RT1D - Receiver Technology PDF

Radio School
RT1D Receiver technology
Transistor
Amplifier
Linearizing
Baseband signal
Circuit
Frequency
Multi- Modulator
plicator
Noise
Oscillator Interference
Antenna
VCO
Filter
Spurious
Noise
Frequency Synthesis
Phase Variable
Detector Divider
Baseband signal
Detector IF
HF
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Radio School

Table of Contents
1 Introduction..................................................... 7
2 Block diagrams............................................... 9
2.1 System requirements..................................................... 9
2.2 Superheterodyne receivers ......................................... 11
2.3 Homodyne receiver...................................................... 15
2.4 Gain and selectivity distribution................................... 18
2.5 HF selectivity in tunable receivers ............................... 24
2.6 System selectivity requirement in the GSM................. 27
3 Radio frequency amplifiers.......................... 29

3.1 HF amplifiers and HF filters ......................................... 29
3.2 IF amplifiers................................................................. 32
4 Mixers ............................................................ 35
4.1 General........................................................................ 35
4.2 Diode mixers ............................................................... 36
4.3 Gilbert-type transistor mixers....................................... 39
4.4 IQ mixer....................................................................... 40
5 Detectors ....................................................... 43
5.1 General........................................................................ 43
5.2 Coherent detection of linear modulation...................... 45
5.3 Noncoherent detection of angle modulation ................ 48
5.4 Coherent detection of angle modulation ...................... 60
Introduction
1 Introduction
The function of the receiver is to reconstitute the baseband information to

the transmitter from the information-carrying sidebands in the received
signal. Thus, the receiver has to:
a detect the received signal against a background of
noise and interference in the receiver pass band. This
capability is described by the detector characteristic,
i.e. the relationship between the C/N and the C/I in the
detector input and the signal-to-noise ratio or symbol
error rate in the detector output. Generally a perfect
detector without distorsion is assumed.
b select the wanted signal from a background of strong
out-of-band interference (outside the receiver pass
band). Practical limitations that can render this
impossible include blocking, spurious and
intermodulation and also degradation due to LO noise
(reciprocal mixing) and inadequate filter selectivity. The
acceptable interference level is determined by the
requirements on system selectivity.
The choice of block diagram and the requirements on the blocks are largely
determined by the system selectivity requirements. Spurious signals and
intermodulation are discussed inRT2B and RT2C, and the results used in
this module.
The usual receiver configuration is based on the superheterodyne principle,

whereby the filter selectivity is placed on one or more intermediate
frequencies (see Fig. 1.1, a). Superheterodyne is usually the optimum
arrangement if all functions up to and including the detector are based on
analogue implementation.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 7

Introduction
Block diagrams for radio receivers

a) Superheterodyne
f IF
Detector
fr
fr ± fIF
b) Homodyne or
direct conversion
A/D
π/2 Detector
fr
fr
A/D
Figure 1.1
Yet homodyne (direct conversion) and related arrangements appear to be a

more attractive long term proposition, with the change to digital signal
processing for detection and parts of the filtering (see Fig. 1.1, b). Digital
signal processing also has important implications for the block diagram as
a whole. Vital questions that must be answered are how early the
conversion from analogue to digital signal processing can take place, and
to what extent the needed filter selectivity can be realized by digital signal
processing. (In an wide-band receiver for many wanted carriers all the
channel selectivity is placed after the A/D conversion).
An overview of different receiver configurations is given in section 2. All the

block-diagrams contain some common building blocks, namely: Radio
frequency amplification and filtering Mixers DetectorsThese blocks are
discussed in sections 3-5. A simplified mathematical analysis of a
phase-locked detector is given in section 5.4 The concrete application
discussed is the threshold extension of FM detectors but the results can be
applied to other cases in which it is desirable to phase-lock an oscillator to
a carrier in a high-noise background.
This modules covers those parts of the receiver, which reconstitue the
analogue baseband signal fed to the transmitter modulator. The additional
signal processing at digital transmissions (matched filters sampling and
threshold detection) is discussed in other modules e.g. DT2, DT3 and DT7.
8 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

System requirements Block diagrams
2 Block diagrams
2.1 System requirements

The design of a block diagram for a radio receiver is based on the required
radio specification (see Fig. 2.1a) and the performance of the available
building blocks.
A primary requirement is that near optimum detection of the wanted signal

shall be possible against a background of noise and interference in the
same radio channel as the wanted signal (cochannel interference). This
means that filtering and detection shall not distort the base-band signal and
that the noise and interference at the receiver input, and internally
generated noise, shall make the lowest possible contribution to the noise in
the receiver output. Distortion can occur as a result of imperfect matching
of the detector's transfer function to that of the modulator or because of
distortion between the antenna and the detector of the mutual phase and
level relationships of components of the modulation spectrum.
The receiver must also tolerate strong iterference on other radio channels
with only minor degradation of the transmission quality. This property is
described by the system selectivity, which is a collective expression for the
characteristics of adjacent channel selectivity, blocking, and the
suppression of spurious and intermodulation products (see Fig. 2.1b).
To determine maximum tolerable interference level, a strong interfering

signal is fed to the receiver, which also receives a weak wanted signal
(corresponding to the sensitivity threshold). The level of the interference is
adjusted to cause a small degradation of the transmission quality. Detailed
definitions of what is meant by a “weak wanted signal” and “small
degradation” are given in the test documents. The requirement for system
selectivity differs widely between traditional and mobile radio (LMR) and
cellular mobile phones. We shall begin by studying the worst case (LMR).
The background to the stringent requirements is discussed in Module G1.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 9

System requirements Block diagrams
Radio requirements for receiver
1. Characteristics within the allocated channel

• Demodulation distortion
• Output signal level as a function of input level
• Required C/N
(N and I over the pass-band)
• Required C/I
• Frequency stability
2. System selectivity
• Adjacent channel selectivity

• Blocking
• Spurious (secondary channels)
• Intermodulation
Figure 2.1 a
Degradation factors associated with system selectivity
Acceptable interference level (level of wanted signal at fr : 0 dB)
I dB
100
Spurious
Blocking
Spurious
50 Adjacent Adjacent channel selectivity
Spurious
channel fr
attenuation
attenuation
0 f
Channel Protection ratio

spacing (for co-channel interference)
Figure 2.1 b
Detection of the wanted signal with low distortion is conditional on good

frequency stability, so that the receiver pass band is centred within the
allocated radio channel or matches the modulation spectrum of the wanted
received signal. The pass band must also be wide enough to pass all the
10 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Superheterodyne receivers Block diagrams
required modulation sidebands (which contribute to the wanted output

signal from the detector or which are required for low detection distortion).
2.2 Superheterodyne receivers

The basic block diagram for a superheterodyne (superhet) receiver is
shown in Fig. 2.2, a. The main selectivity requirements affecting the design
of the block diagram are adjacent channel attenuation, attenuation of the
image and other spurious (incl. intermodulation) and blocking. Adjacent
channel attenuation is achieved, above all, in the IF filter but it is also
necessary with low noise from the LO oscillator. These aspects are covered
in more detail in modules RT2A-C. One of the main advantages of a
superhet receiver over a straight receiver (without mixing down to IF) is that
improved gain stability and filter characteristics is possible at a suitably
chosen, fixed intermediate frequency. Mixing down from the antenna
frequency (receiver frequency, fr) to the intermediate frequency, however,
creates several complications that adversely affect the system selectivity.
Unwanted mixing products make the receiver sensitive to interference on
other radio channels (secondary channels). The reason for this is that when
an interference, whose frequency coincides with a secondary channel, is
mixed with the LO signal, a spurious signal that can pass through the IF
filter is generated by the mixer. This is discussed in detail in RT2B. We shall
confine ourselves here to the dominating receiver spurious - the image
frequency. In addition, the 2.2 spurious is discussed in section 2.5 below.
a)
HF IF
Detector
Channel
osc.
LO
b) Mixer 1 Mixer 2
HF IF1 IF2 Detector
Channel
osc.
LO2
LO1
Figure 2.2
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 11

Normal mixers have the same mixing gain for the wanted receiver
frequency, fr, and the image frequency, fim, (relative mixing attenuation:
0 dB). If the wanted receiver frequency corresponds to the equation
fr = fLO + fIF (sum mixing), then the image frequency can be obtained from
the equation: fim = fLO - fIF (difference mixing) (see Fig. 2.3). Alternatively,
the receiver frequency can be obtained from difference mixing, and the
corresponding image frequency from sum mixing. From the above follows
that the separation between the receiver frequency and the image
frequency is 2fIF. All other mixing products can be neglected at a perfect
"linear" mixer.
Total receiver selectivity is sum of IF and HF selectivity

Receiver frequency, fr = fLO + fIF (sum mixing)
Image frequency, fim = fLO - fIF (difference mixing)
HF IF
fr
fr f IF f IF
fsp
f LO
Attenuation
Equivalent receiver selectivity at mixer input
dB IF selectivity (transposition of IF selectivity)
HF
selectivity
f IF f im f LO fr f
Figure 2.3
To suppress an unwanted signal at the image frequency, the pre-mixer HF

selection must provide adequate attenuation. If only a small degradation of
the transmission quality is allowed, a common requirement is that the
spurious level from the mixer shall be at least 10 dB lower than the wanted
signal (10 dB carrier-to- interference ratio).
A typical requirement in land mobile radio systems is 80-dB image

selectivity. This means that the selectivity must be good enough to give
only a small degradation when an incoming interference is 80 dB higher
than the wanted signal. Since the relative image attenuation in the mixer is
0 dB, the HF filter must attenuate an input signal at the image frequency at
12 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

least 90 dB more than the wanted signal, if a carrier-to-interference ratio (C/

I) of 10 dB is to be obtained after the IF filter.
The lower the intermediate frequency chosen, the narrower will be the HF
selectivity needed to fulfil the image-suppression requirement. Due to
component limitations, it may still be necessary to use a relatively low IF
(relative to fr) in order to obtain sufficiently sharp and stable IF selectivity. If
the ratio of fr to fIF is very high, it may prove to be impossible to realize an
HF filter that can provide both high image rejection and low passband loss
(in order to fulfil the requirement for a low noise figure for the receiver).
(Other factors also need to be taken into account when choosing the
intermediate frequency in the case of receivers with a wide tuning range
and a fixed-tuned HF filter. This is dealt with in section 2.5 below.)
One solution may be to use a block diagram with two intermediate

frequencies, as shown in Fig. 2.2, b. (In extreme cases, even three
intermediate frequencies may be necessary.) Here, the main requirement
for IF1 selectivity will be to adequately suppress the image from the No. 2
mixer, and that for HF selectivity to adequately suppress the image from the
No. 1 mixer. However, introducing a second mixer could degrade the system
selectivity (additional spurious).
The block diagram for the receiver is also influenced by the type of
modulation employed. The main characteristic of interest is whether the
modulated radio signal has a constant or a varying signal envelope. In the
latter case, it is not generaly permissible to limit the signal in the
pre-detector stages. The original modulation with a varying signal envelope
was amplitude modulation (AM).
If the radio signal has a constant envelope, the receiver can deal with strong
level fluctuations of the received signal by clipping or limiting strong signals,
so that the level of the input signal to the detector remains largely constant
(desirable for optimum detector performance) (see Fig. 2.4, a). The figure
also shows the possibility of using automatic frequency control (AFC),
which continuously adjusts the receiver frequency to that of the carrier of the
received signal. An advantage of using a limiter instead of AGC is that it has
a fast response, i.e. it can easily handle rapid fluctuations (due to multipath
propagation) in the level of the incoming wanted signal.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 13

