Advanced Marine Thermodynamics

JNE312
Advanced Marine
Thermodynamics
Course Notes
2017
Australia Maritime College

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 2
Advanced Marine Thermodynamics
Table of Contents
Thermodynamic Fundamentals ....................................................................................... 1
First Law of Thermodynamics ....................................................................................... 19
Non-Flow Energy Equation ............................................................................................ 19
Steady Flow Energy Equation ....................................................................................... 21
The Perfect Gas……………………………..…………………………………………………..30
Reciprocating Gas Compressors…………………………………………………………….44
Second Law of Thermodynamics…………………..........................................................55
Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine…………………………………..……………73
Gas Turbines…………………………………………………………………………………….83
Properties of Liquid and Vapours…………………...……………………………………….92
Steam Power Cycles…………………………………………………………………………..107
Steam Turbines………………………………………………………………...………………119
Refrigeration……………………………………………………………………………………128
Combustion of Fuels………………………………………………………………………….142
Heat Transfer…………………………………………………………………………………...156
Air Conditioning……………………………………………………………………………….181
Further reading
Rogers and Mayhew, Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids, 5th Edition,
T.D. Eastop & A. McConkey, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineers and Technologists,4th Edition,
Weddle, Marine Engineering Systems, Heineman 1976.

Thermodynamic Fundamentals
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science dealing with the relationships between heating, working and
the properties of substances. It involves the study of energy converting processes in
engineering plant such as steam turbines, diesel engines, petrol engines, refrigerators and
heat pumps, compressors, boilers, condensers, heat exchangers, combustion systems, etc.
Energy
Energy is perhaps the single most important concept in all of science.
There are two basic forms of energy:
1) Kinetic Energy. A mass has kinetic energy due to its motion (translation, rotation)
2) Potential Energy. A mass has potential energy depending on its position in a force field
(gravitational field, electric field)
3) Mass Energy. Energy equivalent of matter as defined by Einstein’s equation: E=mc 2 .
First Law of Thermodynamics: The total energy of an isolated system remains constant -
energy is conserved.
Energy may be changed from one form to another without loss.
The absolute value of energy has no physical significance; only changes in energy are
significant.
Internal Energy (U)

Internal energy is energy possessed by a substance due to;
1) random motion and vibration of its molecules (thermal energy)
2) binding forces between molecules (eg latent energy of evaporation)
3) binding forces within molecules (chemical energy)
Only changes in internal energy are important, and in most thermodynamic systems, only
thermal energy, energy associated with phase changes and chemical energy are of
importance. A change in the thermal energy of a substance is associated with a temperature
change. Phase changes and chemical changes can occur at constant temperature.
Heat (Q)
The term heat, when used correctly, describes the process of transfer of internal energy
from one substance to another due to a temperature gradient. Heat is a way in which energy
is transferred. It is not a form of energy.
The misnoma “heat transfer” is commonly used to describe the transfer of internal energy
from one substance to another by the process of heating. Heat is not a form of energy so it
cannot be transferred.

Work (W)
Work is also a process. It is the flow of energy to or from a substance due to the movement
of a force at the boundary of the substance.
SYSTEM AND WORKING SUBSTANCE

A system is a collection of matter within prescribed boundaries. The boundaries may be
fixed or moveable. The working substance is the system. The equations of thermodynamics
apply to the working substance. The system boundaries define the extent of the working
substance.
The working substances in thermodynamic systems are generally fluids which can be
readily expanded or compressed, and are amenable to energy transfer by heating.
Common examples are air and steam.
Closed systems: No matter crosses the boundary  Non Flow System or Control Mass
eg Piston in cylinder
The boundary, which
System encompasses the working
substance in the cylinder,
moves to accommodate
Surroundings the piston motion.
system boundary
Open systems: There is a transfer of mass across the boundary, and usually the system
volume remains constant. Flow System or Control Volume
eg Turbine
2 fluid out
fluid in 1 system boundary

UNITS
- SI units exclusively
- SI is a coherent system, so that all derived units are formed by the product or quotient
of other units
- 7 physical quantities are assigned unit value, and all other physical quantities are
derived from these:
length (meter, m)
mass (kilogram, kg)
time (second, s)
electric current (ampere, A)
thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin, K)
luminous intensity (candela, cd)
amount of substance (kg-mole, kmol)
- some derived units:

force = mass x acceleration, kg m/s2 (Newton, N)
work = force x distance kg m2/s2
(equivalent to energy) Nm (Joule, J)
power = work/time N m/s (J/s or Watt, W)
pressure = force/unit area N/m2 (Pascal, Pa)
In thermodynamics, a further derived unit for pressure is often used:
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa = 100 kPa.
One advantage of the bar is that it nearly equals the standard atmosphere pressure.
Standard atmosphere = 1.01325 bar

Multiplying factor Prefix Symbol

1018 Exa E
1015 Peta P
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
one million, 106 Mega M
one thousand, 103 kilo k
one hundred, 102 hecto h
one ten, 101 deca da
one tenth, 10-1 deci d
one hundredth, 10-2 centi c
one thousandth, 10- milli m
3
one millionth, 10-6 micro 
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
10-21 bronto b

PROPERTY AND STATE

A property is any characteristic of a system that can be varied.
Volume, mass, energy, temperature, pressure, velocity, colour etc. are all properties of
matter. Properties are things that matter “has”. Work and heat are not properties, since they
are things done on or by a system to produce changes in its properties.
The state of a system is its condition, as described by a list of the values of its properties.
Thermodynamic Properties
(i) Pressure
Pressure may be defined as the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a real or imaginary
surface, in a direction normal to that surface. Pressure in a stationary fluid occurs equally
in all directions. The pressure on a surface results from the sum total of many impacts of
the atoms and molecules of the fluid.
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Unless otherwise specified in this course, all pressures should be taken as absolute. A
gauge pressure is a pressure reading obtained from a pressure gauge, which measures all
pressures relative to atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
atmosphere
system h
gh = gauge pressure
manometer
(ii) Temperature
In simple terms, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules comprising
the system.
Thermal Equilibrium
Consider the two gases A and B in the sealed cylinder. If one gas is “hotter” than the other,
energy transfer as heat will take place across the partition from the “hotter” gas to the
“cooler” gas (provided the partition is a conductor).
If no energy transfer by heating occurs, it is said that the two
systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and that
A B
they have the same temperature

Measurement of Temperature
The variation in temperature of an easily measurable property of a substance can be used
to provide a temperature-measuring instrument. For example, the length of a column of
mercury will vary with temperature due to the expansion and contraction of the mercury.
The instrument can be calibrated by measuring the length of the column when it is brought
into thermal equilibrium with the vapour of boiling water at atmospheric pressure, and again
when it is in thermal equilibrium with ice at atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius scale, 100
divisions are made between the two fixed points, and the zero is taken as the ice point.
Absolute zero is the theoretical lower limit of temperature. It is approachable but not
attainable practically. The absolute temperature scale is called the Kelvin scale. Its zero is
absolute zero and a temperature change of 1K is equivalent to a temperature change of
1°C. 0K = -273°C.
(iii) Volume
A volume, V has SI units of cubic metres. Specific volume, v, is the volume occupied by unit
mass of fluid. Hence the units of v are m3/kg.
Specific volume (v) is the inverse of density (  ) kg/m3.
(iv) Internal Energy
Internal energy, U, has SI units of joules (J). Specific internal energy, u, is the internal energy
of unit mass of fluid. Hence, the units of u are J/kg.
(v) Enthalpy
Enthalpy, H, has the units of energy (J). Specific enthalpy, h, has units J/kg. Enthalpy is a
derived property, resulting from a convenient grouping of fundamental thermodynamic
properties:
H = U + pV, h = u + pv
A combination of thermodynamic properties is itself a thermodynamic property.
Enthalpy is useful for flow processes and constant pressure non-flow processes.
Exercise: A system has specific internal energy 2774 kJ/kg, pressure 20 bar (20 x 10 2
kPa) and specific volume 0.1255 m3/kg. What is its specific enthalpy?
(3025 kJ/kg)
(vi) Entropy
Entropy, S, has the units J/K. Specific entropy, s, has the units J/kgK. Entropy is the
thermodynamic property associated with the Second Law of Thermodynamics, and can be
thought of as describing the degree of disorder of a system.
(vii) Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat capacity has the units J/kgK. It describes the temperature change of a
substance due to heating. Specific heat capacity of gases is defined for two different heating
processes:
Specific heat at constant volume, Cv, is defined for heating a gas which is constrained
at constant volume.

Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp, is defined for heating a gas, which is allowed
to expand as its temperature rises so as to remain at constant pressure.
Specific heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 K by heating.
For a perfect gas, Cp and Cv do not vary with temperature or pressure, and so are constants
for any particular gas.
Exercises: Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of energy transfer by
heating required to raise the temperature of unit mass by one degree.
Thus if:
C = specific heat capacity of substance (J/kgK)
m = mass of substance (kg)
t1 = original temperature of substance (°C)
t2 = final temperature of substance (°C)
Q = energy transferred to produce the temperature change (J)
then, Q = mC (t2 - t1) or Q = mCΔt (1)
Specific heat capacity may vary with temperature. For example, the specific heat capacity
of water falls slightly from 0°C to a minimum at about 35°C and then it begins to rise again.
When specific heat capacity varies, it is common practice to take an average value within
the temperature range considered and then use this value as being constant when used in
equation (1)
Ex. 1 5 kg of steel, specific heat capacity 480 J/kgK is heated from 15°C to 100°C. How
much energy transfer by heating is required? (204 kJ)
Ex. 2 A copper vessel of mass 2 kg contains 6 kg of water. If the initial temperature of the
vessel plus water is 20°C and the final temperature is 90°C, how much energy is
transferred by heating to accomplish this change, assuming that there is no heat
loss?
The specific heat capacity of copper is 394 J/kgK
The specific heat capacity of water at 20°C is 4181.6 J/kgK
The specific heat capacity of water at 90°C is 4204.8 J/kgK
(1.816 MJ)
Ex. 3 A liquid of mass 4 kg is heated from 15°C to 100°C and 714 kJ are required to
accomplish this. What is the specific heat capacity of the liquid?
(2100 J/kgK)

Intensive and Extensive Properties

The value of an intensive property is independent of the mass of the system.
The value of an extensive property depends on the amount of substance under
consideration.
Extensive properties can be made intensive by dividing by the system mass.
Extensive Properties Intensive Properties
p N/m2
T K (t °C, degrees Celsius)
V m3 v m3/kg
U J u J/kg
H J h J/kg
S J K-1 s J/kgK
Cp J/kgK
Cv J/kgK
V
v
m
U
u
m
 specific properties are intensive
H
h
m
S
s
m
Thus the pressure, temperature, specific volume, specific internal energy, etc of a system
made up of two identical pieces are the same as those of each piece, while the volume,
energy etc of the combined system is the sum of the volume, energy etc of both pieces.
Only when an intensive property is uniform throughout a system can it be called a property
of the system.
Independence of Properties
Consider a gas held in a container of variable volume (closed system), being heated by
some means. As the internal energy of the system increases due to heating, the pressure
and temperature will tend to rise. It is possible, however, to maintain constant pressure by
allowing the system volume to increase appropriately. The temperature can be set at any
value, regardless of the pressure, by manipulation of the internal energy and volume of the
system. In this case, temperature is independent of pressure.

If a boiling liquid and its vapour were held in the container of variable volume, the
temperature of the system would no longer be independent of the pressure, because the
temperature at which a liquid boils depends on the pressure. So, if the pressure is held
constant by allowing the system volume to increase appropriately, the temperature will also
remain constant as long as there is still liquid left. Any increase in internal energy due to
heating simply results in more vapour formation. In this case, temperature and pressure
are not independent.
Kinematic Properties
A system can have energy due to motion or position in addition to its internal energy. The
1
kinetic energy of a control mass is KE  mc 2 (J)
2
where c = the velocity of the centre of mass of the system.
The gravitational potential of the control mass is PE  mgz (J)
where g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/sec2
z = height of centre of mass of the system above the earth’s surface
The kinetic state can be directly superimposed on the thermodynamic state.
Two-Property Rule
“The intensive thermodynamic state of a pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium is
completely defined if any two independent intensive thermodynamic properties are known.”
The intensive thermodynamic state is the state of the system as described by its intensive
properties. The addition of a size measure (mass) completes the description of the extensive
thermodynamic state.
A pure substance has a chemical composition which is both homogeneous and constant
with time (no chemical reaction). It may have more than one phase.
If the system is allowed bulk motion, then its kinetic state will be described by its kinematic
properties, and to define the complete state of the system will require more than two
properties.
The properties must be independent. For example, a system comprising water and steam
together at boiling temperature is not defined completely by quoting the pressure and
temperature only since these two values are not independent in this case. Thus, another
property such as specific volume or specific internal energy is required in addition to
pressure or temperature.
The system must be in thermodynamic equilibrium.

