile device.
 use smart-phones for academic purposes in the classroom.
 It is similar to e-learning or long distance education.
 it is accessible from anywhere.
5. Use of smart interactive whiteboards.
 Modern smart white boards have a touch screen functionality, so
the teacher can illustrate points using a pen or their finger.
 students can use a white board to draw, write or manipulate
images.
6. Use of online media.
 use online streaming Medias to learn in the classroom.
7. Use of online study tools.
  Online study tools like ”Dynamic Periodic Table” (ptable.com)
which can be used by Chemistry students in keeping elements
apart , ”Foldit” (fold.it) this tool can help biology students easily
understand basics about proteins.

6. Unity in Education
Diversity of schools in Malaysian education
 Public primary schools : SK, SJKC & SJKT
 Public secondary schools : The secondary school system is
marked by the convergence of most students from the different
types of primary schools into a single school format.
 Private schools : international schools, religious schools, and
Independent Chinese schools.

7. Special needs
 addresses their individual differences and needs.
 this process involves the individually planned and systematically
monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted
equipment and materials, accessible settings.
 These interventions are designed to help learners with special
needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and
success in school and their community.

 Signs of Learning Disabilities:

-Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, and connecting
letters to sounds.
- Making many mistakes when reading aloud
- Not understanding what they are reading
-Awkward pencil grip and poor handwriting skills
-Trouble understanding jokes and sarcasm
- Trouble following multiple directions
- Trouble organizing thoughts and what they want to say
- Not following social rules of conversation
- Confusing mathematical symbols and numbers
- Not being able to tell a story in order
- Not knowing where to begin a task
- Emotional and/or social issues
- Trouble sleeping or getting along with family
 Caused and risk factors:
- Heredity: Sometimes, learning problems run in families
- Problems during Pregnancy or Birth: Disabilities can result
from fetal exposure to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oxygen
deprivation or by premature birth.
- Accidents After Birth: Head injury, malnutrition or toxic
exposure can increase a child's risk.
- Social-Environment Factors: Living in a high risk neighborhood
and poor living conditions have been linked to children being more
vulnerable to disabilities.
 Individual needs
- A special education program should be customized to address
each individual student's unique needs
- Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which
students with special needs receives varying degrees of support
based on their individual needs.
- Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may
include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or
equipment, and the provision of specialized physical adaptations
that allow students to participate in the educational environment as
much as possible.

 Special schools
- a school catering for students who have special educational
needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or
behavioural problems.
- Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and
resourced to provide appropriate special education for children
with additional needs.
- Student to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or lower
depending upon the needs of the children.
- Special schools will also have other facilities for children with
special needs, such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or
swimming pools, which are necessary for treating students with
certain conditions.
- An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also
called a self-contained classroom, which is a separate room or
rooms dedicated solely to the education of students with special
needs within a larger school that also provides general education.
- These classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained
teachers, who provide specific, individualized instruction to
individuals and small groups of students with special needs.

 Instructional strategies
- Instructional strategies are classified as being either
accommodations or modifications.

 Accommodation is a reasonable adjustment to teaching practices

so that the student learns the same material, but in a format that is
more accessible to the student.
Examples :
 Response accommodations: Typing homework assignments
rather than hand-writing them .
 Presentation accommodations: Examples include listening to
audio books rather than reading printed books.
 Setting accommodations: Taking a test in a quieter room. Moving
the class to a room that is physically accessible, e.g., on the first
floor of a building or near an elevator. Arranging seating
assignments to benefit the student, e.g., by sitting at the front of
the classroom.
  Scheduling accommodations: Students may be given rest breaks
or extended time on tests (may be considered a modification, if
speed is a factor in the test).

 Modification changes or adapts the material to make it simpler.

Modifications may change what is learned, how difficult the
material is, what level of mastery the student is expected to
achieve, whether and how the student is assessed, or any another
aspect of the curriculum.
Examples :
 Skipping subjects: Students may be taught less information than
typical students, skipping over material that the school deems
inappropriate for the student's abilities or less important than other
subjects. For example, students with poor fine motor skills may be
taught to print block letters, but not cursive handwriting.
 Simplified assignments: Students may read the same literature as
their peers but have a simpler version, such as Shakespeare with
both the original text and a modern paraphrase available.
 Shorter assignments: Students may do shorter homework
assignments or take shorter, more concentrated tests.
 Extra aids: If students have deficiencies in working memory, a list
of vocabulary words, called a word bank, can be provided during
tests, to reduce lack of recall and increase chances of
comprehension. Students might use a calculator when other
students do not.
 Extended time: Students with a slower processing speed may
benefit from extended time for assignments and/or tests in order to
have more time to comprehend questions, recall information, and
synthesize knowledge.