Receiver block diagrams
a) Constant-envelope modulation
Frequency
detector
Limiter
Frequency
IF filter monitoring
Channel
osc.
AFC (automatic frequency control)
b) Amplitude modulation
AM Det.
Level
monitoring
Channel
osc.
AGC (automatic gain control)
Figure 2.4
In a receiver for signals with a varying envelope, information needed for

optimum detection can be lost if the signal variations are suppressed by a
limiter. That is why automatic gain control (AGC) is used instead of a limiter
to make the input level to the detector independent of variations in the mean
level of the incoming signal (mean value across the modulation variations)
and to avoid overdriving active stages by strong signals (see Fig. 2.4, b).
AGC is based on a feedback loop to maintain a constant signal level to the

detector. For instance, the signal level can be measured in the detector,
which then generates a d.c. voltage proportional to the mean signal level.
This d.c. voltage controls the IF-amplifier gain and, possibly, the
HF-amplifier gain as well. The amplifier stages to which AGC is to be
applied must be chosen carefully, to avoid the risk of a stage being
overdriven and also so that the gain of the early stages is high enough to
give an acceptable noise figure. For this reason, it may be expedient to
introduce delayed AGC, whereby a rise in the level of the incoming signal is
compensated initially only by a reduction in the gain of the later stages in
the amplifier chain.
It is also essential that none of the blocks before the detector is overdriven
by strong interference on other radio channels than the receiver frequency.
(If a stage is limited by the wanted signal, the requirement is that this signal
shall dominate over all unwanted signals occurring simultaneously.) If a
stage should be overdriven by interference that are larger than the wanted
14 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Homodyne receiver Block diagrams
signal, the gain for this signal would be drastically reduced and the receiver
subject to blocking. (See section 2.4). To avoid this, accurate matching of
the filter selectivity, gain and overload levels must be made stage by stage.
The overall gain possible up to a certain point in the amplifier chain will be
determined by how much the dominating unwanted signals have been
suppressed by the selectivity of preceding stages. This is discussed below.
2.3 Homodyne receiver

The practical implementation of receivers will be increasingly based on
digital signal processing. This is introduced as a first step for the detector
and subsequent signal processing. The simplest arrangement, which also
places the digital signal processing at the lowest possible frequency
(advanageous from the points of view of component limitations and low
power consumption), involves mixing of the incoming wanted signal down
to two baseband channels in quadrature (Ib and Qb) immediately after the
HF stage. This means that the IF filter is replaced by two low-pass filters.
The block diagram for a homodyne receiver is shown in Fig. 2.5a.
The homodyne receiver and related receiver arrangements do not need HF

filtering to suppress images and other spurious. However, HF filtering may
still be needed to improve the blocking characteristics, although the filter
requirements are then often less demanding. A low HF selectivity
requirement facilitates the use of monolithic technology.
A modification that can be made to the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.5a is

to place part of the IF selectivity after the A/D converter. However, this
requires an A/D converter with good dynamic range and high linearity and
also an increase in the sampling frequency, so that unwanted signals are
not moved into the pass band through aliasing. The sampling frequency
must be at least twice the width of the frequency band carrying the wanted
and unwanted signals. The dynamic range requirement is also stricter if
there is a wide variation of the level of the wanted signal at the A/D converter
input. A limiter or AGC arrangement should therefore be introduced
between the receiver input and the A/D converter.
Unfortunately, some extremely strict requirements are imposed on the

building blocks in the homodyne receiver shown in Fig. 2.5a. The high
requirement on d.c. balance and low frequency 1/f (flicker) noise in the
mixer down to d.c. can render realization impossible with presently
available components.
It might be possible to block the d.c. voltage from the mixer by means of a
capacitor in the output. However, this means that the modulation sideband
close to the carrier will also be suppressed. A further complication in TDMA
is that the level of the d.c. voltage changes with each data burst received.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 15

Even if the d.c. voltage is blocked by a capacitor, a transient will arise and
this will have to decay before the subsequent amplifier will be able to
operate.
There are two block diagram options in which these problems do not arise.
One option is to introduce a conventional IF filter with high enough
selectivity to achieve considerable attenuation of all interferences on other
channels (see Fig. 2.5b). This allows high amplification to be introduced in
advance of the IQ mixers without the risk of blocking. The requirement for
good d.c. balance and low 1/f noise in the mixers is thus substantially
reduced.
Homodyne receiver
[
S = Re ( Ib + jQb )e jω 0 t ] Qb
A/D
+45° Detector
-45°
A/D
Channel Ib
osc.
Figure 2.5 a
Another way to overcome the problem of d.c. unbalance is to use an

extremely low intermediate frequency: fIF = 1/2 x (channel spacing) (see
Fig. 2.6). Strictly speaking, this block diagram is not a homodyne receiver,
although the requirements on the individual blocks are very similar.
Superhet receiver with mixing to the (I+Q) baseband
HF IF
Qb
A/D Detector
Ib
Channel
Provides most
oscillator
of the system
selectivity including Same as in Fig. 2.5a
high adjacent
channel selectivity
Figure 2.5 b
16 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Image-suppressing mixer
Channel oscillator
HF A/D Detector
fIF = 1/2 (channel spacing)

Channel
osc.
Selectivity in
IF selection mixer input
B
A
f
f im f LO fr
f r1 f r2 f r3 f r4
Channel
Modulation spacing
bandwidth
A: Suppression of lower adjacent channel (image suppression in mixer)
B: Suppression of upper adjacent channel (filter selection)
Figure 2.6
With this IF one of the adjacent channels will end up at the image frequency,
which would appear to be totally unacceptable, as the HF filter would give
no adjacent channel attenuation. The solution is to employ an
image-suppressing mixer (see Fig. 2.7). (The same coupling can be used
to suppress the unwanted sideband in the generation and detection of sigle
sideband signals - see Fig. 5.2.)
In an analogue realization of Fig. 2.7, about 30 dB suppression is possible

in practice. This is a long way from the 70–80 dB adjacent channel
suppression discussed earlier. Nonetheless, the block diagram is still
interesting because in the frequency planning for a cellular mobile
telephone system we can ensure that adjacent channels are not assigned
to the same or adjacent cells. This considerably reduces the suppression
required for adjacent channels. One example is the GSM, which specifies
adjacent channel suppression of 9 dB. This requires approximatly 20 dB
image suppression to obtain a 10 dB C/I after the IF filter. A better balance–
and thus higher image suppression–can be obtained by using digital signal
processing to implement the image-suppressing-mixer function.
The fast development in the areas of fast A/D converters and advanced
digital signal processing makes it now possible to implement wide-band
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 17

Gain and selectivity distribution Block diagrams
receivers, see module RT1E. This means that the receiver blocks from the
antenna including the A/D-converter are wideband.
Image-suppressing mixer
Wanted receiver frequency: ω o + ω 1
Image frequency: ωo − ω1
Intermediate frequency: ω1
[
cos(ω ot + ϕ ) a1 cos(ω o + ω 1 )t + a2 cos(ω o − ω 1 )t = ]
a1 a
= cos(ω 1t − ϕ ) + 2 cos(ω 1t + ϕ ) + 2ω o − termer
a1 cos(ω o + ω 1 )t +
2 2
+ a2 cos(ω o − ω 1 )t cos(ω ot + ϕ )
From HF filter a1 cos(ω 1t − ϕ )
π π To IF filter
− −
2 2
sin(ω ot + ϕ )
a1 sin(ω o + ω 1 )t +
[
sin(ω ot + ϕ ) a1 sin(ω o + ω 1 )t + a2 sin(ω o − ω 1 )t =]
+ a2 sin(ω o − ω 1 )t
a1 a
= cos(ω 1t − ϕ ) − 2 cos(ω 1t + ϕ ) + 2ω o − termer
2 2
Suppression is obtained of input signal: a2 cos (ω o − ω 1 )t
Figure 2.7
2.4 Gain and selectivity distribution

The receiver shall tolerate strong interference from nearby transmitters
operating on other radio channels (good system selectivity) without any
significant degradation of its detection characteristics, even if the wanted
signal is at the sensitivity threshold. We shall look at the situation in
analogue LMR with 25kHz channel spacing, which typically corresponds to
a 16kHz modulation or IF bandwidth. As per Fig. 2.8, the sensitivity
threshold corresponds to a signal level of -140 dBW or 0.7 µV input voltage,
assuming a typical 10dB system noise figure.
18 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Land mobile receiver sensitivity threshold (25-kHz channel spacing): Cmin
System noise figure

Fs = 10 dB
(C/N) min = 10 dB
Detector
Cmin S/N
BIF = 16 kHz
(42 dBHz)
N = kTo Fs BIFMF = −204 + 10 + 42 = −152dBW

Cmin = −152 + 10 = −142dBW
Typical sensitivity threshold C=-140 dBW
0,7 µV (rms) antenna output voltage over 50 Ω:
0, 5 ⋅ 10 −12
C= = 10 −14 = −140 dBW
50
Figure 2.8
As discussed in Module G1, the requirement for system selectivity involves

a trade-off between system performance and equipment limitations. A
typical compromise in LMR is C/Iadj = 80 dB (adjacent channel selectivity)
and C/Ibl = 100 dB (blocking). This corresponds to a maximum allowed
interference level in the receiver input of Iadj = 60 dB from adjacent channels
and Ibl = 40 dB for blocking. From a system point of view, this means that
the propagation loss in respect of an interfering transmitter on an adjacent
channel must be at least 70 dB and at least 50 dB for blocking, for an
assumed transmission power of 10 W (see Fig. 2.9).
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 19

