Eppp Notes

EPPP STUDY GUIDE 2015

Copyright © 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the publisher.
Disclaimer
All the material contained in this book is provided for educational and informational purposes only. No
responsibility can be taken for any results or outcomes resulting from the use of this material. While every
attempt has been made to provide information that is both accurate and effective, the author does not
assume any responsibility for the accuracy or use/misuse of this information.
Quick Intro Message
Hi, Baron here. During my six-‐month preparation for the exam, I purchased several EPPP
commercial study materials from AATBS, Academic Review, and PsychPrep. I summarized,
combined the written materials, and decided to create my own. This guide is a product of
real hard work. It is comprehensive (200+ pages), detailed, and easy to read/follow. It is
based on all three commercial companies. It was very instrumental for my preparation
and successful completion of passing the exam. I was able to pass the first time with
SS=593.

My honest personal recommendation: I recommend you focus 85% of your study time
on practice tests. Use this guide as a supplement to them. Because I have summarized the
main content for the exam, with this guide, you will not need to buy any books or volumes
from any company. If you already bought them, you can resale them at a decent value, and
use this guide instead to write on and highlight as much as you want. Save that money
and/or invest it on more online practice tests from one of those companies. I say one,
because they are all alike. In my opinion one of them shall suffice.

This EPPP Guide includes:
Intro-‐The Real Cost of the EPPP-‐ page 3
Treatment, Intervention, Prevention, and Supervision – page 7
Growth and Lifespan Development – page 48
Diagnosis (and Psychopathology)-‐ page 83
Ethical/Legal/Professional Issues – page 128
Industrial and Organizational Psychology-‐ page 129
Cognitive-‐Affective Bases of Behavior-‐ page 152
Biological Bases of Behavior -‐ page 168
Research Methods and Statistics – page 183
Psychological Assessment – page 198
Social and Cultural Bases of Behavior– page 214
Test Construction – page 230
P.S. I have found this guide is been helpful for those taking written qualifying exams with
their programs. If you are eager to pass, this guide is for you!
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015 2

The Real Cost Of The EPPP Exam

**The EPPP exam is the most important examination for psychologists in the US. **
• Very few people will tell you about the EPPP early in your graduate school career.

• Even fewer will stress the importance of this last crucial hurdle on your journey to
become a licensed psychologist.

• Professors/psychologists will tell you that you are too busy right now to worry about
an examination that will not take place until after you graduate.

• Perhaps, like a trauma victim who has been through a painful stressor, they have
repressed their memories.

Why is the EPPP So Important?

Because, even if you get admitted to a psychology doctoral program, pass all your classes,
complete thousands of hours of unpaid clinical practica, pass a written and oral
comprehensive exam, defend a dissertation, complete an year-‐long internship, graduate
from an accredited doctoral program, and complete an underpaid year-‐long post-‐doctoral
residency (in most states)…You will not be able to practice as a licensed psychologist in
any state in the United States and most provinces in Canada.
The Real Price

• $350+ State License Application

o State psychology boards have to approve your application (permission to
take the exam).

o Waiting time can be lengthy and fees variy by state.

• $600 to sit for the exam (each time)

o About 25% examinees fail the exam and have to retake/repay for it.


o Knowing this, few examinees attempt the test without first preparing with
one of the commercially available study programs.

• $600+ Preparation Materials (Highly Recommended to Pass 1st time)

o Your graduate school training… no matter how thorough, does not
adequately prepare you to pass the EPPP.

o Many examinees have found the following areas require new or significantly
enhanced learning: industrial-‐organizational psychology, statistics, and social
psychology.

o Commercially available study programs include books, flashcards, practice
exams, lectures on audio CDs, workshops, and online materials.

o The total cost of these study materials range from around a few hundred
dollars to as much as $3000. These costs vary by study package.

• Waiting Time

o For state boards to approve your application (weeks-‐months).

o For the ASPPB to process you application to sit for the exam after the state
board approves your application (weeks)

o Waiting to schedule to take the the exam. (Self-‐paced) Depends on your
level of preparation and study time (3-‐6 months)

o Waiting for the ASPPB to report your score to your state psychology board
(weeks)

o Waiting for your state psychology board to confirm that you have passed (or
failed)

o Waiting issue your psychology license if you have passed and met all their
requirements.
• Lost Wages

o When you are busy preparing for the test… You are neither working nor
furthering your career as a licensed psychologist.

• Neurotic and Existential Anxiety

o Expensive study materials, exam fees, endless studying, waiting, lack of, or
low income…all contribute to the stress.

o During preparation most will question why the EPPP test exists.

o Many will doubt their decision to become a psychologist in the first place.

o A significant number give up halfway through the process and work in one
of the few areas in psychology that do not require licensure; consequently,
restricting their careers.

o Others sit for the exam, once, twice, thrice, and occasionally four times,
before quitting the process.

o However, most persist, and eventually pass the EPPP exam.

Prepare Early
• Professors/psychologists will not stress the importance of the EPPP, because: 1) it
does not affect them 2) your classwork, 3) your assistanceship, 4) their research, or
5) whether or not you graduate.

• It only affects you, long after you are no longer their responsibility.

Benefits of Early Preparation

• You will:

o Save on many of the aforementioned costs.

o Have a better idea what content areas will be on the exam.

o Focus your study efforts now, while topics are fresh in your mind.

o Be able to collect study materials gradually, thus spreading out their costs.

o Learn and practice the advanced test-‐taking strategies required to pass the
exam.

o Be less stressed by the examination process.

o Be ready to take the exam at the early.

§ This will greatly limit your downtime after graduation.

o Be able to get licensed as a psychologist sooner.

§ This will allow you to earn a decent income sooner


TREATMENT, INTERVENTION, PREVENTION, AND SUPERVISION

PSYCHOANALYSIS
Psychic Structure
• 3 parts:
o Id—all instincts and reflexes that are inherited at birth, encompassing basic
biological drives (self-‐preservation, libido, aggressive drives)
§ Unorganized reservoir of energy dominated by pleasure principle
§ Unconscious
§ Deduced from dreams, slips of tongue, free association, daydreams, and
neurotic symptom formation
o Ego—part of id that has been modified by interaction w external world
§ Reality principle
§ Suspend pleasure principle according to requirements of environment
§ Logical, ordered aspect of personality
§ Organizational, critical, synthesizing ability
§ Makes reason and judgment possible
o Superego—evolves as result of child satisfactorily passing through Oedipal
developmental stage and is part of ego that acts as conscience
§ Moral and judicial aspects
§ Internalization of parental restrictions, prohibitions, and customs

Defense Mechanisms
• Conflict as basic dynamic of personality
o Ego is in constant conflict w id, superego and reality
o To relieve pressures of drives, ego employs defense mechanisms
• Unconscious mechanisms that operate to avoid activating anx that would be caused by
conscious awareness of conflict
• Repression, denial, reaction formation, rationalization, projection, displacement,
fixation, sublimation, projective identification, splitting, intellectualization, and
undoing
o Repression is most basic and underlies all other defenses
§ Involved unconscious rejection of painful or shameful experiences from
consciousness and prevents unacceptable impulses or desires from
reaching consciousness

Anxiety
• Signals breakdown of defensive structure, such as when defenses don’t work well and
impulse starts to break through
• “Signal anxiety”—impulse is seeking expression

Primary and Secondary Processes
• Primary process—unconscious mental process and is characterized by lack of logic, by
ease of substitution of one idea w another, and by immediate d/c of energy
o Governed by id

o Functions according to pleasure principle and can be observed in cognitions of
young children, dreams, slips of tongue and jokes.
• Secondary Process—conscious mental process
o Governed by part of ego
o Functions according to reality principle and is logical and sequential

Goals and Techniques
• Free association—attend to all thoughts and report them w/o suppressing/censuring
o Resistance—unable to recall traumatic memories that gave rise to symptoms
• Therapist’s neutrality allows ct to project onto therapist +/-‐ feelings he originally had
for another sign person in past—Transference
o Repetition compulsion—one repeats feelings and affects from past in present
o Therapeutic alliance—+ transference
§ Working alliance
• Countertransference—therapist’s inappropriate reactions to ct based on own
enactment of personal needs and resistance to tx

Steps in Psychoanalysis
• 4 steps:
o Confrontation—pt shown that he is behaving in neurotic way
o Clarification—trying to understand what/what/how pt is resisting
o Interpretation—in way pt can hear
o Working through—assimilation of insights into personality

Parallel Process Supervision
• Combination of transference and countertransference
o Supervisee behaves towards supervisor in ways that parallel how his ct is
acting toward him.

OTHER PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
• Unconscious exists on 2 levels:
o Individual unconscious—arises from repression
o Collective unconscious—part of person’s unconscious which is common in all
humans
§ Contains latent, inherited memories of one’s cultural past, archetypes,
and pre-‐human memories
• Archetypes—motifs, images, or symbols that exist prior to
experience
o Manifested by all individuals in all cultures and are
instinctual
o 4 forms:
§ Self
§ Shadow

§ Anima
§ Animus
• Aimed at bringing unconscious contents to consciousness
o Resembles classical psychoanalysis in use of dream interpretation, associations,
and transference analysis
o More aware of personal unconscious one becomes, more collective conscious is
revealed and one’s psyche internally self-‐regulates and neurosis resolves
• Developed dichotomous extraversion/introversion personality constructs
o Extraversion—turning outward and main motivation for affect, perceptions,
judgments, actions of extraverts are external forces
o Introversion—turning inward of libido and introverts are more motivated by,
and interested in, internal conditions than external events
o Some point around 40 y/o, people turn from extroversion of youth to
introversion of adulthood

Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology
• Masculine Protest—every child experiences feelings of inferiority (Inferiority
Complex) that supply motivation to grow, dominate, and be superior
o Organ Inferiority—Inferiority complex may develop in connection w particular
body part
o Children adopt COMPENSATORY PATTERNS OF BX as defense mech
§ If STYLE OF LIFE, or compensatory actions, are socially maladaptive,
they become self-‐destructive
• Diplomatic, warm, empathetic, Socratic style of tx
o 12 stages across 6 phases w each stage reflecting progressive strategies for
awakening ct’s underdeveloped feeling of community
o Goal is to help ct replace “mistaken style of life” w healthier and more adaptive
one
o Role-‐plays to help develop new behavior and relies on advice and
encouragement

Neo-‐Freudians
• Downplayed importance of instinctual forces and instead focuses on social and cultural
determinants of personality
• Karen Horney
o Focused on early relationships
o Parental Behavior—cause child to experience BASIC ANX (feeling of
helplessness and isolation in hostile world
§ Defend against anx, child adopts certain modes of relating to others:
• Movt towards others/against others/away from others
• Healthy ind integrates all 3 types of behavior, while neurotic ind
relies primarily on only one
• Harry Stack Sullivan
o Importance of relationships throughout lifespan
o ROLE OF COGNITIVE EXPERIENCE—3 modes

§ Prototaxic Mode—experiences before language symbols are used and
involves discrete unconnected momentary states
• First months of life
§ Parataxic Mode—private or autistic symbols and person sees causal
connections btw events that are not actually related
• Developing self and reduced anx
§ Syntaxic Mode—symbols that have shared meaning and logical,
sequential, and consistent thinking
• End of 1st yr and underlies language acquisition
o Neurotic behavior is caused by parataxic distortions—occur as result of arrest
in parataxic mode
§ Ind deals w others as if they were sign people from early life
• Eric Fromm
o Effects of societal structures and dynamics on personality
o ROLE OF SOCIETAL FACTORS—how society prevents ind from realizing true
nature
§ 5 styles adopted in response to society:
• Receptive
• Exploitive
• Hoarding
• Marketing
• Productive
o Only one that permits person to realize true human nature

Ego-‐Analysts
• Anna Freud, David Rappaport, Heinz Hartmann
• Place greater emphasis on ego’s role in personality development than Freud
• Ego-‐Defensive Functions—involved in resolution of conflict
• Ego-‐Autonomous Functions—adaptive, non-‐conflict laden functions (learning,
memory, speech, and perception
• Healthy behavior as under conscious control
o Pathology may ensue when ego loses its autonomy from id
o Places more emphasis on current experiences, less on transference and
provides opportunities for “re-‐parenting” and focuses on helping ct build more
adaptive defenses

Object-‐Relations Theory
• Melanie Klein, Ronald Fairbairn, Margaret Mahler, Otto Kernberg, Heinz Kohut, Donald
Winnicott
• Object Introject—mental representation of person, either self or another
o In healthy environment, infant’s ego comes to develop reps of itself and others
§ It comes to a self-‐identity and level of ego strength needed to be able to
maintain reps of another person (obj)
§ Reached at 3 y/o—“psychological birth” of human infant
o Easily fail to develop appropriate obj introjects

§ Mental reps of self, other people, remain at infantile or early childhood
level
§ “Split” reps of other people
• Sometimes seen as good then quickly are seen as bad
• Heinz Kohut
o Self-‐Psychology
o Work on narcissism
§ When young child’s natural self-‐love is undermined by parent’s
inevitable failure to satisfy all child’s needs, child develops protective
GRANDIOSE SELF
§ Ordinarily modified during childhood through maturation and normal
interactions w parents
§ If parent consistently responds to child in v unempathetic way, normal
development is thwarted
o Re-‐parenting—facilitates reintegration of ego

EXISTENTIAL/HUMANISTIC THERAPIES

• Stress individuality and inherent capacity for growth and change

Client-‐Centered Therapy
• Theory of Personality and Pathology and Goals of Therapy
o Carl Rogers
o We all have self-‐actualizing tendency (capacity for natural growth, constructive
change, and self-‐understanding) that guides and motivates us
§ Necessary for self to be organized, unified, and whole
§ Incongruence—conflict btw self-‐concept and person’s experience
• Selectively perceived, distorted, denied since need to maintain
positive view of self is crucial
o Goal=decrease incongruence btw real self and ideal self and realize capacity for
self-‐actualization
• Process of Therapy
o 3 facilitative conditions:
§ Accurate Empathic Understanding—degree to which therapist is able to
empathize w ct, encouraging change by viewing world same way and
conveying that to ct
§ Unconditional Positive Regard—therapist truly caring about ct, affirming
ct’s value as person, and accepting ct w/o judgment
§ Congruence/Genuineness—therapist being genuine, honest, and
showing congruence btw words and actions

Existential Therapy
• Theory of Personality
o Personality is outgrowth of struggle btw ind and “ultimate concerns” of
existence

• Theory of Pathology
o 2 types of anx:
§ Normal anx/existential anx—proportionate to its cause, does not require
repression, and can be used constructively as catalyst to identify and
confront dilemma from which it arose
§ Neurotic anx—result of not facing normal anx
• Loss of subjective sense of free will and inability to take
responsibility for one’s own life
• Goals and Tech
o Goal=eliminate neurotic and to degree possible and to help ct learn to tolerate
unavoidable existential anx of living
o Tech:
§ Identifying instances when ct avoids responsibility for own life
§ Helping ct consider options and make decisions
§ Pointing out how grief reactions and sadness about life milestones are
related to underlying fears of isolation and death
o Ct-‐therapist relationship—therapist strive toward honest, open and egalitarian
relationship w ct
§ Development of authentic and intimate relationship
• Logotherapy
o Victor Frankl
o Primary motivational force in humans is search for meaning in life
§ Cornerstones of EXISTENTIAL ANALYSIS
• Freedom of will
• Will to meaning
• Meaning of life

Gestalt Therapy
• Fritz Perls
• Focuses on “HERE AND NOW”—encourages clients to gain awareness and full
experiencing in present
• Each person is capable of assuming responsibility and living fully as whole, integrated
person
o Self—promotes actualization, growth, and awareness
o Self-‐image—imposes external standards on self and impairs self-‐actualization
and growth
o Contact—Interactions w environment determine which part of personality
exerts most control
o Resistance to contact (BOUNDARY DISTURBANCES)—defenses one develops as
self-‐protective attempt to avoid anx necessitated by change and prevents full
experiencing in present
§ Introjection—uncritically absorbing info w/o actually understanding or
assimilating

§ Projection—attributing own unacceptable thoughts/feelings/behavior
to someone else
§ Retroflection—substitution of self for environment, in which person
does to himself what he wants to do to others
• Mech underlying isolation
§ Deflection—avoidance of contact and/or awareness by being vague,
indirect, or overly polite
§ Confluence—result of too thin or permeable boundary btw self and
environment
• Does not experience self as distinct, rather self is merged into
beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of others
§ Isolation—more extreme than confluence
• Awareness of boundary btw self and environment becomes
nonexistent and all understanding of importance of others for self
is lost

• Theory of Pathology
o Awareness is everything—as we become aware of our needs, we organize our
bx toward meeting those needs
o Fully aware person is one who is able to interpret present situation and
appropriately self-‐regulate boundaries btw self and environment
• Goals and Tech
o Goal=awareness of environment, self, and nature of self-‐environment boundary
§ Encouraging ct to focus on present reality
o Tech:
§ Directed awareness
§ “I” statements
§ Dream analysis
§ Empty chair tech

Reality Therapy
• Glasser
• Choice Theory—emphasizes personal responsibility ad balance of 5 basic needs
o Survival—needs such as breathing, digesting, sweating
o To love and belong—need for friends and fam
o Power—need for esteem, recognition, competition
o Freedom—need to make choices
o Fun—need for play, learning, recreation
• When ind is able to meet needs responsibly, person has SUCCESS IDENTITY
o When meets needs in irresponsible way—FAILURE IDENTITY
• Change occurs when failure identity is replaced by success identity
o Focusing ct on present bx, enabling ability to be realistic in fulfilling needs w/o
harming self/others, encouraging to take responsibility for actions
• Tech:
o Role playing, use of humor, confronting ct, helping to formulate plans

o Questioning tech and questioning framework called WDEP SYSTEM:
§ W—exploring wants/perceptions
§ D—direction or what ct is doing to get what they want
§ E—evaluate whether bx is getting him closer/further from goal
§ P—planning/creating and implementing workable plan to make +
changes

Transactional Analysis
• Eric Berne
• Model of people and relationships that is based on 2 notions:
o We have functional “ego-‐states” to our personality
o These internal models converse w one another in “transactions” in our
relationships as well as w ourselves internally
o Ego states—3 distinct states: child, parent, adult
§ Activated at any point in time and interactions and communications btw
or among people are predominantly btw ego states
o Strokes—unit of interpersonal contact or recognition that takes place btw ego
states at 2 levels (social and covert)
§ + or –
o Scripts—person’s life plan
§ Developed early through interactions w parents and others
§ Reflects person’s characteristic pattern of giving and receiving strokes
§ Unhealthy script leads to maladaptive bx
o Life positions—view person has of one self in relation to other people around,
primarily as result of experiences w parents during childhood
o Transactions—communication exchanges btw people:
§ Complementary—occur among any combination of ego states and
involve original communication being met w appropriate response
§ Crossed—original communication eliciting response from inappropriate
ego state
§ Ulterior—involve confusion because one communicator is giving dual
message
o Games—orderly series of ulterior transactions that is repeated over time and
results in specific bad feelings for both players
• Goals and Tech
o Goal=alter maladaptive life positions and life scripts and to integrate 3 ego
states
o Tech:
§ Identification and analysis of ego states, transactions, games and scripts

Feminist Therapy
• Assumption that social roles and socialization are important determinants of bx
• Social role conflicts

• Sexism and oppression of women based on gender is related to many probs reported
by women who seek tx
• Equal or greater emphasis on sociopolitical contributions to pathology and need for
social change as w personal responsibility and personal change
• Emphasis—show cts alternative social roles and options
o Empowerment—helping become more self-‐defining and slef-‐determining
o Tx acts as model for alternative modes of being, thinking, perceiving, and
behaving
• Egalitarian relationship btw ct and therapist
o Tx acknowledge inherent power differential and take steps to minimize
differential
o Discourages ct passivity
• Non-‐Sexist Therapy
o Tech that attempt to remove sexual biases from tx
o Equalizing power btw tx and ct, validating non-‐stereotypical gender roles and
aspirations for female cts, and do not rely on traditional methods of dx and
assessment
o Major diff w feminist=feminist tx explicitly incorporates and promotes feminist
values/more political
• Feminist Object-‐Relations Theory
o Nancy Chodorow
o Explain how heterosexual gender roles are constructed, maintained, and
reproduced
o Gendered division of labor is reflected in fam roles that place parenting
responsibility on mother and gender-‐related diff in mother-‐child relationship
o Changes in gender relations and roles in society will occur when present system
of parenting is replaced w system in which women and men are equally
responsible for child-‐rearing
• Self-‐in-‐Relation Theory
o Developed to better understand experience and development of self in women
§ Considered useful for understanding male development also
o One’s self depends in large part on how one connects w others
§ Self-‐in-‐relation and it is through empathetic process of connections that
personal growth occurs
o Human development—progression from infantile dependency toward mature
state of interdependency and relational self is believed to develop through
internalization of caretaker’s empathetic attitude
o Psychpath—disconnection from others
o Goal=increase interspersonal connections
§ Mother-‐daughter relationship
§ Mutuality—relationships are views as reciprocal


COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY

Beck’s Cog Therapy
• How one thinks largely determine how one feels/bx
• Beck’s Theory of Personality
o Automatic Thoughts—spontaneous thoughts that arise in response to specific
stimuli/situations
§ Lead directly to maladaptive emotional and bx responses when they are
dysfunctional
o Schemas (Core Beliefs/Underlying Assumptions)—internal models of self and
world that develop over course of experiences beginning early in life
o Cog Distortions—systematic errors in reasoning that form link btw
dysfunctional schemas and automatic thoughts
§ Arbitrary Inference—drawing conclusion when there is no evidence to
support it or conclusion is contrary to evidence
§ Selective Abstraction—focusing on neg detail of situation/event, taken
out of context, while disregarding other more salient info
§ Overgeneralization—drawing general conclusion based on single
incident
§ Magnification and Minimization—perceiving something as far more/less
sign than it really is
§ Personalization—attributing external events to oneself w/o evidence of
causal connection
§ Dichotomous Thinking—all-‐or-‐nothing
o Cog Triad—neg thoughts of self, future, world
• Tech:
o Cog
§ Eliciting Automatic Thoughts—questioning thoughts that occur in
upsetting situations and asking to keep daily log
§ Decatastrophizing—“what if” tech to help pt devise specific strategies for
dealing w feared consequences
§ Reattribution—considering alternative causes of events
§ Redefining—restating prob in terms that emphasize control of it and
involves making prob more concrete, stating it in terms of own bx
o Bx
§ Homework—self-‐observ and self-‐monitoring, structuring time
§ Activity scheduling
§ Graded task assignments
§ Hypothesis testing
§ Bx rehearsal and Role-‐playing
§ Diversion Tech—physical activity, social contact, work, play
• Eval of Cog Tx
o More useful than other tech in tx of depression, GAD, panic d/o, eating d/o
o Equal or superior to antidepressants for depression


Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
• Albert Ellis
• ABC theory of human disturbance:
o A—people experience undesirable events
o B—they have rational and irrational beliefs about events
o C—they create appropriate emotional and bx consequences w rational beliefs
or inappropriate and dysfunctional consequences w irrational beliefs
• Attempts to modify irrational beliefs
• Tend to construct “musts” about their desires
o Irrational beliefs stem from musts
• Make ct aware of irrational beliefs, teach them how to dispute beliefs, show them
“musts” that unconsciously underlie beliefs
o Direct confrontation or irrational beliefs, contingency contracting, in-‐vivo
desensitization, response prevention, psycho-‐ed
• Holds irrational thoughts lead to maladaptive bx, whereas CT hold that thoughts are
dysfunctional when they interfere w normal bog processing and not necessarily
because they are irrational
o RET is more heavily bx than other CBT approaches
o Therapist is more likely to directly challenge dysfunctional beliefs, while CT ct is
usually encourages to test out beliefs on own

Self-‐Control Tech
• Ct is given active role in administering tx to self
• Self-‐Monitoring—recording and charting bx/system each times occurs
o Minor and short-‐term effects on own
o Combo w other CBT tech—increases effectiveness
• Stimulus Control—modifying existing stimulus-‐response relationship or creating new
one in order to increase/decrease bx
o Narrowing—restricting bx to limited set of stimuli
o Cue Strengthening—linking bx for increase to specific cue
o Competing Responses—identifying and eliminating responses that block
desirable bx or encouraging responses that block undesirable bx
o Effective when they are implemented at beginning of response chain

Stress Inoculation Training
• Meichenbaum
• 3 steps:
o Cognitive Preparation—educating ct as to how faulty cog prevents appropriate
and adaptive coping
o Skills Acquisition—learning and rehearsing new skills, such as relaxation,
making appropriate self-‐statements
o Practice—applying what learned to real or imagines situations on gradual basis
• Promising and useful tech for remediating aggressive bx and impulsive anger

Hypnotherapy

• State of relaxed wakefulness, w relative suspension of peripheral awareness
• 3 factors:
o Absorption—completely engrossed in central experience, while at same time
ignoring thoughts, memories, or motor activities in periphery
o Dissociation—ordinary func of consciousness and mem are altered in some way
o Suggestibility—tendency to be less inhibited and restricted while in trance-‐like
state
• Retrieve feelings/mem that have not been accessible by other methods
o Retrieved mem are likely to be distorted and in some research, hypnotized sub
were reluctant to admit that mem were inaccurate
• Dissociative d/o, conversion symptoms, PTSD
• Contraindicated—psychotic d/o, paranoid and suspicious pts, OC personality traits,
severe depression, mania
• Can be effective
o Most effective when goal is to build sense of control in pt over own emotional
experiences and bx manifestations thereof

Biofeedback
• Identifying physiological variables for purpose of helping ind develop greater sensory
awareness of body func such as BP, heart rate, temp, muscle tension, brain waves
o Achieved by using electronic instrumentation to monitor responses then
providing info to ind to improve control of responding
• EMG (electromyography)—degree of relaxation or contraction/tension
o Tension HA
o Equally effective as relaxation tx
o Chronic pain, muscle stiffness, incot, urinary urgency/freq, stress
• Skin temp and blood flow control
o Thermal handwarming—most commonly used biofeedback method for
migraine HA
§ Reduce pressure on muscles in forehead by reducing blood flow to
extracranial arteries
§ More effective with migraines than relaxation
• Neurofeedback/EEG (electroencephalogram)—notes brain wave activity
o Depression, epilepsy, aiding in recovery from strokes/BI, ADHD

Other CBT Tech/Tx
• Paradoxical Intention—person avoids certain bx because ANTICIPATORY ANX
• Circumvent anticipatory anx, which is seen as primary prob
o Instructing ct to “do, or wish for, v things they fear” and prescribing symptom
for which ct seeks cure
o Engaging in bc is incompatible w fear of that bx and fear is neutralized
• Insomnia
o More effective than other CBT tech
• Elimination d/o, depression, procrastination, anx
Guided Imagery

• Imagery tech:
o Identify automatic thoughts
o Increase self-‐control
o Distraction tech
o Visualize desired life outcomes

Motivational Interviewing
• Help ct resolve ambivalence, build commitment, and reach decision to change
• Examination and resolution of ambivalence is central purpose
o Ambivalence is main obstacle to overcome in triggering change
o Change is elicited from w/in ct
o It is ct’s task to articulate and resolve ambivalence
o Ct’s autonomy, freedom of choice, ad consequences regarding bx is respected by
tx
• 5 basic principles:
o Express empathy through reflective listening
o Develop discrepancy btw ct’s goals and current prob bx
o Avoid argumentation and direct confrontation
o Roll w resistance rather than directly opposing it
o Support self-‐efficacy for change

Narrative Therapy
• Importance of life stories people tell and diff that can be made through telling and re-‐
authoring stories
• Process of externalization separates ct from prob enabling him to consider prob, and
relationship w it, differently
• Encourages to re-‐author their life stories w alternative stories of self-‐identity along
their preferred ways of life and to think of lives w/in framework of diff stories
• Tech:
o Excavating unique outcomes
o Thickening new plot
o Linking now plot to past and future
o Write stories recalling experiences

Schema Therapy
• Integrates CBT, attachment, Gestalt, obj-‐relations, constructivist, and psychoanalytic to
treat chronic characterological aspects of d/o by addressing core psych themes typical
to ind w characterological d/o
• Core themes—Early Maladaptive Schemas
o Self-‐defeating emotional and cog patterns that begin early in development and
repeat throughout life
o Maladaptive bx develop as response to schemas but are not part of them
• Strategies:
o Exploring therapist-‐ct relationship, maladaptive coping styles, using emotive
tech

• Also has been blended w mindfulness meditation to add spiritual dimension
• Chronic depression, anx, eating d/o, long-‐standing diff in maintaining intimate
relationships, and sub abuse relapse

Psychodrama
• Grp tx
• Opportunity to play roles in spontaneous performance of issues and practice new more
effective bx/roles
• Experimental methods, role theory, sociometry, grp dynamics to facilitate insight,
personal growth, and integration on cog, bx and affective levels
• 3 components:
o Warm-‐up—grp theme is identified and protagonist (ind rep theme of drama)
and auxiliary egos (ind assume roles of sign others in drama) are selected w
help from director
o Action—prob is dramatized and protagonist explores new methods to resolving
o Sharing—after, discussion
• Trauma, sub abuse, depression, anx, grief and loss

Morita Therapy
• Psych of action—Japanese
• Originally to treat anx and neurosis
• Feelings are acknowledged and accepted as uncontrollable and focus of tx is on taking
constructive action, not alleviation of discomfort or attainment of some ideal feeling
state
o Doesn’t deal w past, inner dynamics, emotions directly
o Emphasis—learning to accept internal fluc of thoughts/feelings and to ground
bx in reality and purpose of moment
• Progress is measured in degree of responsiveness to bx demands and in effort for self
improvement
o Deals w changing bx and dysfunctional cog through reframing meaning of anx,
focusing on attitudinal blocks to bx and taking personal responsibility for bx
• Naikan Therapy—psych of reflection
o What have I received from?
o What have I given to?
o What troubles/difficulties have I caused to?
o Self-‐reflection
o Often combined w Morita Tx

FAMILY THERAPY
Systems Theory
• System—grp of interacting components/parts which together constitute entire org
o Emphasizes relationships and transactional patterns
• Fam is considered:
o Open system—able to receive energy by interacting w environment

o Closed system—resistent to change because of rigid or impermeable
boundaried
§ Rigidity leads fam toward d/o and disorg
• Properties of Fam System
o Wholeness—every part of system is interrelated
§ If change enters one part, other parts are also changed
o Non-‐summativity—whole is greater than sum of its parts
o Equifinality—diff causes lead to same end result for fam
§ Patterns of bx that are crucial to systems tx, not ind topics or
controversies
o Homeostasis—tendency for system to restore status quo in event of change or
disruption in system
o Neg Feedback—maintenance of fam’s homeostasis by attempting to correct
deviations in status qup
§ Restores comfortable equilibrium of system
o Pos Feedback—disruption of fam’s homeostasis

Communication/Interaction Therapy
• Mental Health Institute in Palo Alto
• All bx is form of communication has been incorporated into many diff therapies
o Double Blind Comm—2 aspects of same comm contradicting each other
§ Results in frustrating conflict in person receiving message
o Metacommunication—comm takes place on 2 levels:
§ Report—intended verbal statement
§ Command—implicit non-‐verbal message and represents metacomm
o Symmetrical Comm—comm in which there is equality btw communicators
§ Leads to competition and conflict as each vies for control over other
o Complementary Comm—inequality, w one partner taking dominant role and
other subordinate role
§ Complementary—reciprocal nature of giving and taking of instructions
or asking/answering questions

Extended Fam Systems Therapy
• Murray Brown
• Viewed dysfunction as part of intergenerational process
• Theoretical Constructs
o Differentiation of Self—ind’s ability to separate intellectual and emotional func
§ Lower ability to diff, more likely person will become “Fused” w other
fam mem’s emotions and prob
o Triangulation—triad that occurs when 2 fam mem in conflict involve 3rd person
in conflict
o Nuclear Fam Emotional System—mech nuclear fam uses to deal w tension and
instability
o Fam Projective Process—projection of parental conflict and general fam
dysfunction onto children

o Emotional Cutoff—methods children use to remove selves from emotional ties
to parents
§ Lack of self-‐differentiation
o Multigenerational Transmission Process—escalation of fam dysfunction
through several generations
§ Leads to severe dysfunction
o Sibling Position—birth order
§ Order influences fam functioning in many ways
o Societal Regression—impact of societal stress on fam system

• Goals and Tech
o Goal=differentiation of self in all fam mem
o Tech:
§ Genograms—schematic diagram of fam system, describing at least 3
generations of fam relationships, geographical locations, and sign life
events
• Gain info about fam patterns and hx
§ Triangulation—tx often will cast self as neutral 3rd mem in
THERAPEUTIC TRIANGLE
• Helps 2 fam mem reduce level of fusion btw them and achieve
higher self-‐diff

Structural Fam Therapy
• Salvador Minuchin
• Sees fam as organism, complex system that is underfunctioning
• Therapist undermines existing homeostasis, creating crises that jar system toward
development of better func org
• Theoretical Constructs:
o Fam System
o Fam Structure—fam mems relate to each other according to implicit structure
o Subsystems
o Boundaries—rules that determine amount and type of contact allowed btw fam
mem
§ Enmeshment—overly unclear boundaries that promote dependence
§ Disengagement—results from overly rigid boundaries that promote
isolation
§ Triangulation—each parent demands that child side w him against other
§ Detouring—spouses reinforce deviant bx in child because it takes focus
off of prob they are having w each other
§ Stable coalition—one parent could join w child against other parent
• Goals and Tech
o Goal=restructure fam due to fam dysfunction resulting from inflexibility in fam
structure
o Tech—directive and oriented toward bringing about concrete changes in bx and
fam interactions

§ Joining—tx blends w fam system
• Using MIMESIS (adopting fam’s style and lang) and TRACKING
(identifying w fam’s values and hx)
§ Creating Fam Map—charts transactional patterns of mem
§ Restructuring Fam:
• Enactment—fam relationships and situations are role played so
they can be understood and changed
• Reframing—fam bx is relabeled in more + light
§ Blocking—keeping fam from engaging in normal way of func so that it is
forced to adopt new interactional patterns

Strategic Fam Therapy
• Jay Haley
• Strategic intervention—strategies tx uses to reduce/eliminate symptoms w/in fam
system
• Tx is power struggle btw ct/fam and tx
• Maintenance of fam homeostasis underlies fam dysfunction
• Goals and Tech:
o Goal=intervene and effect change as quickly as possible, focusing on current
prob
§ Identify prob and factors that maintain it
o Tech:
§ Directives—direct instructions to fam mems
• Intended to promote change and can be straightforward or
paradoxical
o Paradoxical directive—instruction to engage in
symptomatic bx
§ If directive is resisted, symptom is given up
§ Reframing—relabeling bx to make it more amenable to tx change
• Giving new meaning to or altering meaning of situation
§ Circular Questioning—interviewing tech designed to help tx and fam
learn more about patterns in fam relationship
• Helps fam mem view fam probs in new light and makes fam more
amenable to change

Operant Interpersonal Therapy
• Marital tx that is based on principles of operant conditioning and social exchange
theory
• Distressed marriages have fewer rewarding exchanges and more punishing exchanges
and these punishing exchanges are typically reciprocated by each partner causing
vicious circle to develop
o Encourages couples to focus on + aspects of each other and to use reciprocal
reinforcement or “quid pro quo”

Object-‐Relations Fam Therapy

• Rooted in psychanalysis
• Core tenet is insight is core requirement for fam change
o Prob in current relationships btw fam mem can be interpreted in terms of
transference resulting from early mother-‐child relationship
• Non-‐directive listening, analysis of transference/countertransference/resistance,
development of supportive and tolerant therapeutic environment
o Interpretations of child’s play

GROUP THERAPY
• Moreno—creating grp therapeautic movt
• Yalom

Composition of Grps
• Heterogenous vs. homogeneous
• Influences on Bx:
o Developmental level
o Gender—more important for children
o Intelligence—most important in grp composition
o Stability—more cohesive and accepting, less prone to conflict and mistrust
§ Closed grp—begins/ends w same cts
§ Open grp—allows new mems
• Less stable
o Size—most effective when 7-‐10

Stages of Grp Therapy
• 3 formative stages:
o Orientation, participation, search for meaning, dependency
§ Rules, structure, purpose of grp
§ Hesitant to divulge personal info
o Conflict, dominance, rebellion
§ Establish their place in grp
§ Comm. Becomes more hostile and critical, esp towards tx
o Development of cohesiveness
§ Trust each other and tx more
§ Comm. Becomes more supportive and +
§ Increased self-‐disclosure, greater participation, and adherence to grp
norms

Role of Grp Leader
• Needs to be knowledgeable about grp dynamics and be able to handle and manage
conflicts
• Able to handle multiple transferences and countertransferences
• Able to encourage participation from all grp mem
• Co-‐therapists
o Advantages:

§ Complement and support each other
§ Broaden range of possible transferential rxns
§ Male-‐female team is associated w fam
o Disadvantages:
§ Prob in relationship btw co-‐tx

Benefits of Grp Therapy
• Therapeutic factors
o Installation of hope
o Universality
o Imparting info
o Altruism
o Recapitulation of primary fam grp
o Development of socializing tech
o Imitative bx
o Interpersonal learning
o Cohesiveness
o Catharsis
o Existential factors
• Most important are interpersonal learning, cohesiveness, and catharsis
o Cohesiveness—most associated w grp mem improvement and outcome success

Concurrent Participation in Ind and Grp Therapy
• Advantages:
o Issues in grp can be explored in ind
o Grp tx can often complement ind
o Borderline and narcissistic PD
• Prob:
o Since ct receives more attn in ind, may be more inclined to express self and self-‐
disclose in ind

Confidentiality in Grp Therapy
• Mem are NOT legally obligated to maintain confidentiality

CRISIS INTERVENTION, BRIEF THERAPY, INTEGRATION AND OTHER THERAPIES
Crisis Intervention
• Brief tx for survivors of physical stress, suicides, rapes, alcoholism, abuse and battery,
and emergency psychiatric prob
• Any immediate short-‐term tx for persona in such distress that he cannot cope
adequately w/o outside help
• Goals and Characteristics
o Short commitment
o Learn more effective coping
o Immediate symptom reduction

o Restoration of previous level of func
o Preventing further psych breakdowns and dysfunctions
o Tx is supportive, active and emphasizes cog and bx elements of crisis
o Goal=eliminate symptoms and distress in shortest possible time w least amt of
suffering
• Stages of Crisis Intervention
o Formulation—identification of specific crisis and ct’s rxn to it
o Implementation—assessment of ct’s life prior to crisis, setting of specific short-‐
term goals, and implementation of tech to achieve goals
o Termination—achieving goals is assessed

Brief Psychotherapy
• Goals
o Remove/reduce ct’s most severe symptoms as quickly as possible
o Restore ct to previous emotional equilibrium
o Help ct acquire understanding and skills so that he copes better in future
• Time limits—achieved in limited period of time (25 sessions or less)
• Therapeutic alliance—primary change strategy
o Ability to stay focused on ct’s primary prob
o Willingness to adopt active role
o Flexibility in choice and application of intervention strategies
• Selection of ct’s—best suited for those symptoms that have acute onset, who exhibited
satisfactory adjustment before onset, and have high initial motivation and relate well
to others

Solution-‐Focused Therapy
• Short-‐term, goal-‐oriented approach
o Helps cts change by constructing solutions rather than dwelling on prob/root
causes
• Assumptions that ct already possesses resources necessary to achieve desired goals
and solutions
• Therapist only intervenes to extent necessary
• Tx usually lasts less than 6 sessions

• Goals and Tech
o Generate solutions to prob by:
§ Formula tasks (Rx for change)
§ Direct/indirect compliments
§ Skeleton keys (suggestions for unlocking solution)
§ Future-‐oriented questions
• Exception question—asking for time when prob did not exist,
leading to self-‐fulfilling prophecy)
• Scaling question—rating prob as worst ever been to best possible

•Miracle question—visualizing absence of prob and resultant
effect
§ Narratives
o Outcome results are limited
o Effective w juvenile offenders, substance abuse tx and at-‐risk students

Integration and Other Therapies
• Psychotherapy integration
o Attends to relationship btw tech and theory
o Common Factors—aspects present in most approaches to therapy across all
theoretical lines and in all activities
o Assimilative Integration—therapist has commitment to one theoretical
approach but also is willing to use tech from other approaches
o Theoretical Integration—most difficult level to achieve integration as it
requires integrating concepts from diff theoretical approached wherein basic
philosophy in each theory may differ
§ Attempts to bring together differing theories and develop Grand Unified
Theory
o Technical Eclecticism—variation of assimilative
§ Variety of tech utilized, however there is no unifying theoretical
understanding that underlies approach
§ Unconcerned w theory, instead relies on experience and knowledge to
select interventions most appropriate for ind as benefit to ind is greater
than adhering to any one theory
• Eclectic Psychotherapy
o Interventions are borrowed from various orientations to enhance overall
clinical efficiency
o Multimodal Therapy (MMT)
§ Lazarus
§ Areas of ct’s life
§ Bx, affect/affective response, sensations, imagery, cog, interpersonal
relationships, and need for drugs/exercise/nutrition
§ Essentially psycho-‐ed
• Many prob arise from misinfo and missing info and focuses on
results or outcomes

o Prescriptive Eclectic Therapy
§ Open system, ct-‐focused approach in which tx adjust therapeutic
relationships and psych tc to ind needs of ct by matching most effective
methods from diff approaches to ind cts cases based on empirically
supported guidelines
• Synergy of awareness and action
• Complementary nature of psychotherapy systems
• Identification of empirical markers for selecting psych therapies
§ Prescriptive matching

o Transtheoretical Model of Change
§ Stages of change
§ Integrates interventions from various theories and distinguishes btw 6
stages people pass through in process of change:
• Precontemplation—denial, resistance, no plans to change
o Little insight
• Contemplation—begins to recognize need for or benefits of
change
o Plans to change w/in next 6 mo but not yet committed to it
• Preparation—indication of clear intent or decision to take action
w/in next 30 days
o May have begun to take small steps towards change
• Action—actively engaging in making changes or acquiring new bx
• Maintenance—maintained action for at least 6 mo
o Actively working to prevent relapse
• Termination

Interpersonal Psychotherapy
• Present-‐oriented, short-‐term and highly structured
• Integrates biological and psychosocial approaches w emphasis on interpersonal prob
and looks at social func
• Depression and interpersonal distress

Somatic Therapies
• Drug therapy
• ECT
• Psychosurgery

CROSS-‐CULTURAL ISSUES
Emic-‐Etic Distinction
• Emic—real, sign, or meaningful from viewpoint of participants of particular culture
o Studying culture from inside and trying to see it as its own members do
• Etic—scientific community of observers in particular culture recognizes as real, sign,
or cross-‐culturally valid
o Studying from outside using universally accepted means of investigation

Counseling Ethnic Minorities: General Issues
• Worldview
o Class-‐bound values—valuing time boundaries, or strict adherence to time
schedule; ambiguous and unstructured approach to prob solving; emphasis on
long-‐range goals and solutions
o Culture-‐bound values—focus on individualism vs collectivism; cause and effect
relationships for ct prob; emphasis on emotional/verbal expression; active

participation and openness to discussing intimate issues; separation of physical
and mental well-‐being
o Language variables—those in which standard English and verb comm. Are
stressed
• Acculturation—process of change that occurs when one culture assimilates w another
culture
o Berry’s Acculturation Model
§ 2 independent dimensions:
• Retention of minority culture
• Maintenance of mainstream culture
§ 4 Models:
• Integration—High retention of minority and high maintenance of
mainstream
• Assimilation—Low retention of minority and high maintenance of
mainstream
• Separation—High retention of minority and low maintenance of
mainstream
• Marginalization—Low retention of minority and low
maintenance of mainstream
§ High levels of stress—marginalization and separation; mod levels—
assimilation; low levels—integration
• Therapist-‐Ct Similarity
o Impact relationship:
§ Attitude similarity—may be critical in preference for counselors
§ Therapist sensitivity—degree to which tx is culturally sensitive/aware
§ Racial/cultural identification—degree to which ct identifies w cultural
background
• Consistent w Minority Identity Development Model
o Applies to AA and other minority grps who share
experience of oppression

o Stage 1—Conformity
§ Prefers dominant cultural values
§ Strong – feelings towards own culture
§ Strong + feelings towards dominant culture
§ Likely to prefer tx from majority
o Stage 2—Dissonance
§ Cultural confusion and conflict
§ Active questioning of dominant culture’s treatment
of minority
§ Psych need to resolve conflicting attitudes
§ Begins to challenge values and beliefs of previous
stage
o Stage 3—Resistance and Immersion
§ Actively rejects dominant society