It is thus possible to represent the state of the system as

a point on a two-dimensional property diagram. p
Common diagrams are p-v, T-s, p-h and h-s.
p
1
. state1
p
2
. state2
v1 v2 v
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if its thermodynamic properties do not change

(spontaneously) when the system is isolated from its surroundings.
In the absence of internal constraints, thermodynamic equilibrium requires uniform
temperature and uniform pressure throughout the system.
(An internal constraint could be, for example, a partition which prevents energy transfer by
heating or working).
For simplicity, and in order to develop a set of general rules relating system properties, only
systems in equilibrium are considered.
General rules like the equation of state for a perfect gas only apply to systems in
thermodynamic equilibrium.
Relaxation Time
When a system is disturbed and a process occurs, the ‘slowness’ of the process depends
on the speed at which the system can regain equilibrium within itself. A system undergoes
a relaxation process in response to a sudden impressed change in any property.
Air contained in a cylinder fitted with a moveable piston undergoes an adjustment in
pressure and temperature when a step change in the volume is made by a sudden piston
displacement. The order of magnitude of the relaxation time is the time taken for a sound
wave to travel the length of the cylinder. For air at room temperature in a cylinder 8 cm long,
this is about 2 x 10-4 seconds (the relaxation time is probably longer than this due to
reflection of the pressure pulse).
In contrast, a sudden heating across the boundary of a system will require a much greater
time before uniform temperature is restored within the system.

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

When a system undergoes a reversible process, both the system and its surroundings can
be returned to their original state by retracing the process exactly.
Consider the expansion of a gas behind a frictionless piston.
net force resisting force
due to system
pressure
If the resisting force is only infinitesimally less than the force exerted on the piston by the
system due to its pressure, then the process will be slow and the system will not depart
significantly from equilibrium. This is a fully resisted working process. Also, because the
process is slow, the fluid will not develop any significant velocity so there will be no energy
dissipated into fluid motion. This process is reversible because only an infinitesimal increase
in the resistive force is required to reverse the process back along the process path so that
the system and its surroundings are restored to their original state, leaving no trace of the
process in the universe.
Common sources of irreversibility are friction, energy transfer by heating through finite
temperature gradients, free expansion and combustion.
No real process is fully reversible, although some processes approach reversibility, such as
expansion or compression of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a moveable piston (reciprocating
machinery).
Examples of Irreversible Processes

(a) Free Expansion
A B
initial state final state
Gas in side A is allowed to expand into B unresisted by removing the partition (side B is
initially empty). There is a change in state but no useful work is done. The system cannot
be returned to its original state except by the supply of energy from the surroundings. Thus
the process is irreversible.

(b) Stirring work (paddle work, viscous damping) - friction
system boundary
paddle
The paddle stirs the fluid and all the work done on the system by the paddle is dissipated
by internal fluid friction, which raises the internal energy of the system. This energy cannot
be completely recovered to do useful work (2nd Law of Thermodynamics), so the process
is irreversible.
The process of friction involves the relative motion of matter in contact, and results in
conversion of bulk kinetic energy (external energy) into random molecular motion (internal
energy).
In general, processes in rotary machinery and other devices where the flow rate of the
working fluid is high are irreversible due to considerable friction.
(c) Combustion
When a mixture of fuel and oxidant reacts to form a mixture of products with the consequent
release of energy, the process cannot normally be reversed.

REVERSIBLE WORK OF COMPRESSION OR EXPANSION W, w
Consider a compressed gas in a cylinder behind a frictionless piston (closed system). The
gas will exert a force on the piston. A resisting force is required to hold the piston against
the gas pressure. The gas is the system.
piston area A
net force resisting force
due to system
pressure
system boundary
If the resisting force is only slightly less than force exerted on the piston by the gas, then
the expansion will be slow and controlled and the process will be reversible. The system will
do work on the load, so the energy of the system will decrease.
The force exerted by the gas = pA = F
If the piston moves outwards a distance dx,
Work done by the system = pAdx = Fdx
= p dV
Work done/unit mass = p dv
Generally, p changes as the cylinder volume changes. If the process is reversible, then the
relationship between p and v can be established throughout the process, and the expression
for work can be integrated to give the work done between the final and initial state points.
2
 Work done / unit mass   pdv
1
Because the system loses internal energy by doing work on its surroundings, this is defined
as negative work done on the system.
2
 w rev    pdv REVERSIBLE COMPRESSION / EXPANSION WORK
1
Thus, for a reversible process, the work done can be represented by the system properties,
although the work itself is not a property.
if v2 is less than v1 it is a compression process (work + ve)

if v2 is greater than v1 it is an expansion process (work - ve)
pressure
1
The compression/expansion work is the area
under the line representing the process on a p-v
diagram.
volume
area=work
EXERCISES: REVERSIBLE WORK
1. A piston of diameter 10 cm rests inside a cylinder at an initial distance of 25 cm from

the closed end of the cylinder. Enclosed in this volume is a certain mass of gas at a
pressure of 106 N/m2 (103 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2) The piston is then forced through a distance of 5
cm further into the cylinder. Find the work done by the piston on the gas system:
(a) if the pressure of the gas remains constant during the compression
(b) if the product of pressure and volume for the gas remains constant during the
V
compression. For this isothermal process use W = pxVxln 1
V2
[(a) 392.7 J, (b) 437 J]
2. If the piston in the previous exercise had moved through 10 cm rather than 5 cm,
would W be doubled in both cases (a) and (b)?
(a)yes 785.4J, (b)no 1003J

 )
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER ( Q, q, Q
Energy may be transferred to a system by heating or working.
Heating (and cooling) are called “heat transfer”.
There are three ways by which energy is transferred by heating or cooling:
Conduction
Convection
Thermal radiation
Each of these requires a temperature difference (temperature gradient). Heat is energy in
transition due to a temperature gradient.
(a) Conduction - transfer of energy through matter on a molecular scale, without
detectable mass motion.
e.g. “heat transfer” along a metal bar heated at one end.
The rate of energy transfer depends on the temperature gradient in the matter
(dT/dx), the thermal conductivity of the matter (k), and the cross-sectional area.
. dT
i.e. Q  kA
dx
(-ve sign as heat transfer occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature).
If the temperature gradient is linear,
.
Q
kA
tHOT  tCOLD 
x
Metals have high thermal conductivity. Gases have low thermal conductivity. Thermal
insulators have low thermal conductivity.
(b) Convection - energy transfer by heating resulting from temperature differences

between fluids and solid boundaries. Here conduction is enhanced by mass transport.
The fluid is heated by conduction as it passes near
the wall, and the energy so transferred is carried away as
internal energy in the moving fluid.
In natural convection, density differences arising from
temperature differences in the fluid being heated induce
the fluid motion.
wall In forced convection, the fluid motion is induced by

mechanical means.
(t ) moving fluid Forced convection is more effective than free
w
(t) convection. Convection is more effective than conduction
in liquids and more so in gases. In fact, if a layer of gas is
contained so the fluid motion is negligible, then it can act
as a thermal insulation. Many ‘solid’ insulators derive their
effectiveness from the poor thermal conductivity of the air
trapped in their pores.

For convection
.
Q  hA t w  t (tw = wall temperature, t = temperature of moving fluid)
where h depends on the properties of the fluid (thermal conductivity, specific heat
capacity) and on the form of the fluid motion.
(c) Thermal radiation - is electromagnetic radiation produced as a result of temperature.

Unless it is at absolute zero temperature, all matter continuously emits thermal
radiation.
The rate at which a substance emits thermal radiation is proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature (T4) as well as surface and geometrical properties.
(Stephan-Boltzmann)
If two bodies at different temperatures are facing each other, then the body at the
lower temperature will receive more radiation than it radiates (all other factors being
equal), so a net transfer of energy will result, and the internal energy of the colder
body will decrease while the internal energy of the hotter body will increase.
Heat transfer from a soldering iron is mainly by conduction, although convection and
radiation are present. A hair dryer is a forced convection device. The sun is the best example
of a system which transmits energy by radiation.

INTERNAL ENERGY
Following is an extract from Reynolds "Thermodynamics"
"We can view each piece of matter as being composed of many fundamental particles, each
whizzing about in accordance with the laws of mechanics. We know from physics that each
particle can have energy in several forms, and it will be helpful to review these forms now.
We shall call them “microscopic energy modes”.
Molecules possess energy by virtue of their translation through space. This kinetic energy
is termed translational energy. For polyatomic molecules rotational kinetic energy is also
important. If the atoms of the molecule are vibrating back and forth about their common
centre of mass we say that the molecule also has vibrational energy. The energy of gas
molecules at low temperatures is largely associated with the translational and rotational
modes, while at higher temperatures the vibrational modes begin to contribute significantly
to the total energy.
Electrons whirling about their nucleus have kinetic energy, the amount of which depends on
their orbit. Usually the electrons tend to be in the inner low-energy orbits; atoms with
electrons in more distant orbits are said to be in excited states and have more energy than
normal atoms of that species. It is also necessary to think of electrons as spinning and
thereby possessing some spin energy. Many of the other fundamental particles also seem
to have spin energy.
Molecules are held together by molecular binding forces, including coulomb and
gravitational forces. All these forces seem to be conservative, and thus we think of potential
energy in association with these intermolecular forces. Forces between the electrons and
the nucleus are responsible for keeping the electrons in orbit, and there is potential energy
associated with these forces. The nucleus is held together by forces much stronger than
molecular binding forces, and consequently the nuclear binding energy is considerably
larger than the binding energy of a molecule.
The orbiting electrons constitute tiny electric currents, producing little magnetic dipoles. \In
the presence of an external magnetic field these dipoles can be twisted, and there is energy
associated with these dipole moments. An electrically neutral atom does not have all its
charges in the same place, and consequently constitutes an electric-dipole moment, which
can have energy in the presence of an external electric field. These dipole-moment energies
are important in dielectrics and paramagnetic substances.
Ionised molecules and free electrons have forces exerted on them by external electric and
magnetic fields, and consequently can have associated energies. All particles with mass
possess potential energy in gravitational fields.
Collections of particles have additional energy associated with the forces between
molecules. In liquids and solids these energies are especially important, but in low-density
gases the amount of energy due to intermolecular potentials is quite small. Evaporation is
a process requiring enough energy to free molecules from these strong bonds.
In relativistic mechanics it becomes necessary to include the energy equivalence of matter;
we think of a particle having rest mass Mo as possessing rest mass energy Moc2. This
energy constitutes a large percentage of the energy of a molecule, but in non-nuclear
reactions the change in rest mass is so small that changes in rest-mass energy are
negligible compared to changes in the other forms of energy.
These various microscopic energy modes are not very much in evidence when we look at
a piece of metal on a table, or at gas in a bottle. If we pick up the metal and hurl it away it

clearly acquires kinetic energy. It is easy to measure the velocity of the metal piece and
thereby to determine the kinetic energy of the object as a whole. This is called the “bulk”
kinetic energy of the piece. It is not really the kinetic energy of all the molecules, because in
addition to the easily observed bulk motion the molecules are executing very small scale
motions that also contribute to their kinetic energy. There are other “bulk” energy modes
that are easy to measure macroscopically. For example, the metal piece would have a
potential energy in a gravitational field, and this energy could be computed from simple
macroscopic data. It is usually convenient to separate the “bulk” or macroscopically
measurable mechanical energy from the energy of the “hidden microscopic modes”. We do
this by saying that the total system energy E, is the sum of the bulk kinetic and potential
energies KE and PE, and the internal energy, customarily denoted by U. This split of the
total energy is expressible as
E  KE  PE  U
The internal energy U therefore represents all the energy associated with the microscopic
modes, that is, the energy not accounted for in the bulk mechanical energy terms. Since U
cannot be measured directly, it must somehow be determined by inference. Evaluation of
the internal energy U as a function of the “state” or “condition” of the system is one of the
central problems in thermodynamics.
The internal energy is “randomly oriented”, that is, “disorganized” (this is what “hides” it from
a macroscopic view), and hence is not readily useful. One job of the engineer is to devise
means for converting disordered molecular motions into organised motions capable of being
used macroscopically."