Acceptable interference levels in the receiver input fr

I=P-LdBW C=-140dBW
Interfering
Receiver
transmitter
P≈10W
Propagation loss, L
Blocking: L=50 dB Ibl =-40 dBW Ibl /C=100 dB

Adjacent channel: L=70 dB Iadj =-60 dBW Iadj /C=80 dB
(L = Propagation loss; Ibl=Le vel of interference causing blocking;

Iadj=Interference corresponding to adjacent channel selecti vity)
Figure 2.9
As discussed in section 2.2, we can assume that a C/I after the IF filter of
10 dB gives acceptable transmitter quality. When designing a receiver, we
need to take into account several mechanisms that can reduce the post-IF
filter C/I:
a Intermodulation between two strong incoming
unwanted signals (gain distribution and intercept
points)
b Reciprocal mixing with LO noise(noise spectrum of
the LO signal)
c Spurious signals(gain distribution and intercept
points)
These mechanisms are discussed in modules RT2 A-C
There are two further mechanisms that can reduce the C/I after the IF filter:
d Inadequate IF filter selectivity and including leakage
due to insufficient shielding.
e Blocking as a result of saturation of amplifier or mixer
stages (gain/selectivity distribution and saturation level
of active stages)
The first condition that the receiver must meet in order to cope with
interference on near-by channels is adequate selectivity in the IF filter.
As regards adjacent channel selectivity, the situation is further complicated
in that the selectivity is usually measured with a modulated interference
signal. If we disregard this, then the requirement for attenuation of the
20 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

adjacent channel (fr ± 25 kHz) by the IF filter will be 80 +10 = 90 dB.

Similarly, the attenuation requirement for a blocking signal with level
corresponding to the blocking specification at a distance of at least several
channel increments from fr might be around 100 dB. (Equipment limitations
will generally determine the distance from fr that the full blocking
performance is obtained. If the full blocking specification shall be satisfied
also in the HF filter's pass band, the active stages prior to IF selection will
have to meet too high requirements in terms of their dynamic
characteristics.)
A typical specification for an IF filter for LMR with 25-kHz channel spacing
(10.7-ΜHz crystal filter) is shown in Fig. 2.10. Attenuation of 90 dB for
adjacent channels is specified. In addition, 70-dB attenuation is required at
a frequency separation of 17.5 kHz. The reason for this is that the specified
adjacent channel selectivity must be obtained even if the adjacent channel
interference is frequency modulated (half modulation bandwidth 7,5 kHz).
Crystal filter for 25-kHz channel spacing
Specification
110 110
100 100
Attenuation (dB) ref. lowest loss point
25 kHz
90 90
80 80
70 17.5 17.5 70
kHz kHz
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
15 kHz
10 10
0 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50
Frequency (kHz) ref. 10.7 MHz
(Specification: The selectivity curve
must not enter the shaded areas)
Figure 2.10
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 21

Another condition that must be met if the receiver is to comply with the
required system selectivity is that strong unwanted signals must not
saturate any of the active stages between the antenna and the detector.
This means that the gain for the wanted signal (and thus the interference)
must be kept down until the filter selectivity has sufficiently reduced the I/C.
The saturation level of an amplifier stage is mainly determined by the

supplied d.c. power. Let's assume that the receiver is part of a portable
terminal that must meet strict requirements for low power consumption. It is
reasonable to assume that the d.c. power applied to an amplifier stage must
not exceed 2.5 mW. This is roughly equivalent to a blocking level of 1 mW
in respect of the unwanted signal in the output, which gives a 3-dB reduction
in the receiver sensitivity. Apart from this extreme blocking case, let us
assume a maximum interference level of 0.1 mW in the output of an active
stage. This interference level would have a nearly negligible effect on the
normal operation of the stage (see Fig. 2.11).
Blocking level referred to the output of a class-A amplif
5V
2.5 mW
0.5 mA
Class-A Cˆ  Blocking level:

stage  ≈ 1mW = −30 dBW
ier Iˆ 
Maximum output power:

For normal operating conditions: C, I = -40dBW
Blocking limit Ibl = -30dBW
C: max level of wanted signal if amplitude modulated
Figure 2.11
Given these conditions, we can develop Fig. 2.2 to the arrangement shown
in Fig. 2.12. It is assumed that the level of the wanted signal must be at least
-30 dBW (e.g. 1 V over 1.000 ohm) at the detector input. The detector will
usually incorporate semiconductor diodes or the equivalent with strongly
nonlinear characteristics for low voltages. This means that the signal
voltage to the detector will generally need to exceed 1 V to produce a linear
detector function.
The mixer is also an active stage that can be saturated by strong

interference. However, the main complication is mixer spurious, which are
discussed in RT2B and RT2C. With respect to blocking, we consider the
mixer to be a typical active stage, i.e. we assume that the maximum
22 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

acceptable level of adjacent channel interference is -30 dBW for blocking

and -40 dBW for negligible degradation.
If the blocking specification is to be met so close to the receiver frequency

that the HF filter selectivity is negligible, the gain from the receiver input to
the mixer output must not exceed GHF = 10 dB. Otherwise, an interference
level of Ibl = -40 dBW in the input will give rise to blocking in the mixer. The
remaining amplification up to the level of 1mW into the detector must
therefore be positioned after the IF filter (GIF ≈ 100 dB). If an amplifier stage
were to be introduced between the mixer and the IF filter (which often has
relatively high passband attenuation), this stage would become critical with
respect to blocking. (One reason for introducing two intermediate
frequencies can be the difficulty of obtaining stable 100 dB gain on one
frequency.)
A drawback with a low HF gain is the higher overall noise figure for the
receiver. When designing the receiver, we therefore have to make a trade-off
between sensitivity (noise figure/noise temperature) on the one hand and
blocking and spurious characteristics on the other. This is discussed in
RT2E.
Figure 2.12 also shows the requirements as above for the out-of-band
rejection, Lrej, and image suppression in the IF filter. To obtain 80-dB image
suppression (i.e. C/Iim = -80 dB), the image rejection in the HF filter must
be at least 90 dB.
The above analysis of how the block diagram for the receiver is influenced
by the requirement for system selectivity is based on much simplified
assumptions and assumng a typical LMR application. The last two items in
section 2 supplement the previous analysis in two respects:
a Requirement for HF selectivity in a wide-band
receiver; (section 2.5)
b Reduced system selectivity requirement in cellular
systems such as GSM (section 2.6)
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 23

HF selectivity in tunable receivers Block diagrams
Gain and selectivity distribution in an LMR receiver

(Required system selectivity 80 dB and blocking 100 dB rel. to -140 dBW)
Blocking level:
Îbl = -30 dBW
C=-140 dBW
C/Iim =10 dB C/I=10 dB C=-30 dBW
Detector
Image-frequency
attenuation,
90 dB
GHF =10 dB GIF =100 dB
Iadj = –60dBW
Iim = –60dBW
Ibl = –40dBW
(Lrej)bl = 110 dB GHF represents a trade-off
between sensitivity and
(Lrej)adj = 90 dB interference characteristics
C/Iim = 80dB L rej dB fadjl : Lower adjacent channel
Specified fadju: Upper adjacent channel
C/Iadj = 80dB system 110
fim : Image
selectivity
C/Ibl = 100dB 90 Lrej : Required IF-filter
selectivity
fr : Receiver frequency
f
fadjl fr fadju fim
Figure 2.12
2.5 HF selectivity in tunable receivers

In a receiver with a wide tuning range and a fixed-tuned HF filter, often it is
not the image that imposes the strictest requirements on HF selectivity but
IF
the 2.2-spurious, which lies at a frequency distance of f ------- from the
2
receiver frequency. The background to this is described in RT2B. The mixer
attenuation of the 2.2-spurious is typically 60 dB, which means that 30-dB
HF attenuation of this spurious is required if 80-dB spurious attenuation
and a C/I of 10 dB after the IF filter is specified.
24 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

If it is to be possible to tune the receiver over the specified frequency band

without tuning the HF filter, in the worst case (the worst radio channel) the
2.2-spurious will fall close to the receiver band to be covered (see Figs. 2.13
and 2.14).
Wide-band receiver
HF IF
fin = f IF
= fo ± m ⋅ ∆ fLO 2
1dB B≈ ∆
n 3
m≈
2 B >A ( fLO = fin ± fMF )
Receiver tuning range
"n" radio channels
with ∆ channel spacing
f in
fo
A: Tuning range
A = n⋅∆
Figure 2.13
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 25

HF selectivity in a multi-channel receiver

A) Wide tuning range
Input signal 2/2 LO Image
dB
0 f
≈ 1dB
Steep filter flank
A with strict tolerance
30
≈ 30 dB
fIF /2
90
Difficult to implement the HF filter if:
A. fIF < 3A Tight form-factor specification
B. fIF << fo High Qo for low pass-band attenuation
B) Narrow tuning range

Input signal 2/2 LO Image
dB
0 f
30
fIF /2
90
Figure 2.14
The situation is worse at a low intermediate frequency. As can be seen from

Fig. 2.14, a reasonable rule-of-thumb is that the intermediate frequency
should not be less than three times the tuning range. Thus, if the receiver
is to cover a 20 MHz band, the intermediate frequency should not be lower
than 60 MHz. (With moderate requirements for spurious attenuation, HF
filter suppression of the 2.2 spurious is not needed, enabling a lower IF
frequency to be used.)
26 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

System selectivity requirement in the GSM Block diagrams
2.6 System selectivity requirement in the GSM

In cellular telephone systems, the requirements on system selectivity can
to some extent be reduced without any serious impact on the frequency
utilization. This is mainly because of the frequency planning used for
cellular systems, which have access to an exclusive frequency band. In
traditional LMR, where a number ofindependent users have to share a
common frequency band, there is a much greater likelihood of strong
mutual interference when a terminal is in close proximity to a base station
belonging to a different network. This case has been discussed in Module
G1.
The long-term trend is also towards less stringent demands on system

selectivity. The reason is that since most radio traffic will occur in micro and
picocells, there will be a substantial reduction in the average transmission
power and, therefore, a corresponding reduction in interference levels.
Relaxing of the system-selectivity specification considerably facilitates

greater circuit integration, the ultimate aim being to accommodate all
receiver functions in one monolithic circuit. The GSM is an example of a
cellular system in which it has been possible to reduce the
system-selectivity requirements, for interference close to the receiver
frequency.
A summary of the GSM specification items that relate to system selectivity

is given in Fig. 2.15. The figure is not comprehensive and the only quality
measure given concerns a static channel not subject to multipath
propagation. The full specification also contains requirements to different
combinations of Rayleigh fading and time dispersion.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 27

System selectivity requirement in the GSM Block diagrams
Radio specification for a GSM receiver
Quality characteristic: Bit error probability for a static channel.