§ Endorsed minority
§ Combating oppression and racism
§ Distrust and hatred of white society is strong
§ Get in touch w one’s hx, culture, traditions
§ Therapist from own minority preferred
o Stage 4—Introspection
§ Conflict btw personal autonomy and rigid
constraints of previous stage
§ Question notions of unequivocal loyalty to own
culture and absolute rejection of dominant culture
o Stage 5—Synergistic Articulation and Awareness
§ Resolves conflicts of previous stage
§ Sense of self-‐fulfillment regarding cultural identity
and greater feeling of ind autonomy
§ Desire to eliminate all forms of oppression becomes
important motivator
o Ind in stage 1 prefer white tx
§ Stages 2-‐4=minority tx
§ Stage 5=tx whose attitudes and beliefs are similar
• Helm’s Racial Identity Models
o Racial identity status affects how people relate to one another and distinguishes
btw 4 interaction patterns: parallel, regressive, progressive, crossed
o 2 phases (Abandonment of Racism and Defining Non-‐racist White Identity) into
6 identity statuses:
§ Contact—ignorance and disregard of any racial diff
• Limited contact w other races, oblivious to own whiteness and
unaware of implications of racial/ethnic diff
§ Disintegration—awareness of whiteness and of racial inequalities
producing emotional, psych, and moral confusion and conflict
§ Reintegration—resolve conflict by adopting position that whites are
superior and minorities are inferior, and use beliefs to justify existing
inequalities
§ Pseudo-‐Independence—dissatisfaction w reintegration and re-‐
examination of beliefs about race and racial inequalities
§ Immersion-‐emersion—embrace whiteness w/o rejecting members of
minority grps and attempt to determine how they can feel proud of race
w/o being racist
§ Autonomy—internalize nonracist white identity that is based on realistic
understanding of strengths and weaknesses of white culture and
similarities and diff are acknowledged but are not perceived as
threatening
• Whites value and seek out cross-‐racial interaction
• Model of Psychological Nigrescence
o AA traverse 5 stages of growth toward more authentic AA identity

§ Pre-‐Encounter—person’s worldview and values are dominated by Euro-‐
American determinants
• Most likely to believe integration and assimilation are solution to
racial prob
• Blame AA for own prob
§ Encounter—personal/social event that temporarily dislodges person
from previous worldview
• Makes person more receptive to new interpretations of identity
and condition
• Begins frantic and determined search for AA identity
§ Immersion-‐Emersion—struggles to destroy all remnants of old identity
and perspective and to clarify personal implications of new frame of
reference
• Denigrate Cauc. Ind and culture while simultaneously deifying AA
ind and culture
§ Internalization—resolves conflicts btw old and new worldviews
• Ideological flexibility, psych openness, self-‐confidence
• Anti-‐Cauc feelings decline
§ Internalization-‐Commitment—find ways to translate newly internalized
identity into activities that are meaningful to grp
• Makes meaningful and mature commitment to political activism
in order to improve condition of AA
• Communication Styles
o High-‐context Comm—heavily on restricted codes, culturally-‐defined meanings,
and non-‐verbal messages
§ More characteristic of AA, Asian, Hispanic, Native Am
o Low-‐contect Comm—emphasizes verbal messages and elaborated codes
§ More characteristic of Anglo-‐Am
• Power and Status Position
o Ind in positions of low power and status are better reading/perceiving mem of
higher status grp than those of higher status reading lower status
• Healthy Cultural Paranoia
o Normal response of AA and other ethnic/racial minorities to oppression and
racism
• Cultural Encapsulation
o Defines reality according to one set of cultural assumptions
o Becomes insensitive to cultural variations among cts
o Disregards evidence disproving assumptions, is unaware of own cultural bias
o Defines counseling in terms of dogmatically accepted tech and strategies,
depends on quick-‐fix solutions to prob, and judges others from one’s own self-‐
reference criteria
o Culturally Universality—assumption that Western concepts of normality and
abnormality can be considered universal and equally applicable across all
cultures

o Culturally-‐competent Counselor—recognizes and appreciates cultural diff and
is able to work effectively w mem of diff cultural grps
• Cultural Empathy
o Therapist understands and appreciates cultural diff in way that extends
boundaries of traditional empathy, retaining separate cultural identity while
simultaneously aware of and accepting cultural values and beliefs of ct
• Cultural Overgeneralization
o Therapist assumes that all ct’s presenting prob are directly related to ct’s
culture rather than other factors
• Diagnostic Overshadowing
o Tendency to attribute all bx, social and emotional prob to diagnosis or
psychpath while alternative explanations and comorbid dx are often not
considered

Counseling AA Cts
• More nonverbal, more emotional, more concrete
• Most successful tx when prob-‐oriented and time-‐limited
• Recommend use of multisystems approach—considering multiple systems that impact
ind and fam func

Counseling Hispanic Cts
• Patriarchial
• Approach to tx that stresses personal contact and attn
• Use more active, goal-‐oriented tx plan
• Consider importance of fam in tx
• Be aware of need for bilingual prof
• Cuento Therapy
o Folktale
o Reading cuentos and then leading grp discussion about them
o Focus on character’s bx and moral

Counseling Native Am Cts
• Know details of particular tribe and fam system
• Prefer non-‐directive, hx-‐oriented, accepting and cooperative approach
• Goal=happiness, wisdom, peace w nature

Counseling Asian-‐Am Cts
• Fam, age, and sex are major determinants of social roles
• Fam tend to be traditional, patriarchal, respectful of elders
• Fam and cultural roles are well defined and rigid
• Prob are usually addressed w/in fam structure, leading to under use of MH services
• Direct, structured, short-‐term approach
• Place presenting prob in context of academic/voc issue


Counseling Elderly Cts
• Therapy involves guiding through identity transitions, helping become involved in
satisfying relationships and activities, understanding common occurrence of
depression
• Reminiscence Therapy—life review to facilitate acceptance of successes and
shortcomings in one’s life
• Depression
• May respond more slowly to various forms of psychotherapy

Counseling Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Cts
• Identity development:
o Identity awareness
o Identity comparison
o Identity tolerance
o Identity acceptance
o Identity pride
o Synthesis
• Sexual prejudice—neg attitudes toward ind because of sexual orientation
• Minority Stress Model—distal and proximal factors that contribute to MH outcomes
o Distal—external, objective events and conditions
o Proximal—ind’s perceptions and appraisals of events/conditions

PSYCHOTHERAPY OUTCOMES
Major Research Reviews and Meta-‐analysis
• Eysenck—therapy does not yield sign diff results from no therapy
• Pts undergoing psychotherapy are better off than controls receiving no tx
• No particular tx is better than any other

Client Variables
• Intelligence—higher
• Openness/Nondefensiveness—cooperative
• Age—little relationship to tx outcome
• Gender—no consistent relationship
• Motivation—inconsistent
• Understanding of goals—being clear on goals is moderate predictor
• SES
• Personality Characteristics—ego strength, suggestibility, anx tolerance—positive
outcomes
• Expectations—extremely high or low about tx tend to not do as well as those w mod
expectations

Therapist Variables
• Age—v weakly associated
• Ethnicity—has not been found to be factor

• Emotional well-‐being—modest relationship
• Expectations—positive outcome is increased when ct expectations addressed
• Professional background and experience—little support
• Self-‐disclosure—inconsistent
• Orientation—v little variance
• Gender—no sign relationship
• Competence—most important

Treatment Variables
• Therapeutic alliance—most of variance in outcome is accounted for by working
alliance
• Type of tx
o Manual-‐guided tx—detail theoretical underpinnings of tx, tx goals, and specific
strategies and guidelines
§ Inconsistent and not found to have better outcomes
o Best Practice—approached tx that have empirical evidence to support
effectiveness
• Durations—ambiguous
o Up to point (around 26 sessions), fairly linear + correlation

Other Issues in Tx Outcome Research
• Therapy outcomes w children/adolescents
o As effective as tx for adults
o Girls respond to tx better than boys
§ Adolescent girls responding best of all

• Phase Model of psychotherapy Effectiveness
o Ct stage model that outlines progressive, 3-‐stage sequence of change
§ Remoralization—ct’s subjective well-‐being and occurs during first few
sessions
• Improvement in ct’s feelings of hopelessness and desperation
§ Remediation—symptom reduction and relief
• 5-‐15th sessions
§ Rehabilitation—gradual improvement of various aspects of life func

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
Personality Inventories
• MMPI-‐2
o Empirical criterion keying—large # of people in diff grps are asked to respond
to large # of test items
o Content analysis—Initially based on content
o Clinical Scales:
§ Hypochondriasis—1
§ Depression—2

§ Hysteria—3
§ Psychopathic deviate—4
§ Masculinity-‐Feminity—5
§ Paranoia—6
§ Psychasthenia—7
§ Schizophrenia—8
§ Hypomania—9
§ Social Introversion—0
o Conversion V—high 1, low 2, high 3
§ Somaticize psychological problems
o Psychotic V—high 6, low 7, high 8
o Passive-‐aggressive V—high 4, low 5, high 6
o Validity scales
§ ?/Cannot say-‐-‐# items unanswered
§ L—high=unwilling to admit minor short-‐comings
• Low=independence, direct or blunt responding, exaggeration of –
characteristics
§ F—faking good/bad
• Low=lack sign psychopath and social conformity tendency
• High=deviant or antisocial personality, deliberate malingering,
eccentricity/contracting responses
§ K—defensiveness
• Identify tendency to try to make self look better or deny
psychpath
• High=does not want to reveal conflicts
o Faking good
• Low=low self-‐image, not func well
§ TRIN/VRN/FB
• Tendency to endorse items in consistent way
• MCMI-‐III
• SCL-‐90 (Symptom Checklist 90)—self-‐report inventory
o General psych symptoms of anx, depression, somatization, OCD, hostility
• NEO Personality Inventory—Big Five personality traits

Projective Tech
• Rorschach
o Age 2/+
o Scoring/Interpretation
§ Location
• Whole responses=intellectual ability to organize one’s
environment into meaningful concept
• Higher # Dd=compulsiveness, avoidance, and “cog flight” from
reality due to stress
§ Determinants—characteristic of inkblot
§ Content—category of specific percepts/subjects

• Human=lack of human content suggests identity prob and
detachment from others
§ Frequency
• Populars—high #=excessive concentionality, defensiveness,
depression, or low IQ
o Low=rebellious, sometimes seen in ind suffering from
thought d/o
• TAT—Murray’s theory of needs
• Drawings—represents expression of self or body image

Interest Inventories
• Strong-‐Campbell Interest Inventory—personal interests
o General Occupational Themes—Holland’s theory
o Basic Interest Scales
o Scores for main body of SCII—Occupational Scales
o Newly Revised Strong Interest Inventory—general representative sample
§ General Occ. Themes—Holland’s 6 themes, expanded to include
workplace changes
§ Basic Interest Scales—more contemporary interests
§ Occ. Scales—greater emphasis on technology and business-‐related
occupation items
§ Personal Style Scales—Work Style, Learning Environment, Leadership
Style, Risk Taking, Team Orientation
§ Administrative Indices—types and consistency of responses
• Kuder Vocational Preference Record
o Interests in 10 broad voc areas
o Based on content validity
o Ipsative scores—convey relative strengths and weaknesses of interests w/in
examinee
o Kuder Occ. Interest Survey
§ Unlike Strong tests, selected items that distinguish btw diff occ grps
instead of general reference sample
§ Occ Scales, College Major Scales, Voc Interest Estimates, Dependability
Indices

o Kuder Career Search
§ Activity Scale—10 activity preferences
§ Kuder Career Clusters—test-‐taker’s pattern of interests

Neuropsych Tests
• NP Batteries
o Halstead-‐Reitan
o LNNB—provides more thorough assessment of neurological deficits and BI than
HR
• Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test

o Assessing school readiness, LD, predicting school performance, BI, emotional
prob
o Benton Visual Retention Test—identify BI
o Beery Developmental Test of Visual-‐Motor Integration—visual-‐motor ages 3-‐18
• Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities
o Age 2-‐10
o Assesses channels, processes, and levels
• WCST
• Stroop
• Tower of London
o Move disks into certain configuration
• MMSE
• Glasgow Coma Scale
• Rancho scale

COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY
• Differentiates from other psych through its unique theoretical orientation and
values and commitment to concrete social change through research and practice
• Attempts to “reframe” traditional questions in psych
o Advocates conceptual shift away from individual factors and environmental
ones
§ Environmental factors—all larger “mediating structures” that make
up context of individual
o Advocates set of values—empowerment, promoting sense of community
involvement, respect for cultural diversity, explicit commitment to social
change

• Community Mental Health Center Act
o Govt has assumed major role in promoting mental health
o Funding and guidelines for community mental health centers, that provide
various services within area
o 23% of mental health treatment occurs in these centers
• Federal Community Mental Health Act
o Passed in 1963 and revised in 1980
o Programs:
§ Short-‐term hospitalization for mental pts
§ Outpatient, residential and aftercare services for d/c mental pts
§ Emergency mental health tx that is available 24 hrs
§ Specialized services for children and aged
• Awareness of importance of prevention is more prevalent
o Efforts have resulted more in expansion of old practices than creation of
new ones

PREVENTION

• Shifts focus from individual to environmental context
• Rather than treating symptoms, aims to engender competent communities that do
not foster mental illness in first place
• Types of Prevention:
o Tertiary—prevent recurrence of illness and reduce long-‐term duration and
consequences
§ “closest” to illness
§ Occur only AFTER onset of illness and AFTER symptoms have been
treated
o Secondary—early detection and treatment of problem before full-‐blown
illness develops, or intervention to keep problem from getting worse
o Primary—addresses mediating system structures that lead to development
of illness
§ “furthest” from illness—most preventative in nature
§ Carried out BEFORE onset of disease and involves preventing its
occurrence

SUICIDE
• Ninth leading cause of death in US

• Risk Factors:
o Hx of attempted suicide
o Age—progressively rises over age 65, with highest over 85
§ Greatest increase has been among 15-‐24, especially males
o Sex—males commit suicide more, females attempt more
§ Higher rate of success with males=methods used
o Race—white commit more than non-‐whites
§ Rates for non-‐white rising, especially ages 15-‐24
o Marital Status—marriage lessens risk
§ Rate higher for single, never married
§ Higher for widows
§ Even higher for divorced
§ Greatest first yr after losing spouse
o History—fam hx
o Diagnosis—95% have diagnosed mental disorder
§ Depressive d/o, substance abuse, schizophrenia have highest risk of
completion
§ Mood d/o w/ psychosis=5x greater
§ Increased when depressive symptoms begin to improve
o Bx—state intention to commit suicide
§ Greater with specific plan and means of carrying out plan
§ Bx consistent w decision to die
o Other:
§ Hopelessness
§ Recent life stress
§ Physical illness—elderly

• Adolescents
o Second leading cause of death among older adolescents
o Increase rate ages 15-‐24
o Most common method for male/females is firearms
§ Increased when intoxicated and when firearms available at home
o Predictors:
§ Diagnosis of depression
§ Use of drugs
§ Antisocial bx
§ Others:
• Previous suicidality
• Direct/indirect exposure to suicide of another
• Precipitant—interpersonal loss, especially loss that involves
personal humiliation
o Suicide in school/one that receives media ttn. tends to be imitated
o Attempts are often impulsive and may represent attempt to manipulate
others, gain ttn./affection, express anger, or obtain some benefit
o Prevention:
§ “Most ominous warning signs”—talking about one’s own death,
reunion with deceased, giving away possessions
• Social withdrawal, poor coping skills, self-‐destructive bx

• Older Adults
o Increase drastically starting at age 65 and 85 y/o white men are 4x more
likely than 20 y/o men
o Less likely to communicate intent, more likely to use violent/lethal method,
less likely to attempt suicide as way to gain ttn.
o Risk factors:
§ Poor health
§ Depression
§ Schizophrenia
§ Alcohol dependent
§ Organic brain d/o
o Warning signs:
§ Destructive bx
§ Altering will
§ Becoming negative and hostile in interpersonal relations

• Prevention
o Hospitalization:
§ High risk
§ Psychotic, intoxicated, or debilitating medical condition
§ Does not have adequate support system
o Outpatient
§ Risk is low to moderate

§ Adequate support system
§ Hx vague/non-‐lethal threats/gestures
§ Techniques:
• “No suicide” contracts
• Increasing frequency of contact w clt
• Providing ct w emergency phone numbers
• Involving fam and friends in tx
• No access to firearms

SUPERVISION/CONSULTATION
• Voluntary relationship btw professional helper and individual group/social

unit
o Consultant is expert/specialist and is hired on ad-‐hoc basis to solve
specific work-‐related problem
• Consultation vs. supervision
o Supervision=continuous basis
o Supervisor=administrative authority, consultant=free to reject
suggestions of consultant
o Consultant=not member of consultee’s organization
o Consultation=specific problem, supervision=general work-‐related
activities
o Consultation=relationship is voluntary and able to terminate

• Forms of Consultation

o Mental Health/Psychodynamic Consultation
§ Maximizing social/emotional development of clients under
consultee’s care
§ Client-‐Centered Case Consultation—helping consultee
develop plan to work more effectively w particular ct
§ Consultee-‐Centered Case Consultation—focused on problems
w/in consultee
• Problems may involve lack of knowledge, skill or
ability
• May involve emotional issues on part of consultee
• THEME INTERFERENCE—type of transference that
may be focus of consultation in organizations
o Unresolved conflict, related to life
experience/fantasy affects perception/handling
of work-‐related prob
§ Program-‐Centered Administrative Consultation—working w
administration to suggest some actions consultees might take
in order to develop, expand or modify clinical/agency
program

Consultee-‐Centered Administrative Consultation—difficulties
§
w consultee that limit effectiveness in administering program
or bringing about program change
o Behavioral/Educational Consultation
§ Bringing about change in consultees or clients through use of
behavioral methods
o Systems/Process Consultation
§ Entire organization is viewed as consultee and is targeted for
change
§ Improving satisfaction among members of organization will
improve organization as whole
§ Focuses on improving interpersonal skills
§ Clarify and refurbish norms and roles in order to improve
interpersonal and subsystem processes
§ Develop sustained organizational capacity for solving
problems
o Advocacy Consultation
§ Set of activities performed by consultant to further goals of
disenfranchised group
§ Bringing about institutional change in order to benefit
consultee

MENTAL HEALTH HOSPITALS AND DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION
• Rates of mental illness are higher for females than males, admission rates to
state/county psychiatric hospitals are higher for males
o Men=much more likely to engage in “acting out” bx that are considered
dangerous and threatening to society
• Largest population of psych inpts are 25-‐44 y/o
o For males, second largest is 18-‐24 y/o
o For females, second is 45-‐64 y/o
o Highest: never been married, then…
§ Divorced/separated
§ Married
§ Widowed
o Majority are white, but when population proportions considered, members
of minority are overrepresented

• Deinstitutionalization
o Discharge of large number of pts from public psychiatric hospitals
§ Ongoing trend that began in 1950s
§ Community should be responsible for mental health of its citizens
§ Psychotropic drugs have also contributed

o Pts have been released into various aftercare clinics, where they cont to
receive psychiatric and rehab services
§ Also halfway houses and board-‐and-‐care facilities
§ End result= “revolving door”
• Pts have been readmitted to mental hospitals
• Initially, up to 80% were readmitted in first 2 yrs
§ Readmission contributes to poor coordination btw hospital and
community mental health centers, in adequate psych f/u, and lack of
govt support for residential programs
o Not nearly as successful as had been hoped
§ Fomented wholesale neglect of chronically disabled psych population
§ Usually results in increase of symptomatology because support
systems are not available
o Involuntary Commitment
§ Power of state to commit person involuntarily to mental institution
has historically been based on principle of parens patriae or right of
State to regulate person’s life if State believed person is incapable of
doing so him/herself
• Wyatt v. Stickney
o Court in Alabama ruled States that commit person
under this principle are obliged to provide adequate
treatment
§ “Need for Treatment” under doctrine is no longer sufficient reason
for involuntary hospitalization
• Donaldson v. O’Conner
o Finding of mental illness alone could not justify locking
person up against will and keeping him indefinitely in
simple custodial confinement
• There is still no constitutional basis for confining such
person’s involuntarily if they are dangerous to no one and can
live safely in freedom
§ Specific bx criterion used by most Stated is whether person is
dangerous to self/others
• Most common safeguard is “2-‐PC” where 2 physicians must
agree that pt needs to be hospitalized involuntarily

o Mental Pts and Criminal Proceedings
§ Competency to stand trial
• Defendant must understand nature of proceedings against
him and must be able to cooperate with defense counsel
§ When found incompetent, commitment lasting appr. 6 mo usually
follows
• Treat mental illness and get defendant back to court to stand
trial

• When not expected to improve, “Jackson” hearing is held in
order to establish individual will not regain competency in
foreseeable future
o Charges against are automatically dropped and he can
be retained only under civil commitment procedures

o Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity
§ “M’Naghten test”—stipulates that defendant must have known
wrongfulness of act at time of offense in order to be found “sane”
• Added bx criterion that must be present for finding of
“insanity”—act must be result of “irresistible impulse”
§ Durham test—established criminal act had to be “product” of mental
illness
• Overturned in 1972 and replaced with American Law Institute
Rule (ALI rule)
o Exculpate (declare guiltless) those crimincal acts
where defendant was unable to appreciate criminality
of action and was unable to conform actions to law
§ 1985—added that defense must prove presence
of insanity by “clear and convincing evidence”
§ If found not guilty by reason of insanity, defendant usually
committed involuntarily to inpt psych hospital until found to be no
longer dangerous

RESEARCH ISSUES
• Child Abuse
o Characteristics of Abused Children
§ Age—very young—younger than 2
§ Gender—early childhood, males physically abused more
• Adolescence—females more
• Sexual abuse, younger girls and older boys
• Physical abuse is same for boys/girls, but girls more for
sexual abuse
§ Premature and difficult births
§ Poor school achievement and delays in cognition
§ Aggressiveness
§ More problems in relationships w teachers and adults
§ Children may develop attachments to those who cause them
distress
o Characteristics of Abusive Adults
§ SES—lower
§ Ethinicity—whites outnumber AA, although higher for nonwhites
overall

§ Childhood Hx—parents being maltreated themselves
• Almost all have hx of some form of deprivation
§ Psych Characteristics—10% psychotic
• Wide range of emotional d/o
• Described as immature, impulsive, dependent, sado-‐
masochistic, egocentric, narcissistic, and demanding
§ Low tolerance for infant bx and be ignorant about normal child
development
§ May misinterpret bx in negative ways and rely on harsh
punishment and coercion to control child’s bx
§ Increased when fam is experiencing stress due to chronic
poverty, social isolation, marital discord
o Physical abuse puts child at risk not only to become abusive parent, but
also to develop wide range of psychopathology
§ Severe personality d/o and illness in schizophrenic range
o Only one parent typically involved in beating and other participates
passively by covering up
o In sexual abuse, abuser is typically either relative or close fam friend

• Assessment
o Interviewing and observing alleged victims and perpetrators in attempt
to determine if any characteristic signs of child abuse are present
§ Interviews with involved parties and witnesses
§ Observation of child
§ Psych testing
o Anatomically correct dolls
§ Most commonly used with verbal children who lack skills or are
too embarrassed to discuss sexual matters, or with preverbal and
MR children
§ Help children who would otherwise be unable to discuss sexual
abuse
§ Sexually abused children are more common to have aggressive
play and play involving touching private parts
§ Facilitate memory for details of sexual abuse but it is unlikely to
help child remember forgotten incidents of abuse
§ Do not appear to increase likelihood that children will fabricate
stories of abuse
• Spouse Abuse
o Characteristics of Abusive Husbands
§ Low self-‐esteem
§ Feeling inadequate
§ Acceptance of stereotyped male role
§ Pathological jealousy
§ Tendency to blame other for actions
§ Fam hx of domestic violence

§ Inability to tolerate stress
§ Poor impulse control
§ Emotional dependence
§ Unrealistic expectations of marital relationship
§ Alcohol involved in majority of domestic violence cases
o Characteristics of Battered Wives
§ Low self-‐esteem
§ Acceptance of stereotyped female role
§ Acceptance of responsibility for batter’s actions
§ Feelings of guilt
§ Numerous psychophysical complaints
§ “Martyrlike” bx
§ Belief that no one could help them escape predicament
§ Economic and/or emotional dependence on husband
§ Belief that they provoke anger and violence
§ Fam hx of domestic violence
§ Isolation from fam-‐of-‐origin
§ Pregnancy is risk factor for abuse
o Cycle of Violence
§ Tension-‐Building—batterer is moody and tense and victim
believes she must “walk on eggshells” to accommodate him
and avoid setting him off
§ Acute Battering Incident—most intense and destructive
incident of abuse occurs
• May be physical beating or verbal assault
• Inicident cannot be controlled or predicted
§ Honeymoon Phase—batterer is remorseful and apologetic
• May promise never to do it again, shower w gifts
• Complicates intervention because it represents time
when it is most difficult for woman to leave, but also
time when mental health professionals are most likely
to be involved
o Factors Affecting Spouse Abuse
§ Relationship tends to remain fairly stable when balance btw
costs of abuse and benefits of relationship are about equal
§ Pregnancy, presence of infants or teenagers, holidays, and
major televised sporting event, unemployment increase
severity/frequency
o Prevention and TX
§ Arresting and prosecuting violent offenders in fan abusive
disputes

• Rape
o One of the most under-‐reported crimes in country

o Act of aggression and humiliation that is expressed through sexual
means
o Characteristics of Rapist
§ Four categories:
• Sexual sadist—aroused by pain of victims
• Exploitative Predators—use victims for gratification in
impulsive way
• Inadequate Men—believe no women would voluntarily
sleep with them and are obsessed with fantasies about
sex
• Men for whom rape is displaced expression of anger
and rage
§ Tend to repeat act rather than isolate it as an unusual incident
• Most rapes are planned in advance and committed in
rapist’s own neighborhood
• Social skills were found to be deviant and deficient
• Sexual performance was often impaired during rape
§ Men are usually 25-‐44 y/o
§ Alcohol involved
§ Rape occurs in accompaniment to other crimes, such as
physical assault
o Victims
§ Typically btw 15-‐24 y/o
§ Same race
§ Member of lower SES
§ Regain psychological equilibrium within 6 mo to 1 yr after
attack
§ Long-‐term rxns include avoidance of sexual interaction, sexual
symptoms, and symptoms of PTSD
§ Fare best when they receive immediate support and are able
to ventilate fear and rage to supportive fam, drs, and law
enforcement
§ Recovery is predicted by whether or not victim withdraws
from environmental stimuli associated with attack

• Teen Pregnancy
o US is highest rate of industrialized nations
o Decline attributed to decreased sexual activity, increased condom
use, use of injectable and implant contraceptives
o Teen pregnancy prevention programs had no effect on sexual activity
§ Did increase use of contraceptives and decreased rate of
pregnancy


MARRIAGE, CHILDBIRTH, and DIVORCE
§ Those who are married are most satisfied w lives and healthier, physically and
psychologically
o Effect moderated by marital satisfaction
§ U shape btw length of time married and satisfaction
• Decreases over first 10 yrs, w men showing effect earlier
• For women, dissatisfaction occurs with children
• Satisfaction increased at time when children leave home and
at retirement age
§ Women who terminate unwanted pregnancy
o Risk of severe negative rxn increased if lacks support system, had
psychological conflicts and poor coping abilities before pregnancy, blames
herself for pregnancy, or had abortion during 2nd trimester
o Spontaneous miscarriage tends to result in negative depressive rxn that
lasts up to one yr
§ Marital break-‐up is associated w increased risk for psychopathology, physical
illness, and suicide
o Distress associated with divorce is strongest among older people and men in
this population report more unhappiness

ECONOMIC STATUS
• Highest admission rates in mental institutions and longest length of
hospitalization
o Decreases in both indices as one moves up the SES ladder


GROWTH AND LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT
Foundations of Early Development
NATURE VS NURTURE
• GxE Interaction—interaction of genetics and environment to produce given

outcome

• Genetype—characteristics that are determined by info coded on genes

• Phenotype—person’s observable and measurable characteristics which develop
from an interaction btw genetics and environment

• Range of Reaction—individual’s genetics set boundaries for possible phenotypes

that can occur
o Genes set boundaries for range of reaction but environment determines
which outcomes will materialize
o For many traits, reaction range is larger for those with high genetic
endowment than those with low genetic endowment

• Critical Period—limited time span during which person is biologically prepared to
acquire certain behaviors but requires the presence of appropriate environmental
stimuli for development to actually occur
• Sensitive Period—critical period in humans
o Though there are optimal times for certain capacities to develop, those
capacities can develop, to some degree, at earlier or later times

• Maturation—genetically-‐determined patterns of development

o Environmental factors have little or no impact on maturationally-‐
determined characteristics
o Order in which behaviors emerge is same regardless of environmental
factors

• Canalization—narrow developmental path that characteristics take due to being

relatively resistant to environmental forces

• Secular Trends—provide evidence of impact of environment on development

o Long-‐term patterns/differences across different cohorts

GENETIC INFLUENCES

• Heritability Index—statistic used to estimate degree to which particular
characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors
o Estimates are obtained from kinship studies that compare individuals
within family to one another

• Disorders Due to Recessive/Dominant Genes

o Recessive:
§ Phenylketonuria (PKU)—lack enzyme needed to digest amino acid
phenylalanine
• In undigested form remains toxic agent in brain and causes
severe MR
• MR prevented by adherence to diet low in phenylalanine
during first 6-‐9 yrs (ex. Milk, eggs, fish, bread)
§ Tay-‐Saschs
§ Sickle-‐cell anemia
§ Cystic Fibrosis
o Dominant:
§ Huntington’s Chorea—degenerative disorder of CNS
• Characterized by cognitive, motor and psychiatric symptoms

• Disorders Due to Chromosomal Abnormalities

o Additional Chromosomes:
§ Down Syndrome—Trisomy 21
• 1:800 live births
• Frequency rises dramatically with maternal age
• Characterized by moderate to profound MR and physical
features (i.e. Short stocky build, flattened face, protruding
tongue, almond shaped face)
• Also often have heart abnormalities, thyroid dysfunction,
malformations of intestinal tract, and susceptibility to
respiratory infections
o Sex-‐Linked:
§ Klinefelter’s Syndrome—extra X
• Males
• Typical masculine interests in childhood and develop normal
male identity, but show incomplete development of secondary
sex characteristics and often sterile
§ Turner’s Syndrome—all or part of second X is missing
• Female
• Do not develop secondary sex characteristics, are sterile, and
tend to have short stature, stubby fingers, and webbed neck
§ Fragile X Syndrome—weak site on X
• Both male and female

o Negative effects are usually more evident in males who
lack influence of normal X
• Unique constellation of physical, intellectual, and behavioral
deficits (i.e. moderate-‐severe MR, facial deformities, and
rapid, staccato speech rhythm)

PRENATAL INFLUENCES
• Teratogens—environmental agents (i.e. durgs, toxins, infections) that cause

abnormalities by interfering with normal prenatal development
o Germinal Period—conception to implantation (8-‐10 days later)
§ Exposure may only damage few cells, have little or no effect on
development, or may cause death
o Embryonic Period—end of 2nd week to end of 8th week
§ Organism is more susceptible to major structural defects as result,
mainly organs
o Fetal Period—beginning 9th week to birth
§ Organ systems less affected, but exposure can cause less severe
defects, especially for external genitalia and brain
• Prolonged exposure tends to cause growth retardation and
lowered IQ

• Most Commonly Encountered Teratogens

o Alcohol—severe and largely irreversible abnormalities
§ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)—vary depending on amount of
alcohol consumed
• Include growth retardation, facial deformities, microcephaly
(small, underdeveloped brain), irritability, hyperactivity, and
variety of neurological abnormalities
• MR, with IQ averaging 65-‐70
• Leading cause of MR in US
§ Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)—alcohol exposed but without full
syndrome
• More common
• Present with 1 or more symptoms
§ 1:100 live births with FAS or FAE
o Illegal Drugs
§ Herin or Methadone—increases risk for prematurity, low birth
weight, physical abnormalities, respiratory disease, and morality at
birth
• Physically addicted to drug and display withdrawl symptoms
at birth
§ Marijuana—low birth weight, muscle tremors, increased startle
response and visual problems

Cocaine—retarded fetal growth, preterm birth and malformations of
§
brain, intestinal and genital-‐urinary tract
• Hemorrhages, lesions and swelling in brain, small head
circumference, genital and urinary tract deformities, heart
defects, brain seizure, and abnormalities in motor
development
• Due to altered function of neurotransmitters, tend to show
more irritability, rigidity, muscle tremors, difficult self-‐
soothing, difficulty being consoled, and excessively reactive to
environmental stimuli
• Impaired sensory function, decreased visual attention, and
difficulty regulating own state of arousal (i.e. asleep, awake,
attentive)
• In school setting, problems with concentration, memory,
learning disabilities, and social problems
o Prescription and OTC Drugs
§ Benzodiazapines—feeding problems, hypothermia, and deficiency in
muscle tone
§ Lithium—increases risk for Edstein’s Anomaly (defect in heart)
• When taken at time of birth—perinatal syndrome, including
bluish discoloration of skin and decreased muscle tone
§ Valproic Acid—increases risk of fetal malformation
o Smoking—high risk for spontaneous abortion, prematurity, low birth
weight, and death during period surrounding birth
§ Less responsive to environment and more irritable
§ Increased hyperactivity, short attention span, and reduced school
achievement in reading, math, and spelling
o Maternal Disease
§ Rubella Virus (German Measles)—heart defects, eye cataracts,
deafness, GI anolmalies, and MR
• 20% due shortly after birth
§ Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)—risk of miscarriage increased 3-‐fold
during pregnancy
• If contracted through delivery—high risk of death, brain
damage, and blindness
o Typically, C-‐section done
§ Cytomegalovirus (CMV)—embryo dying
• If later in pregnancy—retarded growth, blindness, deafness,
MR, microencephaly (small head circumference associated
with delayed motor, speech and mental development) and
cerebral palsy
§ Syphilis—deafness, facial deformities, malformations of teeth and
bones, excess fluid in brain and MR
§ HIV—higher than average rates of prematurity and often small for
gestational age

• Early symptoms include increased susceptibility to other
infections, failure to thrive, swollen lympth nodes and
development delays
• High risk for immunologic abnormalities and CNS
dysfunctions including loss of developmental milestones,
attention and concentration problems, and declining IQ
• With antiviral therapy, risk can be reduced to 2%
transmission

• Other Maternal Conditions

o Prenatal Malnutrition—depend on when and the severity
§ First Trimester—spontaneous abortion or congenital malformations
§ Third Trimester—low birth weight, low brain weight due to fewer
neurons, less extensive branching of dendrites, and reduced
myelinization
• Apathy, unresponsiveness to environmental stimulation,
irritability, abnormally high pitch cry, intellectual deficits, and
lags in motor development
o Emotional Stress—chronic, severe anxiety or stress on mother
§ Spontaneous abortion, premature delivery and more difficult labor
§ High risk for low birth weight, respiratory problems, exhibiting
higher-‐than-‐normal levels of irritability and hyperactivity, bowel
irregularities and problems related to sleep and eating
o Maternal Age—percentage of babies born low in birth weight is greatest for
mothers under age 15 and over 45
§ Women over age 35—miscarriage, placenta previa, high BP, diabetes,
and birth by C-‐section
• Increased risk of congenital birth defects

• Other Complications of Pregnancy or Delivery

o Premature Infants—born before 37 weeks
§ Increases due to: lack of prenatal care, malnutrition, maternal age
(younger than 15), drug use, low SES, and multiple gestations
§ Premature infants w/o significant abnormalities often catch up with
peers, in terms of cognitive language and social skills, by 2-‐3 yr/old
o Small-‐For-‐Gestational-‐Age (SGA)—below 10th%
§ Respiratory disease, hypoglycemia and asphyxia during birth
o Fetal Distress—prolonged anoxia, whether by twisted cord, sedatives given
or other factors, may result in delayed cognitive and motor development,
MR and cerebral palsy

EARLY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

• Infant Reflexes
o Types:
§ Palmar Grasp—grasps finger pressed against surface of palm
§ Babinski—extends big toe and spreads small toe when sole of foot is
stroked
§ Moro or Startle—when head drops slightly or sudden sound, arches
back, extends legs, and throws arms outward as if grabbing for
support
§ Stepping—when upright position and soles of feet touch floor, makes
stepping motions
o Disappear during first 6 months of life due to gradual increase in voluntary
control

• Early Sensory Skills

o Vision
§ Birth—prefer facial images
§ 1 month—discriminate mother’s face
§ 2-‐3 months—color vision
§ 6 months—depth perception and visual acuity close to that of adult
o Hearing
§ Last few months of development—hears sounds in uterus
§ Newborn—somewhat less sensitive than that of adult
§ Few days after birth—prefer human voice, recognize mother’s voice,
distinguish between vowels “a” and “i”
§ Soon after birth—sound and auditory localization (turning heard
toward direction of sound), but this ability disappears between 2-‐4
months and then re-‐emerges and becomes fully developed by 12
months
o Taste
§ Distinguish between all four tastes at birth
§ Show preference for sweet taste
o Smell
§ Unpleasant odors during first days following birth
§ Discriminate between different odors by 2-‐7 days old

• Brain Development in Infancy and Childhood

o Especially cortex, development occurs following birth and brain
development continues until early adolescence
o Most neurons are already present at birth, so development involves:
§ Growth of new dendrites, which create synapses
§ Myelinization
• Begin to form myelin in first month in primary cortex
o Accounts for ability to perform certain voluntary
movements in one month of age

• Primary sensory area next
• Most myelinization is complete by end of year 2, it continues
at slower rate into early adolescence

• Early Motor Development

o Motor Milestones
§ 1 month—Gross Motor=turns head from side to side when prone;
Fine Motor=strong grasp reflex
§ 3 months—Gross=holds head erect when sitting but head bobs
forward; regards own hand; Fine=holds rattle, pulls at clothes, can
bring objects in hand to mouth
§ 5 months—Gross=when sitting, holds head erect and steady, reaches
and grasps, puts foot to mouth when supine; Fine=plays with toes,
takes objects directly to mouth, grasps objects voluntarily
§ 7 months—Gross=sits, leaning forward on both hands, stands with
help; Fine=transfers objects from one hand to next
§ 9 months—Gross=creeps on hands and knees, pulls self to standing
position when holding onto furniture; Fine=use of thumb and index
finger to grasp (Pincer grasp)
§ 11-‐15 months—Gross=walks holding onto furniture, stands alone,
walks without help (12-‐14 mos); Fine=can remove objects from tight
enclosure (11 mo), turn page in book (12 mo), and use cup well (15
mo)
§ 18-‐24 months—Gross=runs clumsily, walks stairs with hand held,
can use spoon (18 mo), goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, and
50% use toilet during day
o Early practice can affect age reached of certain motor milestones
§ Early training does not have impact on long-‐term outcomes for basic
skills but may affect more complex motor skills

FAMILY RISK FACTORS
• Factors:
o Low SES
o Overcrowding or large family size
o Severe marital discord
o Parental criminality
o Maternal psychopathology
o Placement of child outside of home
• Psychiatric risk was 2% for children with one/no risk factors, and 21% for those
with 4/+

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: ECOLOGICAL MODEL

• Bronfenbrenner
o Four interacting systems
§ Microsystem—immediate setting
• Includes family, daycare, school
§ Mesosystem—interconnections between different components of
child’s microsystem
§ Exosystem—aspects of environment that child is not in direct contact
with but is affected by
§ Macrosystem—aspects of society that affect child’s development

Cognition and Communication
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Adaptation and Equilibration

o Adaptation—building cognitive schemas, which are organized ways of
thinking about the world, through interactions with environment
§ Two complementary processes:
• Assimilation—incorporates and interprets new information in
terms of existing schemas
• Accommodation—schemas are modified to take into account
newly understood properties of object
o Equilibration—continuous movement between cognitive equilibrium, a
state in which we use existing schemas to interpret reality (assimilate) and
disequilibrium, a state in which we notice that information doesn’t fit into
our current schemas
§ Disequilibrium forces us to modify current schemas (accommodate)
so that we can understand new information

• Stages of Cognitive Development

o Cognitive development proceeds sequentially in four stages, with each one
building upon earlier stage
§ Sensorimotor Stage—birth to 2 yrs
• Learns about objects through sensory information and motor
activity
• Learning is thought to be result of CIRCULAR REACTION—
behaviors are performed to reproduce events that happened
initially by chance
o Substage 1: Basic Reflexes—birth to 1 mo
§ First schemas are inborn reflexes and newborn
begins to get control over them
o Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions—1 to 4 mo
§ Infant finds actions involving their bodies by
accident then learns to repeat them by trial and
error

o Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reaction—4 to 8 mo
§ Infants find actions involving objects in
environment, then try to reproduce
actions/events by trial and error
o Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemas—8 to
12 mo
§ Infants intentionally put together two schemas
(secondary circular reactions) to reach goal or
solve problem
§ Object permanence begins
o Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions—12 to 18 mo
§ Infants are curious, explore through trial and
error, trying to produce novel reactions or
consequences
o Substage 6: Transition to Symbolic Thought—18 to 24
mo
§ Toddlers begin to form mental or symbolic
representations of events, using body
movements for movements of objects, to think
about events and to determine consequences of
action
• Key achievements of stage:
o OBJECT PERMANENCE—understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they are not visible
o DEFFERED IMITATION—ability to imitate observed act
at later point in time and beginning of make-‐believe
play
o Both are results of beginning of symbolic thought,
which allows child to use words, activities, and mental
images to stand for objects
§ Preoperational Stage—2 to 7 years
• Extraordinary increase in symbolic thought, resulting in
tremendous strides in language and appearance of substitute
pretend play and sociodramatic play
• Emergence of intuitive thought
• Limited by EGOCENTRISM—inability to understand that
others do not experience world same way
o Underlies magical thinking and animism
§ MAGICAL THINKING—erroneous belief that one
has control over objects/events or that thinking
about something will actually make it occur
§ ANIMISM—belief that objects have
thoughts/feelings/other life-‐like qualities

o Magical thinking is result of precausal or transductive
reasoning, which reflects incomplete understanding of
cause and effect by children
• Unable to conserve, or understand that underlying properties
of object may not change even when its physical appearance
changes
o CENTRATION—tendency to focus on one detail of
situation to neglect of other important features
o IRREVERSIBILITY—inability to understand that
actions can be reversed
§ Concrete Operational Stage—7 to 12 years
• Development of reversibility and decentration, which enable
concrete operational child to conserve
o CONSERVATION—develops sequentially throughout
concrete stage
§ First comes conservation of number, then
conservation of length, liquid, mass, area,
weight, and volume
§ HORIZONTAL DECALAGE—sequential mastery
of concepts within single stage of development
• TRANSITIVITY—ability to mentally sort objects
o Hierarchical classification—ability to sort objects in
hierarchies of classes and subclasses based on
similarities and differences among groups
§ Formal Operational Stage—12/+ years
• Thinks logically when dealing with concrete, tangible
information but cannot process abstract, hypothetical
information very well
• Characterized by:
o Hypothetical-‐deductive reasoning—ability to arrive at
and test alternative explanations for observed events
o Propositional thought—ability to evaluate logical
validity of verbal assertions without making reference
to real-‐world circumstances
• Adolescents are prone to formal operational egocentrism—
rigid insistence that world can become better place through
implementation of their idealistic schemas
o Characteristics:
§ IMAGINARY AUDIENCE—belief that others are
as concerned with and critical of adolescent’s
behavior as him/herself
§ PERSONAL FABLE—belief that s/he is unique
and indestructible


• Research on Piaget’s Theory
o Generally, idea that cognitive development occurs in invariant sequence of
stages has been confirmed
o Criticized for underestimating cognitive abilities of children, especially
preoperational children
o While Piaget claimed that everyone reaches formal operational stage, there
is evidence that only about ½ of adult population reaches this stage and that
many adults use formal operational thought only in their areas of expertise
and experience

NEO-‐PIAGETIAN AND INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES
• Constructivist approach—development in stages with qualitative differences like

Piaget
o Unlike Piaget—increasing complexity of stages in terms of child’s info
processing system or upper limits or constraints on levels of functioning
o Combine info processing and Piagetian theories, recognizing roles of both
ENDOGENOUS (biological maturation) and EXOGENOUS (social learning and
experience) factors in cognitive development
• Information Processing
o Cognitive processes of mind compare to functioning of computer programs
and processes
§ Logical rules and strategies
§ Limited capacity for nature and amount of info that can be processed
o Children can become better information processors or thinkers through
brain and sensory systems changes and learning rules/strategies for
processing info better

VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Cognition depends on social, cultural, and historical context

• Development is directly related to social interactions and that learning always
occurs on two levels:
o Child and another person (INTERPERSONAL)
o Within child (INTRAPERSONAL)
• ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
o Gap btw what child can do alone and what s/he can accomplish with help
from parents or more competent peers
o Learning occurs most rapidly when teaching is within zone
o Support provided to child by others is referred as SCAFFOLDING
§ Most effective when involves giving cues, encouraging thinking about
other possible actions and modeling


MEMORY IN CHILDHOOD
• Ability to recall is influenced by:

o Nature of event
o Number of times they experience them
o Availability of cues or reminders
• Infants tested at 2/4/6mo can recall details about hidden objects, location, and size
• Children ages 1-‐3 are capable of immediate and long-‐term recall of specific events
that occurred several months ago
• When adults are asked about earliest memories, most cannot recall anything before
age 3 (INFANTILE AMNESIA)
o Result of lack of schematic organization of experience, different way of
encoding in early childhood, and importance of language development
• Memory increases at steady rate during preschool years and shows substantial
gains at about age 7 (transition from early to middle childhood), which is due to:
o Consistent use of rehearsal and mother memory strategies
o Increased short-‐term memory capacity
o Increased knowledge about things that are to be remembered
o Development of meta-‐memory, or knowledge about one’s one memory
processes

CRYING IN INFANCY
First way that infants communicate

•
Three distinct cries
•
o Basic cry—associated with hunger
o Pain cry
o Angry cry
• By week 3—cry for attention
• Infant’s cries on adults
o Crying causes changes in heart rate, skin conduction, and other measures of
physiological arousal in parents and non-‐parents
o
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
• Key features of language:

o System of words that stand for something
o It is rule-‐governed
o Within confines of rules, it is creative