Topic 6 : Curriculum Evaluation

Definition Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an activity,
project, programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational
area or institution. As an essential part of the policy development process,
evaluation provides timely assessments of the relevance, efficiency,
effectiveness, impact and sustainability of interventions.
Evaluation  provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended
should and unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide
decision-makers and inform stakeholders;
 provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and
useful, enabling the timely incorporation of findings,
recommendations and lessons;
 feed into management and decision-making processes as a key
component to managing for results;
 inform the planning, programming, budgeting, implementation and
reporting cycle;
 improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results,
optimize the use of resources, provide client satisfaction and
maximize the impact of activities; and
  involve a rigorous, systematic and objective process in the design,
analysis and
 interpretation of information to answer specific questions, based
on agreed criteria and benchmarks among key partners and
stakeholders.

Phases of 1. Aspects of the curriculum - school system

curriculum to be evaluated -particular district
evaluation - particular grade level/subject
- the objectives of the evaluation
activity are clearly stated.
2. Data collection - identify the information to be
collected and the tools for collecting
data.
- interview, questionnaire, test,
documents
- identify the participants
3. Analysis of Information - the data collected is analsyed and
presented in the form of tables and
graphs.
- statistical tools are used to compare
significant differences and to establish
correlation or relationship between
variables.
4. Reporting of Information - describe the findings and
interpretation of data.
- conclusion is made on the
effectiveness of curriculum
implementation efforts.
- recommendations are made to
reconsider certain aspects of the
curriculum.
Forms of 1. Formative evaluation
Evaluation  data is gathered during the formation or development of the
curriculum so that revisions to it can be made.
 Formative evaluation may include determining who needs the
programme (e.g. students), how great is the need (e.g. students
need to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with expansion of
technology) and how to meet the need (e.g. introduce a subject on
ICT compulsory for all students).
 the process that looks for evidence of success or failure of a
curriculum programme, a syllabus or a subject taught during
implementation.
 evaluate the fit between the instructional strategies and materials
used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve.
 students may be included to review the materials to determine if
they can use the new materials.
 2. Summative Evaluation
 data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum
programme.
 The effectiveness of a programme can be through summative
evaluation which can be done after new course materials have
been implemented in full or several months to years after the
materials have been implemented in full.
 It considers cost effectiveness in terms of money, time and
personnel.
 It also assesses the training that teachers might need in order to
implement a programme successfully
 It determines whether a new curriculum programme, syllabus or
subject is better than the one it is intended to replace or other
alternatives.
 These evaluation outcomes can be determined through formal
assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and
examinations.
 data could also be collected through qualitative methods such as
interviews, direct observations, and document analyses

Purposes of  Implement changes to improve teaching learning outcomes of

evaluation future courses
 Remedy weaknesses of course in progress
 Explain or confirm existing procedures
 Establish accountability ( value for money)
 Extend teacher’s knowledge about practice. (CPD)
Evaluation methods and tools

Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges

- can complete - might not get careful

anonymously feedback
- inexpensive to - wording can bias
administer client's
- easy to compare and
when need to quickly responses
surveys and/or easily get lots of analyze - are impersonal
information from people - administer to many - in surveys, may need
in a non threatening way people sampling expert
- can get lots of data - doesn't get full story
- many sample
questionnaires already
exist
 when want to fully - get full range and depth - can take much time
understand someone's - can be hard to analyze
of information
impressions or
- develops relationship and compare
interviews experiences, or learn
- can be costly
more about their with client
- interviewer can bias
answers to - can be flexible with client
questionnaires client's responses

- get comprehensive and - often takes much time

- info may be incomplete
historical information
- need to be quite clear
when want impression of - doesn't interrupt
how program operates about what looking for
programme or client's
documentation without interrupting the - not flexible means to
review program; is from review routine in program get
of applications, finances, - information already
data; data restricted to
memos, minutes, etc. exists
- few biases about what already exists
information

- view operations of a - can be difficult to

programme as they are interpret seen
to gather accurate behaviors
information about how a actually occurring
- can be complex to
observation program actually - can adapt to events as
operates, particularly categorize observations
they occur
about processes - can influence behaviors
of program participants
- can be expensive