No multipath propagation.
a) Reference sensitivity (noise-limited sensitivity)
Co = −132dBW ⇒ pb < 2%
b) Intermodulation c) Spurious
fI 1 = ±800 kHz fI 2 = ±1600 kHz C = -129dBW pb < 2%
 Isp 
C = −129 dBW I1 = I2 = −79 dBW f − fo MHz
 C  dB
pb < 2% 0.6 – 1.6 56
1.6 – 3 66
3– 76
d) Interference on adjacent channels
I/C dB
50 49
40 41
C=-115 dBW (>>C o )
30 p b < 4%
20
Adjacent channel
10 9 (f-fo)
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 kHz

-9
-10 Cochannel
e) Blocking
Ibl dBW C =-129 dBW
-50 pb< 2 %
-53
-60
-63
-70 Ibl
-73 = 59 dB
C0
(f-fo)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2MHz 3
(Outside the 915-980 MHz band, Ibl = -30 dBW shall be tolerated.)
Figure 2.15
28 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

HF amplifiers and HF filters Radio frequency amplifiers
3 Radio frequency amplifiers
3.1 HF amplifiers and HF filters

The criteria to be met by an HF amplifier are low noise figure, high
saturation level and sometimes suitable input or output impedances to
match an antenna or feeder. An additional requirement for low power
consumption applies to mobile and portable terminals. It may be necessary
with a trade-off between low power drain and low noise figure on the one
hand, and high blocking level on the other. To achieve good blocking and
spurious characteristics, low HF gain is desirable, although this adversely
affects the receiver's noise figure (see RT2A-C).
The blocking level referred to the amplifier output roughly corresponds to

the 1-dB compression point, which, in turn, is related to the maximum
output from the stage when it is driven to saturation point. A class-A
amplifier stage that is optimized for maximum efficiency has a theoretical
efficiency of 50%, if the d.c. resistance in the collector load is negligible. The
intercept point (see RT2B) is also associated with the applied d.c. power but
can also be influenced by different linearization measures (feedback loop
or predistortion).
The overload characteristics and intercept point are influenced by the

off-resonance characteristics of the collector load. This must be taken into
account if signals deviating widely from the receiver frequency could give
rise to spurious signals or blocking.
In theory, there is no direct link between the input impedance of a transistor

stage (which determines the generator impedance that gives conjugate
matching) and the generator impedance that resuls in the lowest noise
figure. Both cases can be made to correspond through the use of a suitable
feedback network that influences the effective input impedance of the stage
without having any significant effect on the noise characteristics. However,
a resistive feedback network generates additional noise.
The combination of high loaded Q-value (high HF selectivity) and low

pass-band attenuation often results in such a high unloaded Q-value in the
resonant circuits that discrete LC or line-based structures have to be used.
This limits the scope for integration.
A balanced coupling is often used in conjunction with monolithic realization

of the HF stage. A conventional balun, for instance, provides coupling
between a 50-Ω unbalanced and a 200-Ω balanced impedance. A
simplified circuit diagram for a balanced HF amplifier is shown in Fig. 3.1.
This arrangement is known as a Gilbert cell. A d.c. current generator with a
high internal impedance feeds the base. A common type of current
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 29

generator is the current mirror, the principle of which is shown in Fig. 3.2. If
the transistors are identical and the collector current is almost independent
of the collector voltage, the currents flowing through the transistors will be
the same if the base-emitter voltages are the same.
Balanced amplifier stage (Gilbert cell)

∆V
Vcc
Rc Rc
I c1 I c2
∆V
Vbe1 Vbe2
Vi Vi
-4VT-2V T 2VT 4V T
(see Fig. 3.2)
I EE
current generator

V
− be 1
Ic 1 = I s e VT
 kT I +I ≈ I
V =
Vbe 2  T
≈ 0, 026 volt C1 C2 EE
−
VT  q
Ic 2 = I s e 
(q = Electron charge)
 −V 
∆V = Rk αIEE tanh i 
 2VT 
Figure 3.1
Current mirror as current generator

V cc
I0 ≈ I1 ≈ I2
if the transistors are identical
Io I1 I2
I1 I2
Re Re Re
Figure 3.2
30 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Without emitter feedback, the linear operating range is largely limited to the
range defined by -VT to +VT. VT = kT/q ≈ 26 mV (where “q” is the electron
charge). The output range can be increased through emitter feedback but
at the cost of a reduction in the gain (see Fig. 3.3). If the curve for
IEERE = 10 VT is chosen, for instance, saturation will occur at an input
voltage having a peak-to-peak value of 25 VT ≈ 0.66 V, i.e. an effective
value of 220 mV. If the impedance is 200 ohm, this will correspond to an
input power of -6 dBm (approximate blocking level).
Gilbert cell with increased operating range
VCC ∆V
RE =0
∆V
RE RE Vi
Vi -20VT -10VT 10VT 20VT
IEE R E =20VT
IEE R E =10VT
Figure 3.3
The drawback with emitter feedback is that the input impedance is very high
- probably deviating widely from the generator impedance that gives the
best noise figure. This can be remedied by introducing a feedback loop
between collector and base (a shunt circuit) as shown in Fig. 3.4. Because
of the Miller effect, Rf ends up as an effective resistance across the input of
Rf
------------- , where “A” is the voltage gain of the stage. (The figure is an extreme
1+A
simplification as high frequency effect have been disregarded).
The introduction of emitter resistance and/or shunt resistance has a

somewhat adverse effect on the noise characteristics. On the other hand,
feedback in a bipolar transistor stage, gives a considerable increase in the
intercept point. Without feedback, the exponential relationship between the
base voltage and the collector current will give rise to considerable
distortion.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 31

IF amplifiers Radio frequency amplifiers
Collector-base feedback influences the input impedance

Vcc
Rc
-AVin
Rf
R in Rf
Rin ≈ ( Re ⋅ β)
1+ A
Om
If β storthen:
ReβRehigh, :
Vin Re Rf
Rin ≈
1+ A
Figure 3.4
3.2 IF amplifiers
A receiver for constant-envelope modulation usually includes a limiter to
provide a constant signal level to the detector over a wide range of signal
inputs to the receiver. The higher the level of the receiver input signal, the
earlier the limiter needs to be placed in the IF amplifier stage. A symmetrical
limiter, i.e. one generating a square output wave, is critical to good detector
performance. This is facilitated by balanced design of the IF amplifier.
Most of the filtering in a receiver is often assigned to a highly selective IF

filter having a narrow pass band and steep filter flanks (e.g. a multi-pole
crystal filter). It is mainly this filter that can influence the mutual amplitude
and phase relations of the information-carrying sidebands in the received
signal.
Consequently, an unsuitable IF filter response curve will give rise to

distortion in analogue transmission (frequency modulation) and intersymbol
interference in digital transmission. High pass-band attenuation in the IF
filter also adversely affects the sensitivity of the receiver. Thus, the filter
should not contain resistive matching networks but instead be
direct-coupled to the selective coupling networks in the preceding and
following active stages. In addition, since the filter's transfer function is
strongly influenced by the input and output impedance level, these must be
accurately adjusted to the values specified by the manufacturer.
In analogue transmission, the amplitude curve of the filter is most

important. The width of the pass band must be sufficient to pass the
essential modulation sidebands but, at the same time, the slope of the
32 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

flanks must be steep enough to fulfil the specified attenuation of adjacent

channels. Usually, a Chebychev-type filter curve is used. However, since
this type of filter has relatively poor transient characteristics (long ringing
that can result in a considerable blocked interval after an impulse
disturbance), a more rounded filter curve with better transient
characteristics has been tried in some cases. If there is a nearly constant
group delay over the pass band, the optimum phase relations between the
modulation sidebands are maintained. This also contributes towards
reduced distortion.
In digital transmission, it is vital that the transmitter and receiver filters

together fulfil the Nyquist condition (amplitude condition and linear
phase-frequency characteristic) so that intersymbol interference is avoided.
A serious complication here is that the abrupt transition from a relatively flat
pass band to a steep flank creates heavy delay distortion in the pass-band
edges. This is a reason for using filters that have a rounded pass band and
flanks with a gradually increasing slope. However, when large adjacent
channel selectivity are specified, this implies a significant increase in the
channel spacing at a given pass-band (modulation) bandwidth.
Consequently, relatively low adjacent channel attenuation (e.g. 9 dB in the
GSM) is usually specified in digital cellular systems. (A further motivation
could be slow drop-off of the modulation spectrum).
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 33

34 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

General Mixers
4 Mixers
4.1 General
This section discusses mixers for both transmitters and receivers.
The most important characteristics of a mixer are as follows:
• Mixer gain, i.e. the ratio of the level of the wanted output signal
to that of the input signal
• Noise figure, including 1/f-noise
• Attenuation of unwanted mixing products in the output relative to

the wanted signal. (Mixer spurious attenuation)
Noise characteristics are discussed in RT2A. Spurious signals mostly

emanate from the mixing of the input signal and the LO signal, which is
discussed in RT2B and RT2C. The following discussion of the intercept
point is mainly associated with RT2B.
The higher the intercept point, the better will be the spurious characteristics.
Leakage of the LO signal to the input of a receiver mixer can also be a

problem. If there is insufficient attenuation between the mixer input and the
antenna, spurious of too high level may be emitted from the receiver
antenna.
The basic function of the mixer is to perform a frequency transposition of the

incoming signal. In a linear mixer, the mutual level and phase relations in
the modulation spectrum are retained and no additional spectrum
components are formed.
A special case is that of mixing down to the zero frequency in a homodyne

or direct conversion receiver. Here, the d.c. balance and low-frequency 1/f
noise are important characteristics. The usual way of reducing the d.c. level
in the output is to use a balanced mixer. As the balancing is not perfect there
is leakage of the strong reference signal to the mixer output.
The corresponding case on the transmitter side is mixing-up the IQ

baseband signals to the transmitter frequency using double balanced
mixers. Here, the d.c. unbalance generates an unwanted carrier component
(carrier leakage). This is discussed in RT1C.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 35