• Sequence of Language Development
o Different cultures progress through similar stages of development
o Milestones:
§ Cooing (1-‐2 mo)—vowel-‐like sounds, usually emitted when content
§ Babbling (4-‐6 mo)—repetition of consonant-‐vowel combinations

• Babies begin around same age in all linguistic environments
and initially produce similar repertoire of sounds
• By 9 mo, sounds narrow to those of language exposed to
§ First words (10-‐16 mo)—refer to people or manipulable or moving
objects and events that have salient properties of change (bye-‐bye,
up, more)
§ Holophrastic Speech (12-‐18 mo)—combining single word with
gestures and intonation to express entire thought/sentence
§ Telegraphic Speech (18-‐24 mo)—two word sentences that are made
up of most critical words
§ Rapid Vocabulary Growth (30-‐36 mo)—vocab of 1000 words and use
simple three word sentences
§ Development of Complex Grammatical Forms (3-‐6 yrs)—correctly
use verb “to be,” master concept of negation, and ask questions
• By age 6, connect whole sentences and verb phrases, produce
embedded sentences, use direct and indirect objects, and
construct sentences in passive voice

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• Behavioral Theories—result of classical and operant conditioning and imitation

o Focus on strategies that caregivers and others use to facilitate language
development
§ Strategies include use of MOTHERESE (talking in simple sentences at
slow pace and with high-‐pitched voice) and RECASTING (rephrasing
child’s sentence in different way)

• Nativist Theories—role of innate, genetically-‐determined factors in language

learning
o Quickly learn to apply very complex grammatical rules to sentences they
have never heard before
§ Rules so complex that they cannot be directly taught to or
independently discovered by cognitively immature children
o Born with biologically innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables
children who have acquired sufficient vocab to combine words into novel
but grammatically consistent utterances and to understand meaning of what
they hear
o Support for theory—certain aspects are universal, brain lateralizes language
on left, and language is best acquired during sensitive period

• Cognitive Theories—motivated by child’s desire to express meaning

o Language does not introduce new meanings to child, but is used to express
only those meanings the child has already formulated independently of
language

BILINGUALISM
• 3 million American children speak other language in their home

• Bilingual children perform better on tests of cognitive flexibility, divergent thinking
and metalinguistic awareness
• CODE SWITCHING—changing to another language during conversation
o Several functions:
§ If bilingual speaker cannot express self adequately in other language
§ Bilingual speaker may switch to minority language as sign of
solidarity with group
§ Way to express attitude towards listener
• Major problem in evaluating bilingual education is existing programs vary widely
in terms of teacher experience, school resources, and SES backgrounds
o Overall, children in good-‐quality bilingual programs do as well in acquiring
English skills and learn subject matter as well or even better

COMMUNICATION: GENDER DIFFERENCES
• Women are more likely than men to ask rhetorical questions, hesitate, use hedge
(sort of, I guess), and add tag questions in statements (its warm in here, isn’t it?)
• Men do not interrupt more often
• Men talk more than women overall

SLEEP PROBLEMS IN INFANCY
• 30% of children have difficulties during first few years

• Infant sleep problem often become chronic if left untreated
• FERBERIZING (progressive waiting method)—training children to fall asleep and
stay asleep by letting them cry for prescribed period of time before comforting
them

Social Development
ATTACHMENT
• Strong affectional tie we feel for special people in our lives that leads us to feel
pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be comforted by their
nearness in times of stress


• Theories of Attachment
o Freud viewed it as result of feeding
§ Research has shown feeding is less important for attachment than
other factors
o Harlow—separated monkeys from mothers at birth
§ Spent more time with terry-‐cloth mother
§ Concluded CONTACT COMFORT (pleasant tactile sensation provided
by soft, cuddly parent) is more important than feeding
o Bowlby’s Ethological Theory—infants and mothers are biologically
programmed for attachment
§ Infant is endowed with set of built in, attachment-‐related bx
§ Mothers respond with bx that are appropriate to infant’s attachment
needs
§ Evolutionally, purpose of bx is to keep infant’s mother in close
proximity and increase infant’s chances for survival
§ Also proposed that children begin to develop mental representations
of self and attachment figures during first year
• “INTERNAL WORKING MODELS” for self and others that guide
bx in later relationships
• Attachment Phenomena
o Infants begin to show preference for mother over other people by 4 mo, but
do not exhibit clear signs of attachment until 6-‐7 mo
o Primary signs of attachment include:
§ Social Referencing—6 mo
• SOCIAL REFERENCING—“read” emotional rxns of mother and
other caregivers, especially in uncertain situations, and use
info to guide own bx
§ Separation Anxiety—6 mo
• Respond with distress to separation from primary caregiver
o Strongest when infant is btw 14-‐18 mo, and gradually
lessens in intensity and frequency through preschool
years
§ Stranger Anxiety—strong negative rxn to strangers as early as 6 mo,
although more common at 8-‐10 mo
• Reaches peak at 18 mo and gradually declines during 2 yr
• Intensity is affected by situational factors
§ Response to Prolonged Separation—15-‐30 mo were separated from
mothers for extended period of time, infants exhibit predictable
sequence of bx:
• Protest—loud crying, restlessness, rejection of attn from other
adults
• Despair—crying, inactivity, withdrawl
• Detachment—apathy that may continue even when mother
returns
• Patterns of Attachment

o Ainsworth noted differences are result of how responsive mother is to
child’s needs
§ Secure Attachment—baby actively explores environment when alone
or with mother
• Friendly to stranger when mother is present but clearly prefer
mother to stranger
• Show distress when mother leaves and seek physical contact
with her when she returns
• Mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive
§ Anxious/Avoidant Attachment—babies are uninterested in
environment
• Show little distress when mother leaves and avoid contact
with her when she returns
• May or may not be wary of strangers
• Mothers are impatient and nonresponsive or overly
responsive, involved and stimulating
§ Anxious/Resistant Attachment—babies are anxious even when
mother is present and become very distressed when she leaved
• Ambivalent when she returns and may resist her attempts to
make physical contact
• Very wary of strangers even when mother is present
• Mothers are inconsistent in responses to child, sometimes
being indifferent and other times being enthusiastic
§ Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment—babies have conflicting
responses to mother and alternate btw avoidance/resistance and
proximity-‐seeking
• Bx is dazed, confused, and apprehensive
• Seen in maltreated babies by caregivers

• Adult Attachment Patterns

o Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)—shown to be effective measure of
intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns
§ Used to elicit details about early family like, relationships with
parents, and unresolved emotional issues
o Patterns:
§ Secure-‐Autonomous—value attachment relationships and have
secure base provided by at least one parent
• Do not idealize parents nor do they feel angry about childhood
• Able to integrate both positive and negative experiences
• Most of their own children have Secure Attachment Pattern
§ Dismissing—devalue importance of attachment relationships and are
guarded and defensive when asked about childhood
• Idealize parents, yet cannot support their positive evaluations
with concrete examples

• ¾ of their own children are Avoidantly Attached
§ Preoccupied—confused and incoherent regarding attachment
memories
• Disappointment, frustrated attempts to please their parents,
and role reversals
• Enmeshed with family of origin issues and may be angry or
have sense of resignation that problems cannot be overcome
• Most of children have Ambivalent (Anxious/Resistant)
Attachments
§ Unresolved—severe trauma and early losses tend to show this
pattern
• Have not mourned not integrated losses
• Frightened by memories associated with trauma and may
dissociate to avoid pain
• Very negative and dysfunctional relationships with own
children, often being abusive and neglectful
• Children tend to develop Disorganized/Disoriented
attachments

PEER RELATIONS
• Infants begin to interact w peers by 6 mo through smiling, touching, gesturing, and
vocalizing
• At 14 mo, peer interactions revolve around playing w toys and often accompanied
by fights over toys or displays of affection
• During preschool yrs, children begin to prefer some peers over others, and this
preference is usually based on similarity in terms of gender, age, and bx tendencies
• Peer interactions increase during elementary school yrs, so that children spend
increasingly more time w peers than w adults
o During these yrs, peer groups are strictly gender-‐segregated, and choice of
friends related to shared activities and reciprocity
• During adolescence, groups become less segregated by gender, and friendships are
more based on mutual intimacy and self-‐disclosure and similarity in terms of
interests, attitudes, and values

• Gender Differences
o Differences become more pronounces w increasing age
o Female pattern of relating as “enabling” style
§ Increase intimacy and equality btw peers and is characterized by
expressing agreement, making suggestions, and providing support
o Boys exhibit “restrictive” style
§ Tends to interfere with continuing interaction
§ Bragging, contradicting, and interrupting

o Friendship—girls place more importance on intimate, emotional aspects,
while boys are more interested in sharing activities and interests

• Popularity
o Social bx seems to be much more important—popular children are skilled at
initiating and maintaining positive relationships w peers
§ They are more outgoing, supportive, communicative, cooperative,
and nonpunitive than less popular children
o Popular children tend to be more intelligent and more successful
academically
§ Rejected children are more aggressive and show higher levels of
disruptiveness, physical aggressiveness, and other negative bx

• Peer Rejection vs Peer Neglect

o Children who are rejected by peers differ than those neglected
o Rejected—have more psychological and bx problems than neglected
o Neglected children are related primarily to social isolation
§ Rejected children exhibit wider range of problems and their
problems are more likely to continue into adulthood
o Rejected status is more stable over time and settings
o Rejected children were much less likely than neglected to experience
improvement in peer status when they changed peer groups by schools or
attending summer camp

• Conformity
o Actually depends on number of factors, such as age, nature of bx in question,
and individual characteristics of adolescent
o Adolescents are most conforming to peers when they are btw ages of 12-‐14
§ Engage in antisocial bx, they are influenced to engage in prosocial bx
as well
§ Peer pressure is more likely to impact attitudes and bx related to
status in peer group while parents have greater effect on life
decisions and values

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Both Piaget and Kohlberg link moral development to changes in cognitive maturity

• Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

o HETERONOMOUS MORALITY—morality of constraint
§ Characteristic of children ages 4-‐7

Children view rules as absolute and unchangeable and believe in
§
imminent justice
§ Base judgments primarily on act’s consequences—more negative
consequences, worse the act
§ Inflexible moral reasoning at this stage is due to combination of
preoperational egocentrism and constraint of parental authority
o AUTONOMOUS MORALITY—morality of reciprocity
§ By age 7-‐8
§ Rules are recognized as being determined by agreement btw
individuals and, consequently, alterable
§ Consider intentions of actor to be most important
§ Decline in egocentrism, social interactions with peers, and gradual
release from adult vigilance and constraint
o Children under age of 6 usually equate lies with things they are not
supposed to say
§ Btw 6-‐10, label any untruth as lie
§ By 11, understand that only intentionally false statement is lie
§ Children do no deliberately lie until 7
• Children as young as 3-‐4 intentionally lie to avoid punishment
or embarrassment

• Kolhberg’s Theory of Moral Development

o Stages and Levels
§ Preconventional—morality based on consequences of act
o Bx are punished are regarded at bad, while bx
rewarded are good
• Stage 1—punishment and obedience orientation
o Focus on avoiding punishment when making moral
judgments
• Stage 2—instrumental hedonistic orientation
o That which satisfies their own needs as moral
§ Conventional—moral reasoning is guided by desire to maintain
existing social laws, rules and norms
• Stage 3—“good boy-‐good girl” (social relations) orientation
o Oriented toward maintaining approval of relatives and
friends
• Stage 4—authority and social order-‐maintaining orientation
o Toward obeying society’s laws and rules
§ Post-‐Conventional—morality in terms of self-‐chosen principles
• Stage 5—social contract and individual rights orientation
o Oriented toward upholding democratically-‐determined
laws, but recognizes that laws can be ignored or
changed for valid reason
• Stage 6—universal ethical principles orientation

o Reflects fundamental universal ethical principles that
transcend legal standards
§ Although not a 1:1 correspondence btw age and level, transition from
preconventional to conventional occurs btw age 10-‐13, while
transition from conventional to post-‐conventional (if it happens at
all) occurs in mid-‐adolescence or later
o Key assumptions:
§ Children pass through stages in invariant sequence, although stages 5
and 6 are not reached by most people
§ Development is outgrowth of cognitive development
§ Each stage represents organized whole
o Stages relate to moral reasoning more than moral conduct
§ Low correlation btw stage or development and actual bx
§ Higher the stage, stronger relationship btw reasoning and bx
o Development occurs in invariant sequence of stages that parallels cognitive
development
§ Cognitive growth does not by itself guarantee person will progress
through stages and that other factors have an effect on development
• SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE-‐TAKING—ability to understand
perspective of others
• Parents’ childrearing practices, peer interactions, and formal
education
o Theory criticized by Gilligan
§ Emphasizes principles of justice and fairness and reflects a “male
bias” since males are more likely to refer to these principles when
making moral judgments, while females are more likely to refer to
interpersonal conncectedness and care
• Research has generally not supported Gilligan
o No consistent differences

• Conscience, Temperament, and Discipline

o Children develop higher level conscience when their parents rely on love-‐
oriented discipline techniques, such as praise, social isolation, and
withdrawal of affection, rather than objected-‐oriented techniques, such as
tangible rewards, physical punishment, or withdrawal of material objects or
privileges
§ More recent research indicates relationship btw type of discipline
and development of conscience may be more complex than
previously thought
o Most effective form of discipline depends on child’s temperament
§ Toddlers who have fearful temperament develop conscience better
when parents use gentle discipline that deemphasizes power and
capitalizes on child’s internal discomfort, than when parent uses
negative discipline, based on power, threats, or angry commands

Gentle discipline elicits optimal level of arousal in child, which
§
facilitates semantic processing of parent’s message that can then be
internalized
o Gentle discipline was not found to be effective in promoting conscience in
fearless toddlers
§ Did not readily respond w internal discomfort when presented with
gentle discipline following bx transgressions
§ May be due to insufficient level of arousal among fearless children in
response to gentle discipline
§ Best promoted through use of secure attachment and maternal
responsiveness which promotes child’s cooperation based on
positive motivation inherent in relationship rather than anxiety over
consequences of misbx

• Gender Identity Development

o Individual’s own sense of identification as male or female, distinguished
from actual biological sex
o By 3, have established gender-‐role id and can id themselves as either girl or
boy, recognize what is expected or appropriate of them as girls/boys and
note that other are same/opposite sex
o Greater impact than biological sex on self-‐esteem in children and that
androgyny is associated with highest levels of self-‐esteem in boys/girls
§ Masculinity, to a somewhat lesser degree, is associated with higher
levels of self-‐esteem than femininity in both boys/girls
o Differences decrease in late adolescence and early adulthood, however
increase again once first child is born and primary responsibility for child
rearing and domestic responsibilities is maintained by woman
§ Gender role reversal starts in middle-‐age, with women becoming
more outgoing, independent, active and competitive and men
becoming more dependent, sensitive and passive

• Theories of Gender-‐Identity Development

o Social Learning Theory—social factors role on development of id, yet
primarily emphasizes impact of modeling and reinforcement
§ Children first gain gender-‐typed bx through rewards and
punishments, modeling and imitation and then develop gender-‐role
id
o Gender Schema Theory—children develop schema about what is expected
of them as girls/boys w/in sociocultural environment, these schemas
influence how they perceive and think about world and then apply schemas
to own bx
§ Social-‐cognitive approach—both social, notably sociocultural factors,
and cognitive processes

o Cognitive-‐Developmental Theory—gender-‐role id parallels cognitive
development across 3 stages:
§ Gender Identity—child recognizes the s/he is male/female
• Age 2-‐3
§ Gender Stability—gender identity is consistent over time
§ Gender Constancy—understanding that gender does change because
of changes in appearance, bx, or situations
• Age 6-‐7
o Psychodynamic Theory—resolution of psychosexual crisis of phallic stage

Personality and Identity
TEMPERAMENT
• Individual’s basic bx style

• Strong genetic component and be primary contributor to personality
o Identical twins are more similar in terms of temperament
• Relatively stable during first yr of life
o More stable over lifespan when measurements of temperament are made
after child reached 2
o Prior to age 1, not good predictor of temperament

• Dimensions of Temperament

o Thomas and Chess
§ Distinguished btw 9 dimensions
• Activity level
• Rhythmicity
• Approach/withdrawal
• Adaptability
• Threshold of responsiveness
• Intensity of rxn
• Quality of mood
• Distractibility
• Attn span/persistence
§ 3 groups
• Easy Children—usually cheerful, have rxns to new stimuli that
are low to moderate in intensity, adapt easily to changes, and
have regular feeding and sleeping schedules
• Slow-‐to-‐Warm-‐Up Children—sad/tense, have low intensity
rxns to new stimuli, take time to adapt to change and initially
withdraw from new experiences, and have variable feeding
and sleeping schedules

• Difficult Children—respond to new experiences with
irritability, are difficult to soothe, are very active, and have
irregular feeding and sleeping schedules

• Goodness-‐of-‐Fit
o Healthy psychological development requires goodness-‐of-‐fit btw child’s
temperament and environmental factors, especially parents
§ Maladjustment is caused by poorness-‐of-‐fit btw child and
environment

FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
• At each stage, either too much/little gratification of impulses can result in fixation
of psychic energies at stage
o Overgratification=person unwilling to move onto next stage
o Undergratification=person continually seeking gratification of the frustrated
drive
• Stages:
o Oral Stage—birth-‐1
§ Sensual pleasure is obtained through mouth, tongue lips
§ Newly emerging ego directs baby’s sucking activities towards breast
or bottle to satisfy hunger and obtain pleasant stimulation
§ Fixation may result in habits such as thumbsucking, fingernail biting,
and pencil chewing beginning in childhood and overeating and
smoking later in life
o Anal Stage—1-‐3
§ Pleasure is derived from anal and urethral areas of body
§ Child must learn to postpone release of feces and urine, and toilet
training becomes major conflict
§ Fixation produces anal retentiveness (obsessive punctuality,
orderliness, and cleanliness) or anal expulsion (messiness and
disorder)
o Phallic Stage—3-‐6
§ Child derives pleasure from genital stimulation
§ Oedipal or Electra conflict takes place
• Child feels unconscious sexual desire for opposite-‐sex parent
but represses desire out of fear of punishment by same-‐sex
parent
§ If conflict is resolved successfully, child identifies with same-‐sex
parent and superego formed
o Latency Stage—6-‐Puberty
§ Sexual instincts lie repressed and dormant
§ Child works on solidifying superego by playing w and id w same-‐sex
children and assimilating social values from larger society

o Genital Stage—Post Puberty
§ Sexual drive of early phallic stage is reactivated but can now be
gratified through love relationships outside of fam
§ If development has proceeded appropriately during earlier stages,
this stage is characterized by mature sexuality
• Criticized for overemphasizing influence of sexual feelings on development, failing
to acknowledge role of social and intellectual factors, and not addressing
developmental tasks of later years

ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• Emphasizes psychosocial development and describes psychosocial conflict as

occurring throughout lifespan
• New stage builds on progress made in previous stages, and successful outcome in
each stage is more likely is previous developmental conflicts have been successfully
resolved
• Stages:
o Trust vs. Mistrust—birth-‐1
§ Due to warm, responsive parental care and pleasurable sensations
while feeding, infant gains sense of confidence that caregivers are
predictable, good and gratifying
§ Mistrust of others results when infant has to wait too long for
comfort and is handles harshly
o Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt—1-‐3
§ Increasing motor control and cognitive skills lead to greater
exploration and independence
§ Autonomy is fostered when parents offer guided opportunities for
free choice and do not overly restrict or shame child
o Initiative vs. Guilt—3-‐6
§ Through make-‐believe play, children learn about roles and
institutions of society and gain insight into type of person they can
become
§ Initiative develops when parents support child’s emerging sense of
purpose and direction
§ Too many parental demands for self-‐control may lead to excessive
guilt
o Industry vs. Inferiority—6-‐Puberty
§ Children develop capacity for productive work and cooperation with
others
§ Inferiority develops when experiences in school, peer groups or with
parents do not foster feelings of competence and mastery
o Identity vs. Identity Confusion—Adolescence
§ Transition btw childhood and adulthood
§ Tasks of earlier stages become integrated into lasting sense of
identity

Person optimally develops coherent sense of who s/he is and what
§
his/her place is in society
§ Negative outcome is confusion about one’s sexual and occupational
identity
o Intimacy vs. Isolation—Young Adulthood
§ Relationships w others enhance person’s sense of identity and
provide gratifying feelings of connectedness
§ Unsuccessful resolution results in inability to establish close
relationships, intense fear of rejection, and isolation
o Generativity vs. Stagnation—Middle Adulthood
§ Contributing to younger generations through child-‐rearing, serving
as mentor/teacher, and productive work
§ Failure to contribute in one/more results in sense of stagnation and
boredom
o Ego Integrity vs. Despair—Old Age
§ Look back at who they are and what they have done during their
lives
§ Integrity results from feeling like was worthwhile
§ Despair and regret result from sense of dissatisfaction
PARENTING AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
• Parental bx is one environmental variable that is known to have strong impact on
child’s personality development

• Dimensions of Parenting

o Warmth vs. Hostility
§ Warm parent—affectionate, regularly puts child’s needs first,
enthusiastic about child’s activities, responds to child with empathy
and sensitivity
§ Hostile parent—quick to criticize, rarely shows affection, overtly
rejecting
§ Children from warm family are more securely attached in first 2 yrs,
higher self-‐esteem an IQs, and more empathetic and altruistic
o Restrictiveness vs. Permissiveness
§ Restrictive parents—highly controlling and demanding and expect
unwavering obedience to rules
• Children tend to be obedient and timid and have difficulty
establishing close relationships
§ Permissive parents—have few rules, make few demands, let children
make own decisions
• Children are relatively thoughtless toward others and are only
moderately independent
§ Optimal parenting style is one that falls in middle


• Parenting Styles
o Authoritative Parents—set high standards, expect children to comply w
rules
§ Gain control by explaining rules and seeking children’s input into fam
decisions
§ Very warm and nurturant
§ Children have best outcomes: independent, achievement-‐oriented,
friendly, self-‐confident
§ High levels of emotional support or responsiveness along w firmness
and high standards or demands on child
§ Most predictive of higher academic achievement
o Authoritarian Parents—controlling and demanding and expect children to
accept their commands in unquestioning manner
§ Respond w punitive manner
§ Children are insecure, timid, unhappy, and may grow up to be
dependent and lacking motivation
o Permissive Parents—though nurturant and accepting, fail to assert
authority
§ Children have difficulty controlling their impulses, ignore rules and
regulations, and are not very involved in academic and work
activities
o Uninvolved Parents—undemanding and indifferent to or rejecting of
children
§ Display little commitment to being parents and keep their children at
distance
§ Children are noncompliant and demanding, lack self-‐control, and
prone to antisocial bx
§ Characteristics of parenting (weak parental supervision, lack of
reasonable rules, lax/erractic discipline, parent-‐child relationship
that is hostile, indifferent, apathetic) are those that are most
predictive of delinquency in adolescence

ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
• Physical Development and Personality

o Many difference become increasingly apparent in adolescence
o Adolescent growth spurts begin 2 yrs earlier for girls than boys
o Best adjustment outcomes are found among early-‐maturing boys; then
average-‐maturing boys and girls; then late-‐maturing girls; and last by late
maturing boys and early maturing girls
§ Latter group has most severe problems, including emotional
instability, declines in academic achievement, and drug/alcohol use

• Marci’s Identity Statuses

o Extension of Erikson, that reflects different patterns with regards to
occupational choice and religious and political beliefs
§ Identity Diffusion—have not undergone identity crisis and are not
committed to an identity
§ Identity Foreclosure—strong commitment to identity that was not
outcome of identity crisis but was suggested by parent/other person
§ Identity Moratorium—having identity crisis and is actively exploring
different options and beliefs
§ Identity Achievement—resolved identity crisis and is committed to
particular identity
o 60% of people have achieved stable identity by 24
o Identity crisis is relatively uncommon and it is most often during early years
in college

• Gilligan’s “Loss of Voice”

o Females experience as result of internalization of sexist messages
o High risk for relational crisis—abandoning themselves and other in order to
conform to cultural expectations about femininity
o Pressure to conform highest in middle school years

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
• Deviant and normal bx have common origins and deviant bx can arise from diverse
developmental pathways

• Fears
o Content of normal childhood fears changes w development
§ Infancy—loud noise, strange objects, and strangers
§ Early childhood—animals peak at age 3, followed by fear of dark at 4-‐
5, fear of imaginary creatures after age 5
§ After age 5—number and intensity of fears decline
§ Adolescence—social and sexual situations
o Only 5% older than 5 have fears that are excessive or unrealistic
o Treatment
§ Self-‐control procedure, making self-‐statements—most effective for
fear of dark
§ Modeling
§ Contact desensitization
§ Participant modeling—animals, dental/medical treatments, test
anxiety social withdrawal

• Aggression
o Boys/girls show similar levels prior to age 1

o During next few years, boys become more aggressive and girls less
aggressive
§ Boys—more likely to engage in overt aggression
§ Girls—relational aggression
o Aggression is due to combination of biological and environmental factors
§ Parenting Factors—highly aggressive children often come from
homes where parents are rejecting and lacking warmth, are
permissive or indifferent toward child’s aggressiveness, and rely on
power assertive discipline as means of control
• High levels of aggression are associated with
insecure/resistant attachment pattern and lax monitoring of
child’s activities and bx
• Coercive family interaction model of aggression—social
learning perspective and proposes child learns to act
aggressively as result of both imitation and rewards they
receive for acting in aggressive ways
o Parents of highly aggressive children often reinforce
aggressive bx by responding w attn and approval
§ They model aggression through parenting
practices, which typically involve high rates of
commands combined w inconsistent, harsh
physical punishment
§ Cognitive Factors—aggressive children are much more likely to
report that is it easier to perform aggressive acts and difficult to
inhibit aggressive impulses and feel confident that aggression will
have positive outcomes, including reducing aversive treatment by
others
• Dodge and Crick believe aggression involve 5 steps:
o Encoding of social cues
o Interpretation of social cues
o Response search
o Response evaluation
o Response enactment
o Skillful processing at each step will lead to competent
performance within situation, whereas biased or
deficient processing will lead to deviant, possibly
aggressive, antisocial bx
§ TV viewing—more violent, aggressive TV programs, more aggressive
child becomes
• Tv violence is stimulating increase in adult aggression in
males and famles
• Effect persists even when effects of SES, intellect, age, and
variety of parenting factors are controlled
§ Interventions for aggression—social skills training is most effective

• Alternative ways of resolving conflict, using cognitive
interventions to help child accurately interpret statements
and bx of others, and empathy training to encourage identity
of feelings of others and to express own approach
• Bx modification program—alter way parents interact w
aggressive children
o Reinforce desirable bx, enforce rules consistently, and
use time-‐out and nonphysical punishment

• Risk and Resilience

o Higher risk factors:
§ Severe marital discord
§ Low SES
§ Large fam size or overcrowding
§ Parental criminality or psychiatric dx
§ Placement of child outside of home
o Infants are high risk were less likely to develop problems when they were
temperamentally “easy” and socially responsive as infants, and had
consistent caregiver

• Chronic Illness
o Children with conditions that involve brain functioning have more bx
problems and poorer social functioning
o Family functioning, in particular fam cohesion and support for child, is
positively correlated with adjustment
o Parental adjustment is positively correlated with adjustment
o Chronically ill boys (esp 6-‐11 yrs) are at greater risk for bx problem than
chronically ill girls, while girls are at greater risk for self-‐reported
symptoms of distress
o Adolescents are particularly higher risk for not adhering to treatment
regimens, because of increased concern about “being different”
o Children who are told about illness early have better psych adjustment
§ Tell child truth in way that is consistent w age and level of
understanding

• Teen Drug Use

o Rate of current illicit drug use among 12 or older is 8.3%
o Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana

Family Influences on Development

DIVORCE

• Effects on Parenting
o Promote state of disorganization—“Diminishing Capacity to Parent”
§ Continues for about 2 yrs after divorce
§ Ordinary household routines usually disintegrate
§ Inconsistent with discipline and vacillate btw being detached and
highly punitive
o Mothers may show less affection toward children, especially sons
§ May start to treat sons more harshly
o Fathers tend to become more indulgent and permissive
o Parents without physical custody initially spend more time w children, but
contact diminishes over time

• Effects on Children

o Rxns are moderated by several factors, including age, gender, and custodial
arrangements
§ Age:
• Preschool—most negative outcomes, especially short-‐term
o Difficult for them to understand reasons for divorce
and are prone to self-‐blame, reversion to more
immature bx, and intense separation anxiety
• Long-‐term consequences are worse for older children
o 10 yrs after divorce, preschoolers had fewer memories
of period surrounding divorce, while older children
expressed painful memories and fears about own
ability to have happy marriage
§ Gender:
• Boys suffer more severe short and long term consequences
o Following divorce, presadolescent boys often exhibit
increase in bx, such as noncompliance, demandingness,
and hostility
• Girls more likely to exhibit internalizing bx
o “Sleeper Effect”—girls in preschool/elementary may
have few problems initially, but as adolescence, exhibit
noncompliance, low self-‐esteem, emotional problems,
and antisocial bx
§ More likely than intact families to marry young,
be pregnant before marriage, and choose
psychologically unstable husband
§ Custody Arrangements
• Live w same-‐sex parent are better adjusted, especially for
boys
o Findings are inconsistent
§ For adolescence, father custody is associated
with higher rates of depression/anxiety, poorer
grades, and other problems

o School Performance
§ Negative impact
§ Not only lower grades, but also like school less, exhibit more peer
and bx problems at school, and at higher risk for dropping out
§ Negative impact worse for boys and older children

• Factor Affecting Consequences of Divorce

o Open conflict=more likely to experience negative aftereffects
§ More poorly adjusted
o Positive relationship with both parents, extended fam support, positive
school environment, and no substantial upheaval in daily routines=better
outcome
o Serious adjustment problems are seen in those who already had difficulties
before divorce

STEPPARENTS
• When custodial mother has another adult in house, there is “BUFFERING EFFECT”
and reduces negative consequences
o May not apply to stepparents
§ Have high levels of authoritarian parenting and children have lower
grades and higher rates of delinquency
§ May be beneficial for younger boys in reducing anxiety, anger, and
adjustment problems, although not for adolescent boys who continue
to have problems
• Children have more problems with stepparents than own parents
o Stepfathers—relationship is often distant, disengaged, and unpleasant
§ Relationship appears to improve w sons over time, although not
daughters
o Stepmothers—more frequent, but often abrasive

GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS
• Being raised by G/L parents does not increase risk for negative developmental
outcomes

MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT AND DAYCARE
• Maternal employment=greater life satisfaction for both low/middle income

mothers, as long as employment is consistent w her/partners preferences
o Children have higher levels of self-‐esteem and better fam/peer relations,
and less sex-‐stereotyped in beliefs and attitudes

§May be more pronounced in daughters—higher self-‐esteem and
being more career and achievement oriented, and more assertive
§ Sons—scored lower on measures of school achievement and
intelligence
• Now seen in mothers that work 40+ hrs
§ Traditional dual-‐earner fam that is unequal—children may exhibit
more anxiety/depression and may rate selves lower w peer
acceptance and school achievement
o No long-‐term affects noted
• Daycare
o High quality=no consistent negative effects
§ Positive effects on social development
o Enriched daycares may improve intellectual abilities of lower-‐income
o May be more self-‐sufficient, more cooperative w peers, and more adaptable
to new social situations, they may be less compliant with adults and more
aggressive w other children
o Low quality=greater distractibility and lower task involvement

FATHER-‐CHILD RELATIONSHIPS
• Spend considerably less time

• Fathers spend more time w play activities, and tend to be more “rough-‐and-‐
tumble”
• When mother works full-‐time and father assumes role as primary caregiver,
traditional parental roles do not necessarily change

SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS
• In early childhood, both positive and negative interactions, but positive more
common
o Rivalries occur when same gender and close in age and when one/both are
highly active and emotionally intense
§ Early rivalry more common when parents have inconsistent
disciplinary practices
• In middle childhood, relationship characterized by combination of closeness and
conflict
• Late childhood, relationship becomes more egalitarian in terms of power and
nurturance
o Usually decline in sibling involvement as peer relationships increase
o Conflicts may continue, especially when close in age, but peak in early
adolescence and then decline


Adult Development
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD
• Happiness, assertiveness, and hostility seem to be established early in life and
remain stable
• Women often experience increases in self-‐efficacy and assertiveness and decline in
dependence
• Midlife involves shift from extraversion to introversion

• Levinson’s “Seasons of a Man’s Life”

o 4 Seasons/Stages
§ Infancy through adolescence
§ Early adulthood
• “Entering the world”
• “Age 30 transition”
o Define the “dream”—vision of ideal life
• “Settling down”
§ Middle adulthood
• Being young vs old, being attached to others vs being
separated
• “Deflation of dream”—realizes goals are not really worthwhile
and/or will not be fulfilled
§ Late adulthood
o 80% of men experience midlife crisis
§ Research=only crisis for minority of men

• Neugarten’s Kansas City Study

o Adults aged 40-‐70
o Confirmed adulthood is time of both consistency and change
o Around age 50—usually transition from outer-‐world to an inner-‐world
orientation and from active to passive mastery
o Midlife=shift in perspective from “time since birth” to “time until death”

COGNITIVE CHANGE IN ADULTHOOD
• Aging and Intelligence

o Increasing age has relatively little effect on verbal tasks that measure
acquired knowledge, but has negative impact on nonverbal tasks that
require rapid responding to and processing novel info
§ WAIS
• Classic aging pattern
o Little decline on four stored knowledge—Info, Vocab,
Arith, Comp

o Moderate decline on other two verbal—Sim and Digit
Span
o Sharper decline on five performance
• Crystallized intelligence
• Fluid intelligence—active processing of info and is directly
affected by loss of neurons, depletion of certain
neurotransmitters, that occur w age
§ Terminal Drop—substantial drop in all facets of intelligence occurs
months before death

• Aging and Processing Speed

o Slowing of mental and physical functions
§ Reduced info processing speed is believed to underlie many age-‐
related decrements
o Circadian cycles
§ Young children and late adulthood—primarily morning is optimal
§ Age 12—shift away from morning
§ Young adults—evening
§ Synchrony Effect—matching task demands and preferred time of day
• Attention regulation is regulated over time of day effects

• Age and Attention

o Sustained and selective attn are not significantly affected by increasing age
o Age affects divided attn

• Age and Memory

o Aging Effects on Brain
§ Begins to shrink as result of loss of neurons beginning at 30
§ After 60, acceleration in atrophy
§ Impacts hippocampus, cortex, and locus cereleus
§ Develops senile plaques and enlarged ventricles
§ Reduced blood flow and decreased level of some transmitters
§ Compensates for some neuron loss by developing new connections
btw remaining neurons
• New brain cells develop in hippocampus during adult yrs
§ Declines in recent long-‐term memory, followed by working memory
• Remote long-‐term memory is relatively unaffected by age
• Mostly problems w encoding strategies
o Memory training can be useful

o Short-‐Term and Long-‐Term Memory
§ ST=Primary and working memory

•Primary=retain small amount of info in conscious memory for
short period of time
• WM=capacity to manipulate and transform info while it is
held in primary memory
• Older adults do not differ from younger adults with primary
memory, but differ with WM
o May be more to loss in processing speed than reduced
storage capacity
§ LT=recent and remote memory
• Recent= more affected than remote
o Ineffective encoding
o Training in encoding is more beneficial for older than
younger

o Aspects of Long-‐Term Memory

§ Episodic vs Semantic vs Procedural Memory
• Increasing age has greatest impact on episodic (ability to
recall personal experience)
o Most likely due to problems with deliberate processing
and retrieval
§ Verbal vs Nonverbal Memory
• Age decline in visuospatial memory mirror those in verbal
memory
§ Prospective Memory
• Ability to remember to do things in future
• Do less well than younger
§ Explicit vs Implicit Memory
• Explicit—conscious recollection of material
• Implicit—automatic/nonconscious recollection
• Prob with explicit but not implicit
§ Metamemory
• Knowledge about one’s own memory
• Older=less accurate
o Nature of inaccuracy seems to depend in situation
§ In general—underestimate
§ Making predictions about performance—
overestimate

o Aging and Wisdom

§ Wisdom—expertise in fundamental pragmatics of life permitting
exceptional insight and judgment involving complex and uncertain
matters of human condition
§ Increases over life

§ Personality factors and wisdom-‐related experience seem to be more
important determinants of wisdom than intelligence

AGING AND SEXUALITY
• Older women do not differ from younger ones in terms of sex drive but do
experience number of changes including less intense orgasms, thinner vaginal
walls, and reduced sexual lubrication
• Men=erections occur less spontaneously, require more time to develop and are
more difficult to maintain
o Longer refractory period
• Sexual activity declines with age
o Best predictor is previous activity in life

DEATH AND DYING
• Prior to age 2—lack understanding of death

• 2-‐7—think death is reversible sleep-‐like state
• 7-‐11—recognize death is irreversible and become anxious about death of loved
ones
• adulthood—fear of death peaks in middle-‐age
• elderly—talk more about death, seem less fearful
• Kubler-‐Ross—5 stages (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance [DABDA])
o Hope sppears to be common feeling among terminally ill

DIAGNOSIS AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

DISORDERS USUALLY FIRST DIAGNOSED IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, OR ADOLESCENCE
• Intellectual Disability (Mental Retardation)

o 3 criteria must be met:
§ Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning
§ Two areas of adaptive functioning
§ Onset before age 18

o Degrees of MR

§ Mild—IQ=50-‐55 to 70
• Constitutes majority
• Little distinction from peers until late childhood
• Acquire academic skills of about 6th grade by adolescence

• Able to independently live and work at semiskilled jobs
§ Moderate—IQ=35-‐40 to 50-‐55
• Require guidance and minimal supervision in
social/occupational skills
• Unlikely to progress beyond 2nd grade
• Unskilled/semiskilled wok under close supervision in
sheltered workshops or job settings
§ Severe—IQ=20-‐25 to 35-‐40
• Poor motor skills and limited communication
• Learn to talk and can be trained in elementary hygiene skills
• Simple tasks and live in community in group homes/families
under close supervision
§ Profound—IQ=below 20-‐25
• Severe limitations in motor/sensory functioning
• Highly structured environment with constant aid and
supervision
• Live in group homes, intermediate care facilities or families
• Simple tasks under close supervision in sheltered workshops

o Etiology
§ Primarily biological and/or psychosocial
• Early alteration of embryonic development is most common
factor
§ Environmental and other mental d/o predisposing factors
• Pregnancy and perinatal problems
• Hereditary factors
§ In 30-‐40%, not clear etiology
§ Biological factors
• Inherited causes, chromosomal changes, early prenatal injury
due to toxins, problems during pregnancy perinatal persiod,
and medical conditions in childhood
o PKU
o Tay-‐Sachs Disease
o Fragile X Chromosome Syndrome
o Down’s Syndrome
§ Faulty distribution of chromosomes when
egg/sperm formed
§ 47 chromosomes
• Extra 21st chromosome
• Fetal malnutrition, HIV, prematurity, anoxia, direct injury to
head/brain
• After birth, meningitis and encephalitis, lead poisoning,
malnutrition, anoxia by head injury
§ Psychosocial Factors

• Cultural-‐familial retardation
• Early deprivation of nurturance, deficiencies in health care,
early deficiencies in social/cognitive/other stimulation,
poverty
• Also associated with Autism

o Borderline Intellectual Functioning

§ IQ=71-‐84
§ Level of adaptive functioning distinguishes it from MR

• Austism Spectrum Disorders

o Autistic Disorder
§ At least 2 symptoms from category 1 and one each from categories 2
and 3
• 1. Social interaction
• 2. Communication
• 3. Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of bx,
interests, activities
§ Before age 3, must be delayed/abnormal functioning in social
interaction, language used in social communication, or symbolic or
imaginative play
§ Rarely speak
• Echolalia—echoing of words
• Reversals in pronouns
• Unaware of others
§ Show minimal interest in friendships
• Lack understanding of customs of social interaction
§ Perseverative play and obsessive desire to maintain status quo
• React intensely to minor changes in surroundings
• More attached to things than people
• Preoccupied with single limited interest
§ 4-‐5x more common in males
§ Few reach IQ of normal range
§ 75% co-‐d/o w MR
§ Some exhibit above average or exceptional skills in particular area

§ Etiology
• Equal across SES and not correlated with parental personality
characteristics, ed, occupation, race
• Persistent high levels of autonomic arousal, ventricular
enlargement, frontal lobe dysfunction, cerebellar
underdevelopment, abnormal patterns of brain lateralization

• Maternal rubella, complications at birth, elevated levels of
serotonin in brain

§ Treatment
• Pharmacological or psychotherapeutic
o Neuroleptics—reduce aggression, emotional lability,
withdrawal, stereotyped bx
• Early intensive bx interventions
o Operant tech—successful at eliminating abnormal bx
and adding desirable bx
§ Improve communication
o Most effective when program initiated when child is v
young, actively involves parents, implemented at
home, involves extremely intensive work, provides
structured environment, underscores generalization to
other settings, uses contract that delineates bx changes
to be made and methods for accomplishing them
• Good outcomes—achievement of independence and normal
social life
o Small percentage living and working independently
o 2% attain normal functioning and 40% high
functioning
• Best prognosis—early language skills, overall intellectual
level, severity,
o Influenced by how much usable language by age 7
o Developmental milestones, social maturity ad bx, time
in school, comorbid neuropsychiatric d/o

o Rett’s Disorder
§ Progressive pattern of developmental regression that begins before
age 4
§ Life-‐long communication and bx problems
§ Seem normal in prenatal and perinatal periods and for at least 5 mo
after birth
§ Initial signs include deceleration of head growth and loss of hand
skills, repetitive hand washing or hand-‐wringing gestures after 30
mo
§ Uncoordinated gait and trunk movts, severe deficiencies in
expressive and receptive language development, serious
psychomotor retardation
§ W/in few yrs of onset, loses interest in social environment
§ Genetic mutation
• Less common than Autism
• Only in females (X-‐linked)

• Severe or profound MR

o Childhood Degenerative Disorder

§ Progressive d/o that begins after period of normal development
§ Significant regression in several areas of functioning after normal
development of 2/+ yrs
§ Significant loss of developmental skills in at least 2 areas
• Expressive/receptive language
• Social skills/adaptive bx
• Bowel/bladder control
• Play
• Motor skills
§ Social and communication impairments and behavioral signs found
in autism
§ Very rare, less common than autism

o Asperger’s Disorder
§ Deficits in social interaction and bx, interest, and activity patterns
found in autism
• Show no clinically significant delay in language development,
self-‐help skills, cognitive development, or curiosity about
environment
§ More common in males

• Learning Disorders
o Considerably lower than expected achievement
§ More than 2SD btw ach and IQ
o Written expression, reading, math
§ Reading:
• Surface (orthogonal) Dyslexia—ability to read regularly-‐
spelled words but inability to decipher words that are spelled
irregularly
• Deep Dyslexia—several types of reading errors
o Semantic paralexia—producing response that is
related to target word in meaning but not visually or
phonologically
o MR can be co-‐dx
§ Most frequent co-‐dx is ADHD, CD, ODD, MDD
o Etiology
§ Neurological factors—inattention, short-‐term mem, hysperactivity,
left-‐right confusion
• Signs of brain injury

§ Toxins, early malnutrition, early iron deficiencies, food allergies,
hemispheric abnormalities, cerebellar-‐vestibular dysfunction (Otitis
media with effusion—inflammation of middle ear accompanied by
accumulation of liquid in middle ear cleft)
§ Cognitive processing deficit

o Treatment
§ Bx and/or educational training

• Communication and Motor Skills Disorders

o Mixed Receptive-‐Expressive Language Disorder
§ Receptive/expressive considerably lower than nonverbal intellectual
capability

o Phonological Disorder
§ Does not use speech sounds expected for age and dialect
§ Only when difficulties impede academic/occupational achievement
or social communication to some extent

o Stuttering
§ Abnormalities in usual fluency and time pattering of speech, which
are not appropriate for age
§ Begins btw ages 2 and 7
§ Treated successfully by dealing with emotional pressure child feels
§ 60% of cases, remits on its own by age 16

o Motor Skills Disorder
§ Substantial impairment in development of motor coordination
§ Markedly impede scholastic achievement or day-‐to-‐day activities

• ADHD and Disruptive Bx Disorders

o ADHD
§ Developmentally inappropriate degrees of inattention and/or
impulsiveness and hyperactivity
§ Types:
• Combined Type—6 or more symptoms of inattention and 6 or
more symptoms of hyperactivity-‐impulsiveness
• Inattentive Type—6/+ symptoms of inattention, but fewer
than 6 hyperactivity-‐impulsiveness
• Hyperactivity-‐impulsiveness Type—6/+ hyperactivity-‐
impulsiveness, but fewer than 6 inattention

§ Onset must be before age 7, duration must be 6 months, and
symptoms present in at least 2 settings
§ Several points lower on IQ
§ 4-‐9x more common in boys
§ Often co-‐morbid
• Conduct/antisocial problems
• Emotional d/o
• LD
• Social maladjustment, motor incoordination, visual/auditory
impairment
§ Untreated—delinquent and antisocial young adults
• Restlessness, low frustration tolerance, emotional lability, low
self-‐esteem, impulsivity, difficulty concentrating
§ In Adults:
• Impaired social/occupational functioning
• Require childhood hx and presence of at least 12:
o Sense of underachievement, not meeting one’s goals,
chronic procrastination, intolerance of boredom, easily
distracted, low frustration tolerance, impulsiveness,
tendency to worry needlessly, sense of insecurity
• Resemble/mask ADHD:
o Anxiety
o Bipolar
o MDD
o OCD
o D/o of impulse control
o Substance Abuse
o Hyper-‐ or hypo-‐thyroidism
o Personality characteristics:
§ Passive-‐aggressive
§ Narcissism
• Greater difficulty in maintaining personal/professional
relationships
• Tend to participate in more impulsive/risky sexual bx and
more sexual partners