First Law Non Flow
First Law of Thermodynamics

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - NON FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
The internal energy of a system can be changed by heating and by working.
When energy is contained within a system it is called internal energy. Working and heating
are processes by which energy is transferred between the system and its surroundings.
For a working process alone, W  U
(If in addition the working can change the velocity or height of the system as a whole, then
W  U  KE  PE).
For a heating process alone, Q  U
For a combination of working and heating,
Q  W  U NON - FLOW Energy Equation
where each term has the units Joules
The Non Flow Energy Equation can also be written in terms of specific quantities (energy
per unit mass):
q  w  u Non-Floe energy equation based on specific quantities
where each term has the units Joules/kg
u  u2  u1
where u1 refers to the initial state
u2 refers to the final state
However, work can only be expressed in terms of system properties for a reversible work
process.
2
( w    pdv for compression - expansion work (“p-v” work))
1
Sign Convention for Heating and Working
It has already been implied in the formulation of the equations that any process which
increases the stored energy of a system is positive.
Thus, work done on a system is negative
work done by a system is positive
heating a system is positive
cooling a system is negative

First Law Non Flow
Example: In the cylinder of an air compressor the air has an internal energy of 200 kJ/kg
at the beginning of compression and 420 kJ/kg at the end of the compression. Calculate
the energy transfer by heating or cooling, when the work done on the air is 300 kJ/kg.
q  w  u
 q  420  200  300  80kJ / kg

i.e. 80 kJ/kg heat transfer from the system
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic means no energy transfer by heating. This would be achieved by perfect thermal
insulation.
EXERCISES: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (NON FLOW)
1. In the compression stroke of a gas engine the work done on the gas by the piston is
70 kJ/kg, and the energy rejected by heating to the cooling water is 42 kJ/kg. Find
the change in internal energy, stating whether it is a gain or a loss.
(28 kJ/kg gain)
2. While one kilogram of air expands from some thermodynamic state, state 1, to
another, state 2, it does 20 kJ of work on a device, while at the same time it receives
15 kJ of energy by heating during the process.
A second kind of expansion between the same states 1 and 2 involves an energy
input by heating of 10 kJ.
(a) What is the change in internal energy during the first expansion?
(-5 kJ)
(b) What is the change in internal energy during the second expansion?
(-5 kJ)
3. Briefly point out why each of the following statements is contradictory, and therefore
either wrong or meaningless.
(i) A control mass undergoes a process in which it is heated adiabatically.
(ii) The state of a fluid system is changed during an adiabatic working process, but
the properties of the fluid do not alter.
(iii) A system consists of a thermally isolated container enclosing a gas. The
system is isolated from its surroundings. The energy of the gas is then reduced
by cooling.
(iv) Two systems at different temperatures are brought into physical contact and
exchange no energy by heating.

First Law Steady Flow
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

The non-flow energy equation derived previously applied to closed systems, such as the
fluid in the cylinder of a reciprocating engine during compression or expansion.
Many engineering devices involve a flow of mass across the boundaries. The fluid in a
turbine at any instant may be defined as an open system.
In most practical systems, the rate at which the fluid flows through the machine is constant.
This is called steady flow. The mass of the system is constant.
system boundaries (open
system)
. 1
m w
z1 .
m
2
q z2
datum (eg ground

level)
The various forms of energy, which the moving fluid can have, are:
(a) Potential energy gz (m/s2.m = J /kg)
c2 C2
(b) Kinetic energy (m2/s2= J/ kg) or kJ/kg
2 2000
(c) Internal energy u (J/ kg)
The various processes by which the system can exchange energy with its surroundings are:
(a) Heating q (J/kg)
2
(b) Mechanical work w (J/kg) (shaft work,   pdv not applicable)
1
(c) Flow work pv (J/kg)
This pv term is necessary in flow systems to account for the work done by the moving fluid
in crossing the system boundaries:
Consider an element of fluid, length l, at the inlet to the system (cross-sectional area A).

length, l
p
1
system boundary
The work that this small element must do to push its way into the system is
work = force x distance
= p1Al
= p1 x volume of the element
Thus, for 1 kg of fluid to enter, the work done on the system is p1v1.
Similarly, at the exit, the work done by the system to push 1 kg of fluid out into the
surroundings is p2v2.
(In a moving fluid, due to its pressure and motion, each element of fluid is continuously doing
work on the element upstream of itself.)
Because the system is at steady state, net energy input = net energy output.
c2 c2
 q - w + (p1v1 + u1) + 1 + gz, = (p v + u + 2 + gz
2 2 2) 2
2 2
For convenience, the u and pv terms are combined to form the thermodynamic property
enthalpy (h= u + pv)
Also, the energy balance is conveniently rearranged so the process parameters are on one
side and the system properties on the other:
c 22 c12
q - w =  h2  h1  + { - } + (gz2 - gz1 ) all terms are in J/kg
2 2
- Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
The steady flow energy equation is true whether the processes between 1 and 2 are
reversible or irreversible.
In most engineering systems, the changes in gravitational potential energy are negligible
and can be ignored (an exception is the hydro-electric system).

At any point in the system, of cross-sectional area A, where the fluid velocity is c, the mass
flow rate is
 = cA/v
m and  v = cA
m v=specific volume
c1 A1 c A
 =
The mass flow rate is constant throughout, so m = 2 2
v1 v2
- Equation Of Mass Continuity
The specific energy terms of the SFEE, when multiplied by mass flow rate, become power
terms:
 = m
W  w J/kg x kg /s
 = m
Q  q = J /s
= Watts
c 22 c12
Q - W = m(h2 - h1 + - + gz2 - gz1 ) Beware: all terms are in J/kg,
2 2
 C22 g z 
Q  W  m  h    when Δh is (as usual) expressed in kJ/kg.
 2000 1000 

EXAMPLES OF STEADY FLOW PROCESSES

(a) TURBINE
A turbine is a means of producing work from a flow of fluid expanding from a high pressure
to a low pressure.
Example: In the turbine of a gas turbine unit, the gases flow through the turbine at 17 kg/s
and the power developed by the turbine is 14,000 kW. The enthalpies of the gases at inlet
and exhaust are 1200 kJ/kg and 360 kJ/kg respectively. Calculate the rate of energy
rejection by heating from the turbine. Find also the area of the inlet pipe. The specific
volume of the gases at inlet is 0.5 m3/kg and the velocities of the gases at inlet and outlet
are 60 m/s and 150 m/s respectively.
2 fluid out
fluid in 1 system boundary
 = 17 kg/s
m
 = -14,000 kW
W (negative as energy is leaving the system)
h1 = 1200 kJ/kg
h2 = 360 kJ/kg
3
v1 = 0.5 m /kg
c1 = 60 m/s
c2 = 150 m/s
c 22 c 12
SFEE: q-w = (h2 - h1) + { - } (neglecting gravitational potential energy changes
2 2
 gx Z  0 )

c 12 60 2
= = 1,800 J/kg = 1.8 kJ/kg
2 2
c 22 150 2
= = 11,250 J/kg = 11.25 kJ/kg
2 2

W
 = 14,000 kW,
W w= = 14,000/17 = 823.5 kJ/kg

m
c 22 c 12
Substituting in SFEE: q+w = (h2 - h1)+{ - }
2 2
q - 823.5 = 360 - 1200 + 11.25 - 1.8
 q = -7.02 kJ/kg (energy rejected)
 = mq
Q  = - 7.02 x 17 = - 119.3 kW
c12 c2
(note that and 2 are very small here compared with the other terms)
2 2
cA 
mv
 =
m  A=
v c
17 x 0.5 2
 A1 = = 0.142 m
60
The energy transfer by heating is small compared with the work done. This is generally the
case in turbines where the flow rate is high so there is little time for energy transfer by
heating. Turbines are very compact machines, producing a great deal of power from a
relatively small device.

(b) NOZZLE
A nozzle is a duct of varying cross sectional area so designed that a drop in pressure
between inlet and outlet accelerates the flow.
system boundary
.
m m
.
1 2
c1<c2, p1 > p2
The flow rate is generally sufficiently high that little energy is lost from the system by heating.
q=0 (adiabatic)
Also, no work is done on or by the system.
The SFEE becomes:
c 22 c12 c 22 c12
0 = h2 - h1 +  i.e.  = h1 – h2 (all units are in J/kg)
2 2 2 2
However, when c1 is very low compared to c2, c1 is not considered and the formula simplifies
C 22
to:  h when enthalpy h is in J/kg.
2
The exit velocity C2 becomes then C  2000h when enthalpy h is in kJ/kg

Thus, a nozzle converts enthalpy into kinetic energy.
Nozzles are used within turbines to produce high kinetic energy streams (sonic and
supersonic), which move along rotor blades whilst changing direction and thus do work.
A diffuser is a nozzle in reverse. Diffusers are used in centrifugal pumps to convert kinetic
energy imparted to the fluid by the impeller into enthalpy, resulting in increased pressure.

(c) THROTTLING
A flow of fluid is said to be throttled when some restriction is placed in the flow. The duct
area after the throttle is usually similar to that before. A partially closed valve in a pipeline
is an example.
Throttles are used to control mass flow rate.
The term throttling is usually applied to relatively low speed flows, so that the kinetic energy
terms can be ignored.
Energy transfer by heating can be neglected since the process occurs over such a short
length of pipe that the surface area for heating is small.
system boundary
.
m
.
m
1 2
p2 < p1
No work is done on or by the system.

The SFEE becomes
c 22 c12 c 22 c12
0 = h2 – h1 + {   gz 2  gz 1 }, ignore {   gz 2  gz 1 } when the values
2 2 2 2
are low. Now 0 = h2 – h1
i.e. h2 = h 1
i.e. throttles are isenthalpic (constant enthalpy)
The sudden restriction of the flow induces turbulence, which results in a loss of pressure
due to friction within the turbulent flow. The initial increase in velocity at the throat is
dissipated by viscous friction.
Kinetic energy in a turbulent flow is transferred from the large-scale fluid motion to smaller
and smaller eddies down a chain of ever decreasing size. Eventually the energy is
transferred at the molecular level to increase the thermal energy of the molecules.
The system boundary is far enough downstream so that the velocity distribution has become
ordered again.

(d) BOILER AND CONDENSER

Since the work done in a boiler or condenser is zero, the steady flow energy equation
reduces to:
c2 c12
 = m(h
Q  2 - h1 + 2
- + gz2 - gz1)
2 2
(e) MULTI STREAM PROCESSES

Some systems may have more than one fluid stream flowing in or out. It is necessary to add
up the energy entering or leaving the system in each stream.
c2 c2
Q - W =  m(h + + gz) -  m(h + + gz)
out 2 in 2
Also, for conservation of mass,
m  m
out in

EXERCISES - STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
1. A steam turbine receives a steam flow of 1.35 kg/s and delivers 500 kW. The
heat loss from the casing is negligible.
(a) find the change of enthalpy across the turbine when the velocities at
entrance and exit and the difference in elevation at entrance and exit are
negligible.
(b) Find the change of enthalpy across the turbine when the velocity at
entrance is 60 m/s, the velocity at exit is 360 m/s, and the inlet pipe is 3m
above the exhaust pipe.
(-370 kJ/kg; -433 kJ/kg)
2. A steady flow of steam enters a condenser with an enthalpy of 2300 kJ/kg and a
velocity of 350 m/s. The condensate leaves the condenser with an enthalpy of
160 kJ/kg and a velocity of 70 m/s. Find the heat transfer to the cooling fluid per
kg of steam condensed.
(-2199 kJ/kg)
3. A turbine operating under steady flow conditions receives steam at the following
3
state: pressure 13.8 bar; specific volume 0.143 m /kg, internal energy 2630
kJ/kg, velocity 90 m/s. The state of the steam leaving the turbine is: pressure
3
0.34 bar, specific volume 4.65 m /kg, internal energy 2472 kJ/kg, velocity 150
m/s. Heat is lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.25 kJ/s. If the rate of steam
flow is 0.38 kg/s, what is the power developed by the turbine?
(71.97 kW)
4. A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing stream of

fluid. At the inlet to a certain nozzle the enthalpy of the fluid is 3025 kJ/kg and
the velocity is 60m/s. At the exit from the nozzle the enthalpy is 2790 kJ/kg. The
nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it.
(a) Find the velocity at the nozzle exit.
2 3
(b) If the inlet area is 0.1 m and the specific volume at inlet is 0.19 m /kg, find
the rate of flow of fluid.
3
(c) If the specific volume at the nozzle exit is 0.5 m /kg find the exit area of the
nozzle.
2
(688 m/s; 31.6 kg/s; 0.0229 m )

Perfect Gas
THE PERFECT GAS

1. Equation of State
A perfect gas obeys the law
pv
 constant
T This constant is denoted as R and is called gas constant.
pv  RT EQUATION OF STATE
or
pV  mRT FOR A PERFECT GAS
The units of R are J/kgK.