Diode mixers Mixers
4.2 Diode mixers

This is the most common discrete type of mixer. Usually, a ring modulator
containing four diodes in a double balanced arrangement is used (see
Fig. 4.1). In a perfectly balanced arrangement, both the input frequency and
the LO frequency are suppressed in the mixer output. In addition the
leakage of LO-signal from the input port is suppressed. The LO signal is
relatively large (a few mW), whereas the input signal is considerably lower.
The LO signal controls the switching of the diodes between forward and
reverse bias, and the diode bridge functions as a polarity changer, with
switching occurring at every half-cycle of the LO signal.
A diagram of the result for a sinusoidal baseband signal is shown in

Fig. 4.1. The output signal from the mixer can be described mathematically
as the product of the input baseband signal and the polarity-switchng
function, g(t). This can be expressed as a Fourier series, whose
fundamental frequency is the LO frequency, ω0. It is only the fundamental
that normally is of interest. Other terms in the series correspond to output
signals in other frequency bands.
Ideal mixer/multiplier generating AM with suppressed carrier (DSBAM-sc)

Ring modulator
sb
s'r f
sb ωo
Baseband g(t) polarity-switching function; fundamental ωo

ωo +1
signal
sr
Local Radio signal f
oscillator
−1
sb = Sˆ cos ω t t
sr′ = sb ⋅ g(t )
g(t ) = a1 cos ω ot + a3 cos 3ω t + ...
g ′ (t ) 3ω o , 5ω o ... f
Suppressed by output filter
sb ⋅ g′(t ) = Sˆ cos ω t t ⋅ a1 cos ω ot =

ˆ 1 (cos(ω − ω )t + cos(ω + ω )t )
= Sa 1 o t o t
2
a1 = 2 gives a mixer gain = 1
Figure 4.1
36 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Diode mixers Mixers
If the diode-switching function is ideal, with instantaneous switching and

negligible diode resistance when conducting, and the input signal is a pure
sine signal, the output signal only consist of frequency components of the
order m = 1 of the input signal. This means that the intercept point will occur
at infinite power. If, in addition, the generator impedance (input frequency)
and load impedance (output frequency) are conjugate matched to the input
and output of the mixer, a mixing loss of about 4 dB is incurred. However,
there are two essential differences between this model of an ideal polarity
changer and a practical mixer implementation:
a The diodes switch from reverse bias to forward bias
at a forward voltage of approx. 0.4 V. For a finite LO
level, this means that for a brief period during switching,
no current flows between the input and the output.
Together with the forward resistance of the diodes, this
gives rise to an increase in the mixing loss. For typical
LO signal levels, the mixing loss will be 6-8 dB (as
against 4 dB for an ideal polarity changer).
The mixer is bilateral, that is, the generated output
signal is mixed with the LO signal, giving a signal of the
input frequency. The relative phase position of the two
signals of input frequency is influenced by the load and
generator impedances. The mixing loss is minimized
when the relative phase position of the components of
input frequency is optimum. This property can therefore
be utilized for fine-tuning of the mixer to obtain the
lowest mixing loss and noise figure. The potential
improvement, however, is fairly small.
b For a brief period during polarity switching, the
instantaneous values of the LO signal and the input
signal are nearly equal. This means that the combined
influence of these two signals determines the precise
instant at which polarity switching will occur. This differs
from the ideal multiplicative mixer function. The result is
that additional spurious mixing products are generated
whose “m” values are not equal to one. The mixer
therefore has a finite intercept point, the position of
which is determined by the level of the LO signal.
We can study the characteristics of a ring-modulator based mixer from the

following data sheet (see Fig. 4.2).
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 37

Diode mixers Mixers
Mixer intermodulation products

(relative to desired IF output)
0 - 22 24 16 31 30 32 36 0 - 12 15 6 19 20 18 24
RF Order Harmonic
RF Order Harmonic
1 33 - 35 18 44 27 45 38 1 32 - 36 17 45 25 46 38
2 69 57 52 56 61 52 48 63 2 73 66 62 68 71 61 58 67
3 59 47 56 45 56 46 74 51 3 >73 68 >73 66 >73 67 73 70
4 77 82 >83 75 80 72 77 70 4 >73 >72 >73 >74 >74 >73 >74 >77
5 >83 >84 >84 73 83 72 78 73 5 >74 >74 >73 >74 >74 >74 >72 >74
6 >77 >83 >83 >85 >84 >84 <84 >84 6 >69 >75 <75 >73 >73 >74 >75 >74
7 >77 >77 >84 >84 >84 >83 <83 >85 7 >67 >67 >73 >74 >74 >73 >73 >74
8 >78 >78 >77 >84 >84 >85 <82 >84 8 >68 >66 >68 >74 >75 >74 >73 >74
9 >78 >79 >77 >78 >83 >84 <83 >83 9 >68 >68 >67 >68 >74 >75 >74 >73
10 >79 78 >78 >78 >76 >84 <84 >84 10 >69 >68 >68 >69 >68 >74 >73 >73
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Harmonic LO Order (n) Harmonic LO Order (n)
test conditions: test conditions:
RF. = IN: FREQ. 1000. 1 MHZ DRIVE -4DBM RF. = IN: FREQ. 1000. 1 MHZ DRIVE -14.07DBM
LO. = IN: FREQ. 970.01 MHZ DRIVE +9.98 DBM LO. = IN: FREQ. 970.01 MHZ DRIVE +9.98 DBM
IF = MEASURED: FREQ. 30.09 AMP. = -11.23 DBM IF = MEASURED: FREQ. 30.09 AMP. = -21.46 DBM
Conversion Loss
(dB)
RF LO LO LO
MHz MHz + 7dBm + 10dBm
10 40 7.09 6.53
20 50 7.15 6.60
100 70 7.10 6.55
200 170 7.14 6.56
400 370 7.36 6.74
500 470 7.13 6.52

790 760 7.40 6.70
920 890 7.71 6.76
1180 1150 8.13 7.30
1310 1280 8.32 7.30
1500 1470 7.32 6.54

1700 1670 7.69 6.91
1830 1800 7.60 6.97
2000 1970 7.61 7.07
2200 2170 7.47 6.97
2480 2450 7.51 6.93

2610 2580 7.71 7.08
2740 2710 8.11 7.45
2870 2840 8.18 7.56
3000 2970 8.63 8.31
Figure 4.2
38 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Gilbert-type transistor mixers Mixers
At the bottom of the sheet we can find the mixing (conversion)loss for
different receiver (RF) and LO frequencies and two levels of LO signal
power. As can be seen, the loss increases with an increase in the input
frequency and is slightly lower for a 10-mW LO signal than for a 5-mW
signal. The figure also shows the mixing loss for different mixer products for
two levels of the input signal. The attenuation increases sharply with an
increase in the order m of the input frequency, the increase is much less for
increased order n of the stronger LO signal. Balancing results in some
suppression of the mixing products with m = 2 or n = 2.
4.3 Gilbert-type transistor mixers

This mixer arrangement is suitable for monolithic implementation. As in the
ring modulator, a strong LO signal controls a polarity-switching function,
which, in this case, is provided by a Gilbert cell. The input signal to the mixer
is the AC-component of the current from the current generator. The basic
principle of the mixer is shown in Fig. 4.3.
Mixer. Polarity-switching function provided by a Gilbert cell.

Vcc I in (Input signal)
Vout
VLO (Local oscillator)

I in
t
VLO
Input signal: Iin Vout (Output signal)
Figure 4.3
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 39

IQ mixer Mixers
It is appropriate to use balanced amplifier and mixer stages for the wanted
input signal to the receiver, in which case two cells, as shown in Fig. 4.3, are
combined (see Fig. 4.4). To improve the dynamic properties, it is expedient
to introduce emitter feedback. This improves the linearity and operating
range in the same way as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Balanced Gilbert-type mixer
Vcc
Rc Rc
Vout
VLO
V in RE RE
I EE
Figure 4.4
Here, too, the mixer does not have an ideal polarity-switching function. This
is mainly because of the finite switching times due to the LO signal not
having a square waveform, and the high-frequency limitations of the
transistors.
4.4 IQ mixer
The IQ mixer effects the conversion from the IQ baseband up to the radio
channel on the transmitter side and the reverse procedure on the receiver
side. The additional requirements as compared with a single mixer
(linearity, low LO leakage) are for gain balance between the I and Q
40 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

IQ mixer Mixers
channels and 90° phase shift between the two channels. The two LO
signals must therefore be in quadrature. A possible complication is that the
90° phase difference must be maintained across the tuning range of the
local oscillator.
Sevral arrangements for producing quadrature LO signals have been

studied:
Phase shift networks with outputs in quadrature
Divide by two circuits
Oscillator arrangements with two quadrature outputs
Studies to determine suitable designs and achievable tolerances for a

passive phase network have been conducted in a research project at the
Univerity of Lund. The phase network comprised two resonant circuits.
Provided that suitable Q-values and resonance frequencies were chosen, a
low deviation from the precise 90° position was obtained over a relatively
wide tuning range. However, the adjustment of component values was
critical.
A suitable design of a divide-by-two circuit can generate two signals whose

phases are exactly in quadrature. A drawback with this arrangement is that
the oscillator frequency must be twice the LO frequency. Therefore, the HF
limitations of available components (semiconductor process) could make
this option impossible to realize in practice.
A related arrangement consists of a ring-coupling of two relaxation

oscillators. If the stages are identical, the signals from the two stages will be
in exact quadrature. The problem is that oscillators without a high-Q circuit
have relatively high phase noise.
IQ mixers have been discussed in more detail in RT1C.