§ Etiology
• Biological variables
o Abnormalities in right frontal lobe, striatum, and
cerebellum
§ Also regions of parietal lobe
o Diminished glucose metabolism and decreased blood
flow in prefrontal regions and pathways connecting
regions to caudate nucleus

o Higher rates among relatives—genetic
o Food allergies, high lead levels, maternal use of
alcohol/nicotine during pregnancy
• Behavioral Disinhibition Hypothesis
o Lack of ability to adjust activity levels to fit
requirements of different settings, not attention
deficits
o Inattention in dull, repetitious, familiar, v structured
and/or irregular reinforcement situations

§ Treatment
• Pharmacological and bx/cog-‐bx methods
o CNS stimulants
§ Higher doses—more effective for reducing
activity levels and improving social bx
§ Lower doses—improve attention
§ Stimulant tx—changes may be short-‐lived
§ Side effects:
• Somatic symptoms—decreased appetite,
insomnia, stomach aches
• Movt abnormalities—motor/vocal tics
and stereotyped bx
• OCD symptoms
• Growth suppression
o Bx/Cog-‐Bx
§ Younger—contingency management at
home/school
§ Older—self-‐monitoring
§ No evidence for long-‐term generalization
§ Bx tech produce best results when:
• Parents participate in treatment, set
consistent rules, provide kids w carefully
structured environment and schedule
• Positive reinforcement is used in
combination with punishment and when
tangible rewards are used as reinforcers

o Conduct Disorder
§ Defy society’s rules and norms, chronic pattern of violation of social
order in variety of settings
§ 3/+ signs in last 6 mo
• Aggression to people/animals
• Destruction of property
• Deceitfulness or theft

• Serious violation of rules
§ Childhood CD=one symptoms prior to age 10
• More overt aggression/violence and greater chance of co-‐
existing d/os (ADHD, substance abuse)
• More likely to continue to engage in antisocial bx in adulthood
§ Adolescent DC=develop at age 10 or later
• Less severe symptoms and problematic bx linked to
associations w peers
§ Lower achievement tests, more difficulty complying w classroom
rules, display lower levels of concern for feelings/welfare of others,
lower moral judgment, lower self-‐esteem, more irritable, less
accepted by peers, poorer abstract thinking, more likely to evidence
deficits in verbal meditational abilities
§ Below on verbal subtests by no difference on non-‐verbal subtests
§ Dx of Antisocial Personality D/o in adulthood

§ Etiology
• Biological factors
o Inability to experience high levels of emotional arousal
and genetic predisposition
• Environmental and fam factors
o Poverty, large fam size, parental neglect/rejection, fam
discord, physical/sexual abuse, overly
harsh/inconsistent/lax discipline, parental
psychopathology

§ Treatment
• Combination bx and fam tx
o Multisystematic Therapy (MST)
§ Addressing multiple determinants and factors
in social network that are contributing to bx
§ Strategic fam tx, structural fam tx, bx parent
training, and CBT
o Most effective when begins before adolescence and
includes parent education

o Oppositional Defiant Disorder

§ Negativistic, argumentative, defiant to adults
§ Does not bring child into conflict w law
§ Tension at home
§ Rarely accepts responsibility and blames others/circumstances
§ 4 symptoms for 6 mo
§ Sometimes evolves into CD or mood d/o

§ Tx is usually combination of bx and fam tx

• Feeding and Eating Disorders

o Pica
§ Non-‐nutritive substances are ingested on persistent basis for at least
one month
§ Onset 1-‐2 yrs old
§ Remits in early childhood
§ Often associated w MR

o Rumination Disorder
§ Recurrent regurgitation and rechewing of food for at least one
months following period of normal functioning
§ Appears 3-‐12 mo old
§ Potentially fatal

o Feeding Disorder of Infancy or Early Childhood

§ “failure to thrive”
§ Chronic failure to eat enough, w weight loss or failure to gain any
weight for at least 1 mo
§ Begins in 1 y/o

• Tic Disorders
o Tic=involuntary, sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor
movt/vocalization

o Tourette’s Disorder
§ Onset in childhood, as early as 2 y/o, or adolescence, before age 18
§ Motor and vocal tics
• Coprolalia—utterance of obscene/vulgar words
§ Chronic
§ Co-‐morbid
• OCD
• ADHD
• LD
• MDD
• Social problems
§ Have problems with attention and overactivity that interfere w
academic performance
§ TX is combination of school interventions, ind and fam tx, and
pharmacotherapy
o Chronic Motor/Vocal Tic Disorder

§ Either single/multiple motor or vocal tics, but not both
§ Symptoms and impairment less severe

• Elimination Disorders
o Encopresis
§ Repeated involuntary/sometimes intentional passage of feces
§ At least once/mo over 3/+ mo
§ At least 4 y/o

o Enuresis
§ Voiding of urine either while awake and/or asleep
§ 2 wettings/wk for 3 mo
§ More commone in males
§ TX: moisture alarm (“bell and pad”), antidepressants, hypnosis, and
bladder control exercises

• Separation Anxiety
o Excessive anx lasting for at least 4 wks in response to separation from
home/attachment figure
o School phobia—ages 5-‐7, usually caused by separation anx
§ When in adolescence, commonly early sign of MDD or more serious
mental d/o
o Causes: parental over-‐pretectedness, insecurity as result of loss/trauma,
unresolved dependency issues in parents which result in subtle
reinforcement of dependency of child
o TX: ind tx, fam tx, bx interventions

• Selective Mutism
o Chronic failure to talk in particular social situations for at least 1 mo despite
talking in other situations and competence and ease w language required in
social situation

• Reactive Attachment Disorder

o Extremely disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness
o Subtypes:
§ Inhibited—chronic failure to initiate or respond in age-‐expected
manner to most social interactions
§ Disinhibited—indiscriminate sociability
o Always associated w extremely pathogenic care, which can take form of
chronic neglect of emotional and/or physical needs or multiple changes in
caregivers that prevent child from forming permanent/reliable attachments


• Stereotyped Movt Disorder
o Repetitive, apparently driven motor bx that are not functional
o Bx cause physical harm to child and/or interfere significantly w normal
activities
o Often associated with MR

• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

o Chronic exposure to alcohol in utero and typically characterized by failure to
thrive and developmental delays
o Impaired motor coordination, attention and memory, MR, hyperactivity,
impulsivity, poor judgment
o Basal ganglia, hippocampus, frontal lobes
o V thin due to not developing normal levels of adipose tissue and facial
characteristics include short nose, narrow upper lip, small chin, and flat
mid-‐face
o Average IQ of 68 (mild MR)

• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

o Hx of respiratory difficulties (apnea) present at birth, low birth weight,
shorter body length
o 5:1,000 births
§ 3rd most frequent cause of death for infants btw 1 mo-‐1 y/o

• Childhood Depression
o Features similar to adult depression
o Young children show separation anxiety resulting in school phobia
§ Adolescents show antisocial bx, including aggression, withdrawal,
inattention
o Often masked as delinquency, phobias, underachievement, psychosomatic
complaints, hyperactivity, or aggression
o Associated with fam abuse and neglect
o Sad facial expression, irritability
o Recurrent thoughts of death/suicide may take form of accident proneness
o Under age of 8, likely to express psychomotor agitation as irritability and
tantrums
§ Older—aggressiveness and antisocial bx

MENTAL DISORDERS DUE TO GENERAL MEDICAL CONDITION
• For dx, need following criteria:

o Evidence mental disturbance is direct physiological consequence of gen med
cond
§ Whether onset of med cond and mental symptoms occur closely together
in time
§ Whether signs of mental d/o are representative of primary mental d/o
or are atypical
§ Whether med cond typically produces mental symptoms that are
displayed
o Mental disturbance can’t better be explained by presence of mental d/o
o Mental symptoms cannot occur solely in course of delirium

• Personality Change Due to Gen Med Cond

o Lasting personality disturbance is believed to be due to direct physiological
effects of gen med cond
o CNS neoplasm, cerebrovascular disease, Huntington’s Chorea, epilepsy,
HIV/AIDS, endocrine conditions

• Catatonic Disorder Due to Gen Med Cond

o Catatonia is believed to be due to direct physiological effects
o Head trauma, cerebrovascular disease, encephalitis, metabolic condition

SUBSTANCE-‐INDUCED DISORDERS
• Substance Intoxication
o Reversible syndrome as result of recent ingestion of/exposure to substance
o Changes during/shortly after using/being exposed to substance and these
changes are due to physiological effects of substance on CNS
o Alcohol, amphetamines, caffeine, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants,
opiods, PCP, sedatives, anxiolytics
o Intoxication includes maladaptive bx/psychological changes and specific signs
of substance’s effects on CNS

• Substance Withdrawal
o Reversible syndrome develops as result of recently terminating/reducing use of
substance after using it heavily/long period of time
o Alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, opioids, hypnotics, anxiolytics
o Specific cluster of symptoms w/in few hours/days after decreasing/stopping
use
o Usually associated with Substance Dependence


• Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder
o Hallucinogen flashbacks—transient re-‐experiencing of perceptual disturbances
that occurred during intoxication
o Occurs in someone who is not currently using

DELIRIUM, DEMENTIA AND AMNESTIC AND OTHER COGNITIVE DISORDERS
• 2 Criteria to meet:

o Impairment in cognition/memory that represents substantial change from
previous level of functioning
o Evidence that symptoms are direct physiological consequence of gen med cond,
substance or combination
o **all these d/o fall under Mental D/O due to Gen Med Cond and/or Substance-‐
Induced Mental D/O

• Delirium
o Disturbance of consciousness (reduced level of awareness and understanding of
environment, impaired ability to focus/maintain/switch attn), along with either
change in cognition (mem impairment) or development of perceptual
disturbances (misinterpretations, illusions, hallucinations)
o Onset is relatively rapid and duration is usually brief, rarely more than 1 mo
o Most common over age 60
o Etiology
§ Infections, metabolic d/o, electrolyte imbalance, renal disease, thiamine
deficiency, post-‐operative states, hypertensive encephalopathy, head
trauma, brain lesions
§ Substance-‐Induced Delirium, Substance Intoxication Delirium, Substance
Withdrawal Delirium, medication effects, exposure to toxins
§ High risk:
• Older pts (over 60) following surgery or result of medical illness
• Decreased “cerebral reserve”—dementia, HIV, stroke, CNS
injuries
• Post-‐cardiotomy pts
• Going through drug withdrawal
o Treatment
§ Medical and psychological, as well as medication
§ Evaluate for suicide

• Dementia
o Multiple impairments
§ Memory
§ At least one symptom:
• Aphasia
• Apraxia

• Agnosia (inability to identify/recognize objects)
• Disturbance of exec func
o Differs from delirium
§ Dementia—relatively alert
• Delirium—apparent confusion and clouding of consciousness
§ Dementia—course is more variable
• Can be progressive, static, remissive
• Delirium—symptoms fluctuate during course of day and may
remit in few hrs or persist for weeks before resolving
§ Common over age 85
§ Pseudodementia—depression impairs cognition
• Usually date onset of cog deficits more precisely than cases of
true dementia, because onset is usually very sudden
• Usually concerned, even more so, about cog deficits
• In depression, memory problems are transitory and ordinarily
involve procedural memory and recall memory
o People w dementia exhibit more wide-‐spread and
progressive memory impairments, and recall and
recognition are both affected
o Alzheimer’s
§ Half of all cases
§ Stages:
• 1—lasts 2-‐4 yrs
o Short term memory loss begins
o Early deficits in recent memory
o Deficits increase in severity over time
o Further mem impairment, resulting in retrograde and
anterograde amnesia
o Restlessness, flat/labile mood, fluent aphasia, difficulty
performing complex tasks
o Aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, personality changes, delusions,
hallucinations
o Lack of awareness of gross cog impairments
o Serious impairment in most areas
• Duration from onset to death is 8-‐10 yrs
§ More common in women
§ Risk factors:
• Head injury, exposure to toxins, Down’s Syndrome, alcohol abuse,
long-‐standing physical inactivity
• First-‐degree relative
§ Psych tx focuses on optimizing immediate environment and providing
support for pt and fam

§ Disease has been linked to neurotransmitters Acetylcholine and L-‐
glutamate

o Vascular Dementia
§ Cog impairment is patchy, w some func being affected while others are
intact
§ Symptom onset is usually abrupt and course is stepwise and fluctuating

o Dementia Due to HIV
§ Factors of intelligence, age, somatic symptoms of depression are sig
predictors of HIV progression and prognosis
§ Dementia occurs in 2/3 of AIDS pts
§ Death usually occurs in 1-‐6 mo after development of severe symptoms

o Substance-‐Induced Persisting Dementia

§ Applies when:
• Cog impairments are causally related to persisting effects of
substance use
• Symptoms continue after no longer experiencing
intoxication/withdrawal
§ Persisting effects of substance use, not of direct effects of
intoxication/withdrawal

• Amnestic Disorder
o Mem impairment and no other significant cog impairments
o Marked diminishment of ability to learn new info (anterograde amnesia) or
recall learned info/events in past (retrograde amnesia)
o Etiology
§ Cerebrovascular disease, head trauma, surgery, hypoxia, herpes
complex, encephalitis, seizure
§ Alcohol and sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics
§ Korsakoff’s syndrome—thiamine and Vit B deficiency
§ Anticonvulsants, toxins (lead, mercury, carbon monoxide, industrial
solvents)
§ Associated w substance are result of persisting effects of substance use,
rather than effects of intox/withdrawal

o Post Traumatic Amnesia
§ Common symptom resulting from head injury
§ Pattern of mental disturbance characterized by mem failure for day-‐to-‐
day events, disorientation, misidentification of fam/friends, impaired
attn and illusions

SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS
o Substance Dependence
o More serious
o Cluster of cog, bx, and physiological symptoms indicating continued use of
substance despite sig substance-‐related prob
o At least 3 in last 12 mo

o Substance Abuse
o Maladaptive pattern of substance use
o At least 1 in 12 mo
o Does not and has never met criteria for Substance Dependence

o Specific substances:
o Alcohol
§ Acts to depress NS
• Disinhibitory
§ Intoxication—evidenced by maladaptive psychological/bx signs
• Chronic, heavy use can cause cog impairment
• Verbal subtests unaffected, but performance are suppressed
o Especially visuospatial
§ Withdrawal—terminates/cuts back on long-‐term and heavy alcohol use
• Agitated state occurs
• Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium (delirium tremens)
o Signs of delirium plus vivid hallucinations, delusions,
autonomic hyperactivity and agitation
§ Korsakoff’s syndrome—thiamine deficiency that causes damage to
thalamus
• Impairment in recent memory
§ Genetic factors

o Cocaine
§ Maladaptive bx and psych changes that include euphoria, interpersonal
sensitivity, talkativeness, hypervigilence, and impaired judgment
§ Physical signs such as tachycardia, papillary dilation, elevated/lowered
BP, psychomotor agitation/retardation, nausea/vomitting

o Cannabis
§ Sedation, mild euphoria, and high doses alter perceptions of
time/sensation
§ Complex perceptual/motor tasks are impaired short-‐term, often w/o
person being aware of it
• No long-‐term adverse effects

o Caffeine
§ Intoxication—restlessness, nervousness, excitement,
tachycardia/arrythmia, inexhaustibility, psychomotor agitation, GI prob,
flushed face
o Treatment
o Alcohol
§ AA
§ Antabuse—severe nausea when mixed w alcohol
§ Naltrexone—blocks rewarding effects of drinking and craving alcohol
§ Acamprosate—reduced w/drawal symptoms
§ Fam and ind tx
§ Abstinence Violation Effect (AVE)—Initial relapses lead to feelings of
guilt and failure, which in turn lead to more relapses
o Substance Addiction
§ Combination of biological and psychological tx
o Nicotine
§ Strong desire to quit, awareness of negative health consequences of
smoking and social support for quitting
§ Multimodal Behavioral Approach—social skills, relapse prevention
training, stimulus control, rapid smoking
§ Barrier—fear of w/drawal
• Nicotine Replacement Therapy—nictine gum, transdermal patch,
nicotine inhaler
o Relapse Prevention Therapy
§ CBT approach for dependence
§ Collection of maladaptive, over-‐learned habit patterns, rather than
merely physiological response to substance use
§ Individuals are viewed as being responsible for learning and practicing
more adaptive habits
§ High-‐risk situations:
• Negative emotional states
• Interpersonal conflicts
• Social pressure
§ Primary goal—help build coping mech/alternative habits to more
effectively deal w high-‐risk situations

SCHIZOPHRENIA AND PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
o Schizophrenia
o “Splitting of the mind”
o Affects:
§ Content of thought
§ Form of thought
§ Perception
§ Affect

§ Sense of self
§ Volition
§ Interpersonal functioning
§ Psychomotor bx

o Diagnosis
§ Criteria:
• Active phase for sig time during 1 mo period that includes
delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly
disorganized/catatonic bx, negative symptoms
o Positive symptoms—distortions/exaggerations of normal
functioning
§ Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech,
catatonic/grossly disorganized bx
o Negative symptoms—diminishment/loss of functions that
are normally present
§ Alogia—restricted fluency/productivity of
thought/speech
§ Avolition—restricted initiation of goal-‐directed bx
§ Anhedonia
• Deterioration from previous level of functioning
• Persist for at least 6 mo
§ Cicumstantiality—less serious sign than loosening associations,
involving point never being reached
§ Acute episodes lasting less than 6 mo—Schizophreniform D/O
§ Male have earlier onset (18-‐25 yrs)
• Females—25-‐mid 30’s
§ Premorbid personalities are often suspicious, introverted, w/drawn,
eccentric
§ Equally common in males/females
§ Die at earlier age
• Unnatural causes, such as suicide, violence being done to person,
accidents
§ Chronic

o Types
§ Disorganized—disorganized bx/speech, flat/inappropriate affect
• Regression to extremely primitive uninhibited and unorganized
bx
• No organized delusions
§ Cataonic—psychomotor disturbance such as mutism, extreme
negativism, rigidity, posturing, motoric immobility and/or extreme
excitemen
§ Paranoid—speak quite lucidly, often convincingly, about unreal world

• Auditory hallucinations or one/more delusions present
§ Undifferentiated
§ Residual—at least one schizophrenic episode and continue to display
negative signs of illness
• No prominent, positive psychotic symptoms

o Etiology
§ Genetic
• Other factors contribute to development
• Certain psychosocial factors need to be present too
• Diathesis-‐Stress/Vulnerability Theory-‐-‐Predisposed to d/o are
confronted w adverse and stressful environment
§ Biochemical
• Dopamine Hypothesis—excess of monoamine neurotransmitters
(dopamine) or increased sensitivity to dopamine
§ Neurological irregularities
• Structural brain abnormalities—no single abnormality explains
o Increased volume of lateral and third ventricle
• Functional brain abnormalities—few consistent diff
o Poor performance on certain cog tasks is accompanied by
smaller increase in blood flow to prefrontal cortex
• Neurotransmitter imbalance—norepinephrine, serotonin,
glutamate
o Positive effects of clozapine are directly related to
norepinephrine levels
§ Cross-‐Ethnic Diff
• Higher incidence rate for AA
§ Industrialized/Non-‐industrialized countries
• Third world countries tend to have more acute onset, but shorter
clinical course and more often than not have complete remission
• 65% of pts in industrialized countries had continuous/episodic
illness w/o full remission as compared to 39% in developing
countries 5 yrs later

o Treatment
§ Pharmacological tx—most effective for reducing positive symptoms
• Antipsychotics
• Newer “atypical” antipsychotics appear to be as effective in
reducing positive symptoms and are more effective relieving
negative symptoms
o Risperidone (Risperal)
o Clozapine (Clozaril)
o Aripiprazole (Abilify)

§ Social skills training
§ V few support ind insight-‐oriented tx
• Rather reality-‐adaptive support or fam counseling

o Schizophreniform Disorder
o Identical to schizophrenia except symptoms last 1-‐6 mo and impaired func is
not required

o Schizoaffective Disorder
o Both Mood D/O and Schizophrenia
§ Psychotic features more prominent than Mood D/O w Psychotic
Features
§ Period of 2 wks or more where psychotic but not mood symptoms are
present

o Delusional Disorder
o Delusion that is persistent (at least 1 mo), not bizarre, not due to other mental
d/o, w bx that is not otherwise odd, and functioning that is not markedly
impaired
o Nonbizarre delusions—theoretically plausible or do not violate currently
accepted laws of universe
§ Focus on:
• Erotomanic—person, usually of higher status, is in love u pt
• Grandiose
• Jealous
• Persecutory
• Somatic
• Mixed
• Unspecified
o Brief Psychotic Disorder
o At least one psychotic symptom
o Very sudden onset and lasts from couple of hr to 1 mo
o Full return to premorbid level of functioning
o Overwhelming confusion and emotional turmoil
o Brief Reactive Psychosis—Symptoms occur after person has endured one/more
markedly stressful events

o Shared Psychotic Disorder

o Rare
o Delusional system develops in second person as result of close relationship w
subject who already had psychotic d/o w prominent delusions
o Folie a Deux—2-‐member relationship

MOOD DISORDERS
o Episodes:
o Manic—at least one week
§ Abnormally elevated, expansive, irritable mood
§ Grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, increased talking, flight of ideas,
distractibility, excessive risk-‐taking, marked impairment in
social/occupational functioning, need for hospitalization, development
of psychotic features
§ Euphoric mood is often brittle and may give way quickly to irritability
and anger
o Hypomanic—not as severe
§ No impairment of social/occupational functioning, no need for
hospitalization, psychotic features never present
§ At least 4 days
o Mixed—at least one week
§ Almost everyday, both manic and depressive episodes
o Major Depressive—change from previous functioning
§ 2 week period
§ Depressed mood and/or loss of interest in pleasure

o Bipolar
o Bipolar I
§ Presence of at least one manic/mixed and often one/more depressive
§ Academic/occupational failure, severe marital discord, periodic
antisocial conduct
§ Risk of suicide
o Bipolar II
§ One/more depressive and at least one hypomanic
§ Must not have ever had manic/mixed
o Cyclothymic Disorder
§ Disturbance in mood for at least 2 yrs
§ Alternated btw hypomanic and depression that is too mild to be
considered major depressive episode
§ Daily functioning is not impaired

o Depressive Disorders
o MDD
§ One/more depressive episodes w/o manic/mixed/hypomanic
§ Industrialized countries—MDD 2x as common in adolescents and adult
women than among men
o Postpartum Depression
§ Symptoms sufficiently severe to warrant diagnosis of Mood D/O
§ Last 2-‐8 wks, but can persist for 1 yr

§ Onset of mood episode w/in 4 wks after delivery
o Dysthymic Disorder
§ Less severe
§ General mood lasting in a consistent way over 2 yr/+
§ Chronic
§ Few impairments in daily functioning
• Represents characteristic mode of functioning
§ Double Depression—dysthymic + depression
o Seasonal Affective Disorder
§ Onset and remission of MDD at characteristic times f yr
• Onset is usually fall/winter, remission is spring
§ Abnormal regulation of melatonin secretion by pineal gland

o Etiology
o Genetic
o Severe environmental stress underlies
§ Describe experiencing 3x as many stressful events
o Biochemical
§ Norepinephrine/Catecholamine Hypothesis
• Depression=low NE
• Mania=excess NE
§ Permissive Theory
• Depression=low NE and serotonin
• Mania=high NE and low serotonin
§ Sleep disturbance
• Usually short delay in onset of REM, reduced slow-‐wave sleep,
early morning awakening
o Psych
§ Psychoanalytic—intrapsychic ambivalence
• Love/hate which were directed at object is now directed
internally and intrapsychic struggle leads to depression
• Angry feelings are turned inward and become unconscious self-‐
reproached manifested consciously as depressive symptoms
§ Cog/CBT
• Cog distortions and dysfunctional automatic thoughts
§ Learned helplessness—attributional style in which negative events are
viewed as stable over time rather than transient, global rather than
specific, internal rather than external
§ Self-‐control Model of Depression
• Selective attn to negative events in environment
• Selective attn to immediate as opposed to long-‐range outcomes of
bx
• Stringent standards for self-‐evaluation
• Negative attributions for one’s own bx

• Insufficient self-‐reinforcement
• Excessive self-‐punishment

o Treatment
o Medications
§ Lithium
§ Antidepressants—tricyclics, SSRIs, MAOIs, heterocyclic antidepressant
• SSRIs and tricyclics are most effective
• MAOIs are used for atypical depression
o CBT and interpersonal therapy (IPT)
§ CBT
• Identify automatic thoughts that cause depression
• Help to see how thoughts distort reality
• Help understand why faulty thoughts are unfounded
§ Operant conditioning—low rate of response contingent reinforcement
§ Classical conditioning—“neurotic depression”
• Conditioning process in which person develops anx in response
to various stimuli and then anx acts as antecedent for depression
§ Learned helplessness—prolonged exposure to unescapable aversive
stimuli lead to increased emotional arousal and eventually to depressed
mood
§ Increase pleasurable activities, improve social skills
§ Combined CBT approach is best
§ IPT—interpersonal difficulties stem from disturbances early in life
o CBT and meds are equally effective
§ CBT more effective for mild depression
§ Meds are first-‐line for mod/sev depression
o Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
§ Effective in severe endogenous forms of depression involving delusions
or suicidal ideations and depressions that have not improved w/
antidepressants
o Relapse prevention was more effective w/ psychotherapy than prevention w/
med alone

ANXIETY DISORDERS
• Panic Disorder
o Repeated, unexpected panic attacks
o At least one attack followed by 1 mo of chronic worry about having another,
potential repercussions of attack, or marked change in bx related to attack
o With Agoraphobia—more severe
§ Higher rates of comorbidity
• GAD
§ 1/3 to 1/2 dx w Panic D/O also have Agoraphobia

o Etiology
§ Development of panic attacks and unusually high levels of sodium lactate
§ Genetic
o Treatment
§ Most effective is CBT
• Emphasizes exposure to internal cues that are associated w
attack
§ Similar biologically to depression
• Antidepressants—Imipramine and MAOis
• Alprazolan (benzodiazepine)
• Use of beta-‐blocker not found consistent

• Phobias
o Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder
§ Fear of experiencing panic-‐like symptoms, but not full blown panic
attacks
§ Diarrhea and dizziness
§ Alcohol/drug dependence often associated w d/o
o Social Phobia
§ Focuses avoidance of social/performance situations where anticipates
other will observe, judge, or scrutinize or that exposed to strangers
§ Situationally Bound Panic Attacks—panic attacks that occur upon
exposure to situation
• Shyness, performance anx, stage fright are not considered social
phobias unless they cause clinically sig distress or impairment in
functioning
§ Onset in adolescence, although late onset after sig life event
§ Chronic and life-‐long
§ Equal gender ratio
o Specific Phobia
§ Persistent fear of and desire to avoid specific stimuli
§ Hypochondriasis—fear of acquiring/being exposed to disease
§ Blood-‐Injection-‐Injury Type (Health phobia)—fear cued by seeing blood
or injury or by receiving/injection
• Strong vasogal response
• Onset early childhood
• Younger age for women for onset

o Etiology
§ Psychoanalytic—result of paralyzing conflict due to unacceptable
sexual/aggressive impulses toward person/obj, that has become
unconsciously associated w obj of phobia and results in irrational fear so
intense it interferes w functioning
• Displacing fear toward specific obj

Behavioral—classical conditioning
§
Biology—certain stimuli are more likely to provoke phobic response
§
• Biologically prepared stimuli—at one time, posed true threat to
human survival
o Treatment
§ Medication
• Tricyclic antidepressant and SSRIs
• Imipramine (TCA)—agoraphobia
• Most effective w social phobia
§ Behavioral
• In-‐vivo exposure—most effective for agoraphobia
o Flooding
• Modeling
• Hypnosis
• Combined drug and bx is most effective to prevent relapse
§ Cog
• Effective w specific phobias
§ Muscle tension
• Effective for Blood-‐Injection-‐Injury
§ Group therapy

• OCD
o Obsessions—persistent/urgently recurring thoughts that person experiences as
intrusive, inappropriate, distressing, and outside of control
o Compulsions—repetitive bx/ritual that are performed in response to
obsessions
o Excessive and not associated in any practical/functional way to things they are
intended to offset/prevent
o First appear in adolescence/early adulthood
o Comorbid w MDD
o Disproportionately higher SES and higher intelligence
o Etiology
§ Frued—ego and superego development outstripped libido development
• Over-‐reliance on defense mech such as rxn formation and
displacement
§ Behavioral—2 Factory Theory
• First acquires anx response to previously neutral stimulus as
result of classical conditioning
• Then engages in compulsive rituals in order to avoid stimulus
§ Brain imaging—abnormalities in basal ganglia and frontal lobes

o Treatment
§ Behavioral

• Exposure to environmental cues that evoke bx along w response
prevention
• In-‐vivo exposure is best tx
• Habituation and thought stopping have worked w obsessions
• Prob w bx tx—do little to reduce depression, sexual dysfunction,
and difficult fam relationships
o Supportive tx recommended
§ Biological
• SSRIs—most prescribed to reduce symptoms
• Symptoms reappear after med d/c

• PTSD and Acute Stress Disorder

o PTSD
§ 2 conditions:
• Experienced/seen/been confronted w event that involved
death/serious injury, high potential for death/injury, or some
other threat to physical well-‐being of self/others
• Reacted to event w extreme fear, helplessness or horror
§ Re-‐experiencing of traumatic event
• Intrusive and painful recollections, dreams, and/or nightmares
about event
• Reliving trauma in real ways during dissociative states
• Additionally:
o Avoidance of stimuli related to trauma and numbing of
general responses
o Persistent symptoms of heightened arousal
§ More than 1 mo
• Acute=less than 3 mo
• Chronic=more than 3 mo
§ Treatment
• Crisis intervention
• CBT or behavioral
o Extinguish symptoms and develop better coping strategies
o Prolonged exposure is best treatment
• Psychopharm
o Target symptoms of MDD, panic d/o or persisting
psychotic symptoms become too intense
o Antidepressants
• Brief psychodynamic therapy
o Integrate experience into overall personality structure
o Hypnosis and relaxation training
• Prospect for remission is good if time btw trauma and
development of symptoms is short
• Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

o CBT and client-‐centered w lateral eye movements
o Bilateral stimulation accelerates info processing as in REM
sleep
o More effective than no tx, but less effective than exposure

o Acute Stress Disorder

§ Same kind of traumatic event
§ Occur w/in 1 mo of extreme stressor and last from 2 days to 1 mo
§ During event or after, person experiences at least 3 dissociative
symptoms

• GAD
o Excessive anx and worry about multiple life circumstances
o Lasts 6 mo
o 3 characteristics and person finds it difficult to control worry
o TX incorporates bx and cog, such as progressive relaxation, in-‐vivo and
imaginary exposure, and cog restructuring
§ Combined CBT most effective

SOMATOFORM DISORDERS, FACTICIOUS DISORDERS, AND MALINGERING
• Somatoform Disorders
o Physical symptoms that have no known physiological cause and are believed to
be attributable to psychological factors

o Conversion Disorder
§ At least one symptom or deficit impairing voluntary motor/sensory
function and symptom suggests physiological cause/disorder but
appears to be expression of underlying psychological conflict/need
§ Conflict/stressful event occurred shortly before onset of symptom, or is
associated w intensification of symptoms
• After full exploration, symptoms cannot be fully accounted for by
physiological cause
• Symptoms are not deliberate
§ Two mechanisms:
• Primary gain—reduces anx and keeps internal conflict/need out
of conscious awareness
• Secondary gain—helps avoid noxious activity or obtain otherwise
unavailable support from environment
§ Psychological factor must be associated w initiation or intensification of
symptoms/deficit
§ Treated:

• Hypnosis, narcosis (interview that takes place while pt is under
influence of drug that induces semi-‐conscious state) or dramatic
placebo

o Somatization Disorder
§ Repeated and multiple somatic complaints lasting several yrs
§ Med attn sought but no physical cause found
§ Briquet’s syndrome
• Chronic syndrome w recurrent symptoms affecting various
organs w no demonstrable physical d/o
§ Chronic
§ Onset usually teens and always before 30
§ c/o:
• 4 pain symptoms
• 2 GI symptoms
• 1 sexual symptom
• 1 pseudoneurological symptom
o Pain Disorder
§ Preoccupation w pain w no physical condition to account for pain
§ Cog and CBT
§ Passive coping strategies—associated w worse pain and adjustment
among chronic pain pats and may also serve as psychological enforcer of
pain
• Active coping strategies—entail pt taking responsibility for pain
management and include attempts to control pain/function in
spite of it are associated w less pain and better adjustment

o Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder
§ At least 1 physcial complaint that persisted for 6 mo and cannot be fully
explained by med cond or substance use
§ Duration of less than 6 mo=Somatoform D/O NOS

o Hypochondriasis
§ Preoccupied w fears of having serious disease
§ Chronic
§ No delusions
§ Acknowledge fears are exaggerated
§ Predisposing factor=pt or fam w past disease
§ Absence of disease conviction in hypochondriasis
• Reaches extremely strong, unreasonable and delusional
proportions in Delusional D/O, Somatic Type


o Body Dysmorphic Disorder
§ Preoccupied w non-‐existent/slight physical flaw and concern is very
unreasonable, causing distress and interfering w usual functioning

• Factitious Disorders
o Physical/psych symptoms that are deliberately produced or simulated
o Voluntary nature of symptoms does not necessarily mean individual has
complete control over them
§ Bx are “voluntary” in sense that they are deliberate and purposeful, but
not in sense that they can be controlled
§ Resemble compulsions
o Treatment
§ Symptom management
§ Supportive tx
§ Fam/grp tx
§ Confrontational techniques requires caution, given risk of defensiveness,
denial, or therapeutic relationship termination

o Factitious Disorder w Psychological Symptoms
§ Pseudopsychosis
• Deliberate production/feigning of psych (often psychotic)
symptoms
• Represent individual’s conception of mental d/o
• Induced by use of psychoactive substances

o Factitious Disorder w Physical Symptoms
§ Voluntary production/faking of physical symptoms
§ Munchausen syndrome or hospital addiction
o Factious Disorder by Proxy
§ Non-‐DSM-‐5 d/o
§ Mothers appear to be sole suffers of d/o
• Leads them to fabricate/actually create medical symptoms in
children in order to receive medical care
• Malingering
o Not mental d/o, but Condition That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention
o Deliberate production of either fraudulent/exaggerated symptoms, motivated
by external incentives
o Under control of individual

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
• Enduring characteristics of person are inflexible, maladaptive, and result of either sign
impairment in daily func or subjective distress

o Chronic
o Overt manifestations might well wane by middle age
o Hx of dev prob in childhood

• Paranoid Personality D/O

o Distrust and suspiciousness in which ind consistently interprets motives of
others as malevolent
o Fear of being exploited or harmed by others in some way
o Hypervigilient and take precautions against any perceived threat
o Does not involve delusions
§ Suspiciousness is usually not far enough outside realm of possibility to
be considered delusion
o While under stress, may experience transient psychotic episodes, lasting min to
hrs
o Treatment:
§ Supportive tx—most effective
• Avoid directly challenging suspicions
§ Bx and CBT—anx and oversensitivity

• Schizoid Personality D/O

o Indifference to social relationships and limited range of emotional
expression in social situations
o Introverted and preoccupied, showing little emotion except for infrequent signs
of irritability
o Work—if social contact is not required

• Schizotypal Personality D/O

o Social and interpersonal deficits involving extreme discomfort w and limited
capacity for close relationships, and by markedly eccentric/odd perceptual and
cog distortions and bx
o Say that they want close relationships
o Unlike Schizoid, peculiar/odd thoughts/bx/appearance

Schizophrenia—psychotic thoughts, disturbances in affect, social
deterioration
• Lasting 6/+ mo

Schizophreniform Disorder—schizophrenic symptoms
• Lasting -‐/6 mo

Schizoaffective Disorder—psychotic disturbance w Schizophrenic and Mood
symptoms, but neither criteria met

Schizoid Personality Disorder—social isolation, restricted affect, prefers to
be loner
Schizotypal Personality Disorder—peculiarities of thought, appearance and
bx, but not as severe as schizophrenic d/o
• Speech is odd, but not loose or incoherent

• Thought may be unusual, but not bizarre and strange
• If stress-‐induced psychotic symptoms, they are transient and not
as severe

• Histrionic Personality Disorder

o Excessive emotionality and attention-‐seeking
o Constantly seek reassurance, approval, praise
o Theatrical, usually attractive and seductive
§ Use physical appearance to get attn
o Dependent/clingy
§ Unlike Dependent Personality D/O, due to being more emotional and
exaggerated in affective and bx responses

• Narcissistic Personality Disorder

o Grandiosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy
o Exhibitionistic
o Feelings of entitlement include no sense of reciprocal responsibility
o Constant attn and admiration, react to criticism as threat to self-‐esteem,
alternate btw overidealization and devaluation of others
§ Expectations are that they deserve the best of everything from others,
and if not, devalued
o Unrealistic fantasies of achievement, talent, and often relentless, joyless drive
towards goals that are never felt to be accomplished
o Etiology:
§ Unempathetic and unresponsive mother, thus developing precarious and
vulnerable self-‐representation
§ Arrest in development rather than defense
• If age-‐appropriate infantile grandiosity is not neutralized by
mother’s mirroring of reality, grandiosity remains

• Borderline Personality Disorder

o Instability of interpersonal relationships, self-‐image, and affect, as well as sign
impulsivity
o Mood usually dysphoric, but is often interrupted by periods of intense anger,
despair, or panic
§ Feelings are triggered by interpersonal conflict/abandonment
§ Attempt suicide

o Etiology:
§ Psychoanalytic—ego/obj relations
• Fixation at 3 stage of development of normal internalized obj
rd
relations (when good self-‐ and obj-‐representations and bad self-‐

and obj-‐representations are perceived as distinct and unrelated)
§ Innate biological disposition toward aggression
§ Obj relations
• Abnormalities in separation-‐individuation process due to
parents’ clinging to child or lack of support/attn
o Fixated at stage of development, experiencing feelings of
rage/hopelessness/emptiness (Abandonment Depression)
and continuously vacillating btw fear of abandonment and
fear of domination
§ Dominant defense mech—splitting
• Unable to view self/others as possessing both good/bad qualities
§ Cog—inability to acknowledge “wants” and to discriminate btw “wants”
and “needs”
• Anger results from notion that others “should act well toward
them and that conditions of world must be easy or it is awful”
o Treatment:
§ CBT—decreasing self-‐destructive bx, improving prob solv, and acquiring
more reasonable self-‐perceptions of others
§ Meds
§ Dialectical Bx Tx (DBT)—Linehan
• Further development of CBT that emphasizes self-‐soothing, social
skills, and group dynamics
• Focuses on here-‐and-‐now
• Regulate affect
§ Many demonstrate sign reduction/remission of symptoms by middle age
or sooner
• Impulsive symp quickest to resolve
• Affective symp, which are chronic, show least improvement w age

• Antisocial Personality Disorder

o Disregard for violation of rights of other people that has been present since age
15
o Also known as psychopathy, sociopathy or dissocial personality d/o
o Hx of symp of CD before age 15
o Childhood—hx of lying, stealing, and aggression
§ Adolescence—signs of truancy, aggressive sexual bx and drug/alcohol
abuse
• Subjective feelings of boredom, depression, tension
o More common in males
o Co-‐morbid w CD, ADHD and absence of fam discipline

o Criminal bx, often become less evident as ind grows older
o Chronic
o Poor prognosis
o Symptoms such as difficulties w interpersonal relationships may persist
o Etiology:
§ Fam factors
§ Genetics
• Strong genetic influence on higher order factors
o Callous/unemotional and impulsive/irresponsible
§ Three interrelated dimensions of psychopathic personality:
• Interpersonal style of grandiosity/glibness/manipulation
• Affective disposition of unemotionality/callousness/lack of
empathy
• Bx dimension/lifestyle involving need for
stimulation/impulsivity/irresponsibility
§ Biology
• Brainwave abnormalities—excessive slow-‐wave activity
§ Lower than normal levels of arousal and anx
• Tend to seek excitement and stimulation to elevate arousal level
o Treatment:
§ Usually resist tx
• Nothing wrong w them
• Uncooperative and manipulative
§ Bx—modest success in institutional setting
• Must have:
o Withdrawal of reinforcements for inappropriate bx and
punishment for antisocial acts
o Modeling of appropriate bx amd shaping of desired bx
through graded reinforcement
o Gradual fading of external rewards and reinforcers as
person takes more self-‐control and responsibility
• Reducing impulsivity, anger, and other specific bx

• Avoidant Personality Disorder

o Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative
evaluation
o Timid and shy
o Very few personal relationships
o Avoids social situations—still longs for contact and relationships
§ Unlike schizoid personality who have no desire for relationships
• Dependent Personality Disorder
o Pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of, leading to clinging,
submissive bx and fears of separation
o Passive and sacrifice own needs and desires to those of others

§ Clearly excessive and do not simply reflect cultural norms
o Co-‐Dependence—condition in which person inadvertently or deliberately
supports addiction or dependence of another person
§ Assumption of responsibility for meeting needs of another-‐to exclusion
of one’s own needs
§ Continued investment of self-‐esteem in control of others
§ Enmeshed relationship w chemically-‐dependent, personality-‐disordered,
impulse-‐disordered, or other co-‐dependent person
§ Other symptoms such as excessive denial, depression, anx, and stress
related medical illness

• Obsessive-‐Compulsive Personality Disorder
o Preoccupation w perfectionism, orderliness, and mental and interpersonal
control, which severely limits openness, flexibility, and efficiency
o Overly moralistic and judgmental
o Indecisive, stingy (money and emotions)
o Most comfortable w sameness and order and resist change and spontaneity
o Does not involve obsessions or compulsions
§ Involves compulsively driven bx
o Reaction formation—defending against unacceptable impulse by expressing its
opposite

• Eating Disorders
o Anorexia Nervosa
§ Refusal to maintain body weight over minimal normal weight (85%/-‐ of
what is expected)
§ Intense fear of losing control of one’s weight or becoming fat even
though underweight
§ Distorted body image—excessive influence of body weight and shape on
self-‐image or denial of dangerousness of current low body weight
§ Amenorrhea—postmenarchal females
§ Adolescent females
§ Specifiers:
• Restricting Type—weight loss is mostly accomplished through
dieting, fasting, or excessive exercise without regular pattern of
binge eating or purging
• Binge Eating/Purging Type—engages in binge eating and/or
purging
§ Denial—difficult to become engaged in tx
§ Etiology:
• Fam factors
o Upper middle class
o Domineering, over-‐involved and insensitive mother
o Affectively uninvolved father
o Home in which food/weight has greater than ordinary sign

o Child’s needs for individuation and support are actually
neglected or ignored
o Seen as attempt to obtain control and independence in fam
where these are otherwise denied to pt
• Psychoanalytic—fear of increasing sexuality and/or oral
impregnation
• Developmental—weight phobia (fear of growing up)
• Biological—abnormalities of endocrine system or hypothalamus
• Genentic predisposition
§ Treatment:
• Back to normal weight
• Bx and CBT—maintenance of normal eating patterns
• Cog—altering faulty thinking and inaccurate beliefs about weight,
food, and consequences of eating
• Fam Tx—“family lunch”
o Fam members and therapist eat meal together
o Bring dysfunctional fam interactions to attn of fam
members
o Teach parents positive ways of getting pt to eat while still
respecting autonomy
• Neurotransmitters—low levels of serotonin
o Fluoxetine (Prozac) and other SSRIs
o
o Bulimia Nervosa
§ Recurrent episodes of binge eating and/or repeated inappropriate
compensatory bx to prevent weight gain
§ Occur average of 2x/wk for 3 mo and are unduly influenced by body
shape and weight
§ Purging and Non-‐purging Types
§ Involves secretive, rapis consumption of food, often accompanied w
feelings of depression/guilt/lack of control over consumption
§ Syndrome is rare, but substantial number of overweight women engage
in binge eating
§ Female
§ Age of onset btw 16-‐19
§ Predominantly young, educated white women from middle/upper SES
§ Low self-‐esteem, external locus of control, fear of interpersonal intimacy
and perfectionistic tendencies
§ Bx signs:
• Frequent weight fluc of 10/+lbs
• Emotional labile and impulsive
• Social adjustment problems
• Depression
• Perfectionism motivated by need for approval
§ Etiology:

•Combo of physiological, psych, and social/environmental factors
o Disturbed body image and desire to be thinner, low self-‐
esteem, emotional instability
• Fam factors—chaotic, highly conflicted and neglectful fam
environment
o Parents who emphasize importance of outward
appearances
o Parental overconcern w dieting and body shape or weight
• Sexually abused
• Unlike anorexia purging-‐type, able to maintain body weight
o Able to maintain façade of normalcy
• Tend to be aware bx is d/o and abnormal
o More likely to engage in tx
§ Treatment:
• Immediate goal—restore normal eating pattern
o Maintain patterns and address fam/intrapsychic roots of
problem as longer-‐term goal
• Key goals:
o Obtain control over eating bx
o Alter dysfunctional beliefs of eating/body shape/weight
o CBT—self-‐monitoring and cog restructuring