Each perfect gas has a different value of R.
R J/kgK m kg
3
T K V m
3
p Pa (absolute) v m /kg
3
Example: An air compressor delivers 0.2 m of air at a pressure of 8.5 bar and 31ºC into an
air reservoir. Taking the gas constant for air as 0.287 kJ/kgK, calculate the mass of air
delivered.
pV=mRT
pV 8. 5  105  0. 2
m    1. 948 kg
RT 287  (31 273)
2. Use of the Equation of State in Processes

pv=RT
p1v1=RT1 at the initial state 1, p2v2=RT2 at the final state 2
pv p v
so, 1 1  2 2
T1 T2
if T remains constant, the T's cancel:
p1v1=p2v2
if p remains constant, the p's cancel:
v1 v 2

T1 T2
if V remains constant, the V's cancel:
p1 p 2

T1 T2
Example: 0.14 m3/kg of air at 15 bar expands to a volume of 0.35 m 3/kg at constant
temperature (isothermal process). Find the final pressure.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 30
Perfect Gas
At constant temperature, p1v1=p2v2

pv
 p2  1 1
v2
p2 = 15x105x0.14/0.35 = 6.0x105Pa = 6.0 bar
(attempt exercises 1, 2 & 3)
3. Specific Heats of a Perfect Gas

The specific heat capacity of any substance is defined as the energy input by heating
required to raise one kilogram through one degree temperature rise.
For gases, the specific heat capacity depends on the way in which the gas is constrained
during the heating process:
Cv = specific heat capacity of the gas when it is held at constant volume while
being heated (J/kgK)
Cp = specific heat capacity of the gas when it is held at constant pressure
while being heated (J/kgK)
For perfect gases, Cp and Cv are constant for any one gas at all temperatures and
pressures, so:
Q  mC v T for constant volume
q  C v T heating, by definition
Q  mCp T for constant pressure

q  Cp T heating, by definition
4. Cp, Cv and R
It can be shown mathematically that:
Cp  C v  R
Gas Cp (J/kgK) Cv (J/kgK) R (J/kgK)

Air 1005 718 287
Nitrogen (N2) 1039 742 297
Oxygen (O2) 910 650 260
Carbon dioxide 819 630 189
(CO2)
Perfect Gas
5. Internal Energy of a Perfect Gas

Generally, q  w  u
For a constant volume process, w=0 (no compression or expansion)  q  u
For constant volume heating of a perfect gas, q  Cv T by definition.
 u  Cv T for a perfect gas.
This expression was derived using a constant volume heating process, but can be applied
to any process as it contains only properties and no process parameters
(q or w).
u  C v T INTERNAL ENERGY CHANGE
U  mC v T OF A PERFECT GAS
Thus, if the temperature of a perfect gas increases by T , its specific internal energy
increases by u , regardless of the process. Internal energy is a function of temperature
alone for a perfect gas.
Also,
q-w=U non-flow energy equation
u  Cv T internal energy change of a perfect gas
 q  w  Cv T non-flow energy equation for a perfect gas
(attempt exercises 4, 5, and 6)
6. Adiabatic Compression and Expansion (or isentropic where s=0)

Adiabatic means no energy transfer by heating i.e. q=0
 w  u  Cv T
For compression, all the energy transferred to the gas by the compression work remains in
the gas as internal energy and the gas temperature increases accordingly.
The relationship between pressure and volume for adiabatic and reversible compression or
expansion is:
pv   cons tan t
or p1v1  p 2 v 2
Cp

Cv
 = 1.4 for diatomic gases (CO, H2, N2, O2, Air)
 = 1.6 for monatomic gases (A, He)
 = 1.3 for triatomic gases (CO2, SO2)
(attempt exercise 7)
Perfect Gas
7. Polytropic Compression or Expansion

In many real processes, the relationship between pressure and volume during expansion or
compression is:
POLYTROPIC
pvn  constant
PROCESS EQUATION
where n is a constant called the index of expansion or compression.

This expression can also be written:
p1v1n  p2 vn2  p vn
initial statefinal state intermediate state
8. Work in a Polytropic (or Adiabatic) Process
2
Now, w    pdv for p-v work
1
p1 v1n p2 vn2
also, p 
vn vn
Thus, for a polytropic process
2 p1 vn
1 p1v1n v12n  p1v1n v11n
w   dv 
1 v
n 1 n
but p1 v1n  p2 vn2
p v  p1v1 p - v WORK IN A
 w 2 2
n1 POLYTROPIC PROCESS
Note: 1. the polytropic law can also be written:

p V p V
pVn  constant W 2 2 1 1
n 1
T2  T1
2. pv=RT w  R
n1
For an adiabatic process for a perfect gas

p v  p v R(T2  T1)
w  2 2 1 1
 1  1
Perfect Gas
9. Use of Equation of State in Polytropic (or Adiabatic) Process.
pvn  constant  p1v1n  p2 v2n

p v p v T p v
pv  RT  1 1  2 2  1 1 1
T1 T2 T2 p2 v2
n
p1 v 
but   2  for the polytropic process
p2  v1
n
T1  v 2  v1
  
T2  v1  v 2
n 1
n 1
T1  v2  T1  p1 n
   similarly  
T2  v1 T 2  p2 
For an adiabatic process, apply the same expressions but with n  
(attempt exercises 9, 10, 11 & 12)
10. Relationship between Energy Transferred by Heating and Energy Transferred by

Working for a Perfect Gas in a Polytropic Process.
T2  T1
Now, w  R (p-v work for a polytropic process for a perfect gas)
n1
Also, q  w  u2  u1
 q  Cv T 2  T1  R
T2  T1 for a perfect gas
n1
R R R
 T 2  T1  T 2  T1 as C v 
 1 n 1  1
n  R
 q  T  T 
 1 n-1 2 1
n
 q w
 1
Now,  is a property of the gas, so “n” indicates the amount of energy transferred by heating
(n = index of expansion or compression).
n= , q = 0 i.e. adiabatic
Perfect Gas
11. Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Compression or Expansion

Now, pv  RT  pv  constant if T constant (isothermal)
i.e. p1 v1  p2 v 2  pv
p v p v RT
or p  1 1  2 2 
v v v
2 2
dv
Also, w    pdv (p-v work)  w  RT  ,
v
1 1
p REVERSIBLE WORK FOR AN ISOTHERMAL PROCESS


v
w  RT ln 1  RT ln 2 FOR A PERFECT GAS
v2 p1
note: RT  p1 v1  p2 v 2
Also u  Cv T for a perfect gas

 u  0 for an isothermal process for a perfect gas  q  w  0 from the NFEE
or q  w isothermal non flow process for a perfect gas
(attempt exercise 14 & 15)
Perfect Gas
12. Isothermal, Adiabatic, Polytropic
decreasing final temperature

p
2 2// 2/
p
2
γ
pv = c 1 - 2 isothermal compression
n
pv = c /
1 - 2 adiabatic compression
pv = c 1 - 2// polytropic compression
(with cooling)
p
1
1
* isothermal compression u  0, q  w
pv  constant
w  p1v1 ln v1 / v2
* adiabatic compression u  w  Cv T, q  0

pv   constant
w   p2 v2  p1v1 / (  1)
* polytropic compression u  Cv T, q  0, w  0

pvn  constant q  w  u
w   p2 v2  p1v1 / (n  1)
Perfect Gas
13. Constant Pressure Compression or Expansion

2
w    pdv for a reversible process.
1
If p constant,
w  p v 2  v1
 q  u2  u1  p v 2  v1
It is convenient to group the u and pv terms into a new thermodynamic property, enthalpy
(h):
h = u + pv (J/kg)
(H = U + PV) (J)
 h1  u1  p1v1
 h2  u2  p2v2 (p1 = p2 = p) in this case
 q  h2  h1 constant pressure process
14. Enthalpy of a Perfect Gas

Generally, q  w  u (NFEE)
For a constant pressure process, q  h
For constant pressure heating of a perfect gas, q  CpT
 h  CpT
This expression was derived using the constant pressure heating process, but can be
applied to any process as it contains only properties and no process parameters.
Thus, if the temperature of a perfect gas increases by T , its specific enthalpy increases
by h , regardless of the process.
h  C p T ENTHALPY CHANGE
H  mC p T OF A PERFECT GAS
Enthalpy is a function of temperature alone, for a perfect gas.
Perfect Gas
15. Gas Mixtures

A pure substance is defined as a substance having a constant and uniform chemical
composition. This includes mixtures of gases where there is no chemical reaction taking
place. Air is a typical mixture.
Moles:
The SI unit for the amount of a substance is the kg-mole, abbreviated as kmole.
1 kmole of any pure substance contains 6.023 x 1026 molecules (Avogadro’s Number).
The mass of 1 kmole of a substance is its molar mass (kg/kmole)
The mass of a substance is found by multiplying the number of kmoles by the molar mass
Substance Symbol Molar Mass (kg/kmole)

Hydrogen H 1
Oxygen 0 16
Nitrogen N 14
Carbon C 12
Sulphur S 32
Carbon Monoxide C0 28
Carbon Dioxide C02 44
Water or Steam H20 18
Sulphur Dioxide S02 64
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures:

The pressure of a mixture of perfect gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of
the constituents.
The partial pressure of each constituent is that pressure which the gas would exert if it
occupied alone that volume occupied by the mixture at the same temperature.
i.e. p   pi
where pi = partial pressure of each component
Molar analysis, Volumetric analysis, Gravimetric analysis:

The molar analysis defines the proportions of each constituent by mole number
n
i.e. mole fraction of component i = i
n
where n= total number of moles
The volumetric analysis defines the proportions of each constituent by volume
V
i.e. volume fraction of component i = i
V
Perfect Gas
where V = total volume