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 41

IQ mixer Mixers
42 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

General Detectors
5 Detectors
5.1 General
This section serves to complement the general study of detection in
analogue transmission contained in Module G3. The following three
aspects are discussed:
a Coherent detection of linear modulation
b Noncoherent detection of angle-modulated signals
c Coherent detection of angle-modulated signals
In connection with linear modulation, coherent detection involves mixing

down the radio signal to the baseband, i.e. the detector comprises a linear
mixer of the type described in section 4.
There is no need to discuss the basic operation here. Instead, this section
deals with elimination of one of the sidebands in a double mixer
arrangement (in SSB modulation), and how the correlation between the
sidebands in DSBAM can be exploited to generate the local reference
signal for detection (Costa's loop). In connection with an ideal coherent
detector, the choice as to whether the filter selectivity should be placed
before or after the detector is arbitrary. A low-pass filter characteristc after
the detector can be transformed to the other side of the detector and be
combined in the IF selectivity (see Fig. 5.1). Alternatively, the IF filter can
be replaced by an equivalent low-pass filter after the detector. Moving the
IF-selectivity after the detector has the draw back that the detector can be
overloaded by strong close-in interference (i.e. on adjacent channel).
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 43

General Detectors
Coherent detector combined with filters

Equivalent diagram
Practical implementation of the receiver
a) With post-detector filters
selectivity by combination of pr
post-detector filters.
H r (f+fo) H b(f)
Hr ( f + fo ) Hb ( f )
0 f
H r (f) H b(f)
b) With pre-detector filters
fo
|H r (f)] |H b(f)]
H r (f) H b (f-f o)
1 1
Hr ( f ) ⋅ Hb ( f − fo )
fo f 0 f
Hr(f): HF or IF filter
Hb(f): baseband filter 0 f
Figure 5.1
The most common form of detector for angle-modulated signals is the

frequency discriminator. If the input to the discriminator is an unmodulated
carrier, the output voltage is determined by the carrier frequency. This
relationship determines the discriminator characteristic. If the carrier is
replaced by an FM signal, it is generally assumed that the same
characteristic will be obtained if the carrier frequency is replaced by the
instantaneous frequency.
This change from a carrier of slowly varying frequency to an FM signal is

valid on the condition that the quasi-stationery approximation is applicable.
As a general rule, this approximation applies if the instantaneous frequency
shifts slowly in comparation to the time constants of the selective circuits
included in the frequency discriminator. In that case, we can disregard the
transients generated in the discriminator as a result of the time dependence
of the instantaneous frequency. The quasi-stationery approximation is
generally allowed for analysis of detection of angle-modulated signals with
a relatively high modulation index. (The same applies to modulators for
angle modulation.)
Good implementations of the frequency discriminator all have the same

detector characteristic (corresponding to the theoretical analysis see
section 5.3) above the threshold. The threshold performance (the position
of the threshold) depends to a certain extent on the IF amplifier, including IF
filter.
44 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Coherent detection of linear modulation Detectors
If the receiver is subject to wideband input noise, it is essential that the

IF-filter bandwidth is no greater than necessary to pass the required
modulation sidebands (Carson's rule). The modulation bandwidth, and thus
the necessary IF bandwidth and the position of the threshold, can be
reduced by frequency feedback, especially if the received signal has a high
modulation index.
If reception is affected by cochannel interference with constant envelope

(one dominating constant-envelope signal), good threshold characteristics
can be obtained if all the limiting stages are wide band with flat pass-band
characteristic. In this case the thresholds corresponds to an C/I-ratio of a
few dB. (Section 5.3.3).
The most effective way to lower the threshold for a signal in a noise
background, is to use a coherent (“phase-sensitive“) detector. However, a
phase detector cannot be implemented direct, as practical systems will use
modulation index much higher than the operating range of a phase detector.
The solution is to introduce modulation feedback to reduce the phase
difference between the input signal and the reference signal to the extent
needed to make phase-locking possible. (Section 5.4).
The threshold is in this case determined by the fact that the phase locking
drops out if the noise density in the detector input is too high. The critical
design parameter is the bandwidth of the loop. A narrow loop bandwidth will
reduce the influence of input noise but, on the other hand, the bandwidth
must be wide enough for the reference oscillator frequency to follow the
variations in the frequency of the wanted input signal, with only a moderate
phase error being incurred.
Phase-locked loops for frequency synthesis have been discussed in RT1B.

The main difference in this case is that the threshold characteristic, i.e. the
loop characteristic when there is a high level of noise in the loop, is the
dominating problem in a phase-locked detector.
5.2 Coherent detection of linear modulation
Detection of SSB modulation
A SSB (single sideband) signal is generated by suppression of one of the

sidebands in a double sideband signal. Similar suppression is required on
the receiver side. Failure to suppress the unwanted sideband would result
in interference to the receiver from the frequency slot occupied by this
sideband. In the past, steep-flank SSB filters have been used in practical
implementations to extract the wanted sideband and suppress the other
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 45

(Module G3, Fig. 3.6). This has been the only way to achieve adequate
sideband suppression.
However, an alternative method is to suppress the unwanted sideband by

means of a double balanced mixer arrangement. This generates the
wanted sideband with matching phases from both mixer halves, and the
other sideband with opposite polarity. In analogue versions, the
suppression is fairly limited, since it has been impossible because of
component tolerances to generate two signals of precisely the same
amplitude in exact antiphase. These difficulties can be overcome by using
digital signal processing.
Generating an SSB signal from the baseband signal, sb(t)
sb (t)
cosω οt
s(t)
+ SSB signal:
Gilbert
90° 90° sb (t ) cos ω ot + sˆb (t ) sin ω ot =
filter
ŝb (t ) sinω οt [
= Re (sb (t ) + jsˆb (t ))e jω o t ]
Om sb (t ) = a cos ω t t : sˆb (t ) = − a sin ω t t
s(t ) = a cos ω t t ⋅ cos ω ot − a sin ω t t ⋅ sin ω t t =

= a cos(ω o − ω t )t + a cos(ω o + ω t )t −
− a cos(ω o − ω t )t + a cos(ω o + ω t )t = 2a cos(ω o + ω t )t
(Compare Fig. 2.7)
Figure 5.2
The principle for generating an SSB signal using a balanced mixer

arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.2. One of the difficulties in analogue
implementation is how to design a 90° phase shifter (Hilbert filter) with a
wide relative bandwidth for the baseband signal.
46 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Carrier synchronization in DSBAM-sc
The modulation double side-band amplitude modulation with suppressed

carrier is discussed in module G3, section 3.1. The suppressed carrier has
to be regenerated on the receiver side so that a reference signal with an
optimum phase position relative to the two sidebands received can be input
to the coherent detector. One method for achieving this is Costa's loop (see
Fig. 5.3). The two received sidebands are detected in two coherent
detectors by means of either the actual reference signal or the signal after
a 90° phase shift. The output signals from the two detectors are a function
of the phase difference between the received signal's suppressed carrier
and the reference signal. If these two signals are multiplied together in a
balansed mixer, we get a suitable control signal for phase locking of the
VCO that generates the reference sigal (see Fig. 5.3).
Costa’s loop for carrier synchronization

Coherent detector with regeneration of carrier
sb (t ) cos(ω ot + θ) sin(ω ot + ϕ ) = sb (t ) ⋅ sin(ϕ − θ) + 2ω o − term

1
2
Modulator
(DSBAM-sc) sin(ω ot + ϕ )
sb2 (t )
sb (t ) sb (t ) cos(ω ot + θ) -π/2 sst = sb2 (t ) sin[ 2(ϕ − θ)] ≈ (ϕ − θ)
4
Input
cos(ω ot + θ)
baseband VCO
signal
cos(ω ot + ϕ ) If ϕ − θ is small:
sb (t )
≈
2
(Detected baseband signal)
sb (t ) cos(ω ot + θ) cos(ω ot + ϕ ) = sb (t ) ⋅ cos(ϕ − θ) + 2ω o − term

1
2
sb2 (t )
Control voltage to VCO: sst = s (t ) sin[ 2(ϕ − θ)] ≈
2
b (ϕ − θ) If ϕ − θ is small:
4
Figure 5.3
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 47

Noncoherent detection of angle modulation Detectors
5.3 Noncoherent detection of angle modulation
5.3.1 The detector characteristic above the threshold
Phase modulation
A summary of the detection of angle modulated signals can be found in

module G3, section 4.
Above the threshold, i.e. with an adequate signal-to-noise ratio in the input
to the detector, a reasonable approximation is that:
a the noise level in the detector output will be the same
with or without modulation.
b the level of the wanted signal in the output will not be
influenced by the signal-to-noise ratio in the detector
input.
We can use this simplification for a rough analysis of the detector

characteristic above the threshold. The signal-to-noise ratio in the detector
output is defined as S/N, where S is the output power of the wanted signal
for a high signal-to-noise ratio in the detector input, and N is the noise power
without modulation. It is also assumed that the wanted input signal to the
detector has been fully angle modulated by a sine signal (test tone).
Let's start by studying phase modulation, i.e. the characteristics of a phase

detector. The transfer function of the phase detector is normalized so that
the output signal is given by the phase angle, ϕin. We also assume that the
impedance level is 1. The output power (mean level) of the wanted signal
2
from the comparator is m
------ , where m is the specified maximum value of the
2
modulation index for the radio connection being studied. If the maximum
acceptable frequency deviation is ∆F and the test tone frequency is ft, then
∆F
the following applies (module G3, Fig. 4.2): m = -------
ft
Above the threshold, the amplitude of the (unmodulated) wanted signal in

the detector input is much higher than the effective value of the noise. The
phase modulation (modulation index) of the sum signal will therefore be
much less than 1. Thus, the signal can be interpreted as linear QM (module
G3, Fig. 4.3), which can be detected by means of a coherent phase
detector.
The various noise components are therefore detected independently. The

output signal from the detector can be obtained by superposition of the
48 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

contributions from the differentspectrum components of the noise into the

detector. A noise component that is above or below the carrier (reference
signal to the detector), at a frequency separation of fb, gives rise to a noise
component at a frequency of fb in the detector output. The overall noise level
after the low-pass filter in the detector output is obtained by integration the
noise density from -W to +W. The power spectrum is symmetrical about 0.
Thus, we can instead integrate the equivalent unilateral power spectrum
Un = No/C between 0 and W.
This calculation is shown in Fig. 5.4. The result is that the modulation gain
2
m
above the threshold in phase modulation is G M = ------ .
2
Detector characteristic above the threshold in phase modulation
No
S˜ ϕin → sout
[
s = Re Ae jϕ.e
jωo t
] B
ϕ in
Phase
sout = ϕin
W
Sout
1 2 fo comparator
Nout
C= A UN
2 ρw = C
NoW
+
ρ = Signal-to-noise ratio normalized to baseband width, W
w
ϕin = Phase angle of the complex envelope of the wanted signal + noise
ϕ = Phase angle of the complex envelope of the wanted signal
Output after the baseband filter
a) Modulated noise-free input signal: sout = ϕ = m ⋅ sin ω t ⋅ t (voltage)
Sout = ϕ = 21 m 2
2
Output power of wanted signal:
Figure 5.4 a
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 49

b) Unmodulated, noisy input signal

spectrum in the detector input
sδ = 2 No cos(ω o + ω b )t =
Wanted input signal
power = C
Pδ =No
= Re
Re 2N [[14243⋅e⋅e []
2 Nooee
jω
jωb t t
b
jω
jωot t o
No SS˜δδ
fo
f-f o S˜δ = 2 No
1 Hz
fb S˜δ cos ω b t
ϕδ ≈ =
A
S˜ + S˜δ S̃δ = 2 No
cos ω b t = No
cos ω b t
A2 C
ϕδ ωb ⋅ t
ϕ δ2 =
No
S̃ = A S̃δ << A 2C
Input noise with power density, No, at a frequency of fo +f b