• Dissociative Disorders
o Sudden changes in consciousness, identity, memory, or perception
§ Sudden/gradual
§ Chronic/transient

o Dissociative Amnesia
§ Sudden inability to remember important personal info, usually of
stressful/traumatic nature, that is too extensive to be attributed to
ordinary forgetfulness
§ Retrospectively reported memory gap or series of gaps for aspects of life
hx
§ Gaps are related to traumatic/stressful event
§ Followed by full recovery of memory

o Dissociative Fugue
§ Abrupt, unanticipated travel away from home/work, inability to
remember some/all of one’s past and confusion about identity or
partial/complete adoption of new identity
§ May not recall events that took place during fugue
§ Only temporary absence
§ Rare

§ Most often in wartime or after natural disaster
§ Associated w heavy alcohol use

o Dissociative Identity Disorder

§ Existence in one’s individual of at least 2 diff identities/personality
states, w at least 2 identities /personality states recurrently taking
control of person’s bx
§ Unable to remember essential personal info to extent that is too great to
attribute to ordinary forgetfulness
§ Transitions btw are usually abrupt
• Brought on by psychosocial stress
§ Each distinct personality has own bx/mem/relationships
• Subpersonalities (alters) may deny awareness of one another
§ Severe childhood trauma

o Depersonalization Disorder
§ Persistent/repeated episodes of depersonalization severe enough to
cause sign distress/conspicuously impair func
§ Sense of estrangement from one’s self, feelings of unreality, dreamlike
states, and ego-‐dystonic bodily sensations
• Reality testing remains intact
§ Cannot recall essential personal info
§ Derealization—alteration in perceptions of obj, other people, or time
§ Set off by acute stress

o Dissociative Disorder, NOS

§ Ganser’s syndrome—“syndrome of approximate answers”
• First noted in prisoners who gave answers to questions that were
close to truth but not completely true
• Associates w hallucinations, disorientation, amnesia, lack of
insight

• Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders

o Paraphilias
§ Repeated, powerful sexually-‐arousing fantasies or urges to engage in
sexual bx involving either nonhuman obj, suffering/humiliation of
self/partner, children, or other nonconsenting partners
§ Desires are persistent and are experienced as compulsions over which
person has little/no control
§ Types:
• Fetishism
• Sexual Sadism/Masochism

• Transvestism
• Exhibitionism
• Voyeurism
• Pedophilia
• Frotteurism
§ If present but does not cause marked distress/impairment, then not
paraphilia
§ Urges, activities, fantasies that are obligatory w/o which arousal cannot
take place
§ Co-‐morbid w personality d/o
§ Treatment:
• Bx interventions—aversive counterconditioning
o Covert sensitization—pairing btw aversive stimulus and
exciting obj occurs in imagination
o Orgasmic reconditioning—masturbate in presence of
appropriately sexually exciting stimulus
o Social skills training
o Cog restructuring

o Sexual Dysfunction
§ R/O med/substance causes
§ Sexual Response Cycle:
• Desire—sexual fantasies and desire to have sex
o D/O: Hypoactive Sexual Desire D/O and Sexual Aversion
D/O
• Excitement—feeling of sexual pleasure and consequent
physiological changes
o D/O: Female Sexual Arousal D/O, Male Erectile D/O
• Orgasm—culmination of sexual pleasure and release of sexual
tension
o D/O: Female Orgasmic Disorder, Male Orgasmic D/O,
Premature Ejaculation
• Resolution—sense of general relaxation, muscle relaxation and
general well-‐being
o No DSM d/o
§ Sexual Pain Disorders:
• Vaginismus—involuntary contractions of muscles
• Dyspareunia—sexual pain
§ All d/o classified as:
• Due to psych factors or combined factors
• Life-‐long (primary) or acquired
• Situational or generalized
§ Most common in males is Premature Ejaculation; females is Orgasmic
D/O

§ Treatment:
• Bx and CBT
• Causes of dysfunction are:
o Performance anx, faulty info, early conditioning, faulty
expectations, ignorance of sexual physiology
o Model for tx:
§ Pre-‐treatment counseling, relationship counseling,
sensate focus, cog restructuring
• Sensate focus—couple becomes
desensitized to anx cues
• Specific dysfunctions
o Hypoactive Sexual Desire D/O and Female Orgasmic
D/O—direct masturbation
o Vaginismus—relaxation training and progressive dilation
of vagina
o Premature Ejaculation—squeeze tech
§ Types:
• Primary—present throughout adulthood
• Secondary—during adulthood w man who
has not experienced problem before
o Neurological d/o
§ SSRIs (Prozac/Fluoxetine) and some TCAs
o Kegel exercises

o Gender Identity Disorder
§ Intense/chronic identification w opposite gender, persistent unease w
one’s actual sex, or sense of inappropriateness in gender role of one’s
sex, severe enough to cause marked distress or sign impede functioning
§ Unease w/sense of inappropriateness about gender is manifested as
preoccupation w getting rid of primary and secondary sex charact or
belief they were born in wrong sex
• Sleep Disorders
o Chronic
o Assumed to be caused by internal abnormalities in sleep-‐wake generating or
timing mech and may be complicated by conditioning

o Dyssomnias
§ Disturbances in amount, quality and timing of sleep
§ Insomnia—diff falling/staying asleep or not feeling rested after
seemingly sufficient periods of sleep
• Last for 1/+ mo
§ Hypersomnia—daytime sleepiness, sleep attacks, extreme sleepiness for
at least 1 mo
• Not due to lack of sleep

• Nocturnal sleep is prolonged in idiopathic hypersomnia and
variable in secondary hypersomnia
• Genetic predisposed
• Secondary hypersomnia causes:
o Neurologic
o General med, various intoxications, conditions leading to
brain hypoxia
o Psych
§ Narcolepsy—overcome w irresistible sleepiness and sleep attacks of
brief duration that occur unpredictably, almost daily over at least 3 mo
• Cataplexy—sudden loss of partial/complete muscle tone during
excitement/arousal
o Distinguishing feature
• Repeated intrusions of REM elements into transition btw sleep
and wakefulness
o Hyponopompic (while awakening) or Hypnagogic (while
falling asleep) hallucinations or sleep paralysis at
start/end of sleep episodes
• Genentic
§ Breathing-‐Related Sleep Disorder—disruption of sleep causing either
sleepiness or insomnia
• Sleep apnea
o Types:
§ Obstructive—caused by relaxation of soft tissue in
back of throat that closes airway and blocks
passage of air
§ Central—brain fails to signal muscles to breath
§ Mixed
o Treatment:
§ Mild—positional therapy, nose strips, oral/dental
appliances
§ CPAP
• Hypopneas (abnormal slow/shallow breathing)
• Hypoventiliation (abnormal blood oxygen and CO2 often due to
impairment in ventilatory control)
§ Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder
• Poor match btw sleep-‐wake schedule
• Causes repeated and persistent sleep disruptions

o Parasomnias
§ Aberrant bx/physiological event during sleep or threshold btw sleep and
awakening
§ Nightmare Disorder
§ Sleep Terror D/O—no detailed dream remembered

§ Sleepwalking D/O
• Low level autonomic arousal
• Onset 6-‐12
§ Types:
• During REM—Nightmare and sleep paralysis
• Non-‐REM—Sleepwalking and Sleep Terror

• Impulse Control Disorders

o Pathological gambling
o Pyromania
o Kleptomania
o Intermittent Explosive D/O
o Trichotillomania

• Adjustment Disorders
o Develops emotional/bx symptoms in rxn to identifiable stressor w/in 3 mo of
onset of stressor
o After stressor/effects of stressor are terminated, symptoms cannot last for
more than 6 mo more

MISC CLINICAL ISSUES
• Symptoms Definitions
o Illusions—misperception/misinterpretation of actual external stimuli
o Delusions—false beliefs that are firmly held despite clear evidence to contrary
and do not represent beliefs that are widely accepted by culture
o Hallucinations—sensory perceptions that seem real but occur w/o presence of
external stimuli
o Magical thinking—erroneous belief that one’s thoughts/actions will
cause/prevent specific outcomes
o Ideas of reference—belief that external events have particular meaning

• Obesity
o Fam and genetic more than environment
o Metabolic rate is slower—heredity
o TX: Bx
§ Self-‐monitoring
§ Reinforcement of increase in activity level
§ Slowing of eating rate
§ Stimulus control
§ Adherence to low-‐fat, high fiber diet
§ Reinforcement and self-‐reinforcement to obtain short-‐term goals
o Cog and group tx

• Epilepsy
o NS d/o involving reoccurring seizures w/o identifiable cause
o Types:
§ Partial/focal
• Begins as uncomfortable twitching of small part of body
• Can affect entire body
§ Generalized
o Generalized tonic-‐clonic seizure—grand-‐mal
§ Episodes of convulsions, unconsciousness and muscle rigidity
§ Person falls into deep sleep
o Generalized absence seizure—petit-‐mal
§ Involve very brief LOC w few/no other symptoms
§ No deep sleep
o Complex partial seizures—temporal lobe seizures
§ Complex=impact consciousness
§ Involuntary chewing, lip smacking, fidgeting, walking in circles
§ Stare blankly and walk around in daze
o Simple partial seizures—Jacksonian seizures
§ No LOC
§ Affect only one side
o Both complex and simple partial have focal onset
o Anticonvulsant meds

• Tension Headaches, Migraines, and Pain Reduction
o Tension HA
§ Occur frequently and thought to be caused by sustained contractions of
muscles in forehead, scalp and neck
§ Constant pain usually on both sides
§ EMG biofeedback
§ Trained to decrease muscle tension
§ Relaxation training
o Migraine HA
§ Intense throbbing pain, typically on one side of head, and often
accompanied by nausea and/or GI prob
§ Often aura
§ Caused by dilation and spasms of cerebral blood flow
§ Thermal hand warming biofeedback
o Reducing pain in general
§ Operant tx
§ Maintenance of pain through environmental contingencies
§ Cog and relaxation tech
§ Antidepressants
• TCA (Elavil) if pain is neuropathic or headache
• SSRIs to prevent HA

• Essential Hypertension (high BP)

o Two categories:
§ Primary (essential)
§ Secondary
o Fam hx, high resting heart rate, chronic obese, stress, increase w age, higher for
blacks
o Secondary: result of known d/o
o Tx: relaxation, medication, biofeedback

• Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

o Bx, psych, physical symptoms few days before, lasting to end of period
o Decrements in cogn, impairments of judgment, alteration of consciousness have
not been found
o Premenstrual Dysphoric D/O: begin to ease few days from onset of menses and
absent in week following menses
§ Disturbances are so serious that interfere with function, social act, and
interpersonal relationships
§ Less common than PMS
o Antidepressants

• Stress
o Consequence of threat of potential/actual loss of valued resources
o General Adaptation Syndrome—set of characteristic responses over time under
conditions of stress
§ Period of adaptation to stressful stimulus, then breakdown of normal
func leading to exhaustion and even death
§ Provoke identical neurphysical responses
§ Three stages: (ARE)
• Alarm rxn is first
o Pituitary-‐adrenal system mobilizes sympathetic arousal
system
• Resistance next
o Defenses stabilized and symptoms disappear, but at price
• Exhaustion last
o Maintain prolonged resistance, energy is depleted
o Psychology
§ Help pt learn voluntary control over physiological symptoms of stress
§ Helping pt consider changing environmental conditions that are creating
stress
§ Helping pt change way s/he responds to stressors
o Cognitive Reappraisal—Evaluation of person’s coping mechanisms


• Type A Behavior and Heart Attacks
o Competitive, achievement oriented, highly involved w work, having strong
sense of urgency and meeting deadlines, active and aggressive
o Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS)
o Personality attributes of anger, hostility, and aggression are more predictive of
medical d/o than are job involvement and time urgency
o Depression

• Sickness Impact Profile

o Used to assess impact of disease on both physical and emotional functioning
o 136 items
o Higher score=greatest level of dysfunction


ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE

INTRODUCTION AND APPLICABILITY

• Code of Conduct consists of:
o Intro and Applicability—intent, organization, procedural considerations, and
scope of application of Ethics Code
o Preamble—ASPRIRATIONAL goals
o 5 General Principles—ASPRIRATIONAL goals
o Specific Ethical Standards—ENFORCABLE rules of conduct
• Applies to only psychologist’s activities that are part of scientific, educational, or
professional roles as psychologists

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

• Principle A—Beneficence and Nonmalificence
o Strive to benefit those w whom they work and take care to do no harm
• Principle B—Fidelity and Responsibility
o Establish relationships of trust w those w whom they work
o Professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to specific
communities in which they work
• Principle C—Integrity
o Seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in science, teaching, and
practice
• Principle D—Justice
o Recognize fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from
contributions of psych and to equal quality in processes, procedures, and
services
• Principle E—Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
o Respect dignity and worth of all people, and rights of ind to privacy, and self-‐
determination

• If Ethical Standard establishes higher standard of conduct than is required by law,
psychologist must meet higher ethical standard

***I am creating EPPP-‐like scenarios as this section is mainly applied to situations rather
than theory info***


INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATION PSYCHOLOGY

• Personnel Psych—theory and applications related to evaluating, selecting, and training
workers
o Job analysis, performance appraisal, personnel selection, training, career
counseling
• Organizational Psych—ind and grp processes w/in organizations and concerned w
factors that affect such outcomes as job satisfaction, motivation, work effectiveness,
quality of life
o Leadership style, decision-‐making, organizational development
• Engineering Psych—human factors psych and ergonomics
o Relationships btw workers and work context
o Work schedules, job burnout, accidents

PERSONNEL PSYCH

• Job Analysis
o Conducted for:
§ Developing and validating selection instruments
§ Identifying measures of job performance
§ Assisting in development of training programs
o Techniques:
§ Job-‐oriented—task requirements of job
§ Worker-‐oriented—knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal
characteristics that are required for successful job performance
o Methods:
§ Interviews
§ Questionnaires
• Position Analysis Questionnaire
o Job is rated in terms of importance
§ Direct observation
§ Work diaries

• Performance Evaluation
o Performance appraisal or merit rating
o Process of evaluating person’s job performance
o Criterion measures:
§ Objective—direct, quantitative measures of performance
• Limitation: do not measure many important facets of
performance
o Limited by situational factors
o May not be useful for evaluating performance in complex
jobs
§ Subjective—rely on judgment of rater

• Useful for assessing complex, less concrete aspects of job
performance
• Disadvantages: raters sometimes not motivated to provide
accurate ratings or do not understand rating scale
o Rater bias
• Peer ratings—valid, particularly for predicting supervisor rating,
promotions, and training success
o Subjective Rating Techniques
§ Personnel Comparison Systems (PCS)—rating employee by comparing
to other employees
• Ranked order system—ranks employees from best to worst
• Paired comparison system—each employee is compared w every
other employee on each job bx
o Larger # employees, more impractical method
• Forced distribution system—rater categorizes employees into
predetermined distribution
• Advantage: reduce effects of rater biases
§ Critical Incidents—descriptions of specific job bx that are associated w v
good and v poor performance
• Likert-‐type rating
§ Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)—rated on several
dimensions of job performance
• Each dimension has set of “bx anchors”
• Likert scale
• Differs from other rating scales in its construction
o Involves several steps and multiple contributors
o Diff grps of workers/supervisors are responsible for
identifying job dimensions and critical incidents in terms
of importance on job
• Advantage: produces info that is useful for employee feedback
o Format and development process may improve rating
accuracy
• Disadvantages: time-‐consuming to construct
o Usually specific to particular job
§ Behavioral-‐Observations Scales (BOS)—similar to BARS w
advantages/disadvantages
• Unlike BARS, rater indicates how often employee performs each
critical incident
§ Forced-‐Choice Checklists (FCCL)—series of statements that have been
grped so that statements in each grp are similar in terms of social
desirability and ability to distinguish btw successful and unsuccessful
job performance
• Helps reduced social desirability and rater bias
o Rater Biases

§Halo Effect—tendency to judge all aspects of person’s bx on basis of
single attribute or characteristic
§ Central Tendency, Leniency, Strictness Biases
• Central Tendency—tendency to assign average ratings to all
ratees
• Leniency Bias—tendency to give all ratees positive ratings
• Strictness Bias—tendency to give all ratees negative ratings
§ Contract Effect—tendency to give ratings on basis of comparison to
other ratees
§ Best way to reduce bias is to adequately train raters
• Training is more effective when it focuses less on rating errors
and more on accuracy
• Frame of reference training—help raters recognize
multidimensional nature of job performance and to ensure that
diff raters have same conceptualizations of job performance

• Personnel Selection
o Selection Procedures
§ Predict job performance and facilitate hiring decisions
§ Selection Techniques:
• Cognitive Ability Tests—most valid predictor of job performance
across jobs and settings
o Validity increases as complexity of job increases
• Job Knowledge Tests—job specific, commonly used when ind
have previous experience or training
o Good predictors of performance
o Validity of job knowledge tests increases as job complexity
and job-‐test similarity increase
• Work Samples—sample of work bx in standardized, job-‐like
conditions
o Good predictors of job performance
o Samples of motor-‐skills have more validity than verbal
skills
o Acceptable to applicants and are less likely than other
methods to unfairly discriminate
o Also used as trainability tests
§ Identify people who are likely to benefit from
training
§ Include period of structures, controlled learning
followed by evaluation of work performance
o Realistic Job Preview—prevent unrealistic expectations
about job in order to reduce turnover
• Interviews—tend to be only moderately accurate in predicting
job performance

o Validity depends on content of interview, nature of
criterion, how interview is conducted
o Structured interviews—found to have higher predictive
validity
• Biographical Information (Biodata)—ask for info about
applicant’s work hx, ed, and personal interests and skills
o Highly predictive of job success when empirically
validated
o Only slightly less valid than cog tests
o Advantage: useful for predicting turnover
o Weighted Application Bank, Biographical Info Bank
o Disadvantage: specific to job and to organization
§ Lacks face validity
• Assessment Centers—used for selection, promotion, and training
of administrative and managerial level employees
o Conducted in grps
o Multiple methods of assessment
o In-‐basket test—seeing how ind responds to kinds of tasks
that he will actually encounter on job
o Evaluation by team
o Validity coefficients are generally high
o Disadvantages: expensive to develop and administer
§ Criterion contamination occurs when rater’s
knowledge of person’s performance on selection
instrument affects how rater evaluates
performance once he is on job
• Personality Tests—“big five” personality dimensions of
extraversion, agreeableness, openness, emotional stability, and
conscientiousness
o Measure specific characteristics that have been found to
be more accurate predictors of job performance than those
measuring global traits
o Better predictors of contextual performance, while cog
tests are better for predicting task performance
• Interest Tests—low validity for predicting success
o Useful for counseling and for predicting satisfaction,
persistence, and choice
• Integrity Tests—validity lower in terms of predicting
performance
o Used to select employees w reduced probability of
counterproductive job bx

• Legal Issues in Personnel Selection
o Adverse Impact

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)—Uniform
§
Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures
• Provide standards for tests and other procedures that are used as
basis for employment decisions
• Adverse impact—produces substantially diff rate of selection for
diff grps that are defined on basis of gender/race/age
• Using 80% rule
o Adverse impact occurring when selection rate for minority
grp is less than 80% of selection rate of majority grp
• May be permitted when selection criterion is “bona fide
occupational qualification”
o Valid reason for hiring substantially larger proportion of
particular grp

§ Causes:
• Differential validity—selection procedure is valid predictor of
performance for one grp and is either less valid or not valid for
another grp
o Actually rare phenomenon
o When occurs, neg affects majority grp just as often as
minority
• Unfairness—occurs when one grp consistently scores lower than
another grp on selection test, but both grps perform equally well
on job
o Score Adjustment
§ Women and members of minority grps tend to score lower
§ Several methods for compensating for this bias
• Separate Cutoffs
• Within Grp Norming—converting raw scores to standard scores,
% ranks w/in each grp and then using same predetermined cutoff
for both grps
• Banding—treating scores w/in given score range as equivalent
o Americans with Disabilities Act
§ 1990
§ Prohibits employers from discriminating against disability
§ Specifically excludes ind who are currently engaging in illegal drug use
from protection
• Does protect past substance abusers as long as they are
participating in or have completed supervised rehab program and
are not currently using drugs

• Psychometric Issues in Personnel Selection
o Incremental Validity

Usefulness of selection test in terms of decision-‐making accuracy
§
Incremental validity=Positive hit rate-‐ Base Rate
§
Maximized when its validity coefficient is large, when base rate is mod,
§
and selection ratio is low
o Utility Analysis
§ Assess cost-‐effectiveness of selection procedure
§ Utility is defined as dollar gain in job performance when using selection
procedure of interest as opposed to using prior or alternative procedure
o Combining Predictors
§ Multiple predictors are often preferred because they provide more info
about applicants than one predictor
§ Predictors should have low correlation w other predictors and high
correlation w criterion
§ Multiple Regression—estimate applicant’s score on criterion on basis of
scores on 2/+ predictors
• Compensatory techniques—applicant who gets low score on one
predictor can make up for it by high score on another predictor
§ Multiple Cutoff—applicant must score above minimum cutoff on each
predictor in order to be hired
• Noncompensatory
• Useful when minimum level of competence in multiple domains is
necessary
§ Multiple Hurdle—noncompensatory
• Applicants must meet minimum level one on predictor to move
on to next predictor
• Saves time and money

• Training
o Three basic steps in training program development:
§ Needs Analysis—determining if and what kind of training is necessary
• 4 components:
o Organization analysis—is training what org needs to solve
problem?
o Task analysis—determining what knowledge, skills,
abilities are required to perform job satisfactorily
o Person analysis—if employees have deficits in areas
identified by task analysis
o Demographic analysis—determine training needs of
employees from diff grps
§ Program Design—selection of training program format is based on
consideration of cost factors, material to be taught, and characteristics of
trainees
• Most effective training program is one that teaches skills that
closely approximate those necessary for job
• Common types of training:

o On-‐the-‐job Training—trainee performs job under
guidance of experienced employee
§ Job rotation—rotating employees through several
jobs to increase range of skills to perform other
jobs in company
§ Advantages: economy—does not have to establish
separate training facility or employ professional
trainers
§ Disadvantages: carelessly planned and poorly
implemented, increases danger that production
rates will be slowed and accident rates will increase
• Current workers may not make best trainers
o Vestibule Training—combine advantages of off-‐the-‐job
and on-‐the-‐job
§ Providing training in physical replication or
simulation
§ Useful when consequences of errors or slowdowns
are too serious for on-‐job
• Repeated practice is required to learn task
• When special coaching is required
o Classroom Training—simulated work environment is set
up in separate training facility
§ No emphasis on production
§ More personalized attn
§ Do not have worry about making costly or
embarrassing errors, damaging equipment, or
slowing production
o Programmed Instruction—info that had been broken
down into logical, organized sequences
§ Paper-‐and-‐pencil book-‐type formats to computer-‐
assisted instruction
§ Not effective for teaching many complex skills
§ Useful for teaching content knowledge, especially
that requiring rote memorization
§ Advantage: allows trainees to progress at own pace
§ Program Evaluation
• 3 dimensions:
o Formative evaluations—assess variables internal to
program
§ Identify necessary changes to program than can be
made while program is in progress
o Summative eval—assess effectiveness of program
§ Take place after program is complete
o Training program is evaluates in terms of cost-‐
effectiveness

• Kirkpatrick’s framework of four levels of criteria
o Used to assess effectiveness of training programs and
effects of training on employees
o Level 1—rxn criterion
§ Participants’ responses to training
o Level 2—learning criteria
§ What has been learned during course of training
o Level 3—bx criteria
§ Impact of intervention on ind’s bx or performance
in workplace
o Level 4—results criteria
§ Impact of training on broader organizational goals
and objectives
o Phillips added: Level 5—return on investment
§ Calculate return on investment of intervention or
training

• Career Counseling
o Tests Used
§ Aptitude Tests
• Assess potential for learning or performance
• Special aptitude tests—assess specific abilities needed for job
o High degree of specificity
• Multiple aptitude batteries—number of tests that each measure
diff aptitude
§ Achievement Tests
• Measure how well person has mastered particular domain
§ Interest Tests

• Theories of Career Choice
o Personality variables that lead person to choose particular occupation
§ Holland’s Personality and Environmental Typology
• 6 personality types:
o Realistic
o Investigative
o Artistic
o Social
o Enterprising
o Conventional
• Occupational environment in terms of same 6 categories
• Fit btw personality type and occupational environment—
Congruence
§ Roe’s Fields and Levels Theory
• Links children’s experiences w parents to their later occupational
choice and level they achieve w/in occupation

• 3 parenting orientations:
o Overprotective
o Avoidant
o Acceptant
• Parenting orientation affects children’s needs and personality
traits, which influence occupational outcomes
o Sequence of stages person passes through in vocational development
§ Super’s Career and Life Development Theory
• Career development can be described in terms of predictable
sequence of stages and that tasks of each stage must be mastered
in order for ind to progress to next stage
• Self-‐concept—person’s abilities, interests, values, personality
traits, physicality
o Achieve job satisfaction when they are able to express
selves and develop self-‐concept through work roles
• 5 developmental stages of career development:
o Growth (birth-‐15 y/o)—begins to develop capacities,
attitudes, interests, and needs associated w voc self-‐
concept
o Exploration (15-‐24)—career choices are narrowed but not
finalized
o Establishment (25-‐44)—effort is made to establish
permanent place in chosen occupational field
o Maintenance (45-‐64)—continuation of establishment
pattern
o Decline (65+)—decline in work output and eventual
retirement
• Career maturity—extent that person has mastered tasks related
to developmental stage
o Life space—varied social roles adopted at diff points
during life span
• Life Career Rainbow—9 major roles that ind adopts during 5 diff
life stages of career development
• Archway of Career Development—depicts personal and
environmental factors that combine to determine person’s career
path
§ Tiedeman and O’Hare’s Decision Making Model
• Based on Erikson’s psychosocial theory of ego identity
• Many differentiations and reintegration’s of ind’s experience
during career development
• career-‐related correlates to each Erikson’s eight psychosocial
crisis resolutions
§ Miller-‐Tiedman and Tiedman’s Decision Making Model
• 2 kinds of reality:

o Personal reality—though, act, direction, bx that ind feels is
right for self
o Common reality—what “they” say you should do
o In order for ind to enhance development of career, must
be aware of realities
§ Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise
• How gender and prestige influence and limit career choice
• 3 y/o-‐mid-‐adolescence—expression of occupational aspirations
emerges as process of elimination or is outcome of competing
processes of circumscription and compromise
o Circumscription—progressive elimination of least
preferred options/alternatives that occurs as child
becomes increasingly aware of occ diff in gender and sex-‐
type, prestige, and then field of work
o Compromise—expansion of occ preferences in recog of
and accommodation to external constraints encountered
in implementing preferences
§ Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
(SLTCDM)
• Career transitions result from learning experiences from planned
and unplanned encounters w people, institutions and events in
each person’s particular environment
• Results in ind forming worldviews and beliefs about self that
affect occ aspirations and actions

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY—FOUNDATIONS

• Historical Background
o Taylor’s Scientific Management
§ Founder of scientific management
§ Improve work productivity by applying several simple principles:
• Use scientific methods to determine best way of doing particular
job
• Divide jobs into most elementary components
• Use piece-‐rate incentive system in which pay depends on output
as way to motivate workers
§ Fundamental assumptions about worker:
• Motivation affects performance
• Typical worker is motivated exclusively by economic incentives
• Average worker needs constant supervision
o Weber’s Bureaucracy
§ Organizational effectiveness is maximized when org adopts bureaucratic
structure that is characterized by formal rules and regulations,
impersonal treatment of employees, division of labor, hierarchical
structure, and rational, efficient approach

o Human Relations Approach
§ Worker performance is affected primarily by social factors including
attitudes towards supervisors and co-‐workers and informal work grp
norms
§ Improvement in performance resulting from increased attn became
know as Hawthorne effect
o Systems Approach
§ Org is open system that receives input from w/in and w/out
• Changes in one part of org affect all other parts
• Whole org is entity greater than sum of constituent parts
§ Assumptions:
• Workers have diverse needs
• Org vary in terms of structure, culture and other characteristics
• There is no one managerial strategy that will work for all people
and all org at al times
o Theory Z
§ Consensual decision-‐making, slow promotion, and holistic knowledge
• Combo of American and Japanese philosophies
• Ind responsibility
• Long-‐term employment and moderately specialized career path
o Total Quality Management
§ Emphasis on product quality
§ Changes in org’s structure and culture and in job characteristics
§ Structure—flattening of traditional managerial hierarchy, increased
teamwork, and reduced ratio of mangers to nonmanagers
§ Culture—increased emphasis on cooperation and fairness in treatment
of employees
§ Jobs:
• Skill variety—cross trained, constant learning and development
• Task variety—whole product or component of product and see
how work fits into bigger picture
• Autonomy, Participation, and Empowerment—high degree of
decision making authority
• Task Significance—contact and communication w external
customers
• Feedback—directly from work process

• Leadership
o Leadership Styles and Traits
§ Autocratic, Democratic vs Laissez-‐Faire Leaders
• Autocratic—make decisions alone and instruct subordinates
what to do
• Democratic—involve subordinates in decision-‐making process
• Laissez-‐Faire—allow subordinates to make decisions on their
own w little guidance or help

Productivity is highest w autocratic, especially when work is
•
routine
• More satisfied, more creative, have better relationships w leader,
more likely to cont working in absence of leader when leader is
democratic
§ Consideration vs. Initiating Structure
• Leaders high in consideration—person oriented and focus on
human relations aspects of supervision
• High in initiating structure—more task oriented and focus on
setting goals, ensuring that subordinates follow rules, and clarify
subordinate and leader roles
• Leaders can be high on both, low on both, or one high and one
low
§ Personality Traits
• Effective leadership—no single trait that distinguishes good
leaders
• Relationship btw leader traits and effectiveness is moderated by:
o Characteristics of supervisees
o Type of task
o Nature of work environment
o Leadership Theories
§ Theory X vs. Theory Y Leaders
• Theory X—most consistent with scientific management and
include beliefs that:
o Work is inherently distasteful
o Most workers lack ambition and need to be directed
o Motivation dominated by lower-‐level needs
• Theory Y—closer to human relations approach and believe that:
o Work is as natural as play
o Most workers are self-‐directed, responsible, and ambitious
o Workers require freedom and autonomy
• Theory Y more likely to lead to effective organization
§ Fiedler’s Contingency Theory (LPC)
• Leader’s effective is determined by combination of leader’s style
and characteristics if situation
• Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC)
o High LPC=describe least preferred coworker in + terms
§ Primarily relationship-‐oriented
o Low LPC=describe least preferred coworkers in – terms
§ Task and achievement oriented
• Situations favorableness—degree to which it enables leader to
control and influence subordinates
o 3 factors:
§ Relationship btw leader and subordinate
§ Structure of task

§ Leader’s ability to enforce compliance
• Low LPC—performs best in situations that are wither v favorable
or v unfavorable in terms of control
• High LPC—most effective when situation is moderately favorable
• No single leadership style is most effective in all situations
§ House’s Path-‐Goal Theory of Leadership
• Predicts that subordinates satisfaction and motivation are
maximized when they perceive that leader is helping them
achieve desired goals
• Leaders adopt styles that:
o Helps subordinates identify specific ways to achieve goals
o Removes obstacles to goals
o Rewards subordinates for accomplishing goals
• Styles:
o Instrumental (directive) leader—specific guidelines and
establish clear rules and procedures
o Supportive leader—establishing supportive relationships
w subordinates
o Participative leader—include subordinates in decision-‐
making
o Achievement-‐oriented leader—set challenging goals and
encourage higher levels of performance
• Predicts best leadership style depends on attributes of situations
§ Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
• Task and relationship orientation
• Optimal style depends on job maturity of subordinates, which is
determined by subordinate’s ability and willingness to accept
responsibility:
o Employee’s ability and willingness to accept responsibility
are both low, leader should adopt TELLING style
§ High task orientation and low relationship
orientation
o Employee has low ability but high willingness to accept
responsibility, leader should adopt SELLING style
§ High task, high relationship
o Employee has high ability but low willingness, leader
should adopt PARTICIPATING style
§ Low task, high relationship
o Employee’s ability and willingness to accept responsibility
are both high, leader should adopt DELEGATING style
§ Low task, low relationship
§ Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership
• Transformational—interrelated components of idealized or
charisma influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized considered

o Change-‐focused
o Influence and motivate subordinates by activating
subordinate’s higher order needs, appealing to higher
ideals and values, encouraging sacrifice self-‐interest for
sake of org, and clarifying what is needed to accomplish
change
• Transactional—stability than change and leadership is contingent
on reinforcement
o Subordinates are motivated by leader’s use of rewards,
promises, threats
§ Vroom and Yetton’s Normative (Decision-‐Making) Model
• Contingency model that describes 5 leadership styles that are
distinguished by extent to which leader includes grp members in
decision making process
o Al (autocratic) leaders—do not consult subordinates and
male decisions n own
o All (autocratic) leaders—obtain inform from subordinates
but make final decision on own
o Cl (consultative) leaders—discuss prob w each
subordinate individually and make final decision on own
o Cll (consultative) leaders—discuss prob w subordinate as
grp and make final decision on own
o Gll (grp decision) leaders—discuss prob w subordinate as
grp and make final decision as grp
• Best style depends on attributes of situation
o Quality of decision
o Importance of acceptance of decision by subordinates
o Time needed to make decision
• Decision tree—indicates optimal leader style based on leader’s
answers to series of questions that address situations attributes
§ Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
• Leadership as process that is centered on interactions btw
leaders and members, w dyadic relationship btw them being focal
point
• Not all members of org achieve same quality of relationship w
leaders and explains how relationships w various members can
develop
• Members fall into either “in-‐grp” or “out-‐grp” and nature of
relationship btw leader and member is determining factor as to
which grp member belongs
o Out-‐grp—lower quality, w both parties only completing
formal role obligations
o In-‐grp—more decision making influence, access to
resources and responsibilities and receive more leader
support, trust, and initiative beyond obligations at work

• Organizational Developemnt and Change
o Organizational Development (OD)
§ Phases of Organizational Change
• Process involves 7 distinct phases
o Entry—identification of need for some org change
§ Consultant must determine general nature of prob
o Contracting—specifies terms and conditions of
participation
o Diagnosis—consultant assesses probs and collects data,
often through use of standardized questionnaires and
interviews
o Feedback—org is helped to understand diagnostic info
obtained so that it can begin to address prob
o Planning—consultant and decision-‐makers work to
develop corrective-‐action plan
o Intervention—action plan implemented
o Evaluation—progress of intervention assessed
§ Techniques classified as OD interventions:
• Systems approach that focuses on entire org
• Involvement of everyone in company
• Commitment and support of top management
• View of change as long-‐term, planned activity
• Use of internal/external change agent who initiates change
o Quality of Work Life Interventions (QWL)
§ Org effectiveness increases as worker satisfaction, motivation, and
commitment increase
§ QWL involves job restructuring, or redesigning jobs so that they are
more interesting and challenging and provide workers w greater
participation in decision-‐making
§ Quality of Circles (QC)—small grps of workers from same dept who meet
regularly to discuss how work can be improved
• Voluntary
• Decisions reached are not binding on company
• May increase productivity, satisfaction, and commitment as well
as overall effectiveness
o Effects often temporary
o Organizational Surveys
§ Assess employee attitudes and opinions about various aspects of work
§ Gauge rxns to new programs or recent decisions
§ Anonymous
§ Results are provided to employees
§ Positive results
§ Help solve prob and give employees greater sense of influence in org
o Process Consultation

Efforts to help team members understand and alter processes that are
§
undermining their interactions
§ Observe workers interact
§ Share their obs and make suggestions for future improvement
o Organizational Change Strategies
§ Strategies for overcoming resistance to planned change in org:
• Empirical-‐Rational—based on assumption that people are
basically rational
o If they have all relevant info about situation, will act in
accord w self-‐interest
• Normative-‐Reeducative—based on assumption that social norms
underlie patterns of bx in org
o Focus on changing attitudes, values, relationships in order
to bring about change and acceptance of change
• Power-‐Coercive—using rewards, punishment, legitimate
authority to coerce employees to comply w change
o Resistance to Change
§ When workers are allowed to participate fully in decisions concerning
change, they will enthusiastically support it

• Organizational Bx
o Communication Networks
§ Types:
• Centralized—all comm. Must pass through 1 person or 1 position
• Decentralized—info flows more freely btw inds
§ Centralized more efficient when tasks are simple and mundane
§ Decentralized work best when jobs are complex and when cooperation
is necessary for task
• More ind satisfaction
o Ind Decision-‐Making
§ Rational-‐Economic Model—find optimal solution
• Search for all possible solutions and weigh alternatives until they
make decision that results in greatest benefit for org
• Maximizing
• Not practical to implement in orgs, where lack of info and/or time
prevents decision-‐makers from considering all alternatives
§ Administrative Model—evaluating solutions as they become available
and selecting first solution that is minimally acceptable
• Satisficing
o Driver’s Decision Making Styles
§ Determine ind style:
• Amount of info considered—ANALYSIS OF SITUATION
• Focus on # of alternative decisions identified—SOLUTION
FORMATION

Those that are fast-‐acting and rely upon minimal amount of info
§
necessary to choose one/more good enough solutions—SATISFICERS
§ Those who are slow to act and use all time and resources to consider all
relevant info before making decision—MAXIMIZERS
§ Unifocus—use info to produce only 1 course of action
§ Mutifocus—info to develop many alternatives
§ 5 Decision-‐Making Styles:
• Decisive—Satisficing and uni-‐focused
o Speed and efficiency
o Inflexible and short-‐sighted
• Flexible—satisficing and multi-‐focused
o Moves fast, but willing to drop 1 tactic in favor of another
• Hierarchic—maximizing and uni-‐focused
o Use lot of info to identify best solution and then work to
develop detailed/specific plan of action
o Rigid and over-‐controlling
• Integrative—maximizing and multi-‐focused
o A lot of info and then they develop variety of alternatives
• Systematic—more complex style that combines hierarchic and
integrative
o Relies upon analysis of maximum info but at times is uni-‐
focused and other times multi-‐focused
§ Decisive and flexible=things done quickly and when issues to be
considered are relatively simple
§ Hierarchic, Integrative, Systematic=prob complex and consequences are
long-‐term and costly
o Prospect Theory
§ Loss Aversion—tendency to be influenced more by potential losses than
potential gains when making decision
o Organizational Justice
§ Degree to which employees are fairly treated
§ Distributive Justice—perceived fairness of outcomes, such as hiring,
performance appraisals, raise requests, layoff
§ Procedural Justice—perceived fairness of process or procedure by which
outcomes are allocated
§ Interactional Justice—perceptions of interpersonal exchange btw ind
and supervisor/3rd party
• Informational Justice—amount of info or appropriateness of
explanations provided about why procedures were used or
outcomes were distributed in certain way
• Interpersonal Justice—how ind is treated by supervisor/3rd party
involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes
§ Procedural=best predictor of work performance and counterproductive
work bx


o Organizational Culture
§ Shared assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs of org members
taught to new members through formal statements and informal bx
§ 3 levels:
• Bx and observable artifacts—most visible and consists of
outward manifestations
o Bx and artifacts tell what grp is doing, not why
• Values—preferences for certain bx or outcomes
• Underlying Assumptions—grow out of values, until they become
taken for granted, out of awareness and unconscious
o Gender Issues
§ Physical Appearance—may work to women’s disadvantage
• Less attractive=more suitable by male executives
• Physically attractive males=more suitable
§ Leadership Style—do not differ markedly
§ Gender Wage Inequality—women earn 60 cents for every $1 by males
• Comparable Worth—men/women should get equal pay for
performing jobs that have equivalent worth

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH—MOTIVATION, SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT

• Motivation—sum of forces that produce, direct and maintain effort expended in
particular bx
• Work performance=motivation and ability
o Ability is more important than motivation in explaining diff in job performance

• Need Theories of Work Motivation
o People are willing to exert effort when effort will lead to fulfillment of certain
deficiencies or needs
o Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
§ 5 basic needs—hierarchy
• Physiological needs
• Safety needs
• Social needs
• Esteem needs
• Self-‐actualization needs
§ Workers will exert effort to meet lowest unsatisfied needs
§ Does not have much empirical support
o Alderfer’s ERG Theory
§ Similar to Maslow
§ 3 needs
• Existence
• Relatedness
• Growth

§ Does not predict needs arise in hierarchy
o McClelland’s Need for Achievement
§ Responses to TAT
§ Need for Achievement
• High need=autonomy and personal responsibility
o Moderately difficult goals
o Seek recognition for efforts
o Highly motivated to put effort into work
o Tend to stay on job longer
o Perform better
• Strongly related to entrepreneurial success
§ High need for power—control over others, visibility, prestige, status, and
recognition
§ High need for affiliation—good interpersonal relationships
• Sensitive to criticism
• Prefer to avoid conflict
o Herzberg’s Two-‐Factor Theory
§ Theory of both motivation and satisfaction
§ Satisfaction and dissatisfaction represent 2 separate states and that each
is affected by diff factors
• Hygiene factors fulfill Maslow’s lower-‐order needs
• When hygiene factors are absent, worker is dissatisfied
§ Motivator factors fulfill Maslow’s higher order needs
• When motivator factors are adequate, worker is satisfied and
motivated
• Absence does not cause dissatisfaction
§ To increase satisfaction and motivation, job must provide motivator
factors
§ Job enrichment is best known application
• Redesigning job so that worker has more challenge
§ Has not been entirely supported by research
o Job Characteristics Model
§ 5 characteristics influence internal work motivation, satisfaction, work
quality, and absenteeism/turnover
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Feedback
§ Job Diagnostic Survey and Job Characteristic Inventory
• When jobs redesigned, improve motivation, satisfaction,
absenteeism and turnover
o Work quality less affected

• Cognitive Theories of Motivation

o Motivation=complex decision-‐making process that involves weighing
alternatives, costs and benefits and likelihood of achieving desired outcomes
o Goal-‐Setting-‐Theory—Locke
§ Goals serve 2 purposes:
• Basis of motivation
• Direct bx
§ Most important contribution to worker’s willingness to work—
conscious acceptance of and commitment to goals
• Goal attainment is maximized when goals are specific and
moderately difficult
• Frequent feedback
• Worker participation in goal-‐setting
§ Management by Objective (MBO)—goal-‐setting theory
• Having employee and superior agree to specific, measurable goals
that employee will accomplish during specific time period
§ Evaluation of theory:
• Combining goal setting w feedback=positive effect
• Ind differences in effects of goal setting
• Employees work harder when they participate in goal-‐setting
• Difficult ind goals produce poorer performance than grp goals or
no goals
o Equity Theory
§ People assess both inputs and outcomes
§ Compare input/output ratio to that of others
• If ratios comparable=state of equity and maintain current level
• Input/output ratio is less/greater=state of inequity and employee
motivate to try to create equity
§ State of underpayment=greater impact than overpayment
§ Outcome justice—fairness of outcomes
§ Procedural justice—fairness of procedures used to determine outcomes
o Expectancy Theory
§ Motivation is function of 3 variables:
• Belief that effort will lead to successful performance
• Belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes
• Desirability of outcomes

• Reinforcement Theories of Motivation
o Applies principles of operant conditioning to work motivation:
§ People keep doing things that have rewarding outcomes
§ People avoid doing things that have neg outcomes
§ People eventually stop doing things that don’t have rewarding outcomes
o Most reinforcement models focus on extrinsic rewards except Deci’s model of
intrinsic motivation

§ Intrinsic reinforcement more important to motivation and that extrinsic
reinforcement tends to reduce motivation of those who obtain intrinsic
rewards from work
o Incentive Theory
§ Organizational settings—incentives which motivate employees to be
most productive (extrinsic rewards)

• Job Satisfaction
o Effects of Personal Characteristics
§ Age is sign and + correlated w satisfaction
• Older=higher
§ Level in org hierarchy is correlated w satisfaction
§ Non-‐whites are more likely to express dissatisfaction that whites
o Effects of Job Characteristics
§ Impact of pay on satisfaction=not entirely clear
• Relationship w pay is complex, but positively correlated
• Increased satisfaction may be due to other rewards that high-‐paid
workers obtain
• Perceptions that own pay is fair may be more important
o Pay is related to level of performance
o Comparable worth
o Consequences of Satisfaction
§ Satisfaction is moderately and – related to absenteeism and turnover
• Highest correlation is satisfaction and turnover
§ Satisfaction and performance—positive but weak correlation
• When pay tied to performance=+ correlation
• Pay not connected= -‐ correlation
§ Satisfaction connected w physical and mental health

• Organizational Commitment
o Extend to which person identifies w org and is willing to work to help org
achieve its goals
o Greatest when job provides opportunities for personal growth and
responsibility
o Moderate to strong – correlation w absenteeism and turnover
o May increase resistance to change

HUMAN FACTORS/ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

• Fit btw workers and work procedures, environment, and equipment

• Person-‐Matching Systems
o Both components must work together

• Work Schedules

o Compressed Work Week—increases # of hrs worked per day and decreased #
days worked in given period
§ Research is mixed
• Positive effects—supervisor ratings of employee performance,
employee overall job satisfaction, employee satisfaction w work
sched
• Not strong impact on objective measures of job performance or
absenteeism
o Flextime—allows employees to determine own daily sched as long as they work
total # hrs and are present at work during certain core hrs
§ Increased job satisfaction, satisfaction w sched, productivity, decreased
absenteeism
o Shift Work—labor force
§ Less productive on night shift than day
• Prone to make more errors and have more serious accidents
§ Rotating shift—lower productivity, higher accident rate, and physical
and mental health prob