(The volume of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the volumes of the individual
components when each component exists alone at the pressure and temperature of the
mixture.....Law of Partial Volumes)
The gravimetric analysis defines the proportion of each component by mass
mi
i.e. mass fraction of component i =
m
where m = total mass
mi
p n V also, R  Ri ,
Generally, i  i  i m
p n V
where, R=gas constant of the mixture
Ri=gas constant of each component
mi=mass of each component
m=total mass
Molar (universal) gas constant R0=8.3144 kJ/k mol K
The kg-mole of a substance is a mass of that substance numerically equal to its molucular
weight. The kg-mole may be simply abbreviated to mol.
Avogadro’s law: under equal conditions of temperatures and pressure, equal volumes of
all gases contain the same number of molecules.
Perfect Gas
Example:
Two gases A and B of masses 5.52 kg and 18.48 kg respectively are contained in a vessel
of 20m3 capacity. If the specific gas constants are 0.26 kJ/kgK and 0.297 kJ/kgK,
calculate:
(a) partial pressures of the gases at 20oC
(b) temperature when the total pressure is 0.4 bar
mA=5.52 kg
mB=18.48 kg m = 5.52+18.48 = 24.00 kg
V=20 m3
RA=0.26 kJ/kgK
RB=0.297 kJ/kgK
t=20oC, T=293K use pV=mRT or p=mRT/V
(a)
5.52  0.26  293
pA   210257
. kPa
20
18.48  0.297  293
pB   80.4074kPa
20
p=21.0257+80.4074=101.433 kPa (Dalton)
PA + PB
(b)
p=40kPa
mi 5.52 18.48
R  Ri   0.26   0.297  0.28849kJ / kgK
m 24 24
pV 40  20
T    115.544K
mR 24  0.28849
T2 p2 293  40
or   T2   115.544K
T1 p1 101433
.
Perfect Gas
EXERCISES: THE PERFECT GAS AND GAS PROCESSES
1. Oxygen, O2, at 200 bar is stored in a steel vessel at 20oC. The capacity of the vessel
is 0.04 m3. Assuming that O2 is a perfect gas, calculate the mass of oxygen that can
be stored in the vessel. The vessel is protected against excessive pressure by a
fusible plug, which will melt if the temperature rises too high. At what temperature
must the plug melt to limit the pressure in the vessel to 240 bar?
(10.5 kg; 78.6oC)
2. A vessel of volume 0.65 m3 contains air at 27.6 bar and 18oC. Calculate the final
pressure after 3.5 kg of air is added if the final temperature is 20.5 oC.
(32.373 bar)
3. A gas expands at constant temperature in a cylinder from a volume of 0.015 m 3 to a

volume of 0.075 m3. If the initial pressure was 600 kPa, find the final pressure.
(120 kPa)
4. When a certain gas is heated at constant pressure from 15 oC to 95oC, the heat
required is 1136 kJ/kg. When the same gas is heated at constant volume between the
same temperatures the heat required is 808 kJ/kg. Calculate CP, CV and R.
(14.2 kJ/kgK; 10.1 kJ/kgK; 4.1 kJ/kgK)
5. 1 kg of air enclosed in a rigid container is initially at 4.8 bar and 150 oC. The container
is heated until the temperature is 200oC. Calculate the pressure of the air finally and
the energy supplied by heating during the process.
(5.37 bar; 35.9 kJ)
6. In an air compressor the pressures at inlet and outlet are 1 bar and 5 bar respectively.
The temperature of the air at inlet is 15oC and the volume at the beginning of
compression is three times that at the end of compression. Calculate the temperature
of the air at outlet and the increase of internal energy per kg of air.
(207°C; 138 kJ/kg)
7. 0.012 m3 of air at 101.5 kPa is compressed adiabatically to a volume of 0.002 m 3.

Taking =1.4, find the pressure at the end of compression.
(1247 kPa)
Perfect Gas
n
8. Gas is expanded in an engine cylinder, following the law pv = constant, where n=1.3.
The initial pressure is 2550 kPa and the final pressure is 210 kPa. If the volume at the
end of expansion is 0.75 m3, calculate the volume at the beginning of expansion.
(0.1099 m3)
9. The temperature and pressure of the air at the beginning of compression in a

compressor cylinder are 20oC and 101.3 kPa, and the pressure at the end of
compression is 1420 kPa. If the law of compression is pv1.35=constant, find the
temperature at the end of compression.
(308.1oC)
10. 0.014 m3 of air at 66oC, 10 bar is expanded adiabatically in an insulated cylinder. The
temperature at the end of expansion is 2oC. Calculate the volume at the end of
expansion and the work done.
(0.02362 m3; -6.61kJ)
11. 1kg of air at 1 bar, 15oC is compressed adiabatically to a pressure of 4 bar. Calculate
the final temperature and the work done on the air.
(155OC; 100.5 kJ)
12. Nitrogen expands in a perfectly thermally insulated cylinder from 3.5 bar, 200 oC to a
volume of 0.09m3. If the initial volume occupied was 0. 03m3, calculate the work done
during the expansion.
(-9.31 kJ)
13. 1 kg of air at 1.02 bar, 20oC is compressed reversibly according to a law pv1.3 =
constant, to a pressure of 5.5 bar. Calculate the work done on the air and the heat
flow to or from the cylinder walls during the compression.
(133.5 kJ; - 33.38 kJ)
14. 0.05m3 of a perfect gas at 6.3 bar undergoes an isothermal process to a pressure of
1.05 bar. Calculate the heat flow to or from the gas.
(56.4 kJ)
15. 1 kg of air is compressed isothermally from 1 bar and 30oC to 5 bar. Calculate the work
done on the air and the heat flow to or from the air.
(140 kJ; -140 kJ)
16. 0.05 kg of carbon dioxide, occupying a volume of 0.03m3 at 1.025 bar, is compressed
reversibly until the pressure is 6.15 bar. Calculate the final temperature, the work done
on the CO2, and the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls,
Perfect Gas
(a) When the process is according to a law pv1.4 = constant,

(b) When the process is isothermal,
(c) When the process takes place in a perfectly thermally insulated cylinder.
Assume carbon dioxide to be a perfect gas, and take  = 1.3.
(270oC; 5.138 kJ; 1.713 kJ; 52.6oC; 5.51 kJ; -5.51 kJ; 219oC; 5.25 kJ; 0.kJ)
17. Oxygen expands in a cylinder behind a piston at a constant pressure of 3 bar. The
volume initially is 0.01m3 and finally is 0.03m3; the initial temperature is 17°C.
Calculate the work done by the oxygen and the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls
during the expansion.
(6 kJ; 21.16 kJ)
18. A mixture of carbon monoxide and oxygen is to be prepared in the proportion 7 kg to

4 kg in a vessel of 0.3 m3 capacity. If the temperature of the mixture is 15oC,
determine the pressure to which the vessel is subject. If the temperature is raised to
40oC, what will then be the pressure in the vessel?
take RCO = 0.2968 kJ/kgK and RO2 = 0.2598 kJ/kg
(29.9 bar, 32.5 bar)
Compressors
RECIPROCATING GAS COMPRESSORS

The working fluid is assumed to be a perfect gas. The cycle takes one revolution for
completion.
The valves are usually spring loaded and operate automatically by the pressure difference
across them.
The compressed gas is normally delivered to a pressure vessel called a "receiver".
p
V1 = swept volume
V3 = clearance volume
3 delivery
2
p2
n
pV =constant
n
pV =constant
p1
4 1
intake
V
effective swept volume (V1-V4)
= actual volume induced
swept volume (V1-V3)

clearance V1  V4
volume  vol  x100%
V1  V3
4 to 1 The inlet valve is open, and a volume of gas (V1 - V4) at p1 and T1 enters
the cylinder and mixes with the gas, which was trapped in the clearance volume and has
expanded back to p1 and T1.
1 to 2 Both valves are closed and the gas is compressed to p 2 and T2

polytropically.
Compressors
2 to 3 The delivery valve opens at 2 when the cylinder pressure matches the
receiver pressure.
Volume of gas (V2 - V3) is delivered at p2 and T2
3 to 4 The gas trapped in the clearance volume expands from p 2, T2 to p1, T1,
polytropically. (Both valves closed)
For an idealised machine, all the processes are reversible, the state of the fluid at inlet and
outlet remains constant with time, and the kinetic energy at inlet and outlet is negligible.
Volumetric Efficiency
Clearance between the piston and the cylinder head at top dead centre (TDC) is necessary
to ensure mechanical freedom and to allow valves to open.
The gas trapped at TDC in the clearance volume at the end of delivery is at pressure p 2.
This gas expands according to the law pvn = constant as the piston descends, and the inlet
valve does not open until p1, is reached. Thus the actual volume induced is less than the
swept volume.
actual volume induced V1  V4

Volumetric efficiency  
swept volume Vswept
VSWEPT  π  bore 2  stroke
4
(In reality, volumetric efficiency is also reduced by pressure losses through the inlet and
heating of the incoming gas by the hot cylinder walls. Both these factors reduce the density
of the induced gas, and thus reduce the volume induced at intake conditions.)
Flow Rate
p V  V 4  p 2 V 2  V 3 
mass induced/cy cle = mass delivered/ cycle = 1 1 
RT 1 RT 2
p    p   
m  mass delivered / sec  N 2 V 2 V3  N 1 V1 V 4 , N = cycles / sec .
RT 2 RT1
In a real machine, the flow rate is reduced by such factors as leakage past the piston
rings, pressure drop through the suction valve and heating of the suction gas as it enters
the cylinder by the warm cylinder walls.
The mass flow rate into the compressor is equal to the mass flow rate out of the compressor
for mass conservation (apart from leakage). Volume flow rate depends on the density of the
gas and so is different at inlet and outlet. Free Air Delivery is defined as the volume of air
delivered per second if that air was delivered at the intake conditions.
  N(V  V )  m  RT1
Free Air Delivery  V1 1 4
p1
Compressors
n1
p  n
Delivery Temperature  T 2  T1 2 
 p1 
Example:
A single stage reciprocating air compressor takes in air at 1.01 bar and 15 0C and delivers
it at 8 bar. The clearance volume is 6% of the swept volume. The stroke and bore are
100 and 60 mm respectively. The index of compression is 1.35. Find:
(a) the swept volume;
(b) the volume at which delivery commences (V2);
(c) the volume at which intake commences, (V4);
(d) the volumetric efficiency;
(e) the mass of air delivered per cycle;
(f) the delivery temperature.
p1 = 1.01 bar = 1.01 x 105 Pa p2 = 8 bar = 8 x 105 Pa

T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K T2 = ?
stroke = 100mm = 10cm
bore = 60mm = 6cm
n = 1.35 (index of compression)
(a) Swept volume
Vswept = /4 x bore2 x stroke

= /4 x 62 x 10 = 282.743 cm3
(note: it is easier to work in cm.)
(b) Volume at which delivery commences,
first calculate V1
V1 = swept volume + clearance volume
clearance volume = 6% of swept volume = 0.06 x 282.743 = 16.9646 cm 3
V1 = 282.743 + 16.9646 = 299.708 cm3 (or V1 = 1.06 x swept volume)

1
 p n
 V2  V1 1 
 p2 
1
 1.01 1.35
 299.708 
 8 
 299.708  0.2159
 64.7058 cm3
volume at which delivery commences = 64.7058 cm3
Compressors
(c) Volume at which air intake commences

1
 p n
V4  V3  2 
 p1 
1
 8  1.35
 16.9646 
 1.01
 16.9646  4.63185
 78.5775 cm3
volume at which intake commences = 78.5775 cm3
(d) Volumetric efficiency
V  V4
vol  1
Vswept
299.708  78.5775 221.131
   0.78209
282.743 282.743
volumetric efficiency = 0.78209 (78.21%)
(e) Mass delivered per cycle
mass delivered = mass induced
p V  V4 
m 1 1
RT1