No
gives rise to noise with a power density of at frequency fb in the detector output.
2C
Noise contribution above and below the carrier results in output noise: U N = NCo
U N = 2ϕ s2 W
= ∫ U N df =
NoW
No After baseband filter Nut C
out
C o
Sout m ⋅C2
1
f ∴ = = m 2 ⋅ ρw
W B/2 Nout 2 No W 2
1 C
∴ GM = m2 ρ=
2 No ⋅ W
Figure 5.4 b
Frequency modulation
If 6-dB/oct treble boosting is introduced after a phase detector, we get a

frequency detector (Module G3, Fig. 4.5). We can use this relationship to
modify the calculation shown in Fig. 5.4b so that it can be used for
frequency modulation (see Fig. 5.5). We normalize the treble-boosting filter
so that the gain will be 1 at the test-tone frequency, ft. The filter therefore
50 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

does not change the level of the wanted signal (test tone) and the signal
power will still be S = 1/2m2.
We now need to calculate the noise power, N, after the treble-boosting filter
and the subsequent low-pass filter. Multiplication by a factor of (f/ft)2 means
that the noise spectrum will be parabolic, with the power density increasing
with rising baseband frequency. Owing to the effect of the low-pass filter, we
need to integrate the unilateral noise spectrum only between 0 and +W. The
result is that for frequency modulation the modulation gain will be:
GM= 3/2.(∆F/W)2.
Detector characteristic above the threshold for frequency modulation
S̃s̃ No
()
2
[
s = Re Ae jϕ.e
jωo t
]+ ϕ in UN Treble boost Un′ = U N f
ft Nout
Phase
11 2 ρω detector 6 dB/oct
Sout′ = Sout Sout
CC== 2AA2 Sout
W
2
1 dϕ
()
2 2
= fi = ∆F cos ω t ⋅ t U N′ = U N f  f
W
ft Nout = ∫ U N   df =
2π dt  ft 
( )⋅ sin= sinω ωt ⋅ t
o
∆F
ϕϕ == ∆F
t 1 W3
= ⋅ UN
fft t Nout
t
( )=m
3 ft 2
∆F f
0 W B/2
ft
 No 
1  ∆F 
2  UN = enligt fig 5.4b
from Fig.
1  C 
Sout = m2 =  
2 2  ft 
1 ∆F 2 3  ∆F  3  ∆F 
2 2
Sout 3 ft 2 1 C
= ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
Nout 2 ft 2
W UN 3
2 W  WU N 2 W  No ⋅ W
3  ∆F 
2
∴ GM =
2 W 
Figure 5.5
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 51

5.3.2 Detector threshold with Gaussian noise input
As described in Module G3, several pairs of modulation sidebands interact

in wideband angle modulation to produce the large phase variations of the
signal phasor.
This results in a considerable modulation gain. However, this is conditional

on the detector making optimum use of the mutual relations between level
and phase of the sidebands. Detailed analysis of the function of
noncoherent detectors (discriminators) shows that, at any given moment,
the detector is controlled by the strongest signal into the detector. The
moment that a signal other than the wanted one is strongest in the detector
input, the modulation of the wanted signal is almost completely suppressed
in the output. If the unwanted signal is also angle modulated, this signal's
modulation will instead be output from the detector - a phenomenon known
as capture (see Fig. 5.6).
52 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

FM detector threshold when noise present

U N = Unilateral power spectrum
Noise No Sl = Signal power for test tone modulation
Wanted
signal sr ρB Sl , Nd
IF FM- UN
+ (B) srm n(t ) det.
W
C ≡ Prm Sl
Kl =
Sl
IF Nd
C 1 1
ρB = B
f f
No B
fo
C S W
ρW = Kl = l = GM ⋅ ρW Nd = ∫ U N df
No W Nd W
Sr = A cos(ω 0t + ϕ ) n(t) ñ
A
A
t t
(Probability density) A2
( )
p ñ Ar : e − 2σ 2 = Output signal
Phase jump
Sl
Pr
= e− No B = e−ρ B
σ 2 = No B Nd
A 2A 2
r ==
PP
m 2 2
t
Α
Origin Αr ñ
S̃r = A A phase shift of 2π occurs
if the sum vector S˜r + n˜
ñ circles the origin
Figure 5.6
If the unwanted signal in the detector input consists of Gaussian noise, the
phasor for the sum signal will hunt rapidly between random points for as
long as the noise envelope is greater than that of the wanted signal.
Because of capture, the detector outputs the noise modulation instead of
the wanted signal. The longer this phenomenon persists, the greater will be
the reduction in the level of the wanted signal as a result of the noise
modulation. However, the main reason for the sudden reduction in the S/N
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 53

at the threshold is something else: namely, origin circling (see Fig. 5.7, a),
giving rize to “clicks“ (impulse disturbances from an FM-detector).
FM detector
a) Origin circling
Noise phasor
Wanted signal phasor
b) Power spectrum of noise from FM detector
Below the
threshold
Above the
threshold
f
W
Figure 5.7
Origin circling occurs if the noise phasor is longer than the phasor for the
wanted signal. Since the phase difference between the two phasors varis
rapidly and randomly, they will often be opposed. If the noise phasor is also
longer, origin circling occurs, whereby the phase shifts rapidly by an amount
close to 2π. This results in an irregular sequence of voltage jumps in the
output from a phase detector or in a sequence of short pulses (white
spectrum) from a frequency detector.
At and below the threshold, the clicks from an FM-detector due to the origin
circling is much higher than the noise signal caused by noise peaks
exceeding the amplitude of the wanted signal (noise capture). The
threshold is usually defined as the point on the detector characteristic at
which the signal-to-noise ratio is diminished by an additional 1 dB as a
result of additional noise, above all the clicks caused by the origin circling.
The amplitude distribution of the noise envelope exhibits Rayleigh

distribution. From this we can calculate the probability that the noise
54 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

envelope will exceed a certain peak level, above the effective value. If the
margin (peak factor) is higher than 8-10 dB, the probability will be relatively
low. For Gaussian noise, therefore, we usually assume that the threshold
will occur at a signal-to-noise ratio of 10 dB in the detector input. For good
threshold characteristics with a noise background, it isvital that the IF
bandwidth is not too great. A guideline is that the optimum IF bandwidth will
correspond to the bandwidth determined by Carson's rule: B = 2(∆F + W).
In the C/N region immediately below the threshold, the dominating cause of
detector noise is the clicks from origin circling. The phase jumps from a
phase detector generates a noise spectrum that diminishes by 6 dB/oct,
whereas the corresponding frequency pulses from a frequency detector
produce a nearly white noise spectrum (see Fig. 5.7, b). This added noise
is dominant below the threshold. Thus, the shape of the noise spectrum is
different above and below the threshold.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 55

FM detector characteristic with Gaussian noise background
Sl = Power of wanted signal (test tone)

N = Noise power
Output signals from detector (Sl and N)
S0 Sl
So (1 − e −ρ B )
2
Phase-jump noise
Threshold
1 dB
C
ρB =
1 10 dB No B
Position of threshold for normal FM detector:

IF bandwidth, B = Bm = 2(∆F+W).
ρ B ( dB)
B
Unmo- Test
W tone
dulated
mod.
4 7 7.8
8 8 9
18 9 9.9
40 10 10.8
170 11 11.8
Figure 5.8
Fig. 5.8 shows how the signal-to-noise ratio C/N in the detector input
influences the levels of the noise signal N and wanted signal Sl in the
detector output. The shift of the threshold is fairly small when modulation is
applied. The threshold is almost entirely caused by the rapid rise in the
noise level due to phase-jump noise (clicks) when the signal-to-noise ratio
in the detector input falls below ρB = 8-10 dB. The level of the wanted signal
starts to fall when the signal-to-noise ratio gets below ρB ≈ 5 dB
56 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

5.3.3 Detector threshold with cochannel interference
If the dominant interference in the detector input consists of only one

cochannel signal with a constant envelope, then, in theory, the wanted
signal should only need to be slightly stronger than the interference for
capture to occur all the time. In this case, the detector characteristic will
have a threshold only slightly above a 0-dB C/I. However, this only applies
in practice if two conditions are met:
a Up to the point in the amplifier chain at which limiting
begins, the selectivity curve should be nearly flat within
the pass band (the frequency band occupied by the
wanted signal and the cochannel interference). If this
condition is not fulfilled, there will be periods during
which the interference will be amplified more than the
wanted signal. To avoid capture by the interference, the
C/I value in the receiver input will then have to be
increased.
b The amplifier must have a wide bandwidth between
the point in the amplifier chain at which limiting begins
and the detector. The reason for this is that if the sum of
two angle-modulated signals is limited, this will have a
significant effect on the spectrum width of the sum
signal. The instantaneous frequency will have a peak
deviation from the mid-frequency that may be many
times greater than the maximum swing of either of the
signals if they are both at roughly the same level.
This is of no importance so long as the limiter stage and the detector have
an adequate bandwidth for the wideband sum signal. The short-term
average of the instantaneous frequency of the total signal is determined by
the instantaneous frequency of that one of the two signals that has the
highest level. If the amplitude of the wanted signal is highest, its
instantaneous frequency will largely determine the output signal. The
co-channel interference gives rise to a relatively small unwanted deviation
about this frequency. If the bandwidth is insufficient, on the other hand, with
the result that the peaks of the frequency deviation are cut off, this will affect
the short term mean value of the frequency. Much stronger co-channel
interference will occur at the detector output because the capture will be
ineffective. See also Fig. 5.9, which shows the conditions above the
threshold, and Fig. 5.10, which relates to the threshold characteristics.
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 57

Co-channel interference for phase modulation

Detector characteristic above the threshold
si I
C
ρi = sr Phase Wanted signal, Sd (power)
I + detector
C interference Nd
si and sr modulated by noise signals (representing the baseband signals)
Effective value of modulation index, me>1
Corresponding peak value: ˆ = 10 ⋅ me

m (10dB peak factor )
toppfaktor
Modulation bandwidth: B = 2W (1 + m
ˆ ) ≈ 6 Wme
Interference approximated by Gaussian noise with a rectangular spectrum

and bandwidth, B. I
B Ni =
B
I I fo
Power density will be: Ni = =
B 6 W ⋅ me
Detector characteristic for normal noise, No will be: (S N )d = Ke = me2 ( )