• Fatigue, Stress and Burnout
o Fatigue
§ Subjective feeling of tiredness that affects both physiological and mental
processes
§ Performance decrement
§ Rest breaks
o Stress
§ Increased in past 2 decades
§ Type A personality
§ Police, fire fighters, computer programmers, dental assistant, electrician,
plumber, social worker, telephone operator, hairdresser, psychologist
o Burnout
§ Potential response to chronic stress
§ Physical and emotional exhaustion, sense of reduced personal
accomplishment, tendency to think in impersonal terms
§ Higher among women, single and divorced, people who have little
opportunity for promotion, professionals who deal frequently w people

• Safety and Accidents
o Accident prone personality—pessimism, low level of trust in others, generally
depressed temperament
o Training is single most effective way to improve safe work bx
o Safe procedures:
§ Programs organized around positive theme more likely to be effective
than score tactics
§ Safety posters alone are not effective

• Most likely to have impact when they are specific
Management commitment to safety programs is key contributor to their
§
success
§ Incentives for accident reduction

• Work Environment
o Noise—long-‐term exposure has adverse effects on productivity
§ Intermittent noise is more distracting than constant
§ Irrelevant more than related to task
§ Meaningful more than non-‐meaningful
o Music—slight positive effect on productivity is work is repetitive, simple and
mundane
§ Complex tasks—no consistent positive effects


COGNITIVE-‐AFFECTIVE BASES OF BEHAVIOR

LEARNING THEORY AND BEHAVIOR THERAPY

• Definition of Learning
o Relatively permanent change in potential performance/bx as result of
experience
o Excludes changes resulting from maturation, disease, physical injury, fatigue,
adaptation, or influence of drugs

• Early Theorists and Research
o Thorndike
§ Beginning of animal experimentation
• Animal Intelligence
§ Learning bx of cats using prob or puzzle boxes
• Boxes allowed animals to obtain reward or to escape from box by
performing simple act
§ Trial-‐and-‐error Learning
§ Approximates Darwin’s notion of adaptive selection

o Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
§ Law of Effect
• Responses that are accompanied/followed by pleasant
consequences will be more likely to be repeated in future, while
responses accompanied/closely followed by discomfort will be
less likely to be repeated
§ Law of Exercise
• Response that is repeated often enough in presence of particular
stimulus will become more closely bonded to that stimulus and
will more likely be repeated in presence of stimulus
o Stimulus-‐response associations are strengthened through
repetition
§ Law of Readiness
• Behaving organism must be ready to perform act before
performing it could be satisfying
§ Minor Law:
• Law of Spread of Effect
o When act has satisfying consequences, this pleasure
becomes associated w other acts that occur at
approximately same time

o Transfer of Training
§ Doctrine of Formal Discipline—practice or formal studying strengthens
intellectual functions

Transfer of training is not due to development of intellectual or memory
§
faculties rather it is caused by similarity of concepts and techniques
• Transfer was specific rather than general
§ Theory of Identical Elements—transfer increases as similarity of
stimulus and response elements in training and performance
environments increases
• New learning is facilitated by previous learning only to extent
that new learning contains elements identical to those in previous
or amount of transfer is determined by number of elements that 2
situations have in common
• Identical elements improve transfer of training for both verbal
and motor tasks and that psychological similarity has been shown
to be more important for transfer than physical similarity

o Watson
§ Behaviorism
§ Psychologists should focus on only observable, measurable bx
§ Individuals are born w certain number of reflexes and that all learning is
due to result of classical conditioning involving those reflexes
• Differences in experience alone can account for differences in bx
§ Radical behaviorism—thought as nothing more than “covert speech”
involving tiny movts of larynx and believed that emotions are result of
glandular activity
• Little Albert

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Paradigm
o Classical Conditioning—response that is customarily elicited by given stimulus
will also be elicited by substitute is substitute is presented just prior to original
§ Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
§ Unconditioned Response (UR)
§ Conditioned Response (CR)
§ Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

CSàUSàUR after repetition…CSàCR

• Types of Conditioning
o Effectiveness of CC is affected by temporal relationship btw CS and US
o Types
§ Stimulus Conditioning—CS and US are presented at same time
§ Delayed Conditioning—CS precedes but overlaps US
§ Trace Conditioning—CS presented and terminated prior to US
§ Backward Conditioning—US preceded CS
• Probably no conditioning under this circumstance

o Generally CR is strongest and most rapidly acquired when DELAYED procedure
is uses and least w BACKWARD

• Extinction
o If CS is repeatedly presented outside presence of US, after some trials, CR will
diminish
o Some reinforcement is needed to maintain conditioning

• Spontaneous Recovery
o When organism no longer responds to CS, it might appear that effects of
conditioning have been wiped out
o After period of time, response will reappear if CS is readministered
o Extinguished response is not forgotten but rather inhibited/suppressed
o Overshadowing—more salient CS is more strongly conditioned than less salient
CS and sometimes occurs in situation where 2 simultaneous CSs of different
salience are paired w an US
§ Cue Deflation Effect—when extinction of response to more salient, or
overshadowing, CS leads to increased CR to less salient CS

• Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
o Stimulus Generalization—Learning can generalize to similar stimuli
§ Little Albert
§ Mediated Stimulus Generalization—stimulus serves as mediator, or
connecting link, btw 2 stimuli that themselves are never paired
o Stimulus Discrimination—org can be conditioned to discriminate btw diff
stimuli
§ If one reinforced more than other, only reinforced stimulus will evoke
CR

• Experimental Neurosis
o If discrimination task is too difficult and stimuli cannot be differentiated readily
enough, evoked response is confusion

• Higher Order Conditioning
o Once conditioning is well-‐established, CS can become US for another stimulus
o Pavlov could not get third order conditioning
o Sensory Preconditioning—2 CSs are paired during preconditioning sessions

• Blocking
o One CS blocks/inhibits learning of second CS
o Even after many trials, where 1st CS and 2nd CS are paired w US, 2nd CS does not
elicit CR
§ 1st CS has blocked association btw 2nd CS and US
o Backward Blocking—CR to 2nd CS is reduced

2 CSs are simultaneously paired w US and then only one CS continues to
§
be paired w US
§ Finally when other CS is tested, its associative strength is reduced
leading to weakening of conditioning to other CS

• Pseudoconditioning
o Experimental conditions themselves become CS
o True for conditioning of fear responses
o Change in bx is not conditioned to bell, but rather response is an artifact of
learning situation itself

THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES BASED ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Techniques Based on Counterconditioning
o Counterconditioning—pairing undesirable bx w incompatible bx so that
undesirable bx is eliminated
o Systematic Desensitization— Encouraging ind to imagine feared obj/situation
while engaged in response that is incompatible w anx
§ Developed by Joseph Wolpe
§ Progressive Relaxation
§ Wolpe’s procedure:
• Relaxation training
• Establishing hierarchy of least to most anx-‐provoking stimuli
• Desensitizing pt to these stimuli by having imagine each while in
relaxed state, preceding from least to more frightening ones
• After desensitized through imagination, begin confronting anx-‐
arousing stimuli in-‐vivo
§ Wolpe referred to his tx as RECIPROCAL INHIBITION—anx is inhibited
by response that is the reciprocal of anx
• Interchangeable w counterconditioning
• Underlying physiological mechanism is involved in process
o Dominance of parasympathetic NS activity over
sympathetic
§ Effective w phobias, stuttering, sexual dysfunction and insomnia
o Other uses for counterconditioning
§ Assertiveness training—assertive bxs are incompatible w anx
§ Bx rehearsal
§ Sensate focus—reduce anx aroused by sexual situations

• Techniques Based on Classical Extinction
o Many maladaptive responses have origin in US-‐CS pairings
§ Anx/fear developed through classical conditioning
o Classical extinction involves repeatedly presenting CS w/o US until CS no longer
elicits CR

o Two major techniques:
§ Flooding—exposing to feared stimulus while preventing from engaging
in usual avoidance response
• Deliberate exposure w response prevention
o Pairing of experience w relaxation is not necessary
o Imagination or in vivo
• Problem: paradoxical effect of increasing fear
o Incubation effect or paradoxical enhancement effect
o Deal w this by gradually expose to aspects of feared
stimulus—Graded Exposure or Graduated Extinction
• Research:
o In vivo is more effective than imaginal
o Prolonged exposure is more effective than brief
o In vivo or graded exposure is particularly effective in tx of
Agoraphobia and OCD
• Exposure procedures also include exposure to physical
sensations associated w panic attacks
o Interoceptive exposure—exposure to panic-‐like physical
sensations such as hyperventilation, shaking head, and
body tension
§ Implosive Therapy—imaginal exposure to stimulus
• Involved psychoanalytic as well as bx component
o Psychodynamic themes which are thought to underlie
phobia are incorporated into imagery
o Flooding—no attempt to incorporate psychodynamic
themes
o Research: psychodynamic component not necessary

• Techniques Based on Aversive Conditioning
o Aversive Conditioning—noxious stimulus is paired w bx targeted for
elimination
§ Eventually avoidance response elicited by noxious stimulus will be
elicited by targeted bx
§ Noxious stimulus=US, targeted stimulus=CS
o In-‐vivo Aversive Conditioning
§ Research: works best if…
• Program is part of natural environment
• Biologically appropriate aversive stimulus is used, preferably in
same modality as target bx
• Ct encouraged to take self-‐control of situation
• Aversion conditioning is combined w positive reinforcement of
adaptive response
o Covert Sensitization
§ Counterconditioning in imagination to reduce/eliminate undesirable bx

Research: more effective in treating paraphilias than in treating obesity
§
and addictive bx, and is most successful when supplemented w actual
aversive stimuli

OPERANT CONDITIONING

• Operant Conditioning
o B.F. Skinner
o Operant=response that is voluntarily emitted and learned as result of
environmental consequences that follow it
o Differ from respondant bx:
§ Operant—voluntarily emitted, vs respondant—automatically elicited by
stimuli
§ Operant—occur as result of environmental consequences that follow
them, vs. respondant—occur as result of pairings btw US and CS

• Reinforcement and Punishment
o Reinforcer=event that increases bx
o Punishment=event that decreased bx
o Positive=stimulus applied
o Negative=stimulus removed
o Operant strength can be measured in 2 ways:
§ By rate of responding during acquisition
§ By total number of responses before extinction trials

• Operant Extinction
o w/drawal of reinforcement from previously reinforced bx so that bx is
decreased/eliminated
o Underlies one bx explanation of depression
§ When formerly successful bx fails to produce expected reinforcers, will
cease to respond even if conditions and bx could again be successful
o Reformulated Learned Helplessness
§ Depressed people blame selves for bad outcomes, which reduced self-‐
esteem and consider their internal attributions to be both global and
stable
o Lewinsohn’s Behavioral Model
§ Depression is associated w low rate of response-‐contingent positive
reinforcement
• Low rate of social and other bx, basically extinguishing contingent
bx
o Response Burst
§ Removal of reinforcer does not result in immediate decrease of bx
§ Temporary increase in bx
o Behavioral Contrast
§ 2 bx have been reinforced separately and then 1 bx is extinguished

§ Other bx increases frequency
o Spontaneous Recovery
§ Responsiveness increases w/o any reinforcement trials

• Primary vs Secondary Reinforcement
o Primary—inherently valuable
§ Does not acquire reinforcing value through prior experience
o Secondary—reinforcing value only through repeated pairings w primary
reinforcers
§ If paired w many types of primary reinforcers, acquire power unrelated
to any individual primary reinforcer—Generalized Secondary Reinforcer
• Ex. Money

• Schedules of Reinforcement
o Continuous—if every response is reinforced
§ Fast learning, fast satiation, and fast extinction
o Intermittent/Partial—greater response to extinction
§ Thinning=switching from continuous to intermittent
§ Four Types:
• Fixed Ratio—occurs after fixed # of responses
• Fixed Interval—occurs after fixed period of time regardless of #
of responses
o Scallop Effect—responding very slow/nonexistent
immediately following reinforcement then gradually
increases and very rapid just before another
reinforcement is due
o Produces lowest rate of responding and lowest resistance
to extinction
• Variable Ratio—occurs after variable # of responses
o Relationship btw bx and reinforcement is unpredictable
o High and constant rate of responding and most resistant to
extinction
• Variable Interval—after unpredictable amount of time
o Matching Law—when subjects are provided w 2/+ simultaneously available
opportunities for reinforcement, rate of responding will be proportional to
relative rate of reinforcement

• Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
o Escape Conditioning—some action that allows to escape from aversive stimulus
§ Escape bx increases due to removal of stimulus
o Avoidance Conditioning
§ 2 Factor theory of learning from aversive consequences:
• Factor 1—various bx, situations, obj are persistently avoided due
to classical conditioning

• Factor 2—avoidance responses are negatively reinforced by
termination of fear/anx each time bx, situations, obj are avoided
§ Bx learned through avoidance conditioning are v resistant to extinction
§ Phobias

• Discrimination and Generalization
o Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization
§ Stimulus Discrimination—gives certain bx in presence of one stimulus
but not another
§ Stimulus Generalization—learned to respond in particular way to one
discriminative stimulus and then responds in same way to diff but
similar stimulus
o Discriminative and S-‐Delta Stimuli
§ Discriminative Stimulus—Bx will be reinforced only in presence of
particular stimulus
§ S-‐Delta Stimulus—stimulus can serve as environmental cue that
particular bx will NOT be reinforced
o Chaining
§ Series of related and simple bx are tied together to form more complex
bx
§ Each response acts as both secondary response as well as discriminative
stimulus for next response in chain
§ Backward chaining—training begins w last bx in to-‐be-‐learned sequence
of bx and then works backward from there
o Response Generalization and Shaping
§ Response Generalization—when reinforcement increases occurrence of
1 response, it may also increase occurrence of similar responses
§ Shaping—reinforced for emitting responses that gradually approach bx
that is desired
• Method of successive Approximation—reinforcing closer and
closer approximations of desired bx
• Resembles chaining in that both involve series of responses
o Outcome of chaining is complex series of bx
§ Each link must be maintained in order for complex
bx to occur
o Outcome of shaping is only 1 simple bx
§ Once learns final bx, successive approximations are
no longer necessary and no longer reinforced

• Superstitious Learning (Adventitious Reinforcement)
o Responses reinforced adventitiously or accidentally by coincidental pairing of
response and reinforcement

• Factors that Influence Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Punishment

o Positive reinforcement is most successful if reinforcer is available only after
target bx has been performed
o Shorter interval btw bx and reinforcement, more effective is reinforcement
o Acquisition of new bx is most effective is bx is reinforced on continuous
reinforcement schedule
§ Maintenance of bx is maximized when intermittent
o Verbal clarification of relationship btw bx and delivery of reinforcement
increases effectiveness of reinforcement, as do verbal/physical prompts
o Greater magnitude of reinforcer, greater effectiveness
§ Past certain point, satiation can occur (loses value)

• Punishment
o Works best if it is extreme and continual
o Sooner punishment is delivered, more effective
o Most effective if consistently applied
o Most effective when there is verbal clarification about relationship btw
punishment and bx
§ Warning cue increases effectiveness
o Reinforcers for target bx should be withheld when bx is punished
o Ineffective if it is progressively increased in magnitude
§ Instead, administered at maximum intensity from outset
§ Habituation—decrease in responsiveness to constant stimulus, thereby
requiring larger stimulus in order to achieve previous level of
responsiveness
o Once punishment is removed, bx tended to return to baseline
§ At first, it will reach higher level than baseline

THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES BASED ON OPERANT CONDITIONING

• Techniques based on Reinforcement
o Shaping
§ Lovaas—Autism
o Premack Principle—probability-‐differential theory, using high probability bx to
reinforce low probability bx
§ “first you work, then you play”

• Techniques based on Punishment and Extinction
o Time-‐Out
§ Form of extinction, but can be considered punishment as well
o Overcorrection
§ Both correction of neg bx and repeated and exaggerated practice of
alternative appropriate bx
o Response-‐Cost

§ Neg punishment
§ One of the more effective tech of punishment
o Differential Reinforcement for Other Bx (DRO)
§ Combination of operant extinction and pos reinforcement
§ Non-‐reinforcement (extinction) of target bx and reinforcement of all
other bx except target bx
§ Differential Reinforcement for Incompatible Bx (DRI)—reinforcement
occurs only following bx that are compatible w target bx
§ Differential Reinforcement for Low-‐Frequency Responding (DRL)

• Token Economy and Contingency Contracts
o Contingency Contracting—establishing formal written contract btw tx and ct
§ Specifies target bx and reinforcers and/or punishers that will be made
contingent upon them
• Quid Pro Quo Contracts—requires bx change by more than 1
party
§ Delinquency, marital prob, academic prob, addictive bx
§ Effective:
• Contract is informative about both tx strategies and expected
outcomes
• Contract explicitly defines rewards for meeting goals and
sanctions for failing to meet terms
• Bx included are capable of being monitored
• Elicits statements from ct that s/he will participate fully in tx
program
o Token Economy
§ Less susceptible to satiation than primary reinforcers
§ Disadvantages:
• Bx established within them do not generalize to other
environments
o Ways to reduce prob:
§ Gradually switch to reinforcers that will be
available in natural environment
§ Reinforce only bx that will continue to be
reinforced in natural environment

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

• Gestalt Learning Theory
o Sudden novel solution—insight learning
o Cog restructuring of environment
o Process enables to achieve goal
o Trial-‐and-‐error experience—necessary prerequisite
o Actively reorganize perceptions on basis of “Gestalt Law”

§ Incomplete experience will lead to distortions of memory in order to
experience stimuli as completed and if that doesn’t happen, to a
motivation to complete learning, which results in better memory for
incomplete tasks than for complete tasks

• Tolman’s Cognitive Learning Theory
o Learning was not result of conditioning alone
§ Cog understanding was also necessary
§ Learning was acquisition of cognitive structure or cognitive map
o Place learning—learns location of paths or places rather than movement
responses in response to stimuli
o Latent Learning—occurs w/o reinforcement and does not immediately
manifest itself in performance

• Social Learning Theory
o Cognitive meditational processes—influence of stimuli and reinforcement on bx
is largely determined by cog processes, which govern what environmental
influences are attended to and how they are perceived and interpreted
o Observational Learning—one watches model perform bx and then imitates
§ Person imitates bx because imitation has been reinforced in past
§ External reinforcement is not necessary for observational learning per
Bandura
§ Most higher learning was result of modeling per Bandura
• Attentional mechanisms
• Retentional mechanisms
• Performance mechanisms
• Reinforcement mechanisms
§ Bx can be reinforcing in itself
• Graded participant modeling—slowly engages in modeled bx
o More effective than simple modeling
§ High status models more likely to be imitated than low
• More likely to occur when model perceived as similar to ct and
when multiple models are used

• Harlow: Curiosity and Learning Sets
o Nature of task can be rewarding enough
o Unlearned reinforcers may have to be expanded to include needs to explore and
manipulate
§ Experience when certain types of prob enables to solve similar kinds of
prob more efficiently—Learning how to Learn

MISC ISSUES IN LEARNING AND BX THEORY

• Drive Reduction Theory
o Clark Hull

§Drive level as motivation for learning
§Probability of bx occurring depends on strength of learning habi and
motivation or level of drive
o Miller and Dollard
§ Learning of aggressive responses
§ Frustration and Aggression
• Prior to any manifestation of hostility, there was always some
frustration
• Aggression is expressed directly or learns that direct expression
is socially unwise and displaces it
§ Psychopathic symptoms are learned bx
• If drive is induced, its reduction will serve as reward
• Any bx reduces fear drive becomes more likely to recur when fear
is present again
• Learns responses in order to reduce drive—coping responses
• Psychopathic symptoms allow escape from original fear and
serve to reinforce symptoms bx
• Two categories of drives (gradients):
o Those that lead to approach a situation (goal)
o Those that lead to avoid goal
• Some goals elicit both drives—approach-‐avoidance conflicts
• Avoidance gradient is stronger than approach gradient

• Biological Factors of Learning
o Preparedness Dimension
§ Bx can be divided into 4 levels of susceptibility to genetic
influence/variables
• Complete—instinct or imprinting
• Somewhat facilitated
• Minimally influenced
• Contraprepared or difficult because of genetic factors
o Conditioning Through Self-‐Stimulation
§ Medial forebrain bundle in lateral hypothalamus was most effective area
in evoking bx
§ Reward centers closely parallel maps of distribution of norepinephrine
tracts
• Synaptic release of NE is associated w feelings of well-‐being,
elation and euphoria

• Yerkes-‐Dodson Law
o Optimal level of arousal for learning and performance of any task
§ Higher levels of arousal are most appropriate for relatively simple tasks,
while lower levels of arousal optimize performance of relatively complex
tasks

o Regardless of task difficulty, relationship btw arousal and performance rake
shape of inverted U

• Behavioral Assessment
o Pure bx orientation, personality is equivalent to sum total of individual’s bx in
social environment
§ Person doesn’t have personality
• Rather, has bx repertoire, which is modified w/in given range,
depending on environmental contingencies
o ABC model (antecedents, bx, consequences)
§ Situational analysis
§ Response enumeration phase
§ Response evaluation
§ Referred to as functional analysis—identify functional relationships btw
antecedent, bx and consequences

• Memory and Cognition
o Memory
§ Savings method—method of relearning
• Measure of speed of relearning list
• Overlearning resulted in savings of both time and errors upon
relearning
§ Nature of forgetting
• Initial drop-‐off followed by slower forgetting over time
o Multi-‐Store model
§ 3 levels
• Sensory mem
• STM
• LTM
§ Brief storage of sensory info, after stimuli have been removed
• No more than 2-‐3 sec
• Auditory info=echoic store
• Visual info=iconic store
§ Transferred to STM when it becomes focus of attn
• Limited amount of info for brief period of time
• 7 +/-‐ 2 as amt of info retained w rehearsal
• Chunking can greatly increase
• “Working memory”—prefrontal cortex and cingulated cortex
o Articulatory loop—process of rapid verbal repetition of to-‐
be-‐remembered info to facilitate maintaining it in WM
§ LTM
• Unlimited capacity
• Elaborative rehearsal—thinking about meaning of new info and
its relation to info already in mem
• 3 components:

o Procedural mem—acquired through observation and
practice and are difficult to forget
o Semantic mem—knowledge about language
o Episodic mem—info about events that have been
personally experienced
• Explicit vs implicit
o Explicit—retrieved w awareness of remembering and can
be revealed by direct testing of mem
§ Declarative mem
o Implicit—retrieved w/o conscious effort or even
awareness
§ Skills and conditioned responses
o Implicit=procedural, explicit=semantic and episodic
o Serial Position Effect
§ Recall words from beginning and end of list best
§ Beginning=LTM, end=STM
o Flashbulb Memory
§ Vivid, detailed mem of emotionally-‐charged or surprising events
§ Events that involve specific people/things that occurred at specific time
§ Most accurate when event has personal significance or consequences
§ Fade over time
o Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
§ Anterograde—recall info they learned prior to trauma but not new info
• Cannot transfer info from STM to LTM
§ Retrograde—failure to remember events prior to trauma
§ Neurologically impaired ct who have retrograde usually also have
antergrade, but reverse is not always true
• Pseudodementia=retrograde but not anterograde
• Dissociative Amnesia—lack of physiological etiology of cog
symptoms
o Schema Theory of Memory
§ Schemas affect how we store and retrieve info
§ Memory is filtered through our schema
o Mnemonic Devices
§ Method of loci—associating each item to be remembered w mental
images of “places”
§ Eidetic imagery—ability to maintain mental pic of obj even after it is
removed
• More common in children
o Context and State Dependence
§ Encoding specificity hypothesis—closer relationship btw encoding,
storage and retrieval, better recall of info
• Better recall when in same learning/retrieval environment than
when diff
§ Context dependence—emotional state same in learning/retrieval envir

§ State dependence—same physical state

o Overlearning
§ Best for simple tasks
o Forgetting
§ Decay—memory trace deteriorates unless accessed
§ Interference—forgotten due to competing experiences
• Retroactive inhibition—new experience interferes w earlier one
o Only results from events that occur in waking life
o When sleep follows learning of new info, better recall
• Proactive inhibition—previous learning interferes w more recent
learning
o Repression
§ Not recalled due to emotional significance
§ Active inhibition of recall accounts for forgetting
§ Dynamic and unconscious process
o Misinformation Effect
§ Incorporation of incorrect or inaccurate info
§ Constructed by combining actual mem w content of suggestions received
from other sources of info
§ Discrepancy Detection principle—susceptibility to misinfo is inversely
related to ability to notice discrepancies
• Greater susceptibility to misinfo associated w:
o Passage of time
o Retention times
o Timing of reporting/testing
o Age
• Resistance to post-‐event suggestion is greatest when ct has
strong, accurate original mem
o Attn
§ Internal cog process by which one actively selects environmental info or
actively processes info from internal sources
§ Types:
• Selective Attn—one event while filtering out/ignoring irrelevant
events
• Cock-‐tail Party Phenomena—intently focus on one conversation
and unaware of another, but when mention your name, you will
immediately get shift ur attn
• Sustained Attn—direct and focus attn on specific stimuli over
extended period
• Divided Attn—attn on more than one event simultaneously
• Change Blindness—difficulty perceiving major changes to
unattended-‐to parts of visual image when changes are introduced
during brief interruptions in presentation of image

Exogenous Attn—automatic attraction of attn due to sudden
•
appearance of stimulus
o Bottom-‐up—not under ct’s control
• Endogenous Attn—typical top-‐down, attentional effort under
control of individual
o Feature Integration Theory
§ Focused visual attn is what allows us to perceive obj as entire entity
rather than meaningless cluster of features
• Features of obj are processed rapidly and parallel and this
process does not require focused visual attn
• Perception of obj does necessitate focused visual attn bc entails
serial processing obj’s features and integration of those features
to create whole obj
o Automaticity
§ Ability to chunk so rapidly and efficiently that processes entails virtually
no attn
§ Overlearning
o Metacognition
§ Thinking about thinking
§ Develop early adolescence in conjunction w Piaget’s formal operational
stage


BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Divisions of NS
o NS=CNS (spinal cord and brain) and peripheral NS (somatic and autonomic NS)
o Peripheral NS
§ Nerves that carry info from sense organs to CNS (afferent nerves) and
nerves that carry info from CNS to muscles and glands (efferent nerves)
§ Somatic NS—controls actions of skeletal muscles
• Voluntary movt
• Responds to signals from senses
§ Autonomic NS—smooth muscles, viscera, and glands
• Involuntary
• Changes in autonomic arousal are highly correlated w changes in
emotionality
• 2 divisions:
o Sympathetic—flight or fight
o Parasympathetic—deactivates
o CNS
§ Brain—primitive core, old brain called limbic system, and new brain
• Anatomically—hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
§ Spinal Cord
• Damage can cause:
o Paresis—slight or partial paralysis
o Parasthesia—abnormal sensations
o Hyperesthesia—abnormal sensitivity to sensation
• Some communication btw CNS and peripheral NS is mediated by
SC w/o brain involvement

• Neuron
o Glial cells provide physical support, nutrients, and means of cleaning debris in
NS
o 3 main parts:
§ Cell body/soma
§ Dendrites—respond to stimulation from other neurons and carry info
towards soma
§ Axon—carry info away
• May have many branches—collaterals
o Neuronal Conduction
§ Conduction is electrochemical process by which info is received and
processed w/in neuron
§ Action potential or spike

§Speed of conduction is affected by larger diameter of axon and myelin
sheath (salutatory conduction)

• Synaptic Transmission
o Neuron sending info is referred to as presynaptic neuron
o Neuron receiving info is postsynaptic neuron
o Specific Transmitters
§ Acetylcholine
• Found in CNS, at neuromuscular junctions and at certain synapses
in autonomic NS
• Cholinergic neurons—secrete Ach
• Excitatory effect at junctions btw nerves and muscle fibers and
causes muscles to contract
o Defects: impairments in voluntary movt
• Inhibitory effect—heart and respiratory muscles
o Also associates w learning and mem, mediate sexual bx,
REM sleep and sleep-‐wake cycle
§ Catecholamines
• Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), Epinephrine (adrenaline) and
Dopamine
• Personality, mood, drive, sleep, mem
• Lack of NE and Dopamine: depression
• Excessive Dopamine and NE: schizophrenia
• Dopamine:
o Movt
o Excess: Tourette’s
§ Degeneration of neurons that secrete dopamine
cause muscular rigidity and tremors of Parkinson’s
o Reinforcing actions of stimulants, nicotine, and opiates
§ Serotonin
• Anx, mood, eating, sleep, arousal, temp regulation, aggression,
modulation of pain and migraines
• Lack: depression, OCD, PTSD, aggression
• Excess: schizophrenia, anorexia, and autism
§ GABA
• Most abundant neurotransmitter
• Inhibitory role—eating, sleep, anx, seizures
• Lack: anx, Parkinson’s
o Deficits in motor region of brain—Huntington’s
§ Glutamate
• Major excitatory neurotransmitter
• Learning, mem, long-‐term potentiation (STMàLTM)
• Overactivity: seizures, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington’s
§ Endorphins

• Inhibit pain, reduce anx in thalamus and cerebral cortex, feelings
of pleasure

BRAIN

• Hindbrain and Midbrain
o Hindbrain—brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons), cerebellum
§ Medulla Oblongata—breathing, heart rate, BP, digestion
• Damage=fatal
§ Pons—connects 2 halves of cerebellum
• Regulates states of arousal
• Trigger and maintain slow wave sleep
§ Cerebellum—balance, coordinates movts, controls posture
o Midbrain—mesencephalon
§ Substantia Nigra—extrapyramidal motor system
• Movt—smoothness, initiation, termination, directedness
§ Reticular Formation—diffuse network of interconnected neurons that
extends from SC through hindbrain to midbrain
• Sleep and arousal, sensations of pain and touch, respiration and
control of reflexes
• Reticular Activating System (RAS)—fibers from reticular
formation, thalamus, and sensory areas of brain
o Waking state, arousal, and attn

• Forebrain
o Hypothalamus, thalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex
o Hypthalamus—autonomic NS and endrocrine system via influence on pituitary
gland
§ Body’s homeostasis
§ Control of motivated bx—drinking, feeding, sex, aggression, and
maternal bx
• Translation of strong feelings (rage, fear, excitement) into
physical responses
§ Contains suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—circadian rhythms
o Thalamus—central switching station
§ Relays incoming sensory info to cortex for all senses except olfaction
§ Processes info sent btw diff cortical regions and btw cortex and
subcortical regions
§ Language, mem, motor activity
o Basal Ganglia—caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen
§ Code and relay info associated w control of voluntary movt, motoric
expression of emotion and sensorimotor learning
o Limbic System—mediate emotional component of bx

§Amygadala—integrates and directs emotional bx, attaches emotional
signficance to info it receives from senses, and mediates
defensive/aggressive bx
• Kluver-‐Bucy Syndrome—reduced fear and aggression, increased
docility, altered dietary habits, “psychic blindness” and
hypersexuality
§ Septum—inhibits emotionality
§ Hippocampus—mem, learning
• Mem consolidation

• Cerebral Cortex
o Lobes:
§ Frontal—motor bx, expressive lang, higher-‐level cog, orientation
• Primary motor—pyramidal motor system
o Control of voluntary movt
• Premotor cortex—Broca’s area
• Prefrontal cortex—personality expression, emotion, mem,
executive func
• “Frontal lobe personality”—depressive syndrome or
pseudodepression
o Apathy, lack of drive, little verbal output, inability to plan
and focus attn
• Psychopathic syndrome—pseudopsychopathy
o Sexual inhibition, coarse lang, peculiar and facetious sense
of humor, inappropriate social bx, lack of concern for
others
§ Temporal—receptive lang, mem, emotion
• Wernicke’s area—comp of lang
o Dysnomia—inability to name fam obj
o Usually unaware of prob
o Connected to Broca’s by arcuate fasciculous
§ Conduction aphasia—speaks fluently and
comprehends speech but cannot repeat what is
heard
• LTM
• Right=deju-‐vu experience
• Organic amnesia
§ Parietal—primary somatosensory cortex locates on postcentral gyrus
• Processing somatosensory input and integrating info w visual and
other sensory info
• Tactile agnosia—inability to identify obj by touch using
contrlateral hand
• Contralateral neglect—loss of knowledge about/interest in one
side of body
• Asomatognosia—inability to recognitze body parts

• Anosognosia
• Gertmann’s syndrome—dominant parietal
o Agraphia, acalculia, left-‐right disorientation and finger
agnosia
§ Occipital—visual cortex
o Lateralization of Function
§ Higher cortical functions
§ Lt=rational half
• Analytical thinking, sequencing, logical ability
• Damage: clinical depression, anx
§ Rt=artistic, musical
• Damage: apathy, indifference
o Split Brain Research
§ Rt=understanding of spatial relationships, expression of emotions, facial
recognition, creativity
§ Lt=understanding logic, analytical thinking, written and spoken lang

PHYSIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND BEHAVIOR

• Emotion
o James-‐Lange Theory
§ Emotions occur when people experience autonomic arousal in response
to environmental stimuli and then interpret arousal as emotional state
o Cannon-‐Bard Theory
§ Environmental stimuli simultaneously stimulate thalamus and cortex,
which produce sympathetic NS arousal and emotional feeling
§ Arousal accompanies emotional feeling rather than causes it
o Cognitive-‐Arousal Theory
§ Emotion as related to physiological arousal and cog attributions for that
arousal
§ Environmental cues often determine causal attributions for arousal
o Universal Emotions
§ 6 basic emotions:
• Fear
• Anger
• Joy
• Sadness
• Surprise
• Disgust
§ Certain emotions are innate, universal and form basic components of
more complex emotions

• Hunger and Feeding
o Brain Mechanism in Hunger

§ Appetite appears to involve interactive relationship btw hypothalamus,
hindbrain, and limbic system
• Hypothalamus—lateral and ventromedial areas
o Primary center for hunger and satiety
o Receives info through metabolic, neural and hormonal
signals to mediate energy intake/expenditure
• Hindbrain—receives signals from GI tract then transmits info to
hypothalamus for integration w other info
• Limbic—emotive properties of food
o Obesity
§ Overeat because inherently more sensitive to certain extral cues than to
internal physiological ones

• Sexual Bx
o Sex Hormones
§ Pituitary gland and gonads are primary source
• Pituitary—produces luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH)
o FSH causes production of sperm and release of ova
o Gonads produce androgens and estrogen in response to
LH
§ Androgens—testosterone and other androgens are
primary male sex hormones but are also found in
females
§ Estrogens—normal sexual development and
healthy functioning of repro system
• Also found in males
§ Progesterone—healthy functioning of repro system
in women and for functioning of placenta
§ Menopause—reduction in estrogen, progesterone and testosterone
• Estrogen replacement tx (ERT) and hormone replacement tx
(HRT)

• Sleep
o Sleep Cycle
§ 5 distinct stages (first 4 are alow-‐wave and non REM, while 5th is REM)
• Stage 1—transition btw wake and sleep
o Alpha waves disappear giving way to slower theta waves
• Stage 2—after few min
o Theta waves w intermittent sleep spindles and K
complexes
• Stage 3—appearance of large, slow delta waves
• Stage 4—dominant delta waves
o Deeper breathing and slowed heart rate, lower BP
o Stages 3 and 4=deep sleep

• Stage 5—REM
o Paradoxical sleep because EEG activity is typical of
aroused NS, while responsivity of sleep to environment is
low
§ Lasts for about 100 min and recurs 4-‐6 times in normal night
§ Early REM periods are about 10 min long and increase to 50 by end of
night
§ Age and Sleep
• First 6 mo—only REM and non-‐REM patterns
o First 2-‐3 mo—sleep begins w REM
• Increasing age=decreasing REM in # hrs and % of total sleep
• Total sleep also decreases w age
o REM Deprivation
§ Alter sleep patterns and can increase anx and irritability, adverse effect
on cog
§ Adverse effects disappear
o Sleep D/O
§ Insomnia—inability to fall asleep quickly, frequently waking during
night and early morning awakening
§ Nightmare D/O—repeated frightening dreams that cause sleeper to
wake

• Memory
o Temporal lobe—LTM
o Hippocampus—mem consolidation
o Prefrontal cortex—STM
o Korsakoff’s—produces lesions in mammillary bodies and thalamus
§ Retrograde and anterograde amnesia, confabs, and apathy
o LTM—changes in structure/physiology of synaptic membranes (LT
potentiation)
o Increased production of RNA

ENDROCRINE SYSTEM

• Pituitary Gland
o Only secretes hormones that act directly on organs through control of
hypothalamus
§ Also influences secretion of other glands
o Growth hormone (GH) and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
§ GH—aka somatotropic hormone (STH)
• Stimulates growth by acting on epiphyseal plates at ends of bones
• Oversecretion: giantism (child) or acromegaly (grossly enlarged
feet, hands, facial features)
• Undersecretion: dwarfism (child)
• Adrenal Cortex

o Cortisol—stimulates liver to convert energy stores into glucose
§ Elevates by psych stress
o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)—influences release of cortisol
§ Undersecretion—Addison’s disease (fatigue, fainting spells, loss of
appetite, decreased body weight, depression, apathy)
§ Oversecretion—Cushing’s disease (obesity, mem loss, moos swings,
depression, and somatic delusions
• Gonads
o Sex hormones controlled by hypothalamus, pituitary and gonads
o LH and FSH control release of sex hormones by gonads
• Thyroid
o Release of hormone thyroxin, controls metabolism
o Deficiency: physical maldevelopment and intellectual impairment (cretinism)
o Undersecretion: hypothyroidism—slowed metabolism, reduced appetite,
weight gain, lowered heart rate and body temp, decreased sex drive,
depression, and deficits in cog (attn and mem)
o Oversecretion: hyperthyroidism (Grave’s Disease)—elevated body temp,
increased metabolism, increased appetite, weight loss, accelerated heart rate,
nervousness, agitation, fatigue, insomnia, mania and decreased attn span
• Pancreas
o Insulin—absorption phase of metaboloism
o Diabetes –inability of pancreas to produce insulin
o Oversecretion: hypoglycemia

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

• Vision
o Anatomy of Eye
§ Light wavesàcornea, pupil, lens, retina
o Reception
§ Kinds of receptors:
• Rods
o Sensitive only to degrees of brightness
o Sensing stimuli in low levels of light
o Periphery of retina
• Cones
o Specialized for seeing color
o Visual acuity
o Function only in daylight
o Cluster around center of retina (fovea)
§ Optic nerve
• Two separate bundles of fibers

o Fibers from inner half of eye and crosses to other side of
brain
o Fibers from outer half of eye and stays on same side of
brain
§ Visual signals travel via optic tract to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of
thalamus and then to visual cortex in occipital lobe

• Audition
o Anatomy of Ear
§ Hair cells are auditory receptors
• Transform mechanical vibrations to neural activity
• Travels via auditory nerve to thalamus to temporal lobe
o Principles of Coding
§ Stimulus excites auditory system in sound waves
o Auditory Localization
§ Orient toward direction of sound
§ Present at birth, declines btw 1-‐4 mo, re-‐emerges btw 4-‐5 mo and
gradually improves until fully developed at 12 mo

• Somesthesis
o Neural Pathway
§ Touch (pressure), body position (kinesthesia), temp and pain
o Pain
§ Affected by subject variables such as knowledge, attn, motivation, and
suggestibility
§ Chronic pain is associated w various forms of depressive d/o
• “Pain-‐prone”—pain is form of masked depression
§ Environmental or genetic predisposition for developing pain
§ Afferent nerve fibers
• Large myelinated fibers and small afferent unmyelinated fibers
• Gate-‐control theory—activation of large fibers inhibits
transmission of pain by smaller fibers because pain mediation
system can only handle limited # of sensations
o Large fibers “close gate”

• Smell and Taste
o Smell
§ Afferent pathways for smell run directly to brain through limbic system
§ Smell not relayed from thalamus to cortex
§ Most primitive sense
§ Not crossed in brain

• Psychophysics
o Relationship btw magnitude of physical stimuli and psychological sensations
o 2 kinds of thresholds”

§ Absolute—weakest stimulus that person can detect
§ Difference –smallest physical diff btw 2 stimuli that is recognized as diff
o Magnitude estimation—relationship btw physical stimuli and internal sensation
differs for diff stimuli

NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS

• Diagnosis: Brain Imaging Techniques
o Structural Techniques: MRI and CT
§ Series of images at diff levels giving info and direct visualization of
structures and features
o Functional Techniques: PET, SPECT, fMRI
§ Info about both structure and function
§ PET—mapping distribution of neurotransmitters and identifying brain
dysfunction due to stroke, epilepsy, tumor, dementia, nerve tearing and
other brain-‐impairing conditions

• Focal Brain Syndromes
o Aphasia—disturbance in lang production and/or comprehension
§ Dysarthria—problems w articulation
o Alexia—reading disability
o Apraxia—inability to learn/perform complex, purposeful movt despite normal
muscle strength and coordination
§ Ideomotor apraxia—cannot carry out command to perform particular
movt but may be able to perform movt spontaneously
§ Constructional apraxia—cannot draw/copy simple figures or arrange
clocks in pattern
o Agnosia—inability to recognize fam obj in absence of disturbance in primary
sensory system
§ Tactile, auditory, visual
§ Visual—recognize fam obj by sight
• Aperceptive agnosia—visual distortion that prevents recognition
of obj
o Cannot recognize obj by sight but can ID it kinesthetically
when it is placed in hand
• Associative visual agnosia—disconnection of visual and lang
areas of brain
o Cannot name obj but can demonstrate how it is used and
match it w similar obj
• Prosopagnosia—inability to recognize familiar faces
o Anosognosia—inability or unwillingness to recognize one’s own functional
impairment
§ Typically denied w hemiplegia
§ Usually due to stroke affecting right parietal cortex


• Brain Tumors
o Children develop tumors in brainstem or cerebellum more often
o Adults more likely in cerebral cortex

• Stroke
o Most occur in middle cerebral artery—frontal, temporal, parietal and basal
ganglia
§ Contralateral hemiplegia, sensory loss, dementia, homonymous
hemianopsia
o Anterior CA—frontal, parietal, corpus callosum, caudate nucleus
§ Hemiplegia and sensory loss in contralateral side, dementia, affective
disturbance
o Posterior CA—thalamus, temporal, occipital
§ Cortical blindness, visual deficits, anterograde amnesia, agitated
delirium

• Head Trauma
o Open head trauma—do not lose consciousness
§ Often resolve relatively rapidly
o CHI—LOC
§ Duration of anterograde amnesia is best predictor of degree of injury
and recovery

• Motor Disorder
o Damage to SC, structures of extrapyramidal motor system, or motor areas of
cortex
o Extrapyradimal system disorders:
§ Huntington’s
• Combo of cog deterioration, personality, and affective changes,
and abnormalities in movt
• Dominant, autosomal degenerative d/o
• Systems first appear btw 30-‐50 y/o
• Initial signs=affective
o Then followed by forgetfulness, personality changes,
motor systems (clumbiness, incoordination and fidgeting)
o Later, athetosis (slow writhing movt) and chorea become
more prominent
• Substantia nigra, basal ganglia and cortex all affected
o CT/MRI=reduced volume in basal ganglia
o PET=reduced metabolic brain activity
• Neurotransmitters linked=Ach, GABA, dopamine
§ Parkinson’s
• Degenerative brain d/o w abnormalities in movt
• Exhibit symptoms of depression

• 20% have depressive symptoms preceding onset of motor
impairments by average of 5 yrs
• Reduced levels of serotonin
• Due to degeneration of dopamine-‐producing cells in substania
nigra, which in turn affects basal ganglia, thalamus, and cortex

PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY

• Antidepressants
o Effects occur in first 2 weeks, but way require up to 6 weeks
o Tricyclics (TCA)
§ Imipramine (Tofranil)
§ Clomipramine (Anafranil)
§ Amitriptyline (Elavil)
§ Blocking reuptake of NE and serotonin at synapse
§ Most effective in relieving vegetative symptoms of depression
• Appetite disturbance, sleep disturbance, anhedonia, psychomotor
retardation
§ Panic attacks, agoraphobia, obsessive states, chronic pain, bulimia, and
enuresis
§ Anticholinergic effects—common side effect
• Also cause cardiovascular effects
o SSRIs
§ Fluoxetine (Prozac)
§ Sertraline (Zoloft)
§ Paroxetine (Paxil)
§ Commonly used w OCD, binge eating, Panic d/o, and anx
§ Increasing availability of serotonin at synapse by inhibiting reuptake
§ Quicker onset of effectiveness and produce fewer/less severe side effects
than TCA
§ Do not cause cog impairments or anticholinergic side effects
§ May cause GI, loss of appetite, decreased libido, dizziness, headaches
§ May produce akathesia (motor restlessness) and other extrapyramidal
side effects
§ Prozac only FDA SSRI for children age 8/-‐
o MAOIs
§ Phenelzine (Nardil)
§ Tranylcypromine (Parnate)
§ Block action of enzymes that break down NE and serotonin, making
more available in synapses
§ Atypical depression symptoms
• Increased appetite, hypersomnia, rejection-‐sensitivity, mood
reactivity, symptom increase as day progresses, accompanying
symptoms of phobic-‐anxiety, panic or hypochondriasis