1.0  105 299.708  10  6  78.5775  10  6 
 2.67531 10  4 kg
287  288
(note: Be careful to convert everything to base units in the equation of state. Thus, the
volumes in cm3 have been converted to m3 by multiplying by 10-6)
mass delivered per cycle = 2.67531x10-4 kg
(f) Delivery temperature

n 1
p  n
T2  T1 2 
 p1 
1.35 1
0.25926
 8  1.35  8 
 288   288 
 1.013   1.013 
 288  1.70876  492.122K
delivery temp= 492.12K (219.1ºC)
Compressors
Power to drive compressor:
It can be shown that:
  n m
W  R T2  T1
n 1
n1
p  n
further, using T 2   2  ,
T1  p1 
 n 1

n  
 p2 
n

  
W  RT1 
m  1
n 1  
 p1  
 
.
 , R, T1, p2 and p1, decreasing n decreases W )
(for constant m
Np1V1  V 4   
n 1
  n Np1 V1  V4  RT   p2  
n
 
also, using m , W 
1 
  1
RT1 n 1 RT1  p1  
 
 n 1 
  p  
N p1V1  V 4  2 
  n n
 W  1
n 1  p1  
 


mechanical efficiency MECH   W
shaft power
p
Isothermal Power m
 RT1 In 2
p 1

Isothermal Power
Isothermal Efficiency  )
ISO 
W
Example: A single stage reciprocating air compressor takes in 1m3 of air per minute at 1.013
bar and 15oC and delivers it at 7bar. Assuming that the law of compression is
pv1.35=constant, and Rair = 287 J/kgK, calculate the compressor power.
pV 1. 013x105 x1
  1 1
mass delivered per second m  0. 0204kg / s
RT1 287x288x60
n 1 1.35 1
p  n  7  1.35
delivery temperature T2  T1 2   288   475.2K (202.2 ºC)
 p1   1.013 
Compressors
W  n m  R (T2  T1 )
n 1
1.35
Compressor power  x 0.0204x 287(475.2  288)
1.35  1
 4.23x10 3 W  4.23kW
multi stage compression

 p2 
For fixed cylinder dimensions, the greater the pressure ratio   , the smaller the
 p1 
volumetric efficiency.
V
Vc
for fixed Vc/Vs, increasing pressure ratio

decreases the induced volume
Vs
(Vc=clearance volume, Vs=swept volume)
Compressors
To obtain the same flow at higher delivery pressure, it is more economical to split the
compression into two or more stages rather than simply increase the size of the cylinder. In
a multi stage machine, after being compressed to an intermediate pressure in the first stage,
the gas is passed into a smaller cylinder in which it is compressed to the final pressure. The
second cylinder is smaller than the first as the gas is denser after the initial compression.
For the same stroke and clearance height, the clearance volume is smaller.
Multi-stage compression is equivalent to reducing the clearance volume of the single stage
machine
p2
pi
p1
clearance V
volume
2nd stage
clearance volume
1st stage
Compressors
Intercooling
Multi stage compression allows the use of an intercooler between the two stages, which
reduces the driving power for the second stage, which will be of smaller volume.
p2
work saved due to

intercooling
pi
p1
In the limit, as the number of stages is increased with intercooling, the work input
approaches the isothermal work input, which is the theoretical condition for minimum work.
Complete Intercooling is where the gas enters the second stage at the same temperature
at which it entered the first stage (T1)
p2 .

p  and W1  W 2
i
p1
The Ideal Intermediate Pressure for minimum work is where the pressure ratio is the same
for both stages.
Mechanical Advantages of Multistaging:
(i) The higher pressures are confined to small cylinders, so the low pressure part
does not have to be as strong.
(ii) The multi cylinder arrangement is less difficult to balance and requires a
smaller flywheel.
Compressors
A ir P re ssu re
R e lei f G auge
v /v S ot p
A irF i let r C oo el r C oo el r V a vl e
1 2 3 4
W a et r
R e lei f C oo lni g
v /v D ra ni W a et r
Out
C oo lni g
W a et r
nI LP C oo lni g S pa ces HP
P si ot n & P si ot n &
C y lni de r C y lni de r
1 & 3 : S u c toi n V a vl e
2 & 4 : D si cha rge V a vl e
EXERCISES: RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
1. A single acting reciprocating air compressor has a swept volume of 1600 cm 3 and a
clearance volume of 50cm3. The intake and delivery pressures are 1 bar and 6 bar
respectively and the index of compression and expansion is 1.25. Calculate:
(i) the cylinder volume at which delivery commences

(ii) the cylinder volume at which intake commences.
(iii) the volume delivered per cycle
(iv) the volume induced per cycle
(v) the volumetric efficiency
[(i) 394 cm3, (ii) 210 cm3 ]
2. Air is to be compressed in a single stage reciprocating compressor from 1.013 bar and
15°C to 7 bar. Calculate the indicated power required for an air intake of
0.3 m3/min at inlet conditions when the compression process is:

(a) Isentropic (reversible adiabatic process, P1 V1  C )
(b) Polytropic, with n = 1.25
What will be the delivery temperature in each case?
[1.305 kW, 1.195 kW, 228°C, 151°C]
Compressors
3. Air at 20°C and 2 bar is compressed in a reciprocating air compressor to a pressure

of 10 bar. Given R = 0.287 KJ/kgK, compression index 1.3 and a delivery rate of 2.27
kg/min, determine:
(i) the power to drive the machine if the mechanical efficiency is 80%;,
(ii) the required swept volume at 500 rev/min if the volumetric efficiency is 85%
[(i) 7.75 kW, (ii) 2245 cm3]
4. A single stage, single acting, reciprocating air compressor has a bore and stroke of
150mm. The clearance volume is 6% of the swept volume and the speed is 8 rev/s.
Intake pressure is 100 kN/m2 and the delivery pressure is 550 kN/m2. The polytropic
index is 1.32 throughout. Determine:
(a) the volumetric efficiency ,
(b) the volume of air delivered/s at 550 kN/m2,
(c) the compression power.
[(a) 84.2%, (b) 4.9 litres/s, (c) 3.76 kW]
5. Explain why the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is always less than
100%. Illustrate your answer with a p-V diagram.
6. What are the advantages of multistage compression?
7. On a p-V diagram, illustrate the work saved due to intercooling of a 2-stage

compressor.
8. On a p-V diagram, illustrate the improvement in volumetric efficiency achieved with

multi stage compression.
Second Law
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
FIRST LAW is concerned with energy quantities i.e. conservation of energy.
SECOND LAW is concerned with energy quality (eg. how much of the energy supplied to a
device by heating can be converted into useful work) and the direction of processes.
There are two classical statements of the Second Law:
1. Kelvin-Planck Statement
"It is impossible to convert all the energy supplied by heating from a single source into
useful work in a continuous manner" (energy quality)
2. Clausius Statement
"Energy transfer by heating will not occur naturally from a low temperature to a high
temperature" (direction of processes)
These two statements result from observation of actual phenomena. They represent the
practical consequences of an underlying natural tendency for matter and energy to become
more disorganised. (The complementary natural tendency is for matter to move to lower
energy states).
Energy transfer by heating is transfer of disorganised energy.
Energy transfer by working is transfer of organised energy
Second Law
The Heat Engine

A heat engine is any system, which continuously converts energy supplied by heating into
useful work. To be continuous, the system must follow a closed cycle of events.
Source of Internal
Energy At T
A
q
supplied
System boundary
- contains the working fluid.
Heat Engine wout

Cycle
q
rejected
Sink of Internal
Energy at T
B
qsupplied represents the amount of the energy transferred by heating from the high
temperature source to the working fluid.
qrejected represents the amount of the energy transfer by heating from the working fluid to
the low temperature sink.
wout represents the magnitude of the useful work done by the system on its surroundings.
qrejected>0 according to the Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law.
By the First Law, q - w = u. However, the working fluid undergoes a complete cycle, so
there is no net change in internal energy of the system.
Thus, q - w = 0 or q = w
where q represents the net energy supply to the system by heating.
w represents the net work done on the system
Thus, q = qsupplied - qrejected
and wout = qsupplied - qrejected
Second Law
Useful Work Output w out

Thermal Efficiency  
Energy Supplied qsupplied
qsupplied - qrejected
but wout = qsupplied - qrejected TH 
qsupplied
w out
TH 
qsupplied
Thermal Efficiency of Any Heat Engine.
qrejected
 1
qsupplied
Now, qrejected > O by the Second Law

 TH <100% by the Second Law.
Examples Of Real Heat Engines:

Steam Power Plant: The system is water/steam. Energy is supplied by heating from the hot
combustion gases in the boiler. Useful work is done by the turbine. Energy is rejected by
heating the condenser cooling water.
ENERGY SUPPLY
BOILER
PUMP TURBINE WORK
CONDENSER
ENERGY REJECTED
Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine: The system changes from air or fuel/air mixture
to combustion products during the cycle. Energy is supplied by release of the chemical
potential energy of the fuel air mixture during combustion, resulting in hot, high-pressure
combustion products. Work is developed in the expansion stroke as the high temperature,
high-pressure combustion products push the piston outwards. (Some of the work is
developed in the expansion stroke is used in the compression stroke). Energy not converted
to work is rejected to the atmosphere in the exhaust gases and via the engine cooling
system. The atmosphere can be envisaged as the link between exhaust and intake to
complete the cycle.
Second Law
Reversible Heat Engine

The most efficient type of heat engine cycle possible is one that involves only reversible
processes and operates between an isothermal (constant temperature) source and sink.
Isothermal
Source of Internal
Energy At T
A
q
supplied
System boundary
T
A
Reversible
Heat Engine wout
Cycle
TB
q
rejected
Isothermal
Sink of Internal
Energy at T
B
qrejected
TH  1 for any heat engine cycle.
qsupplied
For a fully reversible heat engine cycle, it can be shown that:
TB
TH  1
max TA
....maximum possible thermal efficiency of any heat engine cycle
* The higher the temperature at which energy is supplied by heating to the heat engine
cycle, the greater the proportion of this energy, which can be converted into useful work.
* The lower the temperature at which the unconverted energy is rejected from the heat
engine cycle, the greater the proportion of supplied energy, which can be converted into
useful work.
Second Law
ENTROPY
Entropy is the thermodynamic property associated with the Second Law.

s kJ/kg K
S= ms kJ/K
As the energy of a system becomes more disorganised, the system's entropy increases.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Entropy cannot be destroyed.
Entropy is created by irreversible processes.
Entropy is transferred by heating processes.
The entropy of any closed system, which is thermally isolated from its surroundings, either
increases or, if the process is reversible, remains constant.
1. A system's entropy increases when irreversible processes occur

within the system. (Entropy production)
Examples of irreversible processes are: unresisted expansion, mechanical or fluid friction,

turbulence, combustion, mixing of separated gases.
2. A system's entropy increases when energy is transferred to the

system by heating.(Entropy transfer)
(and decreases when the system is cooled)
Isentropic Process
For adiabatic processes, there is no energy transfer by heating so there is no entropy
transfer.
For reversible processes, there is no entropy created.
 For reversible adiabatic processes, there is no change in the entropy of the system
i.e. adiabatic and reversible = isentropic (constant entropy)
Second Law
EXERCISES: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. An actual heat engine operating cyclically receives energy by heating at a rate of 50

MW and supplies energy by working at a rate of 20 MW. Find its thermal efficiency and
the rate of energy transfer to the cooling reservoir.
(40%, 30 MW)
2. A closed system of gas is subject to a heat engine cycle consisting of four non-flow
processes.
Apply the First Law of thermodynamics to each process and complete the table.
Hence find the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
PROCESS Q (kJ) W (kJ) U (kJ)

1 300 -75
2 (adiabatic) -175
3 +50 -150
4 (adiabatic)
For the cycle 0
3. What is the maximum possible efficiency for a heat engine operating cyclically between
a constant temperature source at 1000 K and a constant temperature sink at 300 K?
(70%)
4. Describe two ways in which the entropy of a system may increase.
5. What do you think about the following?…
(a) Mechanical friction is always accompanied by entropy generation and reduced

performance. Friction in the workplace with fellow workers is bound to generate entropy
(disorder) and thus adversely affect performance.
(b) Unrestrained expansion (or explosion) and uncontrolled electron exchange (chemical
reaction) are highly irreversible and so generate entropy. Likewise, unrestrained opening
of the mouth to scatter angry words is highly irreversible, generates entropy and can
cause considerable damage. A person who gets up in anger is bound to sit down at a loss.
(c) Students who make the effort to file new information properly by relating it to their
existing knowledge base and creating a solid information network in their minds are low
entropy (organised) learners.
Ideal Cycles
IDEAL GAS CYCLES
The many processes involved in real heat engines are complex. To allow an understanding
of the basic processes involved within the cycles, and as a basis of comparison for real
cycles, "air standard cycles" have been formulated.
AIR STANDARD CYCLES: The working substance is assumed to be air throughout, all
processes are assumed to be reversible, and the source and sink for energy supply and
rejection by heating are assumed to be external to the working substance.
1. THE CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE
(BRAYTON CYCLE, JOULE CYCLE - GAS TURBINES)
T3=maximum temperature
2 3 p2=p3
p1=p4
1 4
The energy supply and rejection by heating occur at constant pressure. The expansion and
compression processes are adiabatic and reversible.
1  2 adiabatic reversible compression