- quickly and reliably get - can be hard to analyze

explore a topic in depth common impressions responses
through group - can be efficient way to - need good facilitator for
discussion, e.g., about
reactions to an get much range and safety and closure
focus groups experience or - difficult to schedule 6-8
depth of information in
interview suggestion,
people together
understanding common short time
complaints, etc.; useful - can convey key
in evaluation and
marketing information about
programmes
 - fully depicts client's - usually quite time
to fully understand or
experience in consuming to collect,
depict client's
programme
experiences in a organize and describe
program, and conduct input, process and - represents depth of
case studies
comprehensive results
information, rather than
examination through - powerful means to
cross comparison of breadth
portray programme to
cases
outsiders

Topic 7 : Curriculum Change

Definition of Curriculum change is dictated by the changes in the economic, social
curriculum and technological aspects of a society. Change is a process not an
change event; it requires time, energy and resources.
Definition of  ideas or practices that are new and different from those that exist
curriculum in the formal prescribed curriculum.
innovation  curriculum innovation is any improvement that is deliberate,
measurable, durable and unlikely to occur frequently.
Differences of  innovation is always planned while change may occur in response
curriculum to external events.
change and  Curriculum innovations become meaningful and effective, if they
innovation are planned and organised. It is possible that other types of
changes may occur when they are not planned.
Contexts of  Curriculum change and curriculum innovation are made
curriculum necessary due to a country’s political, social, economic, cultural
change and technological environments.
 Changes in the education system in Malaysia occur when the
central authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is
usually made known through a circular. One such example is the
introduction of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR)
or the Primary School Standard Curriculum.
 Another reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire
of authorities at various levels to deliberately change established
practices in order to tackle existing problems or identify new
problems and seek ways of dealing with these problems.
 Hardware change : the additions to existing facilities such as new
classrooms, equipment, books and play grounds.
 Software change : affect the content and range of the curriculum.

Form of change  Substitution : one element replaces another previously in use. Eg

in curriculum : new textbooks
 Alteration : change in existing programme without seriously
disturbing the main structure and the content. Eg : support input
such as audio-visual aids, workshops and equipment.
 Restructuring : rearrangement of the curriculum in order to
implement desired changes.
Strategies of 1. Participative problem-solving
evaluation  strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they satisfy
these needs. The system identifies and diagnoses its own needs,
finds its own solution, tries out and evaluates the solution and
implements the solution if it is satisfactory.
2. Planned linkage
 The intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the
users of the innovation in this model.

3. Coercive strategies
 These strategies work on the basis of power and coercion by
those in authority, using laws, directories, circulars and others.
Ministries of Education generally used these strategies.
The Research, This views the processes of change as a logical sequence of phases in
Development and which an innovation is:
Diffusion Model 1. invented or discovered,
2. developed,
3. produced, and
4. disseminated to the user.

Problem solving This model is built with the user of the innovation in mind. The user of
model the innovation would follow the steps below.
1. Determine the problem.
2. Search for an innovation.
3. Evaluate the trials.
4. Implement the innovation.
Social interaction change proceeds or diffuses through formal or informal contacts between
model interacting social groups. The model stresses the importance of
interpersonal networks of information, opinion, leadership and personal
contact. This model is based on the following:
• awareness of innovation
• interest in the innovation
• trial
• adoption for permanent use.

Planning and • The change agent

implementation Change agents include teachers, school heads, local authorities or the
Ministry of Education. The agent initiates the innovation or curriculum
change in general.

• The innovation
This involves executing the change itself; in other words putting it into
use or operation.

• The user system

This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is
directed.
 • Time
Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time.

The innovation Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:
process 1. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.
2. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need.
3. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified
as the most appropriate.
4. Conduct a trial.
5. Evaluate the proposed solution.
6. Review the evaluation.
7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it
on a wide scale.
8. Adopt and institutionalise the innovation or search for another
solution.

Innovations Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following
planning elements are considered in the process:
• the personnel to be employed
• the specification of the actual task
• the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
• the equipment needed
• the buildings and conducive environment
• the costs involved
• social contexts
• time involved
• sequencing of activities
• rationale for undertaking the innovation
• evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation.

Conditions for Potential users of an innovation are more likely to accept it if the
Successful conditions below are met.
Implementation • The innovation must be relevant to them.
of Innovations • It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.
• It must be compatible with the practices, values and
characteristics of their system.
• It must pose little or no threat to the user group’s identity, integrity
and territory. The innovation must be seen to be tolerable and non-
threatening.
• The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains
in social status or recognition may be some of the non-material benefits
• It must be flexible and adaptable.