C
Noω
Sd C ⋅ 6 Wme
If No is replaced by Ni: ( S N )d = = me2 ⋅ = 6 me3 ⋅ ρi
Nd I ⋅W
Modulation gain when co-channel interference present: GM = 6 me3
More-accurate analysis gives GM = 4me3
Output signal from detector
Co-channel interference, Nd Output power of wanted signal Sd = me2
Sd
= 4 ⋅ me3 ⋅ ρi
Nd
l
na
sig
d
te
or
ist
D
C
ρi =
I
Figure 5.9
58 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Threshold when co-channel interference present

Wanted signal: S˜r = Ar Power C
Interference: S˜i = Ai e jω i t Power I
C
Sum signal: z = S˜r + S˜i = Ar + Ai e jω i t = z e jω z ⋅t = z e jφ z ρi =
I
jω i t
Input signals: S˜r = Ar S˜i = Ai e
S˜r + S˜i = z = Ar + Ai e jω i t
z Ai e jω i t
z
Ai ⋅ e jω i t φz ωi t
φz ωi t
Ar
Origin Ar Origin
A r > Ai Ar > Ai
ρi <> 1 Ai e jω i t
ω zt ωi t
Origin
Ar- Ai A
i
a. ρi < 1 Mean value of instantaneous
dφ frequency determined by
ωz = interference
φz dt
4π
ω z = ωi
ωi
3π ρi < 1 ωi t
π 2π 3π 4π
2π
b. ρi > 1φ Mean value of instantaneous
−φ = ω it
frequency determined by
π
wanted signal
ρi > 1
ω z = 0 (mean value)
0 ωi t dφ
ωz =
π 2π 3π 4π dt
(ω )
z max
>> ω i om
If I ≈ C 0
π 2π 3π 4π
ωi t
Cut off if bandwidth after

limiter not wide enough,
in which case: ω z ≠ 0
Figure 5.10
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 59

Coherent detection of angle modulation Detectors
5.4 Coherent detection of angle modulation

The threshold in a normal FM detector is determined by the stronger signal
(noise peak or cochannel interference) controlling the detector function. The
threshold characteristics can be improved by changing to a coherent
detector, whose function is controlled by the strong, locally generated
reference signal. A coherent detector functions as a phase comparator, if
the instantaneous phase difference between the wanted input signal and
the reference signal is within the detector's linear operating range. A normal
coherent detector in the form of a mixer is really a QM (or AM) detector that
functions as a phase comparator if the input signal can be approximated by
QM. This applies to an modulation index angle modulated signal with ≤ 0.5.
To detect an angle-modulated signal, which will generally have a much

higher modulation index, the coherent detector must incorporate a
phase-locked loop. This causes the phase of the reference oscillator signal
to follow the phase variations in the input signal such that the phase
difference complies with the condition m < 0.5 (see Fig. 5.11).
60 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Phase-locked detector
HF Mixer IF A
LO
Phase Loop
A Limiter detector filter
θ
ϕ Bn W
VCO
Bn = Loop noise bandwidth

Unattainable limit value: Bn = W
Threshold extension: ≈ B = 2( ∆F + W ) =  2 + 2∆F 

Bn W  W 
π
2
π π θ−ϕ
− 2π
2
Stable static
operating point
Figure 5.11
The noise spectrum in the input to the detector is transposed down to the
baseband and, after filtering in the loop filter, is fed to the VCO for the
reference signal. The VCO is therefore modulated with Gaussian noise and
the resuling noise modulation is added to the VCO modulation by the
detected wanted signal. The instantaneous phase difference between the
wanted input signal and the reference signal therefore comprises two
contributions:
a The phase error due to the finite amount of feedback
of the angle modulation of the wanted signal.
b The noise modulation by the VCO.
If the instantaneous total phase error exceeds the maximum operating

range of the phase comparator (± π/2 for a mixer-type phase comparator),
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 61

a sudden phase shift of 2π will occur. This will give rise to a click of the same
type as that produced by origin circling in a noncoherent detector. The
position of the threshold can however be moved to a lower signal-to-noise
ratio. Accordingly, the phase-locked detector is also known as an extended
threshold detector.
In the design of a phase-locked detector, the width of the loop bandwidth,

Bn (determined by the natural frequency, fn, of the loop) will be a trade-off
between low phase error, as in “a” above, and a low noise modulation index
as in “b”. A wide loop bandwidth permits large feedback of the baseband
signal which gives a greater reduction in the phase error, but the large noise
bandwidth in the loop will result in poorer characteristics in respect of “b”
(see Fig. 5.12).
As regards the design for adequate loop stability, the same considerations
apply as those discussed in RT1B for phase locked oscillators. To obtain an
acceptable phase margin, the loop gain must decrease relatively slowly
with increasing frequency. This means that the loop bandwidth, Bn, will be
much wider than the width of the baseband, W, if high modulation feedback
is required. The reduction in the noise bandwidth that determines the
threshold will be B/Bn, where B is the IF bandwidth. An upper, unattainable
limit value for the threshold reduction is given by B/W. It follows that the
threshold extension by means of a phase-locked FM detector can be
greater with wideband modulation (a high modulation index).
62 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Faslåst FM-detektor. Optimering av slinga

S̃ = e jθ Sling-
Fasdet.
filter
S̃n = e jϕ G (f): Slingförstärkning

för öppen slinga
VCO
G
H= : Förstärkning för motkopplade slingan
1+ G
a. Bodediagram för öppna π
slingan |G(f)| Fashopp om |θ−ϕ| > 2
Fassfelet (θ−ϕ) härrör från brus-
modulering av ϕ och återstående
(log- signalmodulering på skillnads-
skala)
signalen (θ−ϕ). Val av B n blir
12 dB/oktav en kompromiss.
|G(f m )|
Motkoppling av
modulationsspektrum
( )
2
G ( fm ) ≈ fn
fm
(fm : mittfrekvens
fm fn för basband)
f
log-
W skala
(basband)
b. Slingans överföringsfunktion
|H(f)|
Brusbandbredd:
∞ 2
≈1
Bn ≈ ∫ H ( jω ) df
o
(Bn bestämmer
Bn ≈ 3 fn brusmodulering av ϕ)
f
fn
Figure 5.12
There is limited possibilities to extend the threshold further by using special

circuits. An outline of the typical performance that can be obtained is shown
EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 63

in Fig. 5.13, in which the threshold characteristics of a normal noncoherent

detector (curve a) are compared with that of a simple phase-locked detector
(curve b) and an advanced threshold extension detector (curve c). There is
no difference in the performance of the detectors above the threshold.
Threshold extension
FM detector. Position of threshold (TH)

∆F B
Signal-to-noise ratio in test modulation; Gm
a) Normal FM detector W W
S/N (above TH)
50 b) Simple threshold extension detector
dB 8 18 20 dB
c) Advanced threshold extension detector
c b a
4 10 14 dB
TH
40
2 6 8 dB
TH
1 dB TH 1 4 2 dB
30 TH
TH
TH
TH C
S
N = + GM dB
20 No W
TH Above the threshold:
2
3 ∆F
GM =  
TH
TH 2 W 
TH C
No W dB
10
5 10 15 20 25 30
IF filter B Baseband filter
fo
f f
B=2(∆F+W) W
Figure 5.13
64 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Ericsson Radio Systems AB Author Professor Sven-Olof Öhrvik © Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson 2000
S-164 80 Stockholm, Sweden in co-operation with Ericsson Radio Systems AB EN/LZT 123 1247/4 R7
Telephone: +46 8 757 00 00 and Ericsson Research
Telefax: +46 8 757 36 00 Publisher Ericsson Radio Systems AB

www.ericsson.se Ragnar Lodén

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Radio School

RT1D Receiver technology

RT1D Receiver technology

3 Radio frequency amplifiers.......................... 29

The function of the receiver is to reconstitute the baseband information to

The usual receiver configuration is based on the superheterodyne principle,

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 7

Block diagrams for radio receivers

Yet homodyne (direct conversion) and related arrangements appear to be a

An overview of different receiver configurations is given in section 2. All the

8 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

2.1 System requirements

A primary requirement is that near optimum detection of the wanted signal

To determine maximum tolerable interference level, a strong interfering

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 9

Radio requirements for receiver

1. Characteristics within the allocated channel

• Adjacent channel selectivity

Degradation factors associated with system selectivity

Acceptable interference level (level of wanted signal at fr : 0 dB)

Channel Protection ratio

Detection of the wanted signal with low distortion is conditional on good

10 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

required modulation sidebands (which contribute to the wanted output

2.2 Superheterodyne receivers

HF IF1 IF2 Detector

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 11

Total receiver selectivity is sum of IF and HF selectivity

To suppress an unwanted signal at the image frequency, the pre-mixer HF

A typical requirement in land mobile radio systems is 80-dB image

12 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

least 90 dB more than the wanted signal, if a carrier-to-interference ratio (C/

One solution may be to use a block diagram with two intermediate

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 13

Receiver block diagrams

AGC (automatic gain control)

In a receiver for signals with a varying envelope, information needed for

AGC is based on a feedback loop to maintain a constant signal level to the

14 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

2.3 Homodyne receiver

The homodyne receiver and related receiver arrangements do not need HF

A modification that can be made to the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.5a is

Unfortunately, some extremely strict requirements are imposed on the

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 15

Another way to overcome the problem of d.c. unbalance is to use an

Superhet receiver with mixing to the (I+Q) baseband

16 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

fIF = 1/2 (channel spacing)

In an analogue realization of Fig. 2.7, about 30 dB suppression is possible

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 17

2.4 Gain and selectivity distribution

18 EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7

Land mobile receiver sensitivity threshold (25-kHz channel spacing): Cmin

System noise figure

N = kTo Fs BIFMF = −204 + 10 + 42 = −152dBW

Typical sensitivity threshold C=-140 dBW

0,7 µV (rms) antenna output voltage over 50 Ω:

As discussed in Module G1, the requirement for system selectivity involves

EN/LZT 128 1247/4 R7 19

Acceptable interference levels in the receiver input fr

Blocking: L=50 dB Ibl =-40 dBW Ibl /C=100 dB

(L = Propagation loss; Ibl=Le vel of interference causing blocking;

These mechanisms are discussed in modules RT2 A-C