§Most serious side effect is potentially fatal hypertensive crisis,
characterized by elevated BP and convulsions
• Can occur in conjunction w foods containing moderate to high
levels of amino acid tyramine
o Newer Antidepressants
§ Selective serotonin NE reuptake inhibitors (SSNRIs)
• Venlafaxine (Effexor)
• Duloxetine (Cymbalta)
• MDD, GAD, social anx, panic d/o
§ Serotonin-‐2 antagonist and reuptake inhibitors
• Nefazadone (Serzone)
• Trazadone (Desyrel)
o Impotence
o May cause orthostatic hypertension and penile erection
prob
§ Tetracyclic antidepressant
• Mirtazipine (Remeron)
o Noradrenaline and selective serotonin antidepressant
(NaSSA)
• Maprotiline (Ludiomil)
• Increases noradrenaline and serotonin in brain
• Acts as antihistamine
§ NE dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI)
• Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban)
• Depression, smoking cessation, and distractibility due to ADHD
§ NE reuptake inhibitor (NRI) or noradreneline reuptake inhibitor (NARI)
• Reboxetine (Edronax)
• Atomoxetine (Stattera)

• Mood Stabilizers
o Lithium
§ Bipolar
§ Reduces/eliminates symptoms of mania and levels out mood swings
§ Schizophrenia, intermittent explosive d/o, epilepsy and episodic binge
drinking
§ May reduce postsynaptic responsivity to dopamine and NE
o Anticonvulsants, especially carbamazepine (Tegretol), can be as effective as
Lithium for mania
§ Valproic Acid—effective and has fewer side effects
§ Thought to affect serotonin

• Antipsychotics
o Traditional antipsychotics work by blocking dopamine receptors
§ Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
§ Haloperidol (Haldol)

§Thioridazine (Mellaril)
§Fluphenazine (Prolixin, Permitil)
§Used for schizophrenia, acute mania and psychotic symptoms of other
mood d/o
• For schizophrenia—most useful in alleviating positive symptoms
o Delusions, hallucinations, agitation
• Unlikely to effect disturbed cog functioning
§ Dopamine hypothesis—schizophrenia is related to overactivity of
dopamine
§ Physiological mechanisms underlying schizophrenia are more complex
and may involve imbalance of dopamine, NE and serotonin
o Atypical antipsychotics affect dopamine, serotonin and glutamate receptors
§ Clozapine (Clozaril)
§ Risperidone (Risperdal)
§ Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
§ Ariprazole (Abilify)
§ Schizophrenia, d/o w psychotic features
§ Clozapine lowers activity of multiple neurotransmitters—dopamine,
serotonin and NE
• Also used w motor symptoms of movt d/o (Parkinson’s and
Huntington’s)
§ Alleviate positive and negative symptoms (anhedonia, affective
flattening)
o Side-‐effects
§ Traditional—anticholinergic and extrapyramidal effects
• Tardive dyskinesia—delayed effect and rarely occurs until after 6
mo
o Can be alleviated to some degree, esp in younger ct, by
w/drawing gradually
§ Atypical—not associated c TD or other extrapyramidal effects
• Agranulocytosis
• Higher rate of seizures
• Anticholinergic effect—sedation and hypotension
§ Both can cause neuroleptic malignant syndrome typically w/in first 2
weeks

• Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Anxiolytics
o Benzodiazepines—anxiolytic (anti-‐anx)
§ Diazepam (Valium)
§ Alprazolam (Xanax)
§ Clonazepam (Klonopin)
§ Lorazepam (Ativan)
§ Triazolam (Halcion)
§ Anx, insomnia, severe EtOH w/drawl, cerebal palsy, petit mal epilepsy
§ Enhancing activity of GABA—inhibitory effect on CNS

§Common side effects—drowsiness and sedation
• Anterograde amnesia—IV Valium and Ativan
• Addictive
o Barbituates
§ Thiopental (Pentothal)
§ Amobarbital (Amytal)
§ Secobarbital (Seconal)
§ Safer than benzos
§ Interrupt impulses to reticular activating system
§ Addictive
o Azapirones
§ Buspirone (BuSpar)
§ Reduces anx w/o prominent sedative effect or exerting anticonvulsant
or muscle relaxant effects
§ Enhance activity of dopamine and noradrenaline and reduce activity of
serotonin and Ach
§ Does not appear to be subject to abuse, addictive or habit forming
o Beta-‐Blockers
§ Propranolol (Inderal)
§ Anx (public speaking and performance anx), high BP, cardiac
arrhythmia, migraine, essential tremor
§ Reduce activity of beta-‐adrenergic neurons, which innervate
cardiovascular and respiratory systems
§ Less effective than benzos w cog and psychic experience
§ More likely to cause mem impairment

• Psychostimulants
o Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
o Pemoline (Cylert)
o Cocaine, amphetamines
o Innervate CNS by mimicking or petentiating action of catecholamines (NE and
dopamine)
o Decrease motor activity, diminish impulsiveness, increase vigilance and attn
o Side effects: OCD, exacerbate tics

• Narcotic-‐Analgesics
o Natural opiods (opium, morphine, codeine) and pure/semi-‐synthetic
derivatives (heronin, Percodan, Demerol, methadone)
o Binding to enkephalin-‐receptors in CNS and block transmission of neural
impulses
o Physically addictive
o Methadone—detox for heroin
o Buprenorphine (Subutex)—approved by FDA for tx of opiod addiction
§ No w/drawal symptoms


RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS

RESEARCH DESIGN

IV/DV
• Correlational Research—IV=predictor variables, DV=criterion variables
• Multiple IVs
o Combined every level of one IV w every level of other IVs=FACTORIAL
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Internal Validity
• Whether causal relationship exists btw IV and DVs, not extraneous variables
• Extraneous variables=CONFOUND
o CONFOUNDED EXPERIMENT=contaminated by extraneous variables
• Primary way to ensure internal validity is to make sure that the grps are equivalent in
every respect except for the IV
• Threats to Internal Validity
o History—any external event, besides experimental tx, that affects scores or
status on DV
o Maturation—any internal change that occurs in subjects while experiment is in
progress and exerts systematic effect on DV
§ Ex. Fatigue, boredom, hunger, development
o Testing—previous experience w test
o Instrumentation—change in DV scores may be observed from pretest to post-‐
test because nature of measuring instrument changed
§ One way to control—use highly reliable measuring instruments
o Statistical Regression—tendency of extreme scores to fall closer to mean upon
retesting
o Selection—pre-‐existing subject factors that account for scores on DV
o Differential Mortality—when study involves 2/+ grps, occurs when people who
drop-‐out of one grp differ in systematic ways from people who remain in study
o Experimenter Bias—researcher may unconsciously communicate expectations
to subjects
§ Experimenter expectancy (Rosenthal Effect or Pygmalion Effect)—bx of
subjects changes as result of experimenter expectancies, rather than as
result of IV
§ Another error is when experimenter makes errors in direction of
research hypothesis when scoring/reporting results
§ Effects can be overcome through using double-‐blind

Controlling for Threats to Internal Validity
• Random Assignment—most powerful method for controlling extraneous variables
o Probability of being assigned to particular grp is same
o “Great equalizer”

o Random assignment vs Random Selection
§ Random selection=method of selecting subjects into study
• All members of population have equal chance of being selected
§ Random assignment=takes place after subjects selected
• Subjects who have already selected, probability of being assigned
to each grp is same
• Matching—can control for effects of specific extraneous variable
o Identifying subjects who are similar in terms of status on extraneous variable,
then grping similar subjects and randomly assigning members of matched grp
to tx grps
• Blocking—studying effects of extraneous variable to determine if and to what degree it
is accounting for scores on DV
o Making extraneous variable another IV
o Matching vs Blocking
§ Matching=ensure equivalency in terms of extraneous variable
§ Blocking=determine effects of extraneous variable
• Holding Extraneous Variable Constant
o Completely eliminates effects of extraneous variable
o Involves including only subjects who are homogenous in terms of status on
extraneous variable
o Problem=results of study cannot be generalized to populations that are not
sampled
• Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
o Statistical strategy for increasing internal validity
o Like post-‐hoc matching, after data are obtained, DV scores are adjusted so that
subjects are equalized in terms of status on 1/+ extraneous variables
o Problem=does not control for extraneous variables that researcher has not
identified and measured

External Validity
• Generalizability of results
• Threats to External Validity
o Interaction btw Selection and Tx—“interaction”=some variable has one effect
under one set of circumstances but different effect under another set of
circumstances
§ Given effect is not generalizable
§ Effects of given tx would not generalize to other members of population
of interest
o Interaction btw Hx and Tx—effects of tx do not generalize beyond setting
and/or time period in which experiment is done
o Interaction btw Testing and Tx—results in which pretests are used might not
generalize to cases in which pretests were not used
§ Pretest may “sensitize” subjects to purpose of study or otherwise
increase susceptibility to respond to tx (PRETEST SENSITIZATION)

o Demand Characteristics—cues in research setting that allow subjects to guess
research hypothesis
§ Subjects may behave differently than they would in field
o Hawthorne Effect—tendency of subjects to behave differently due to mere fact
they are participating in research
o Order Effects (Carryover Effects or Multiple Tx Interference)—repeated
measures design
• Ways to Increase External Validity
o Random Selection—random sampling—all members of population under study
have equal chance of being selected to participate
§ Stratified Random Sampling—taking random sample of each of several
subgrps of total target population
• Ensure proportionate representation of defined pop subgrps
§ Cluster Sampling—unit of sampling is naturally occurring grp of ind
rather than ind
• Mutlistage Cluster Sampling—selecting successively smaller
clusters
o Naturalistic Research—bx observed and recorded in natural setting
§ Controls for threats to external validity that are due to artifacts of lab
(Hawthorne Effect and Demand Characteristics)
§ Study will lack internal validity
o Single-‐ and Double-‐Blind Research—single-‐blind=subj not informed of purpose
of study or tx assigned to; double-‐blind=neither experimenter nor subj knows
grp assigned to
§ Useful in reducing threats to external validity that habe to do with
artifacts of lab setting
o Counterbalancing—controlling order effects
§ Diff sub/grps receive tx in diff order
§ Latin Square Design—ordering administration of tx so that each appears
once and only once in every position

Specific Research Designs and Strategies
• True Experimental Research—investigator randomly assigns sub to diff grps, which
receive diff levels of manipulated variable
o Offer greatest internal validity
• Quasi-‐Experimental Research—random assignment of subj to grps not possible
o Involves use of intact grps
• Correlational Research—research does not manipulate variable of interest
o Variables are measured rather than manipulated
o Does not have any internal validity
§ Impossible to infer casual relationship btw variables on basis of results
of correlational research
o Used for purpose of prediction
• Developmental Research—assessing variables as function of time
o 3 types:

§ Longitudinal Design—same people are studied over long period of time
• Problems=high cost (money/time), high drop out, practice effects
• Underestimate true age-‐related change
o Subj drop out tend to be those who are less able on task
studied
§ Show misleading low level of age-‐related decline
o Practice effects can facilitate performance on DV
§ True-‐age related declines in performance may be
masked
§ Cross-‐Sectional Design—diff grps, divided by age, are assessed at same
time
• Problem: Cohort Effects—observed diff btw age grps may have to
do with experience rather than age
• Tend to over-‐estimate true age-‐related declines in performance
§ Cross-‐Sequential Design—combines methods of longitudinal and cross-‐
sectional
• Samples of diff age grps are assessed on 2/+ occasions
• Control for cohort effects associated w cross-‐sectional studies
• Less time-‐consuming than longitudinal
• Reduce drop out
• Time-‐Series Design—taking multiple measurements over time in order to assess
effects of IV
o Sometimes referred to as interrupted time-‐series design—series of
measurements on DV is interrupted by administration of tx
o Advantage: rule out many threats to internal validity, such as maturation,
regression and testing
o In one-‐grp interrupted time-‐series design, major threat to internal validity is hx
§ Control by using 2-‐grp time-‐series design
• Single-‐Subject Designs—bx mod
o DV is measured several times during both phases
o Great deal of variability in target bx poses major threat
o AB Design—simplest
§ Single baseline and single tx
o Reversal/Withdrawal Design—controls for hx and other extraneous factors in
AB
§ Tx withdrawn and data collected to determine if bx returns to original
level
§ ABA design—additional baseline during which tx withdrawn
§ ABAB design—tx re-‐applied after second baseline
• Advantages over ABA:
o If bx changes in predicted direction after second tx,
additional confirmation that tx is responsible for observed
changes on DV
o If study ends w w/drawal condition, subj is left back in
condition research is trying to change in first place

o Multiple Baseline Design—when reversal not possible
§ Applying tx sequentially, across diff baselines
• Qualitative/Descriptive Research—theory is developed from data rather than derived
a priori
o Surveys—vulnerable to many threats to validity
§ Often internal validity is not issue
§ External validity—mail surveys, subj self-‐select themselves into study
o Case Studies—detailed examination of single case
§ Based on assumption that case under study can be viewed as example of
more general class
§ Most useful as pilot studies for identifying variables that can be studied
in more thorough and systematic manner
o Protocol Analysis—research involving collection and analysis of verbatim
reports
§ Usually does not involve traditional quantitative tech
§ Analysis is based on interpretation of verbal protocol

INTRODUCTORY AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

• Descriptive stats are used to describe set of data collected from sample
o Inferential methods are used to make inferences about entire pop on the basis
of sample

Scales of Measurement
• Nominal Data—divided variables into unordered categories into which data may fall
o Ex. Sex, hair color
• Ordinal Data—ordering of categories
o Orders amts of variable being measured so that we know that individuals in cat
1 have less/more of attribute than cat 2
o However we do not know anything about how much more/less is possessed
o Ex. Rank order, high/mod/low
• Interval Data—numbers are equal distances apart but scale has no absolute zero point
o Ex. IQ, most standardized tests
o Addition and subtraction can be performed but not multiplication or division
• Ratio Data—identical to interval, except w absolute zero point
o Multiplication and division
o Ex. Dollar amt, time, distance

Frequency Distributions
• Provides summary of set of data
• Number of cases that fall at given category or score or w/in given score range
• Normal Distribution
o Bell shaped curve
o Symmetrical

o Greatest number of cases fall close to mean of distribution, w fewer and fewer
cases occurring the farther one gets from the mean
• Skewed Distribution
o Negatively Skewed—larger portion of scores fall toward high end of scale
§ Long tail on left
§ “Easy test”
o Positively Skewed—larger portion of scores fall at low end of scale
§ Long tail on right
§ “Difficult test”

Measures of Central Tendency
• Mean—average
o Most useful measure of CT
o V sensitive to extreme values—misleading when data is highly skewed
• Median—middle value of data when ordered from lowest to highest
o Md
o Less sensitive to extreme scores
o May be more useful measure when distribution is skewed
• Mode—most frequent value in collection of #s
o When more than 1 #=multimodal
§ Bimodal=2 modes
• Relationship btw mean, median, mode
o Normal distribution—three are equal
o Positively skewed—mean>median>mode
o Negatively skewed—mode>median>mean
o Mean will always be pulled towards the tail

Measures of Variability (Dispersion)
• How spread of scores are
• Range—difference btw highest and lowest scores in set
o Limited:
§ Affected by extreme scores
§ Tells us nothing about distribution
§ Useful only as v general description of variability
• Variance—average of squared differences of each observation from mean
o Measure of how score disperse around mean
o Measure of variability of distribution
o Measure of variability that many statistical tests use in formulas
o Equal to square of SD
• Standard Deviation—square root of variance
o Expected deviation from mean of score chosen at random
o Normal distribution—SD can be used to calculate percentage of score that will
fall w/in given range or at cut-‐off scores

Transformed Scores

• Allow ind raw score to be compared to scores in rest of distribution
• Z-‐scores (Standard Scores)—raw scores stated in SD terms
o Measures how many SD given raw score is from mean
o Advantage: permit comparison across diff measures/tests
o When raw scores are transformed, shape of distribution does not change
(LINEAR TRANSFORMATION)
• T-‐scores—based on 10 pt intervals w T=50 being mean and every 10 pts above/below
50 equivalent to SD away from mean
• Stanine Score—divide distribution into 9 equal intervals w 1 being lowest ninth of
distribution and 9 being highest ninth
o Mean of 5 and SD of 2
• Percentile Ranks—flat distribution—w/in given range of percentile ranks, there will
always be same # of scores
o Converting raw scores to PR will result in change in shape of distribution
(NONLINEAR TRANFORMATION)

Standard Deviation Curve
• 68% of all scores fall btw SD -‐1 and +1
• 95% fall btw SD -‐2 and +2
• 99.7% fall btw SD -‐3 and +3
• In normal distribution:
o Z-‐score of +1.0= PR of 84
§ Cutoff point for top 16%
o Z-‐score of -‐1.0= PR of 16
§ Cutoff pt for bottom 16%
o Z-‐score of +2.0=PR 98
§ Cutoff for top 2%
o Z-‐score of -‐2.0= PR of 2
§ Cutoff for bottom 2%

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Samples, Pops, Sampling Error
• Sampling Error—invariable result of using samples to study pop
o Inaccuracy of sample value
o Diff btw sample value (Statistic) and corresponding pop value (Parameter)

Standard Error of Mean
• Diff btw sample mean and pop mean
• Expected error of given sample mean
• SEmean=s.d./√N
o N=size of sample
o S.d.=SD of population
• As sample size increases, SE becomes smaller

o Relationship btw SE of mean and size is INVERSE

Statistical Hypothesis Testin
• Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis
• Null hypothesis—hypothesis of no difference
• Alternative hypothesis—experimental hypothesis
• Two are mutually exclusive
• Expressed in terms of population parameters
• One-‐tailed vs. Two-‐tailed Hypotheses
o Two-‐tailed=mean is diff from another mean but do not know direction
o One-‐tailed=mean is greater than or less than another mean
• Statistical Decision Making
o Risk of Error Occurring in Testing Null

• Type I Error and Alpha Level
o Type I Error—when null is rejected when it is true
§ “thinking you have something when you really don’t”
§ Alpha Level—probability of making Type I
• Level of significance (p)
• Usually set by research in advance
§ Null is true greater than 5% (Retention region)
• Null is rejected (Rejection region)
§ Significance level—prob of rejecting null as being true
• Type II (Beta) Error and Power
o Failure to reject null when it is false
o “thinking you don’t have something when you really do”
o Not known to researcher at outset of study
o Power—prob of rejecting null when it is false
§ Prob of not making Type II error
§ Sensitivity of statistical test
§ Factors that affect power:
• Sample size—larger sample=greater power
• Alpha—as pre-‐set alpha increases=power increases
• Directional and Non-‐directional Statistical Tests—directional
(one-‐tailed) is used to test directional hypothesis and
nondirectional (two-‐tailed) is used to test nondirectional
hypothesis
o One-‐tailed>two-‐tailed
• Magnitude of Pop Diff—greater diff btw pop means=more likely
researcher will be able to detect diff
§ Increasing alpha has effect of increasing power
• Prob of making Type I error increases=prob of Type II decreases

Parametric and Nonparametric Stat Tests
• Parametric=used for interval and ratio data

o Ex. T-‐test, ANOVA
o Based on assumptions:
§ Normal distribution
§ Homogeneity of Variance—variance of all grps equal
§ Independence of Observations
o If assumptions not met, use of parametric tests can lead to misleading results
• Nonparametric=ordinal or nominal scales
o Ex. Chi-‐square, Mann-‐Whitney U
o Generally less powerful than parametric tests
• Both share one assumption: both assume data come from unbiased sample

INFERENTIAL STAT TESTS

Parametric Tests
• T-‐test/Student’s t-‐test—test hypotheses about 2 diff means
o Cannot be used if there are more than 2 means involved in comparison
o One Sample t-‐test—compare mean of single sample to known pop mean
§ Degrees of freedom=N-‐1
o T-‐test for Independent Samples—compare 2 means derived from independent
(unrelated) samples
§ Df=N-‐2
o T-‐test for Correlated Samples—samples related to each other in some way
§ Df=N-‐1 (N=PAIRS of scores)
• One-‐Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
o 1 IV w more than 2 grps are compared
o F ratio
o Only tells you if there is some diff btw grp means
§ Does not indicate specifically which grps differ from which other grps
§ Post-‐hoc tests must be conducted to identify exactly where significance
lies
o Logic of ANOVA and Deviation of F Ratio
§ F ratio=comparison btw 2 estimates of variance (btw-‐grp and w/in-‐grp)
• Btw=treatment variance—degree to which grps as whole differ
from one another
• W/in=error variance—degree to which subjects w/in
experimental grp differ from each other
§ ANOVA stat is fraction: variance btw grps/ variance w/in grps

o ANOVA Summary Table
§ Sum of Squares=measure of variability of set of data
§ Degrees of Freedom
• 2 sources of degrees of freedom for one-‐way ANOVA:
o Dfb=k-‐1 (k=# grps)
o Dfw=N-‐k (N=total # subj)
§ Mean Square=estimate btw and w/in grp variance

• Btw grp variance=Mean Square Btw (MSB)
o Sum of Squares btw/dfb
• W/in grp variance=Mean Square Within (MSW)
o Sum of Squares w/in/dfw
§ F-‐Ratio and Significance Level
• F=MSB/MSW
§ Post-‐hoc Tests for Analysis of Variance
• More comparisons you make=more likely at least one Type I
• Post-‐hoc takes this into account by controlling alpha level for
individual comparisons
• Ex. Scheffe test and Tukey Honestly Significant Difference Test
o Scheffe is most conservative—provides greatest
protection against inflation in Type I rate that occurs w
multiple comparisons
§ Problem: decreasing Type I increases Type II
o Pairwise comparisons, Tukey is appropriate
§ Provide enough protection against Type I when
only pairwise comparisons made
§ Other Forms of ANOVA
• One-‐way ANOVA for repeated measures—used when subjs
receive all levels of IV
• Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)—used to adjust DV scores to
control for effects of extraneous variable
• Factorial ANOVA
o Involves more than 1 IV
§ Ex. Two-‐way ANOVA=2 IVs, Three-‐way ANOVA=3 IVs
o Main effect refers to effect on 1 IV by itself, while interaction effect has to do w
effects of IV at diff levels of other IVs
§ Main effect=diff of marginal means
o Whenever there is an interaction effect, you must interpret main effects w
caution
§ Need to know how effect of 1 variable is moderated by level of other
variable
o More than 1 F ratio
o Variations of Factorial ANOVA
§ Factorial ANOVA for repeated measures—all levels of all IVs are applied
to single grp of subj
§ Mixed ANOVA—more than 1 IV
• Design has at least 1 btw-‐subj IV and at least 1 repeated measures
(w/in subj) variable
• Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
o 2/+ DVs and 1/+ IVs
o Advantage over multiple ANOVAs=reduces experiment-‐wise error rate (reduces
prob of making at least 1 Type I)


Nonparametric Tests
• Chi-‐Square
o Categorical/nominal data
§ Used when frequencies, # subj w/in category, are given
o x
2
o Single-‐sample Chi-‐Square—collecting categorical data from only one sample of

individuals
§ Df=C-‐1 (C=# categories)
o Multiple sample Chi-‐Square—adding another variable in addition to one that
gives rise to classification categories
§ Df=(C-‐1)(R-‐1) (R=# of rows or levels of 2nd variable)
o Cautions:
§ All observations must be independent of each other
§ Each observation can be classified into only one category or cell
§ Percentages of observations w/in categories cannot be compared
o Calculating Expected Frequencies
§ Single-‐sample—depend of nature of null hypothesis itself
§ Total # of sub/ # cells
• Other Nonparametric Tests
o Mann Whitney U—rank-‐ordered involves 2 IVs
o Wilcoxon Matched-‐Pairs Test—2 correlated grps are being compared using
rank-‐order data
o Kruskal-‐Wallis Test—more than 2 grps are compared
§ Analysis of variance for rank-‐ordered data

Design of Study Parametric Test Nonparametric Alternative
1 IV, 2 independent grps t-‐test for ind. samples Mann-‐Whitney U
1 IV, 2 correlated grps t-‐test for correlated samples Wilcoxon Matched Pairs
1 IV, 2/+ ind grp one-‐way ANOVA Kruskal-‐Wallis

CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

Correlation and Correlation Coefficient
• Correlation=relationship btw 2/+ variables
• Correlation coefficient=number ranges from -‐1.00 to +1.00
o Magnitude and direction
• Scattergram
• Correlation and Causality—high correlation btw 2 variables does not mean variables
have causal relationship

Type of Correlations
• Pearson r—most commonly used

o Measured on interval or ratio scale
o Factors affecting Pearson r:
§ Linearity—assumes linear relationship
§ Homoscedasticity—dispersion of scores is equal
• Heteroscedasticity will lower correlation coefficient
§ Range of Scores—wider range=more accurate estimation of correlation
• Restricted section=lower r
o Interpretation of r
§ Coefficient of Determination—square of correlation coefficient indicates
percentage of variability in 1 measure that is accounted for by variability
in other measure
• Other Correlation Coefficients
o Point-‐Biserial and Biserial Coefficients
§ Relates one continuous variable and one dichotomous variable
o Phi and Tetrachoric Coefficients
§ Phi—both variables are dichotomous
§ Tetrachoric—both are artificially dichotomized
o Contingency
§ Two nominally scaled variables
o Spearman’s Rho
§ Two variables that have been ordinally ranked

Name of Coefficient If X is: If Y is:
Pearson continuous continuous
Point Biserial true dichotomy continuous
Biserial artificial dichotomy continuous
Phi true dichotomy true dichotomy
Tetrachoric artificial dichotomy artificial dichotomy
Spearman’s rho ranked ranked
Eta continuous continuous

Regression
• IV=predictor variable, DV=criterion variable
• Assumptions:
o Linear relationship and that relationship can be depicted as straight line
(REGRESSION LINE)
o Error score is diff btw predicted and actual criterion scores
§ Assumed to be normally distributed w mean of 0
§ Correlation btw error scores and actual criterion scores is assumed to be
0
§ Both must be homoscedastic
• Regression can be used as substitute for one-‐way ANOVA
• Multiple correlation and multiple regression

o Relationship btw 2/+ predictor variables and 1 criterion variable can be
assessed w multiple correlation coefficient (multiple R)
o Use of scores on more than 1 predictor to estimate scores on criterion is
multiple regression
o Multiple correlation coefficient is highest when predictor variables each
have high correlations w criterion but low correlations w each other
§ Better when each predictor provides new info about criterion
§ Significant predictor overlap=multicollinearity
§ After you have 3-‐4 predictors, adding additional ones will not yield
significant increase in predictive power of multiple regression even if
new tests have substantial correlation w criterion
• Due to 5th test being bound to have high correlation w one of
previous predictors
o Multiple correlation coefficient is never lower than highest simple
correlation btw ind predictor and criterion
o Multiple R can never be negative
o Multiple R can be squared in order to facilitate its interpretation
§ Coefficient of multiple determination—proportion of variance in
criterion variable accounted for by combination of predictor
variables
• Stepwise Multiple Regression
o Relatively large number of potential predictors, but you want to use smaller
subset of predictors in final multiple regression equation
o Goal=come up w smallest se of predictors that maximizes predictive power
o Forward stepwise regression—start out w one predictor and ass predictors to
equation one at a time
o Backward stepwise regression—start out w all potential predictors and remove
predictors one at a time
Other Correlational Techniques
• Canonical Correlation—multiple criterion and multiple predictor variables
o 2/+ predictors to 2/+ criterion variables at once
• Discriminant Function Analysis—scores on 2/+ variables are combined in order to
determine whether they can be used to predict which criterion grp person will belong
to
o Compared to multiple regression where multiple predictors are used to
estimate criterion score, rather than criterion grp membership
o Differential Validity—each predictor has diff correlation w each criterion
variable
§ Low differential validity=would not be useful in helping to place ind in
specific grp criterion
• Logistic Regression—like DFA in making predictions about criterion grp person
belongs to
o Differences:

§ DFA requires that number of assumptions about data be met
(multivariate normal distribution and homogeneity of variance and
covariance)
• Logistic regression does not rest on these assumptions
§ While predictors in DFA must use continuous data, LR may be nominal
or continuous
o Primarily used in research w dichotomous DVs or cases in which person can be
classified into 1 of 2 criterion grps
• Multiple Cutoff—identifying diff cutoff scores on series of predictors
o Ind must score at/above cutoff on each predictor to be predicted as successful
on criterion
§ If does not meet cutoff, unsuccessful regardless of scores on other
predictors
o Compared to multiple regression, high scores on one of predictors can
compensate for low score on another
• Partial Correlation—if relationship btw 2 variables is obtained, but it is suspected that
one or more other variables contribute to relationship, other variables can be
controlled for statistically by partialling out its effect
o Converse of partial correlation is ZERO-‐ORDER correlation—correlation btw 2
variables is determined w/o regard to any other variables
§ All other variables are ignored even though they might contribute to
relationship
o Suppressor Variable—3rd variable may account for spuriously low correlation
btw 1/+ predictors and criterion
§ Suppresses relationship btw predictor and criterion
• Structural Equation Modeling—assumption is linear relationship btw variables
o Path Analysis and LISREL
§ PA used to verify simpler causal models that propose only one-‐way
causal flow btw variables
• LISREL can be used when model includes one or two-‐way
causal relationships
§ Whereas PA can be used in models that includes observed variables
only, LISREL can be used when model specifies both latent and
observed variables
• Trend Analysis—measuring nature of effect in repeated measures design
o Both variables are quantitative
o Research not so much interested in determining magnitude of relationship btw
2 variables as trend of change in DV over time
o Break points—scores for all subjs change direction in predictable way

ADVANCED STATISTICS

Theoretical Sampling Distribution
• Decisions concerning how close values of particular sample are to actual pop
values=Inferential stats

o Theoretical distribution—sampling distribution
§ Pop—whole set of cases researcher is interested in
• Includes every single score in pop
§ Sample distribution—set of scores from sample
§ Sampling Distribution—distribution of values w each value computed
from same-‐sized samples drawn w replacement from pop
• All possible sample we choose must have same size
• Each pop member must have same probability of being included
or re-‐included over and over again into same sample

Central Limits Theorem
• Assumptions:
o As sample size increases, shape of sampling distribution of means approaches
normal shape, even if pop distribution is not normally distributed
o Mean of sampling distribution of means is equal to mean of pop
• Sampling distribution of means has less variability than pop distribution
• SD of sampling distribution of means is equal to pop SD divided by square root of size
of samples from which means were obtained
o SD will tell you how much given value can be expected to deviate from pop
mean

Robustness of Stat Tests
• Robust—rate of false rejections of null is not substantially increased by violation of
these assumptions

Time-‐Series Analysis
• Interrupted time-‐series design is one in which DV is measure multiple times before
and after tx is administered
• Independence of observations will be violated because means across measurements
will be related to each other
• Autocorrelation—correlation btw observations at given lags

Bayes’ Theorem
• Formula for obtaining special type of conditional probability
• Used to revise conditional probabilities based on additional info
• Conditional probabilities and base rates

Meta-‐Analysis
• Method of analyzing grp of independent studies w common conceptual basis
• Yields EFFECT SIZE—magnitude of IV’s effect
• Advantage: allows for consideration of size of effects
• Criticism: process is subject to biases of person doing analysis


PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS

Intelligence
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Francis Galton
o Pioneered measurement of individual differences more than century ago
o Intelligence is unitary faculty, inherited trait, and distributed normally in
population from high to low
§ Inherited as genetic traits are inherited
o Present controversy regarding “nature vs. nurture”
• Charles Spearman
o Two-‐factor theory of intelligence
o All mental tasks require two kinds of ability:
§ General ability (“g”)
• Common to all intellectual tasks
§ Specific ability (“s”)
• Always specific to given task
• Louis Thurstone
o Single unitary intelligence index is inadequate to describe mental
endowment
o Group of independent intellectual factors
§ Primary Mental Abilities—word fluency, memory, spatial
relationships, reasoning
o Multiple-‐factor analysis method
• J. P. Guilford
o Matrix of 120 elements that comprise intelligence
§ Divergent Thinking—generate new, creative, and different ideas
§ Convergent Thinking—ability to group divergent ideas and
synthesize them into one unifying concept
• Raymond Cattell
o Two kinds of intelligence:
§ Fluid—on-‐the-‐spot reasoning ability
• Ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
• Tied to nervous system and independent of culture and formal
training
• Most susceptible to effects of aging or brain damage
§ Crystallized—almost entirely dependent on cultural and educational
experience
• Vocabulary and information knowledge
• Remains stable
• David Wechsler
o Global way

o High ability on one intellectual reasoning task is reasonably predictive of
high ability on another
o Centered on ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively
with environment

• Robert Sternberg
o Triarchic model:
§ Componential (analytical)—methods that are used to process and
analyze info
§ Experimental (creative)—unfamiliar circumstances and tasks are
dealt with
§ Practical (contextual)—respond to environment
• Howard Garner
o Multiple intelligences (8):
§ Linguistic
§ Logical-‐mathematical
§ Musical
§ Bodily-‐kinesthetic
§ Spatial
§ Interpersonal
§ Intrapersonal
§ Naturalist

STUDIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Heredity vs. Environment

o Difference in IQ’s can be attributed to 50% heredity and 50% to
environment
o Children resemble biological parents’ scores to significantly greater degree
(.50) than foster children resemble foster parents’ scores (.00-‐.20)
o Orphaned infants with MR given individual attention showed significant
improvement in IQ scores compared to infants who remains in orphanage

• Stability of Intelligence

o Ability of infant intelligence tests to predict IQ is low
o Infant’s visual recognition memory and visual attn appear to correlate with
some later intellectual faculties, such as vocab
o Such tests do show better long-‐term prediction for very low-‐scoring babies
§ Screening purpose

• Group Differences in Intelligence

o Gender Differences
§ Females—higher on tests of verbal skills

§Males—higher on tests of spatial ability
§Differences have declined sharply over years
§Differences noted in hemispheric specialization
• Greater quantity of circulating testosterone in brains of
prenatal males shows growth rate of left hemisphere and
results in relatively greater development of right hemisphere
• Lack of testosterone in females results in reverse
developmental pattern
o Birth Order
§ First-‐born tend to have greater intellectual ability than later-‐born
§ Confluence Model—as number of children in fam increase, amount of
intellectual stimulation and other important fam resources available
to each child declines
• Older children have advantage in intellectual development
compared to younger siblings, for they have greater access to
stimulation and fam resources in early years
• Predicts fam size is negatively correlated with intellectual
ability of children
o Children closer together in age will suffer more from
adverse effects of larger fam
o Race/Ethinicity
§ Caucasians tend to score higher than AA of intellectual functioning
• Differences are primarily due to innate, genetic differences
o Widely criticized
o AA children adopted by Caus. Parents
§ Environmental influences can considerably
impact intelligence tests scores later

MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Originally developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in 1905-‐1908
o Discriminate children in Parisian schools with MR
o Measured judgment, comp, and reasoning

• STANFORD-‐BINET
o Lewis Terman—1916
o Adapted Binet-‐Simon scales for American use
o Hierarchical model of intelligence with global g factor, routing, subtests, and
functional-‐level design
o Age 2-‐85+yrs
o Can diagnose developmental abilities and exceptionalities, abilities and
aptitude research, early childhood assessment, psychoeducational evals,
career, clinical, forensic and neuropsych assessment
o Subtests are grouped into content factors:

§ Fluid Reasoning
§ Knowledge
§ Quantitative Reasoning
§ Visual-‐Spatial Processing
§ Working Memory
o Testing begins with two routing subtests: Vocab and Object Series/Matrices
§ Divided into age levels and chronological age/estimated ability level
o Deviation IQ—standardized deviation across all age levels
§ Advantage—scores can be compared across ages
o Composite Scores:
§ Factor Index—combining one nonverbal subtest and its verbal
components
§ Domain (verbal and nonverbal IQ)—based on subtests of respective
five factor index scales
§ Abbreviated IQ—two routing subtests
§ Full Scale—all 10 subtests

• WECHSLER SCALES
o WISC
§ Ages 6-‐16.11
§ Developed on neurocognitive models of info processing
§ 10 core subtests and 5 optional subtests
§ 4 Index Scores:
• Verbal Comprehension
• Perceptual Reasoning
• Working Memory
• Processing Speed
§ Scores also obtained for subtests and FSIQ
o WPPSI
§ Ages 2.6-‐7.3
• Divided into 2 age bands:
o 2.6-‐3.11
o 4-‐7.3
§ Newest version adds General Language Composite for both groups,
and Processing Speed Quotient for older
§ Scores also obtained for VIQ, PIQ, and FSIQ
o WAIS
§ Ages 16-‐89
§ Efforts made to make test less biased against various ethnic groups,
less sexist in appearance, and eliminate items that were too
easy/ambiguous
§ 14 subtests—7 verbal and 7 nonverbal
§ VCI, PRI, WMI, PSI and FSIQ
§ Verbal Subtests

• Vocab—most accurate for general intellectual capacity (“g”)
and most resistant to aging, mental deterioration, and
emotional disturbance
o Entails: learning ability, fund of knowledge, concept
formation, long-‐term memory, and language
development
o POOR PERFORMANCE: poor education, low
intelligence, alternate cultural background or early
brain injury
• Info—long-‐term memory and available crystallized
intelligence resulting from interaction of ability and cultural
experience
o Least affected by organic disorder or brain injury
o POOR PERFORMANCE—educational deficits, low
intelligence, alternate cultural background
• Comp—judgment, insight, common sense
o POOR PERFORMANCE—impaired judgment, early
brain damage or psychosis
• Arith—reasoning ability, concentration, mental arithmetic
and memory
o POOR PERFORMANCE—impaired concentration or
antisocial tendencies
• Sim—abstract and logical thinking and verbal concept
formation
o POOR PERFORMANCE—severe brain dysfunction,
schizophrenia, depression and long-‐term deterioration
• LNS—concentration, attention, tracking, and sequencing
ability
o Most sensitive verbal subtest to effects of aging
o POOR PERFORMANCE—dyslexia, illiteracy, inattention,
anxiety or lack of concentration
• Digit Span—attn, short-‐term memory, immediate auditory
recall
o POOR PERFORMANCE—MR, distractibility, anxiety,
hearing impairment or brain damage
§ Performance Subtests
• Pict Compl—visual organization, long-‐term memory,
concentration, reasoning
o Relatively unaffected by brain damage
o POOR PERFORMANCE—alternate cultural background,
poor concentration, poor perceptual-‐conceptual
integration, psychotic depression or schizophrenia
• Pict Arr—nonverbal reasoning, interpretation of social
situations, visual perception, foresight, planning

o POOR PERFORMANCE—visual perception, right
hemispheric damage, anxiety, schizophrenia, or varied
cultural background
• BD—visual motor coordination, nonverbal concept formation,
visual spatial comprehension
o POOR PERFORMANCE—hyperactivity, anxiety,
paranoia or brain damage
• Obj Assem—perceptual organization, visual-‐motor
coordination, speed of mental processing and ability to
perceive visual part-‐whole relationships
o POOR PERFORMANCE—anxiety, depression,
schizophrenia, hyperactivity, visual-‐perceptual
problems brain damage (notably right parietal)
• Digit Sym Cod—visual motor coordination, speed of mental
operations, psychomotor speed and short-‐term memory
o Most sensitive subtest to effects of aging and affected
by lesions in many areas of brain
• MR—nonverbal reasoning, such as analogy and serial
reasoning, visual info, and simultaneous processing
o One of best measures of “g” among performance
subtests
• Sym Search—processing speed, visual short-‐term memory.
Planning and perceptual organization
o POOR PERFORMANCE—learning disability,
distractibility, anxiety or visual perceptual problems
§ WAIS RELIABILITY and VALIDITY
• High reliability
o Average reliability coefficients range from .88-‐.97
o When testing profound MR or extremely gifted,
Stanford-‐Binet is more useful measure
• Factors:
o Verbal Comp—Info, Vocab, Sim
§ Good estimate of person’s premorbid
functioning
• “Hold” tests
o Percep Org—Pict Comp, BD, MR
§ “No Hold Tests”—Digit Span, BD, Digit Sym, and
Sim
o WM—Digit Span, Arith, LNS
§ Concentration, attn, sequential processing
§ Affecting by anxiety and ability to make mental
shifts
o Processing Speed—Digit Sym Coding, Sym Search
§ Concentration, hand-‐eye coordination, visual
analysis

§VCI-‐PRI Discrepancies: Interpretation
• Alzheimer’s disease
o Do better on verbal subtests (highest on Info and
Vocab) than performance subtests (lowest on Digit
Sym and BD)
o Discrepancy is usually 10/+ pts
• Hearing Impairment
o Lower scores on verbal (lowest on Digit Span)
o Performance—BD and Obj Assem=normal
§ Difficulty with Pict Comp, Pict Arr and Coding
subtests
§ Lowest score on Pic Arr
• Alcoholism
o Higher VCI—normal range
o Higher on Verbal Comp than Percep Org
• ADHD
o Higher Verbal Comp than WM
o Higher Percep Org than Processing Speed
o Correlated for individuals with learning disabilities

• Cognitive Assessments
o Kaufman Tests
§ Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-‐ABC-‐II)
• Cognitive ability based on Luria’s neuropsych model and
Cattell-‐Horn-‐Carroll Theory of cognitive abilities
• By minimizing verbal instructions and responses, it is
designed to be culture-‐free
• Ages 3-‐18
• Scales:
o Simultaneous
o Sequential
o Planning
o Learning
o Knowledge
§ Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test
• Ages 4-‐90
• Brief measure of verbal and nonverbal abilities
o Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)
§ Ages 5-‐17.11
§ Diverse backgrounds
§ Distinguish learning disability, ADHD
§ Design interventions to improve learning
§ 4 cognitive functions:
• Planning
• Attn

• Simultaneous Processing
• Sequential Processing
o Slosson Tests
§ Slosson Intelligence Test-‐Primary (SIT-‐P-‐1)
• Quick estimate of cognitive abilities
• Ages 2-‐7.11
• IQs from 10-‐170+
• Assist in identification of children at risk for educational
failure or those who may need additional testing
• VIQ and PIQ and total standard score
§ Slosson Intelligence Test for Children and Adults (SIT-‐R3)
• Brief individual screening test for Crystallized Verbal
Intelligence
• Ages 4-‐65
• IQs from 36-‐164
• Appropriate for visually impaired or blind
o Differential Ability Scales (DAS)
§ Cognitive and achievement tests
§ Ages 2.6-‐17.11
§ Cognitive=General Conceptual Ability—ability to perform complex
mental processing that involves conceptualization and
transformation of info
§ Achievement=info for ability-‐achievement discrepancy analysis
o Woodcock-‐Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability
§ Achievement (WJ-‐III)—scholastic aptitude and oral language
§ Cognitive—general intellectual ability and specific cognitive abilities
§ Ages 2-‐90+
§ Ability/achievement discrepancy is most commonly used method of
evaluating eligibility for special programs

• Developmental Scales
o Infant and early childhood intelligence tests are typically developmental
scales measuring motor, social, perceptual, sensory, and language (at age 18
mo)
o Gesell Developmental Schedules
§ Standardized measures of infant and early childhood development (4
wks to 6 yrs)
§ Areas of motor, adaptive, language, person-‐social functions
§ Observations of child’s activities and info given by mother/caretaker
o Bayley Scales of Infant Development
§ Identify developmental delays and plan intervention strategies
§ Ages 1-‐42 mo
§ New scales of social-‐emotional and adaptive behavior
§ Old scales of cognitive, language, and motor

Optional scale assessed behavior during testing
§
Best assessment measure of infant development and provides
§
valuable info about patterns of early development
o Denver Developmental Screening Test II (Denver II)
§ Birth-‐6yrs
§ Screens for developmental delays
§ Based on direct observation of child’s performance
§ 4 developmental domains:
• Personal-‐social
• Language
• Fine motor adaptive
• Gross motor
§ Often used in medical setting

• Assessments of Adaptive Behavior

o MR—subaverage intelligence and significantly below average social
adaptation
o Adaptive Bx—ability and competency of individual to meet expected
standards of personal independence and social responsibility in relation to
his/her age and cultural group
o Differentiate btw “six-‐hr retardation” (one who is slow only in school
environment) from MR child who is below average in all environments
o Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale
§ Individual’s personal and social sufficiency
§ Assist in developing educational and treatment plans
§ Birth to 90 yrs
§ MR, autism spectrum, brain injury, ADHD, dementia
§ Domains:
• Communication
• Daily living skills
• Socialization
• Motor Skills
• Maladaptive Bx (optional)
§ AAMD Adaptive Behavior Scale
• Age 3+
• Observations of social, personal hygiene, language and
maladaptive bx
§ Adaptive Behavior Inventory for Children
• More sensitive assessment of racial minority children
• 242 interview questions, with parent/caregiver providing
answers
• Dimensions:
o Family
o Community

o Peer relations
o Non-‐academic school roles
o Earner/consumer
o Self-‐maintenance

• Nonverbal and “Culture Free” Measures of Intelligence

o Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-‐III)
§ 175 cars with 4 pictures on each
o Columbia Mental Maturity Scale
§ General reasoning
§ Set of pictures and asked to indicate which one doesn’t belong with
others
§ IQ score
§ Ages 3.6-‐9.11
§ Useful for sensorimotor disorders or for trouble speaking/reading
o Haptic Intelligence Scale
§ Ages 16+
§ Partially-‐sighted or blind
§ Subtests:
• BD
• Object Completion
• Pattern Board
• Digit Symb
• Obj Assem
• Bead Arithmetic
§ Uses tactile stimuli
§ Can be administered alone or along with WAIS
o Leiter International Performance Scale-‐Revised (Leiter-‐R)
§ Administered without verbal instructions
§ Ages 2-‐21
§ Language or reading problems or hearing impaired
§ Match picture response cards to same pictures on an easel
o Culture Fair Intelligence Test
§ 3 scales for different age groups
• 4-‐8yrs and adults with MR
• 8-‐13 and average adults
• Grades 10-‐16 and superior adults
§ Responses to picture and pattern stimuli and test nonverbal skills as
seriation, classification, and matrices
§ Not possible to design culture-‐free or culture-‐fair test
o Raven’s Progressive Matrices
§ Perceptual ability and spatial logic
§ Ages 6-‐80
§ “culture-‐fair” intelligence test

o System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA)
§ Broad-‐based assessment
§ Social competency
§ Ages 5-‐11
§ Measures:
• Adaptive behavior inventory
• Sociocultural scales
• Health history
• WISC-‐IV/WPPSI-‐III
• Bender-‐Gestalt
• Set of physical dexterity tasks
§ Standardized scores available for Caucasian, Latino and AA

• Group Intelligence Tests

o Used in army, industry, schools and other settings that require testing large
group of people
o Frequently multiple choice and organize questions by content with each
area separately-‐times, or combine various content questions and organize
questions in order of increasing difficulty
o Otis-‐Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT7)
§ Reasoning skills and strengths/weaknesses in performing variety of
reasoning tasks
§ Areas:
• Verbal comp
• Verbal reasoning
• Pictorial reasoning
• Figural reasoning
• Quantitative reasoning
o Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT)
§ Kindergarten through grade 12
§ Patterns and level of abilities in reasoning and problem solving
§ Verbal, quantitative and nonverbal reasoning abilities, and composite
score
o Wonderlic Personnel Test
§ 12 min paper and pencil test of mental ability for adults
§ 50 numerical, verbal and spatial items
§ Unfairly discriminates against individuals of culturally-‐diverse
groups for various jobs

• Achievement vs. Aptitude Tests
o Aptitude=limited, defined homogeneous groups of abilities
§ PREDICTORS of future bx
§ General measures correlate strongly with educational achievement
o Achievement=end result of learning program

§ Retention of content and typically used in educational settings
o While aptitude tests supposedly measure potential capacity for future
learning, achievement measures what person has already
learned/developed capacity

MISC ISSUES IN INTELLIGENCE TESTING
• Effects of Coaching on Standardized Tests

o Improve only minimally with intensive short-‐term coaching
o Effects on SAT somewhat greater on math than verbal
o Larger if there are multiple practice tests and if practice and criterion tests
are similar/identical

• Test-‐Wiseness
o Nothing more than application of individual’s general cognitive ability of
test-‐taking task

• Gifted Children
o Achieve slightly higher scores on measures of self-‐concept, especially in
areas related to academics
o Better with metacognitive skills
o Process information more efficiently, especially on novel tasks that require
insight

• Test Anxiety
o Related to fear of failure in situation in which person is being evaluated
o High test anxiety—lower achievement scores and decreased educational
attainment across board

PUBLICATIONS RELEVANT TO TESTING
• Mental Measurement Yearbooks

o Most commercially available psychological, educational, and vocational tests
o Critical reviews of tests, info on reliability and validity

School Psychology
SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
• Effective school:
o Strong leadership, with principals who are active and energetic
o Orderly and structured, but not oppressive and rigid, atmosphere

o Teachers who participate in decision making
o Educational staff who have high expectations that children will learn
o Emphasis on academics
o Frequent monitoring of student’s performance

• Smalls schools are more effective than large

o Large=too few opportunities to assume roles, leading to easy alienation
o Small=under-‐manned
§ Students exposed to opportunities to engage in several social roles
and feel more involved

• School Psychologists and Consultations

o Models:
§ Mental health model—consultant interacts with
parents/teacher/principal in order to help person resolve problem
involving child
§ Behavioral model—consultant focuses directly on presenting
problem of consultee
§ Adlerian model—emphasizes preventative interventions by
consultants, who educate parents/teachers and apply assumptions
and content of Adlerian theory
o Targeting school environment, rather than student, is more effective

• Curriculum-‐Based Assessment
o Educational assessment that is closely linked to particular curriculum
o Performance level—provide feedback about instruction itself, so that
necessary changes can be made to better fit student’s ability and current
knowledge
o Purpose is to help identify progress in terms of existing curriculum and any
changes in instruction that would aid student’s progress in completing
curriculum

• Montessori Teaching Method

o Cognitive development is product of interactions btw individual and
environment
o Orderly but stimulating environment
o Children are encourages to select own activities from environment that
contains variety of self-‐teaching toys/materials
§ Are free to do what they want, within limits, and are encouraged to
exercise self-‐discipline
§ Materials, which children can work with and master at own rate, are
designed to promote motor, sensory and language development,
which are viewed as prerequisites to academic learning

Academic training begins at age 4 and builds on sensory, motor and
§
language skills previously acquired
o Criticized for not providing enough opportunity for small-‐group interaction,
cooperative activities, and verbal interaction with peers and teachers

RESEARCH ISSUES IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
• Project Head Start

o Early intervention program for children of poverty
o Involves year of preschool education, nutritional and medical services, and
parent involvement in education and program administration
o Study found that one year had only marginal effects on intelligence and
school achievement

• Bilingual Education
o Immigrant non-‐English speaking children in quality bilingual programs
learn English and subject matter at least as well

• Ability Tracking
o Grouping children in classrooms based on their ability level
o Significant negative effects on low to moderate achieving children, and few
to no positive effects for high achievers

• Teachers’ Gender Bias

o Male and female teachers pay more attn to boys than girls
§ Both positive and negative biases
• Boys—educational needs or behavior problems, attn that
fosters academic achievement
o They are more likely to bring attn to themselves and
act-‐out behaviorally

• Cooperative Learning
o Teacher assigns students to learning groups consisting of 4-‐6 members
o Forms:
§ Student Team Learning—team competes with other teams of
learners
• After teacher presents lesson, teams meet to discuss lesson
• Each student takes quiz and performance is summed to
create team score

Jigsaw—each student is given unique info on topic that while group
§
is studying
• Teach other group members what they have learned
§ Learning Together—students work together to complete single
worksheet
§ Group Investigation—each group takes different task and is
responsible for allocating subtasks to each member
• Open-‐ended investigations using variety of resource
materials
• Group prepares reports to present to rest of class
o Research
§ Designed properly have positive effect on achievement
• Equally likely in elementary/secondary school,
urban/suburban/rural, high/average/low achievers,
whites/minorities
• Positive effect in other areas besides achievement
o Increases quantity and quality of cross-‐ethnic
friendships and interactions
o Improves relationships btw mainstream academically
handicapped and nonmainstream
o Increase self-‐esteem, altruism, and probability that
student will be liked by others
§ Reduces interpersonal problems in emotional
disturbed
§ Student accountability—distinguishes success from nonsuccessful

LEGAL ISSUES IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
• Federal Guidelines
o Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975/Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act
§ Free appropriate public education ages 3-‐21 regardless of ability
§ IEPs
§ “Least restrictive environment”
§ Parental access to child evaluations, reports and inclusion in
meetings
o Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act/Buckley Amendment
§ Eligible students (after age 18) and parents have right to access
educational records and challenge any content
§ Psychologist’s evals and materials created and maintained by
psychologist for educational institution
• Personal and individual notes not included
§ Records no longer useful/relevant be destroyed


• Testing
o Placement in special classes on basis of scores on intelligence tests have
been challenged
o Larry P. vs. Riles
§ Parents of group of AA children challenged placement in EMR
classes because they claimed tests were culturally biased
§ Preliminary injunction banning use of intelligence test scores as
criterion for placing children in EMR
§ 1979—ban was permanent
o PACE vs. Hannon
§ Concluded only eight items on WISC-‐R were biased
§ Because intelligence tests only one part of assessment procedure,
finding minimal bias in one predictive measure was in consequential
o Present time, issue still unresolved

• Mainstreaming
o Placing disabled students in regular classes for all/part of day
o Beneficial effects on academic achievement of students with disabilities


SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INTRO AND HX
• Definition
o Scientific study of how ind’s feelings, thoughts and bx are influenced bu social
stimuli
• Hx Background
o Muzefer Sherif
§ It is possible to study social stimuli in rigorous, scientific manner
o Kurt Lewin
§ First major theorist to study how internal and external factors influence
bx
§ Field Theory
• LIFE SPACE of ind—consists of person and psych environment
o IMMEDIATE PRESENT
o Totality of all possible factors that influence person
§ Needs, goals, external events
• Conflict situations
o Person moves toward goals in field that have positive
valence and away from negative valence
o Conflict occurs when forces directing person
towards/away from goal are opposite and about equal
strength
§ Approach-‐Approach Conflict—located btw 2 pos
goal obj of equal attractiveness
• Initially, response is ambivalence, but as
moves toward 1 goal, it becomes more
attractive and other goal becomes less
attractive
§ Avoidance-‐Avoidance Conflict—choose btw 2 neg
alternatives
• If it is possible to leave, then conflict
resolved
• Person will vacillate btw 2 goals and then
achieve equilibrium
§ Approach-‐Avoidance Conflict—drawn to/repelled
by same situation at same times
• Similar to avoidance-‐avoidance, if person
can leave
• Personal eventually reaches equilibrium at
point where approach and avoidance forces
are balanced
• Avoidance gradient is steeper than approach
gradient—avoidance response becomes
much stronger

o Zeigarnik Effect
§ Interrupting sub in middle of task has effect of leaving him in state of
tension and disequilibrium
§ To reduce tension, sub wants to complete task and remembers
uncompleted tasks better than completed ones

SOCIAL PERCEPTION

• Ways in which people try to make sense of themselves, others and grps

• Self-‐concept
o Sum total of ind’s beliefs about own personal attributes
o Self-‐Perception Theory
§ Person arrives at self-‐concept in same way he obtains concept of others
§ When internal cues are weak/difficult to interpret, people infer what
they think or how they feel by observing own bx and situation in which it
takes place
§ Two-‐Factor Theory (Schachter)
• To experience specific emotion, person must first experience
physiological arousal and then must make cog interpretation of
arousal
• Reactions of others helps us make interpretations
o Overjustification Hypothesis
§ Rewarding people for enjoyable activity can undermine interest in
activity
§ INTRINSIC and EXTRINSIC motivation
• People are intrinsically motivated when they engage in activity
out of enjoyment, w/o expecting reward
• Extrinsically motivated when we do something to get reard
§ When we are rewarded for activity that was previously intrinsically
motivated, bx becomes overjustified or over-‐rewarded
• Intrinsic motivation loses power and activity no longer perceived
as inherently enjoyable
• Lose interest in activity
§ When people are rewarded for enjoyable bx, they observe themselves
engaging in bx to obtain reward
• Reason they engage in activity in first place was to be rewarded
o Social Comparison Theory
§ Influence of other people affects self-‐concept
§ When people are uncertain about their abilities/opinions, they evaluate
themselves by comparing themselves to similar others
§ People we turn to for social comparison are similar to us in relevant
ways
§ When our self-‐esteem is at stake, we may make downward comparisons

• When individuals feel threatened, neg characteristic is subject to
self-‐evaluation, low self-‐esteem
o Self-‐Verification Theory
§ People need and seek confirmation of self-‐concept, regardless of
whether self-‐conceot is + or –
§ Prefer to be right rather than happy
§ Selective interaction—choosing to interact w those who confirm self-‐
concepts and avid those that do not
§ Not only seek confirmation of self-‐concept, but are motivated to attend
to, recall and believe it
§ Depressed people seek more – feedback from others and are more
rejected by others
• Exacerbate symptoms

• Attribution Theory
o Understanding of how people perceive and think about causes of what happens
to themselves and others
o Fundamental Attribution Error
§ Tendency to UNDERESTIMATE impact of situations and OVERESTIMATE
role of personal factors
§ Focus on person rather than situation
o Actor-‐Observer Effect
§ Situational attributions of own bx
§ Exception:
• Cause of our own successes
o More likely attributional
• We explain failures—actor-‐observer effect holds true
o Tendency to credit our successes but blame situational
factors for our failures—SELF-‐SERVING BIAS
§ Does not apply to depression or low self-‐esteem
o Weiner’s Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion
§ Attributions for success and failure
§ Can be to factors that are:
• Internal or external
• Stable or unstable
• Controllable or uncontrollable
§ Rotter’s notion of locus of control
• Internal or external locus of control
o High internal—themselves as causes of things that happen
to them
§ More achievement oriented and self-‐confident
o High external—external factors as cause of what happens
to them
§ Anx, suspicious, dogmatic
§ Intent and Global

• Accomplishments attributed to intentional and specific causes
produce greatest pride
• Neg bx attributed to specific and intentional causes produce
greatest blame, shame, guilt
o Belief in Just World
§ Attributions for misfortunes of others
§ Get what we deserve and deserve what we get
§ Common tendency to blame victim
§ Defense against painful reality that we are vulnerable to twists and turns
of fate

o Locus of Control and Locus of Responsibility
§ Person’s attributions are influenced by ethnicity and racial identity
§ Locus of Control—beliefs that fate is determined either by own actions
or independently of own actions
§ Locus of Responsibility—degree of responsibility or blame one places on
ind or system
§ Independent of one another
§ Intersection of two creates worldviews:
• Internal Control and Internal Responsibility—success/failure is
due to one’s own efforts/abilities
o Dominant culture in US
• Internal Control and External Responsibility—ability to shape
own life, but recognizes external barriers such as discrimination
do exist
o Minority groups
• External Control and Internal Responsibility—marginalized ind
who feel they have little control over own fate, and deny
existence of racism and blame selves for plight
• External Control and External Responsibility—little control over
lives (learned helplessness) and blame system for it

• Impression Formation
o Process of integrating info about person to form coherent impression
o False Consensus Bias
§ Tendency to overestimate degree to which others conform to us in terms
of their opinions, attributes, and bx
o Central Traits
§ Certain characteristics imply more about person than others
§ Provide unique info about person and are associated w many other
characteristics
o Primacy Effect
§ Info presented early in sequence has greatest impact
• Impact of info may persist even when later opposing evidence is
presented

§Does not occur in all cases
• Irrelevant activity intervenes
• Person warned not to jump to conclusions,
o Trait Negativity Bias
§ Evaluating other—weigh neg info more heavily than pos info
o Confirmation Bias
§ Tendency to form impressions on basis of above mentioned cog
distortions is compounded by tendency to seek, interpret, create info
that verifies existing beliefs
§ Once we form impression, strategies for learning about world are likely
to confirm impression
§ Rosenhan’s “pseudopatient study”
• Real pts were able to recognize pseudopts were not mentall ill
• None of the psychiatrists or staff members did
• Tend to view reality in terms of beliefs and impressions about it
§ Self-‐fulfilling Prophecy—person’s expectations about bx of others can
lead to fulfillment of those expectations
• Pygmalion in Classroom study—teachers told of intellectual
growth spurt, which was later observed in class
• Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
o Stereotype—cog BELIEF that associates grps of people w certain traits
o Prejudice—neg FEELINGS about person based solely on grp membership
o Discrimination—BX directed against persons due to identification w grp
o Prejudice and Discrimination
§ Authoritarian Personality—prejudiced personality
§ Conventional, rigid in thinking, sexually inhibited, submissive to
authority, and intolerant of others who are different
o Social Identity Theory—strive to maintain and enhance self-‐esteem
§ Social identity—enhanced by believing our own group is attractive and
belittling members of other grps
• Enhance own self-‐esteem
o Reducing Intergroup Hostility
§ Robber’s Cave Study—development and mitigation of grp hostility
through competition
• Superordinate goals—shared goals that required cooperation btw
grps
§ Jigsaw Classroom—cooperation as method of reducing hostility
• Racially mixed classrooms where materials were divided into
subtopics and each student was responsible for learning one
subtopic and teaching other students
• Less prejudice
§ Doll study—2/3 of children preferred playing w white doll than brown
ones
• Brown dolls looked “bad” while white ones were perceived as
“nice”

• 1/3 picked white doll as doll that looked like them
§ Contact Hypothesis
• Direct contact btw members of hostile grps will reduce
stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination
• Conditions must be met:
o Contact must be btw 2 equal status grps
o Contact should involve personal contact btw 2 grps
o Contact situation should provide opportunity for mutual
cooperative activity to achieve joint goal
o Social norms in contact situation must favor and
encourage cooperation, grp equality, and intergroup
contact
• School desegregation—increase prejudice in majority of white
students and failed because conditions were not met

SOCIAL INTERACTION

• Affiliation and Attraction
o Variables related to Affiliation
§ Anxiety—affiliation reduces fear and anx
• First born and only children showed strongest tendency to
affiliate and need to affiliate decreased for later-‐born children
• Situations where survival is issue—affiliate w those who have
successfully undergone experience and are better informed
§ Gender—females spend more time in conversation, more likely to talk to
same sex, affiliate more in public
o Variable related to Interpersonal Attractiveness
§ Physical Proximity—tend to like others near us
• Exposure Effect—repeated contact w something/someone is
sufficient to increase attraction
• Proximity may not guarantee + social interaction, but provide
opportunity
§ Similarity
§ Complementary
§ Physical Attractiveness
§ Self-‐Disclosure—best if reciprocal
§ Reciprocity
§ Costs and Benefits
• Social Exchange Theory—economic model of relationships that
offer greater reward than cost
o Emotion-‐in-‐Relationships Model
§ + and – emotions are most likely to arise in relationship when one
partner’s bx disconfirms other partner’s expectations

• Altruistic and Prosocial Bx

o Helping Bx
§ Presence of bystanders reduces helping of any one person—Bystander
Apathy
• Greater # bystanders, greater bystander apathy
§ Causes:
• Diffusion of responsibility
• Social influence
• Evaluation apprehension
• Confusion of responsibility—person approached victim, that
person perhaps may feel responsible for misfortunes by others
that may come upon scene
§ Victim is obviously in distress and problem is not ambiguous, likelihood
of prosocial bx is increased
§ Others are more likely to help when someone has already intervened
§ More likely to help in rural areas

o Cooperation
§ Non-‐zero-‐sum game—games where gains and losses do not sum to 0
§ Even if it is in players interests to cooperate, most people compete
anyway
§ Prisoner’s Dilemma

• Aggression
o Instrumental aggression—bx is means to some other end
o Hostile aggression—venting of neg emotions
o Learned Aggression—greatly influences by learning
§ Children tend to imitate aggr. bx of adults
• More important, powerful, successful, liked, familiar adult is,
more child will imitate
o Social and Situational Influences of Aggression
§ Frustration-‐Aggression Hypothesis
• Frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always
preceded by frustration
• If aggression is inhibited by fear/punishment or lack of access to
source of frustration, it will be displaced to another target
• Contemporary psych—path btw frustration and aggressive
response is held to include intervening cog, attributions, prior
learning, and person’s characterological means of dealing w
aversive stimuli
§ Catharsis Theory
• Aggressive act can reduce person’s inclination to engage in other
aggressive acts
• Not supported by research
§ Temperature
• High temp are + coorelated w crime rates

§ Deindividuation
• People who would rarely/never be violent in interactions will
display uncharacteristic violence and aggression under sway of
crowd
• Sense of autonomy
• Attend less to internal standards of conduct, react more to
immediate situation and are less sensitive to long-‐term
consequences of bx
§ Assigned Roles
• Prison study by Zimbardo
• Assigned institutional roles can have powerful effect on
aggressive bx

SOCIAL INFLUENCE

• Conformity and Compliance
o Conformity
§ 2 types Conformity
• Informational—using other’s bx as source of accurate info in
order to avoid mistakes, particularly when ind is unsure of own
accuracy
• Normative—“going along” w group norms simply due to grp
pressure—desire to be accepted by grp and void criticism
o Factors influencing conformity:
§ Grp size—increases w size, but only up to a point
§ Unanimity
§ Ambiguity
§ Cohesiveness
§ Personality Characteristics—low self-‐esteem, low intelligence, high need
for approval, authoritarianism
o Minority influence
§ Large grp can change its opinions/bx based on lead of one person
§ Conditions under which minority will influence majority:
• Minority’s position is consistent
• Minority is not perceived as rigid, psych imbalanced, biased
• Minority must not waver in support of position
• Minority is not member of familiar gro arguing in favor of that
grp’s interests
§ People stand up for beliefs against majority are generally perceived as
competent and honest, they are also highly disliked
§ Idiosyncrasy credits—person must first conform to grp in order to
establish credentials as “competent insider”
• Once person has collected these credits, attempts to
deviate/become leader will be more accepted
o Psych Reactance

§ If person perceived that sense of control or freedom of choice is
threatened, there will be attempt to re-‐establish freedom
§ Conformity and compliance are less likely to occur in situations where
person feels freedom to choose is being threatened
o Compliance
§ Occurs when people agree to explicit requests to do something
§ Foot-‐in-‐the-‐Door
• Start w very small request and proceed from there to larger
request
• Oncer we observe ourselves complying w small request, we
comply w larger one because we want our bx to remain
consistent
§ Door-‐in-‐the-‐Face
• Making initial request that is so large that it is sure to be rejected
and then coming back w 2nd more reasonable request

§ Low-‐Balling
• Securing agreement w request and then increasing size of request
by revealing hidden costs
• Effective technique

• Bases of Social Power
o Social power—ability to influence others and resist influence on us
§ Reward Power—holder’s ability to reward others
§ Coercive Power—holder’s ability to punish others
§ Legitimate Power—holder’s valid authority in given situation
§ Referent Power—person’s attraction to or desire to be like holder of
power
§ Expert Power—holder has special knowledge or expertise
§ Informational power—person’s possession of specific, desired piece of
info
o Leaders who combine expert and reference power tend to be most effective

• Group Processes
o Social Facilitation
§ Effects others have on our performance
§ Presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks and impairs
on complex tasks
§ Mere presence of others increases drive, which can be defined as diffuse
physiological arousal that energizes performance
o Social Loafing
§ Pooled performance of group
§ Compared to what people can do by themselves, ind output declines
when people are working as grp

Neg consequences:
§
• Does not occur under all conditions
• Simple, boring, and require same effort of everyone
o Reduced or eliminated—believe that ind contributions are
identifiable or think that their contribution is uniquely
necessary for grp to succeed
o Regard task as personally relevant, challenging or highly
attractive
o Group Decision-‐Making
§ Superior to ind decision-‐making
§ In grp, greater range of ideas and info is available
§ Impair due to:
• Group polarization—tendency of inds to start off w similar views
to end up w more extreme position after grp discussion
o More persuasive arguments in favor of particular position
members are exposed to
o Grp members know each other’s positions before
discussion begins
o Members consider grp to be “ingrp”
• Groupthink—mode of thinking that people engage in when they
are involved in cohesive grp, when member’s strivings for
unanimity override motivation to realistically appraise
alternative courses of action
o Excessive tendency among grp members to seek
concurrence, to point where decision reached by grp may
be irrational and impulsively made
o High cohesiveness, grp composition of people from similar
backgrounds, group isolation from others, presence of
strong leader, lack of systematic procedures for making
and reviewing decisions, and presence of stressful
situation
o Likely in newly formed grps
o Symptoms: overestimation of grp, closemindedness,
increased pressures toward uniformity
o Reduce:
§ Avoid isolation by bringing people who are not part
of grp into grp discussion
§ Increasing leader’s impartiality by having him
refrain from taking strong position and
encouraging criticism of his judgments
§ Encouraging norm of critical review by creating
independent subgrps to work on same policy issue,
assigning one member role of devils advocate, and
holding second chance metg where preliminary
decision is reconsidered

Brainstrorming
§
• Ind working alone produce greater quantity of ideas
o Group Tasks
§ Additive task—grp product is sum of all members’ contributions
§ Conjunctive task—grp product is determined by ind w poorest
performance
§ Disjunctive task—grp performance is determined by performance of indi
w best performance
§ Compensatory task—grp product determined by performance of
average member
o Resolving Conflict: Mediation and Arbitration
§ 3rd party intervention
§ Successful mediation:
• Modifying physical and/or social structure of conflict
• Modifying issue structure by helping disputants clarify issues and
indentify alternative solutions
• Increasing disputants motivation to reach agreement by fostering
trust btw them, diffusing emotions, and helping disputants see
agreement is possible
§ Arbitration is alternative to mediation

ATTITUDES AND ATTITUDE CHANGE

• Attitude—relatively stable and enduring predisposition to act, think or feel in certain
way toward obj/person/situation

• Attitude Measurement
o Self-‐report Measures
§ Social Distance Scale—measures attitudes toward diff ethnic grps
§ Semantic Differential Scale—rate obj in terms of several items that
assess obj’s favorableness, power or activity
§ Bogus Pipeline—ind may not be totally honest about attitudes
• Subj wired to elaborate mechanical device that supposedly
records true feelings

• Relationship Btw Attitudes and Bx
o Attitude has bx, cog, and affective dimension
o Factors affecting relationship btw Attitudes and Bx
§ Attitudes could be better predictors of bx when:
• Measures of attitude and bx are specific
• Attitudes are well-‐informed
• Info on which attitude is based was obtained through experience
• Attitude is readily accessible to awareness
§ Social norms

§ Attitudes and norms don’t directly influence bx, rather lead to formation
of behavioral intention
• Not always followed through on
§ Attitude will predict bx if:
• Attitude is not consistent w social norms
• Person is able to follow through on intention to carry through w
bx

• Theories of Attitude Change
o Cognitive Dissonance Theory
§ Cognitions are inconsistent, we experience state of dissonance which is
unpleasant state of tension
• To reduce, we must take steps to restore consistency
o Changing attitude, adding consonant cog, or reducing
importance of conflict
§ Insufficient justification—dissonance because actions were inconsistent
w beleifs
• Resolved by changing opinion
§ 4 steps necessary for arousal of dissonance and its reduction through
attitude change:
• Attitude discrepant bx must have neg consequences
• Person must feel personally responsible for actions
• Discrepancy must produce physiological arousal
• Person must attribute arousal to own bx
o Heider’s Balance Theory
§ We desire consistency
§ Consistency btw attitudes and feelings toward others
• Balance when same attitude towards those we like and diff
attitude towards those we dislike
• Imbalanced—motivated to change either attitude or feelings
toward person in order to have balance

• Variables Related to Attitude Change
o Change in response to persuasive communication is function of communicator,
communication or audience
o Communicator
§ Tends to be persuasive w more credibility and likability
§ Credibility—stems from competence and trustworthiness
• Sleep effect—credible communicator produces more immediate
attitude change
o Over time, impact of credible communicator decreases and
that of noncredible increases
o As time passes, we forget source of message but continue
to remember message itself
o Communication

§ Amount of Info—if person is not listening to message, long messages are
better because they give superficial appearance of being factual
• For those listening, longer messages better if they do indeed
contain a lot of supporting info
§ Repetition—repeatedly presenting exact same message from exact same
source may be effective
• Mere exposure
• Exposure effect is enhanced if presentations are brief and spread
out over time
§ One-‐sided and Two-‐sided Arguments
• Presenting both sides is most effective if person is initially
opposed to issue, is relatively well-‐informed about issue, or is
educated
• If he is initially favorable, poorly informed, or relatively
uneducated, one-‐sided is more effective
• Two-‐sided—protecting audience from effects of competing info
o Communicator presents weakened version of opposing
point of view, audience becomes more resistant to
opposing arguments presented later
o Inoculation Theory—most effective way of increasing
resistance is to build up defenses
§ Discrepancy—moderately discrepant from target’s initial position is
most effective
• Too discrepant, attitude change will be too radical
• Not discrepant, person will agree w communicator and there will
be no room for attitude change
• Interaction btw credibility and discrepancy—highly credible
communicator, optimal level of discrepancy is greater than for
low credible
§ Appeals to Fear—high levels of fear tend not to produce much attitude
change
• Inducing fear can be effective if fear-‐arousing message includes
specific instructions on how to avoid feared danger
§ Order of Presentation—side presented first will have more impact if
second immediately follows and attitude measurement occurs at later
time
• Primacy Effect—both messages fade from memory and only
greater impact of first impressions is left
• Recency Effect—period of time elapses btw first and second,
second will be more effective
o Fresher in memory
• No primacy or recency occurs if:
o Second immediately follows first and attitude assessment
takes place right away

o Period of time elapses btw 2 messages and btw last
message and attitude measurement
o Target Audience
§ Personality and Demographic Variables
• Low-‐esteem will show greater attitude change
§ Forewarning
• When people know in advance that they are to be targets of
persuasion, it is more difficult to change attitudes
o Elaboration Likelihood Model
§ 2 routes to persuasive communication
• Central route—think carefully about contents of message
• Peripheral route—do not think carefully
§ Listeners most likely to take central route when they are well-‐informed
and not distracted
• Message easily learned and stimulated listener to dwell on
favorable thoughts
§ When distracted or uninformed, more amenable cures received by
peripheral route

MISC TOPICS

• Environmental Psych
o Effect of physical environment on bx
o Crowding
§ High density seems to enhance feelings person already has
§ Depend on whether or not person is distracted
• Crowding can lower performance on complex tasks or improve
performance on well-‐learned tasks
§ Men being more sensitive to and stressed by high density situations
• More negative for men than women
o Personal Space
§ Greater required by people low in self-‐esteem and high I
authoritarianiam
§ Men need more personal space
§ Violations don’t have any deleterious effects
• Intensify affective rxn person is experiencing at time
o Climate
§ Neg impact of air pollution, humidity, lunar cycles on bx
o Noise
§ 2 most damaging ingredients in noise stress are unpredictability and
uncontrollability
• Neg affect performance as well as social bx
o Increase aggressiveness, reduce helping others
• Decreased performance on number of school tasks
o TV Viewing

§Read less, do more poorly in school, spend less time in fam interactions
§Aggressive bx, tolerance for aggression
§Reinforce traditional sex-‐role stereotypes

• Applications of Social Psych
o Law
§ Jury Size—fewer than 12 people are more likely to convict since they are
less likely to contain more than one hold-‐out for acquittal which,
according to small-‐grp research, would help lone dissenter “stick to
guns”
§ Child Witnesses—children ages 5-‐10y/o were less accurate witnesses,
but did not misremember touches that did not occur
§ Procedure—judges give jury instructions 2x
• Effectively enhances juror’s recall and interpretation of evidence
§ Presentation of Evidence—graphic evidence lowered juror’s standards
of proof, and brought out pro-‐prosecution biases
§ Defendant Features—more lenient treatment to physically attractive
defendents
• Judges give lighter sentences to physically attractive convicted
defendants
§ Pretrial Publicity—neg publicity more likely to vote for conviction
§ Inadmissable Evidence—do not ignore it and jury rely on it more
§ Eyewitness Memory—bias and distort memory of eyewitnesses
• Reconstructive memory—after we observe something, additional
info about it becomes integrated into our mem of original event
o Health
§ Type A Personality
• Competitive striving achievement, sense of time urgency,
hostility, aggression
• Hostility complex—cynical mistrust of and contempt for others,
along w tendency to readily express these feelings
• Contrasting is hardiness:
o Sense of personal control over events
o Commitment, sense of purpose in one’s work and activities
o Challenge or sense of healthy optimism in seeing life as
series of challenges that make one stronger
§ Buffer Effect
• Interaction btw stress and social support
• Under low stress, social support is not necessary for good health
• When stress is high, high levels of social support buffer or protect
• Research shows actual relationship btw social support and
physical health
• Perceived levels of social support also buffer
§ Health Belief Model

• Attempt to understand why people seem unwilling to use
preventive disease measures and screening tests that were
available to them
• Very valuable tool in both predicting and understanding people’s
health-‐related decision making process
• Identifies perceived barriers as most influential variable for
predicting and explaining health-‐related bx


TEST CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION

TEST CONSTRUCTION

Psychological Tests— Objective and standardized measure of sample of bx
• Standardization—uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring test
o Reduces measurement error
o Establishment of norms
§ Permits comparison of ind performance on diff tests
§ Do not provide absolute/universal standard of “good” or “bad”
performance
• Norms always provide relative rather than absolute standards
• Objective—administration, scoring, and interpretation of scores are independent of
subjective judgment of particular examiner
• Sample of Bx—bx sample will be truly representative of whole bx

Standards of Test Construction
• Reliability—consistency
o Provides repeatable, consistent results
• Validity—measures what it purports to measure

Test Characteristics
• Maximum vs. Typical Performance
o Maximum=examinee’s best possible performance or what person can do
§ Ex. Achievement and aptitude tests
o Typical=what examinee usually does or feels
§ Ex. Interest and personality tests
• Speed, Power and Mastery Tests
o Speed—response time assessed
o Power—level of difficulty a person can attain
o Mastery—designed to determine whether person can attain pre-‐established
level of acceptable performance
§ All or none score
§ Test basic skills
• Ceiling and Floor Effects
o Limited ceiling=doesn’t include adequate range of difficult items
§ High achieving ind get same or v similar score
o Limited floor=doesn’t include adequate range of easy items so that all low-‐
achieving examinees obtain same/similar score
• Ipsative vs. Normative Measures
o Ipsative—ind is frame of reference in score reporting
§ Scores are reported in terms of relative strength of attributes w/in ind
§ Examinee express preference for one item over others, rather than
responding to each item individually
o Normative—provide measure of absolute strength of each attribute measured

§ Answer all items
§ Compared to those of other examinees

RELIABILITY

Classical Test Theory
• Given examinee’s obtained test score consists of 2 components:
o True score=actual status on whatever attribute is tested
o Error=factors that are irrelevant to whatever is being measured

Methods of Estimating Reliability
• Reliability coefficient=correlation coefficient that ranges from 0.0 to +1.0
o Don’t square it—directly indicated proportion of variability that is true score
variability
• Test-‐Retest Reliability
o “time sampling” or factors related to time are source of measurement error
o Longer interval btw administrations, more susceptible scores to effects of
random error and lower test-‐retest reliability coefficient
o Potential drawbacks:
§ Retaking test
§ Not appropriate for assessing reliability of tests that measure unstable
attributes
o Recommended only for tests that are not appreciably affected by repetition
• Alternate Forms Reliability
o Coefficient of equivalence
o Tends to be lower than test-‐retest
§ Related to both differenced in content btw 2 forms and passage of time
• Internal Consistency Reliability
o Correlations among ind items
o Split-‐Half Reliability—dividing test in 2 and obtaining correlation btw halves
§ Spearman-‐Brown formula—estimates effect of shortening test will have
on reliability coefficient
§ Problem: correlation will vary depending on how items divided
• Use coefficient alpha or Kuder-‐Richardson Formula 20
o Kudar-‐Richardson=when items are dichotomously scored
o Cronbach’s coefficient alpha=multiple-‐scored items
§ Major source of error=content sampling or item heterogeneity
§ Inappropriate for assessing reliability of speed tests
• Interscorer Reliability
o Inter-‐rater reliability
o Concern for measures on which scoring depends on rater judgment
o Kappa coefficient=measure of agreement btw 2 judges who each rate set of
objects using nominal scales
o Increased if raters are well-‐trained and if they know they are being observed
§ Also if rating scale used is adequate

o Recording bx:
§ Duration recording—rater records elapsed time during which target bx
occurs
§ Frequency recording—count # of times target bx occurs
§ Interval recording—in given interval, noting whether subj is engaging in
target bx
§ Continuous recording—recording all bx of target subj during
observation session

Standard Error of Measurement
• How much error ind test score can be expected to have
o SEMEAS=SDx√(1-‐rxx)
• Confidence interval
• Probability that true score lies within range of plus/minus 1 SEMEAS =68%
o Lies within range of plus/minus 1.96 SEMEAS =95%
o Lies within range of plus/minus 2.58 SEMEAS =99%
• If reliability coefficient is +1.0, standard error of measurement equals 0

Factors Affecting Reliability
• Short tests are less reliable than longer tests
• As grp taking test becomes more homogenous, variability of scores (and reliability
coefficient) decreases
• It test items are too difficult, most people will get low scores on test, and vise versa
• Higher probability that examinees can guess correct answer, lower the reliability
coefficient
• For particular kind of reliability, inter-‐item consistency as measured by Kudar-‐
Richardson or coefficient alpha methods, reliability is increased as items become more
homogeneous

VALIDITY

Content Validity
• Test items adequately and representatively sample content area to be measured
• Face validity=test appears to examinees to measure what it is intended to measure

Criterion-‐Related Validity
• Predicting ind’s bx in specified situations
o Scores on predictor test are correlated w outside criterion
• Criterion-‐Related Validity Coefficient
o Correlation coefficient, such as Pearson r is used to determine correlation btw
predictor and criterion
o Ranges from -‐1.0 to +1.0
o Square of coefficient indicates proportion of variability in criterion that is
explained by variability predictor
• Concurrent vs. Predictive Validation

o Validation=procedures used to determine how valid predictor is
o Concurrent validation—predictor and criterion data are collected at or at about
same time
o Predictive validation—scores on predictor are collected first, and criterion data
are collected at some future point
o Concurrent most appropriate for tests designed to assess current status on
criterion, while predictive is better for tests designed to predict future status
• Standard Error of Estimate
o Interpreting ind’s predicted score on given criterion measure
o Vs. Standard Error of Measurement:
§ SEM is related to reliability coefficient; SEE is related to validity
coefficient
§ SEM is sued to estimate where true test score is likely to fall, given
obtained score on that same test
• No predictor measure involved
• SEE is used to determine where actual criterion score is likely to
fall, given criterion score that was predicted by another measure
• Decision-‐Making
o When using predictor tests, it is not necessary to attempt to predict exact score
on criterion measure
§ Goal is usually to predict whether/not person will meet/exceed certain
minimum standard/criterion performance—criterion cutoff point

False Negatives (Invalid
Rejection)—scored below True Positives (Valid
cutoff pt on predictor but Acceptance)—scored above cutoff
turned out to be successful pt on predictor and turn out to be
on criterion successful at criterion

True Negatives (Valid
Rejection)—scored below False Positives (False
cutoff on predictor and Acceptance)—scored above cutoff
turned out to be pt but did not turn out to be
unsuccessful at criterion successful on criterion


o Raising predictor cutoff pt (moving vertical line to rt) results in fewer
positives and more negatives
§ Raising predictor cutoff score increases ratio of true positives to
false positive
• Even though there will be fewer true positives overall,
greater percentage of positives will be true positives
o Lower criterion cutoff score (move horizontal down), there will be more
false negatives and true positives, while there will be fewer true negatives
and false positives
• Factors Affecting Validity Coefficient (magnitude)
o Heterogeneity of examinees—coefficient lowered if there is restricted
range of scores
§ More homogenous validation grp, lower coefficient
o Reliability of predictor and criterion—both must be reliable
§ Unreliable test will always be invalid, but reliable test will not
always be valid
o Moderator Variables—variables that affect validity of test
§ When present, test is said to have differential validity—diff
validity coefficient for one subgrp than another
§ Ex. Males vs. females
o Cross-‐validation—after test is validated, typically re-‐validated w sample
of ind diff from original validation sample
o Criterion Contamination—predictor scores themselves influence ind’s
criterion status
§ Artificially inflates validity coefficient
§ To prevent: anyone involved in assigning criterion ratings should
not have knowledge of examinee’s scores on predictor

Construct Validity
• Construct=psychological variable that is abstract
o Not directly observable
o Inferred
• Degree that it measures theoretical construct or trait
• Worked out over period of time on basis of accumulation of evidence
• Convergent and Discriminant (Divergent) Validation
o Convergent=requires that diff ways of measuring same trait yield similar
results
o Discriminant=low correlation w another test that measures diff construct
§ Low correlation coefficient=high validity


o Multitrait-‐Multimethod Matrix

Monotrait-‐monomethod coefficients —correlation btw measure and itself
§ Monotrait-‐heteromethod coefficients —correlations btw 2
measures that assess same (mono) trait using diff (hetero)
methods
§ Heterotrait-‐monomethod coefficients —correlation btw 2
measures that measure diff traits using same method
§ Heterotrait-‐hetermethod coefficients —correlation btw 2
measures that measure diff traits using diff methods
• Factor Analysis
o Conducted for variety of purposes, one of which is to assess construct
validity of test or number of tests
o Detect structure in number of variables
§ Start w large number of variables and classify them into sets
o Factor loading—correlation btw given test and given factor
§ Range from +1 to -‐1
§ Squared to determine proportion of variability in test accounted
for by factor
o Communality—to determine proportion of variance of test that is
attributable to factors (h2)
§ Factor loadings squared and added
§ Variance specific to test and not explained by these 2 factors is
unique variance (u2)
• Subtract communality from 1.00
o Explained Variance (Eigenvalues)—sum of squares of loadings at bottom
of each factor
§ Measure of amount of variance in all tests accounted for by factor
§ Determine whether or not factor is accounting for significant
amount of variability in tests
§ Convert to percentages ([Eigenvalue x 100]/# tests)
§ Factors will be ordered in terms of size of eigenvalue
• Factor I will explain more of what is going on in tests than
Factor II
§ Sum of eigenvalues can be no larger than number of tests included
in analysis
o Interpreting and Naming Factors
§ Rotation—procedure that facilitates interpretation of factor
matrix
• Redividing test’s communalities so that clearer pattern of
loadings emerges
• 2 general strategies for rotations:
o Orthogonal—factors that are
independent/uncorrelated from each other

o Oblique—factors that are correlated w each other to
some degree
• Communiality can only be calculated by squaring and
summing factor loadings in orthogonal
• Following rotation, explained variance/eigenvalue for each
factor may change
• Techniques Related to Factor Analysis
o Principle Components Analysis—usually end w similar results whether
you choose PCA or FA
§ Similarities btw PCA and FA
• Used for same purpose—to reduce larger set of variables to
fewer underlying traits/constructs
• Derive factor matrix, which indicates correlation btw
variables in analysis and underlying constructs
• Eigenvalues are computed by squaring and summing factor
loadings in unrotated factor matrix’s column
• Underlying elements are ordered in terms of explanatory
power
§ Differences
• Factor=FA, principal component or eigenvector=PCA
• Assumption of PCA is total variance is variable consists of 2
elements: explained variance and error variance
o FA, variance is assumed to be composed of 3
elements: communality, specificity, and error
• PCA=factors always uncorrelated
o No oblique rotation in PCA
o Cluster Analysis—place objects into categories
§ Difference btw CA and FA
• Only variables that are measured using interval/ratio data
can be used in FA
o Any type of data in CA
• Factors in FA are usually interpreted as underlying
traits/constructs measured by variables in analysis
o Clusters in CA are just categories and not necessarily
traits or latent variables
• CA is not designed for use in studies where there is a priori
hypothesis regarding what categories objs will cluster into
o FA is often used to test hypotheses

Relationship btw Reliability and Validity
• Validity coefficient is less than, or at most, equal to square root of reliability
coefficient
o Cannot be any higher
• Correction for Attenuation—used to determine what would happen to validity
coefficient if reliability were higher

ITEM ANALYSIS

Item Difficulty
• Percentage of examinees who answer item correctly
o Item difficulty index (p)
§ Higher p=less difficult item
• Choose items w moderate difficulty level
o Increases test score validity
o Provide maximum differentiation btw high-‐ and low-‐scoring examinees
• Rule of thumb: average difficulty level of items should be halfway btw 1.0
(everyone passing) and level of success expected by chance alone
• Nature of Item Difficulty Data
o P level expresses item difficulty in terms of ordinal scale

Item Discrimination
• Degree to which test item differentiates among examinees in terms of bx that
test is designed to measure
• Can be assessed by calculating item discrimination index (D)
o Range in value from 100 to -‐100
§ 100=maximum discriminability

Item Response Theory
• Complex math approach to item analysis
• Item characteristic curves (ICC)=graphs which depicts each item in terms of how
difficult item was for inds in diff ability grps
o Useful way of depicting both item difficulty and item discrimination
o Discrimination and difficulty level of item are 2 of 3 item parameters
identified by ICC
§ 3rd is probability that examinee can answer question correctly by
guessing

INTERPRETATION OF TEST SCORES

Norm-‐Referenced Interpretation
• Developmental Norms—indicate how far along normal developmental path ind
has progressed
o Mental age score
o Grade equivalent score
o Disadvantage: do not permit comparisons of inds at diff age levels
§ Scores not comparable
• Within-‐Grp Norms—comparison of examinee’s score to those of most nearly
standardized sample
o Percentile ranks—percentage of persons in standardized sample who fall
below given raw score
§ Advantage: easy to interpret

§Disadvantage: represent ranks and do not allow interpretations in
terms of absolute amount of diff btw scores
o Standard scores—express raw score’s distance from mean in terms of SD
units
§ Z-‐scores—directly indicate how many SD units score falls
above/below mean
§ T-‐scores—mean of 50, SD of 10
§ Stanine scores—range from 1-‐9, mean=5, SD=2
§ Deviation IQ scores—mean=100, SD=15
• Permit comparison across age grps

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Why is the EPPP So Important?

The Real Price

• $600 to sit for the exam (each time)

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• $600+ Preparation Materials (Highly Recommended to Pass 1st time)

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• Neurotic and Existential Anxiety

o However, most persist, and eventually pass the EPPP exam.

Benefits of Early Preparation

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o Be ready to take the exam at the early.

§ This will greatly limit your downtime after graduation.

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• Ninth leading cause of death in US

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• Voluntary relationship btw professional helper and individual group/social

• Forms of Consultation

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NATURE VS NURTURE

• GxE Interaction—interaction of genetics and environment to produce given

• Genetype—characteristics that are determined by info coded on genes

• Range of Reaction—individual’s genetics set boundaries for possible phenotypes

• Maturation—genetically-­‐determined patterns of development

• Canalization—narrow developmental path that characteristics take due to being

• Maturation—genetically-‐determined patterns of development

NEO-‐PIAGETIAN AND INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES

• Nativist Theories—role of innate, genetically-‐determined factors in language

• Theories of Gender-‐Identity Development