2  3 constant pressure heating
3  4 adiabatic reversible expansion
4  1 constant pressure cooling.
Ideal Cycles
For any heat engine cycle,
wout = qsupplied - qrejected
Where wout = net work output

qsupplied - qrejected= difference between energy supplied and rejected by heating.
For this cycle, per kg of working fluid,
qsup plied  Cp T 3  T 2


constant pressure heating, q = h = Cp T
qrejected  Cp T 4  T1 
 w out  Cp T3  T2  Cp T4  T1
net work output

and TH 
energy supplied
Cp  T3  T2  Cp T4  T1

=
Cp  T3  T2

 TH  1  T 4 T1
T3  T 2
 1  1
 1
p   p  
T
note 2   2 
T1  p1
  3
 p4 
T
 
 3  rp 
T4
p2 p3
Where rp = pressure ratio = 
p1 p4
also
T 3  T 4 r p( 1)/  , T 2  T1 r p( 1)/ 
T1  T 4 1
 TH  1  1
T 4  T1 r p( 1)/  r p(  1)/ 
Thus, higher pressure ratio rp gives higher thermal efficiency
Ideal Cycles
Example:
In a gas turbine unit, air is drawn in at 1.02 bar and 15°C and is compressed to
6.12 bar. Calculate the thermal efficiency and the net work output of the
corresponding air standard cycle, when the maximum temperature is limited to
800°C. Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and  = 1.4
air
now,
T1 = 273 + 15 = 288K,
T 3 = 273 + 800 = 1073K (maximum temp occurs after combustion)
 1 0.4
 p2   6.12  14
.
T2  T1   288  
 p1  1.02 
= 288 x 1.6685 = 480.53K
T3 1073
T4    643.08K
16685
. 16685
.
 T1 643.08  288
  1  T4  1 = 0.401 (40.1%)
TH
T3  T2 1073  480.53
 
 
   1 
or  th  1   ηth= 1 
1
1.4 1  = 0.40006 (40.1%)
 
 rp   
 1
  6.12  1.4 
   
  1.02  
= 0.401 (40.1%)
 
Net work output = CP T3  T 2  CP T 4  T1  
= 1.005 (1073 - 480.53 + 288 - 643.08)
= 238.6 kJ/kg
Ideal Cycles
2. THE CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE
(OTTO CYCLE - HIGH-SPEED RECIPROCATING ENGINES)
T3=maximum temperature
V1=V4
V2=V3 4
The energy supply and rejection by heating occur at constant volume.
The expansion and compression processes are adiabatic and reversible
1  2 adiabatic reversible compression

2  3 reversible constant volume heating
3  4 adiabatic reversible expansion
4  1 reversible constant volume cooling
Ideal Cycles
For any heat engine cycle, wout = qsupplied - qrejected
For this cycle, per kg of working fluid,
qsup plied  C v T 3  T 2


constant volume heating, q = u = C v T
qrejected  C v T 4  T1 
 w out  Cv T3  T2  Cv T4  T1
and TH 
w out Cv T3  T2  Cv T4  T1

qsup plied Cv T3  T2

 TH  1  T 4 T1
T3  T 2
 1  1
T2  v1 v   1
 3  r v
T
note     4
T1  v 2   v3  T4
where,
rv  volumetric compression ratio
swept volume  clearance volume


clearance volume
also
 1  1
T 3
 T r
4 v
, T2  T1 r v
 
T1  T 4 1  1 
 TH  1  1  however,  th  1  also.
T 4  T1 r v  1 r v  1   1 
   rp 
Thus, higher (volumetric) compression ratio rv gives higher thermal efficiency
Ideal Cycles
Example:
Calculate the ideal air standard thermal efficiency based on the Otto cycle for an
engine with a cylinder diameter of 50mm, a stroke of 75mm and a clearance
volume of 21.3cm3. Calculate the net work per cycle if the energy supplied by
heating per cycle is 930 kJ/ kg

Swept volume: = x 502 x75 x 10-3
4
= 147.2cm3
Total volume = 147.2 + 21.3 = 168.5cm3
168.5
 rv   7.92
213
.
1
TH  1 
r v  1
1
 TH  1  0.563 56.3%
7.920.4
Net work =  TH
x q supplied
= 0.563 x 930 = 523.6 kJ/kg
Ideal Cycles
3a THE DIESEL CYCLE
(The ideal air standard diesel cycle)
Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression

Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating
Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion
Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling
𝑄2
𝜂 =1−
𝑄1
At constant pressure per kg of air,
𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
Also at constant volume per kg of air,
𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑐 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
There is no heat flow in processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 since these processes are isentropic.
Hence by substituting for Q1 and Q2 in the expression for thermal efficiency the following
equation may be derived:
(𝛽 𝛾 − 1)
𝜂 =1−
(𝛽 − 1)𝑟 𝛾−1 𝛾
𝑣
(where 𝛽 = 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
2
The equation shows that the termal efficiency depends not only on the compression ratio
𝑣
but also on the heat supplied between 2 and 3, which fixes the ratio 𝑣3. The equation is
2
derived by expressing each temperature in terms of 𝑇1 and 𝑟𝑣 or 𝛽. The derivation is not
given here, because it is believed that the best method of working out the thermal
efficiency is to calculate each temperature individually round the cycle, and then apply
𝑄2
𝜂 = 1−
𝑄1
This is shown in the following example.
Ideal Cycles
Example:
A diesel engine has an inlet temperature and pressure of 15°C and 1 bar
respectively.
The compression ratio is 12/1 and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100°C.
Calculate the air standard thermal efficiency based on the diesel cycle.
𝑇1 = 15 + 273 = 288𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 = 1100 + 273 = 1373𝐾
𝑇2 𝑣 𝛾−1
𝛾−1
=(𝑣1 ) = 𝑟𝑣 = 120.4 = 2.7
𝑇1 2
∴ 𝑇2 = 2.7 × 288 = 778𝐾
At constant pressure from 2 to 3, since 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 for a perfect gas, then

𝑇3 𝑣 1373
= 𝑣3 = 778 =1.765
𝑇 2 2
Therefore,
𝑣4 𝑣4 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣2 1
= = = 12 × = 6.8
𝑣3 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣2 𝑣3 1.765
𝑇3 𝑣 𝛾−1
Thus using equation = (𝑣4 ) = 6.80.4 = 2.153
𝑇4 3
1373
∴ 𝑇4 = 2.153=638K
Per kg of air 𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )=1.005(1373 − 778) = 598 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
and 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.718(638 − 288) = 251𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄 251
∴ 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑄2 = 1 − 598 = 0.58 or 58%
1
3b THE DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE
Most oil engines have their fuel injected by a camshaft driven fuel pump and a spring-
loaded injector. The ideal cycle used as a basis for comparison is called the dual
combustion cycle or the mixed cycle and is shown on the 𝑝 − 𝑣 diagram below.
Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression

Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant volume heating
Process 3 to 4 is reversible constant pressure heating
Process 4 to 5 is isentropic expansion
Ideal Cycles
Process 5 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling

The heat is supplied in two parts, the first part at constant volume and the remainder at
constant pressure, hence the name “dual combustion”. In order to fix the termal efficiency
𝑣
completely three factor sare necessary. These are: the compression ratio, 𝑟𝑣 = 𝑣1 ; the
2
𝑝 𝑣
ratio of pressures, 𝑘 = 3⁄𝑝2 ; and the ratio of volumes, 𝛽 = 𝑣4 . Then it can be shown that
3
𝑘𝛽 𝛾 − 1
η=1 −
[(𝑘 − 1) + 𝛾𝑘(𝛽 − 1)]𝑟𝑣𝛾−1
The above equation is much too cumbersome to use, and the best method of calculating
thermal efficiency is to evaluate each temperature round the cycle and then use the well-
known efficiency equation:
𝑄2
𝜂 = 1−
𝑄1
The heat supplied is found by 𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )+𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ) as heat is added at constant
volume and constant pressure respectively.
The heat rejected 𝑄2 , is given by 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 )
Ideal Cycles
Example:
A diesel engine takes in air at 1.01 bar, 20°C (293K) and the maximum cycle
pressure is 69 bar. The compression ratio is 18⁄1. Calculate the air standard
thermal efficiency based on the dual combustion cycle. Assume that the heat
added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure.
The cycle is shown on the 𝑝 − 𝑣 diagram below.
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝛾−1
=( ) = 180.4 = 3.18
𝑇1 𝑣2
𝑇2 = 3.18 × 𝑇1
𝑇2 =3.18× 293 = 931𝐾
𝑝 𝑇
From 2 to 3 the process is at constant volume, hence, 𝑝3 = 𝑇3
2 2
𝑝3 𝑣3 𝑝2 𝑣2
(since = , and 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 )
𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑝3 69 × 931
𝑇3 = × 𝑇2 =
𝑝2 𝑝2
𝑝 𝑣 𝛾
To find 𝑝2 use equation 𝑝2 = (𝑣1 ) = 181.4 = 57.2
1 2
𝑝2 = 57.2 × 1.01 = 57.8 bar
Then substituting,
69 × 931
𝑇3 =
= 1112𝐾
57.8
Now the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure in
this example, therefore
𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
∴ 0.718(1112 − 931) = 1.005(𝑇4 − 1112)
0.718 × 181
𝑇4 = + 1112
1.005
𝑇4 = 1241𝐾
𝑣
To find 𝑇5 it is necessary to know the value of the volume ratio, 𝑣5 . At constant pressure
4
from 3 to 4,
𝑣4 𝑇4 1241.4
= = = 1.116
𝑣3 𝑇3 1112
Therefore,
𝑣5 𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣3 1
= = = 18 × = 16.14
𝑣4 𝑣4 𝑣2 𝑣4 1.116
Ideal Cycles
𝑇4 𝑣 𝛾−1
To find T5 we use = (𝑣5 ) = 16.140.4 = 3.04
𝑇5 4
1241.4
𝑇5 = = 408𝐾
3.04
The heat supplied is given by: 𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )+𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ) or 𝑄1 = 2𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(since in this example the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at
constant pressure).
∴ 𝑄1 = 2 × 0.718 × (1112 − 9310) = 260 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
The heat rejected is given by: 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.718(408 − 293) = 82.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑄 82.6
The thermaleffficiency is now: 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑄2 = 1 − 260 = 1 − 0.318 = 0.682 or 68.2%
1
It should be mentioned that the modern high-speed diesel engine operates on a cycle for
which the Otto cycle is a better basis of comparison. Also, since the Otto cycle calculation
for thermal efficiency is much simpler than that of the dual combustion cycle, then this is
another reason for using the Otto cycle as a standard of comparison.
Note: It should be realised that the thermal efficiencies of the theoretical processes and
that of the actual processes will differ considerably. E.g. the theoretical efficiency of the
Otto-process with a compression ratio 𝑟𝑣 = 7.92 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 1.4 is 56.3%; the acual efficiency
is only about 22%.
One of the reasons is: for calculation purposes a gas (air) with simple properties has been
used. However, due to dissociation that takes place at temperatures above 1400℃ (when
molecules disintegrate) a lot of heat is bound which results in a lower final temperature,
whilst 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑐𝑝 are also dependent on the temperature. On the other hand, the
compression and expansion curves don’t resemble the actual ones. During compression
heat is absorbed by the gas as long as the the temperature of it is lower than that of the
cylinder walls. However, heat will be dissipated when the gas temperature is higher than
the cylinder walls.
In petrol engines 𝑛 = 1.3 during compression and 𝑛 = 1.5 during expansion. However, the
processes occur more adiabatically if the number of revolutions increases. Furthermore,
the actual diagram is smaller because both the combustion and the discharge of the gases
take some time so that the sharp corners of the diagram are rounded-off. The effective
work of a four-stroke engine should also be reduced with the work necessary for the
suction and discharge stroke.
Ideal Cycles
EXERCISES: IDEAL GAS CYCLES
1. A closed cycle gas turbine unit operating with maximum and minimum temperatures of
760°C and 20°C has a pressure ratio of 7/1 Calculate the ideal thermal efficiency and
the net work per cycle.
(42.7%; 225 kJ/kg)
2. In an air standard Otto cycle the maximum and minimum temperature are 1400°C and
15°C. The heat supplied per kg of air is 800 kJ. Calculate the compression ratio and
the thermal efficiency. Calculate also the ratio of maximum to minimum pressures in
the cycle.
(5.26/1; 48.6%; 30.5/1)
for air: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK

Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
 = 1.4
3. Sketch each cycle on a p-v diagram
4. What lessons can be learned from ideal cycles about real cycles?
5. The compression ratio in a diesel engine is 13 to 1 and the ratio of expansion is 6.5 to
1. At the beginning of compression the temperature is 32°C. Assuming adiabatic
compression and expansion, calculate the temperatures at the three remaining
cardinal points of the cycle, and the ideal thermal efficiency, taking 𝑐𝑝 = 1.005𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
and 𝑐𝑣 = 0.718 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 respectively.
(577.9°C, 1428.8°C, 531.8°C, 58.04%)
6. The compression ratio of a diesel engine working on the dual-combustion cycle is 10.7.
The pressure and temperature of the air at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and
32°C. The maximum pressure and temperature during the cycle is 41 bar and 1593°C.
Assuming adiabatic compression and expansion, calculate the pressures and
temperatures at the remaining cardinal points of the cycle and the ideal thermal
efficiency. Take 𝑐𝑝 = 1.005𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 and 𝑐𝑣 = 0.718 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 respectively.
(𝑝2 = 27.62 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇2 = 514.2℃, 𝑇3 = 896℃; 𝑝5 = 2.858 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇5 = 598.6℃; 58.25%)
7. The compression ratio of a diesel engine is 15 to 1. Fuel is admitted for one-tenth of

the power stroke and the combustion takes place at constant pressure. Exhaust
commences when the piston has travelled nine-tenth of the stroke. At the beginning of
compression the temperature of the air is 41°C. Assuming compression and expansion
follow the law 𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 where 𝑛 = 1.34, calculate the temperatures at the end
of compression, end of combustion, and beginning of exhaust.
(515.4°C; 1619°C; 776°C)
Engine Performance
RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

1. Four-Stroke Cycle
A good example is the medium speed marine diesel. Refer to the engine diagram and the
timing diagram:
1st stroke - the induction stroke: As the piston descends, the cylinder is filled with air through
the inlet valve.
2nd stroke - the compression stroke: The piston rises, compressing the air and raising its
temperature. Just before the piston reaches the top of its stroke, fuel oil is injected into the
cylinder. The air temperature is well above the ignition temperature of the fuel, as a result
of the compression. The fuel ignites after a short delay.
3rd stroke - the power stroke: Fuel continues to be injected for a short time after the piston
begins to descend, and combustion continues till a short time after injection ceases. The
hot gases resulting from combustion force the piston downwards, turning the crankshaft.
4th stroke - the exhaust stroke: Exhaust gas leaves the cylinder through the exhaust valve.
The cycle is ready to begin again.
Valve Timing:
The valves do not open instantaneously. The exhaust valve begins to open before BDC
and does not fully close till after TDC to allow the maximum time for exhaust. The inlet valve
opens before TDC and closes after BDC to allow the maximum time for induction.
The period when both valves are open is called the valve overlap, and in supercharged
engines this may be quite large to allow through flow of air from inlet to exhaust to improve
scavenging and to help cool the exhaust valves.
Indicator Diagram
(supercharged 4 stroke)
expansion (power)
compression
injection begins
exhaust
intake
V
TDC BDC
Engine Performance
Typical Four-Stroke
Medium Speed Diesel
Engine
Timing Diagram for a Four-Stroke

Diesel Engine
Engine Performance
2. Two-Stroke Cycle
A good example is the low speed marine diesel engine with uniflow scavenging. Refer to
the engine diagram and the timing diagram.
As the piston nears the end of the power stroke (expansion stroke), the exhaust valve opens,
allowing the pressure in the cylinder to fall rapidly as the combustion products escape. This
enables scavenge air (charge air) under pressure to enter the cylinder when the scavenge
ports are uncovered by the descending piston. The scavenge air flows up the cylinder forcing
the remaining exhaust gas out past the exhaust valve.
The piston rises, covering the scavenge ports. The exhaust valve closes, and the
compression begins.
The piston rises further, compressing the air to a high temperature and pressure. Fuel is
injected and combustion commences near TDC and proceeds part way into the expansion
stroke. The cycle is repeated.
Unlike the four-stroke cycle, the two-stroke cycle does not have the exhaust and induction
strokes to perform the gas exchange process. Thus, pressurised charge air must be
supplied from another source, usually a turbocharger (turbo blower)
Turbo charging
The waste energy in the exhaust gases can be partially utilised in a small turbine, which
drives a rotary air compressor. Thus pressurised charge air can be produced without any
additional fuel expenditure.
In both four stroke and two stroke engines, the use of compressed charge air results in a
higher trapped mass which allows a greater amount of fuel to be burnt per cycle, improving
efficiency and reducing engine size.
Indicator Diagram (2 stroke)
expansion (power stroke)
exhaust valve
opens
compression
injection begins
V
scavenge ports BDC
TDC open and close
Engine Performance
Uni-flow scavenge
process
Typical slow-speed
crosshead diesel engine
Timing of a two-stroke diesel
Engine Performance
3. Performance Criteria
(1) INDICATED POWER (IP)

IP = rate at which work is done on the piston by the working fluid, as evaluated from an
indicator diagram.
An indicator diagram is a graph of cylinder pressure against cylinder volume. For low speed
engines, a mechanical indicator has been used traditionally. Electronic indicators are now
readily available and can be used for all engine types.
Net work per cycle = expansion work - compression work
= Area of the indicator diagram. (W = - pdv)
IP = INDICATED NET WORK PER CYCLE x N n
Where N' = cycles per second
revolutions per second
= for a four stroke engine.
2
= revolutions per second for a two stroke engine.
n = number of cylinders.
(2) INDICATED MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (IMEP)
IMEP = a constant pressure acting on the piston over one stroke which would do the same
work as the actual pressure over the whole cycle.
INDICATED NET WORK PER CYCLE

IMEP =
SWEPT VOLUME
thus, IP = IMEP xVswNn (Watts)
where A = π 4 Bore , L = stroke

2
Vsw = A x L
Engine Performance
(3) BRAKE POWER
Brake power (BP) = the net power output of the engine.

Brake power can be measured by connecting the engine to a dynamometer (brake), which
absorbs the engine power output The dynamometer is mounted in such a way as to allow
to torque ("turning force") to be measured. Alternatively, the power out of a working engine
can be found by measuring the torsion in the propeller shaft and the shaft speed.
BP = 2 NT or BP=ωT (Watts)
where T = measured torque (Nm)

N = engine shaft speed (revolutions/second)
ω = 2πN (radials/sec)
(4) FRICTION POWER (FP)
The difference between BP and IP is the friction power, which is the power required to
overcome the frictional resistance of the engine parts, and to drive auxiliaries. Friction power
is a strong function of engine speed.
FP = IP - BP
(5) MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY


( MECH)
BP
MECH = , usually 80% to 90%
IP
(6) BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (TH )

B
Brake Power
TH 
B Rate of energy supply in fuel
BP
i.e. TH =
 fuel x LCV
or TH =
3600
B m B BSFC x LCV
 fuel = fuel mass flow rate (kg/s)
where m
LCV = Lower Calorific Value of the fuel (J/kg)
The calorific value is the quantity of energy released by the fuel in combustion, (as measured
in a calorimeter).
Engine Performance
(7) BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (BSFC)
 fuel
m
BSFC = (kg/kWh)
BP
 fuel is the fuel flow rate in kg/h.
where m
(different from that used in TH )
B
and BP has the units kWatts (not Watts).
It can be seen that:
1
BSFC 
 TH
B α= proportional
Similarly Indicated Thermal Efficiency and Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption are taken
relative to Indicated Power.
(8) BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (BMEP)
NET WORK PER CYCLE MEASURED AT THE BRAKE

BMEP 
SWEPT VOLUME
BP
BMEP =
VswN n
BRAKE WORK / CYCLE

(also, BMEP 
SWEPT VOLUME
and BRAKE WORK/CYCLE = BP/(CYCLES/SEC))
BMEP  T
where T = brake torque
(9) INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY ( TH )

I
TH
TH  B
I MECH
and  TH =

IP
indicated m f uel x LCV
Engine Performance
Example:
A four cylinder four-stroke internal combustion engine of bore 80mm and stroke 110mm
develops an indicated power of 47.85 kW when running at 74 rev/s. The fuel consumption
is 13.75 kg/h and the lower calorific value of the fuel is 42MJ/kg.
Calculate:
(i) the indicated mean effective pressure
(ii) the indicated thermal efficiency
n=4
4 stroke
IP=47.85kW
N=74 rev/sec N’=74/2 cycles/sec
 f  13.75 kg / h
m
LCV=42 MJ/kg
stroke=110 mm = 0.10 m
bore=80 mm = 0.080 m
Vsw   4  bore 2  stroke 5.5292  10 4 m 3
IP 47.85  10 3
IMEP    584.755  10 3 Pa  5.85 bar
4 74
Vsw N' n 5.529  10   4
2
IP 47.85  103
TH    0.298 29.8%
I m f  LCV 13.75 6
 42  10
3600
Diesel Engine Performance Limitations

During the combustion and expansion phases, there is considerable energy transfer by
heating from the hot gases to the cooling water. This represents a considerable energy loss
(about 20% of the energy supplied in the fuel). The major energy loss is in the hot exhaust
gases. This may represent about 30% of the energy supplied in the fuel. Some of this energy
may be recovered in an exhaust turbine.
The power output of the diesel engine is controlled by varying the quantity of fuel injected
per cycle. This is called "Quantity Governing". The cylinder is always filled with as much
air as the scavenging system will provide. The overall air fuel ratio thus varies considerably,
depending on the power requirement. In diesel engines, the fuel is injected as fine droplets,
and evaporation and mixing of fuel and air occurs within the cylinder. The combustion
process occurs in the regions where fuel vapour and air mix in proportions favourable for
combustion (around chemically correct mixture strength).
Engine Performance
At part loads, only a small portion of the air induced is used in combustion, so the overall air
fuel ratio is very much higher than chemically correct air fuel ratio.
At high loads, the overall air fuel ratio is greater than chemically correct, but the limitations
imposed by the mixing process may result in regions of low air fuel ratio and incomplete
combustion, with smoke in the exhaust.
At very low loads, the combustion process may be inhibited by the quenching effect of the
large quantity of excess air.
Thermal Efficiency
At very high loads, thermal efficiency may decrease, as the large mass of fuel injected per
cycle cannot be burned completely due to mixing limitations.
At low loads, thermal efficiency is small because friction power is a greater proportion of
the total.
At high speeds, thermal efficiency decreases because friction power is large.
At low speeds, more time is available for heat transfer from the combustion gases, so a
larger proportion of the fuel energy is lost to the cooling water, resulting in a lower thermal
efficiency.
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency decreases as speed increases (at constant load) because friction
power increases with speed.
FP is very nearly constant at a given engine speed, and if the load is decreased giving lower
values of BP at constant speed, then the variation of MECH with BP at constant speed is:
MECH
BP
At zero BP, the engine is producing just enough power to overcome the frictional resistance,
so MECH= 0 and IP = FP.
Engine Performance
EXERCISES: RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE
1. The BMEP of a single cylinder four-stroke petrol engine is 0.8 MN/m2, and the specific
fuel consumption based on the brake power is 0.34 kg/kWh. The LCV of the fuel used
is 43 MJ/kg. The swept volume of the engine is 880 cm3. Find:
(a) the BP developed at a speed of 2500 rev/min,
(b) the brake thermal efficiency.
[14.67 kW; 24.62%]
2. A four cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine has a bore of 212mm and stroke 292mm. At
full load, at 720 rev/min, the BMEP is 5.93 bar and the brake specific fuel consumption
is 0.226 kg/kW h. Calculate the brake power and the brake thermal efficiency of the
engine. The calorific value of the fuel is 44,200 kJ/kg.
[146.7 kW; 36%]
3. A six cylinder, four-stroke, single acting diesel engine of 610mm bore and 990mm stroke
was run on test and the following data collected. Duration of test 2 h, average speed
128 rev/min, brake torque 73.4 kNm, IMEP 6.76 bar, fuel consumption 462 kg, calorific
value of fuel 44,500 kJ/kg. From this information determine:
(i) the indicated power developed
(ii) indicated thermal efficiency,
(iii) brake thermal efficiency,
(iv) the mechanical efficiency.
[(i) 1.25 MW, (ii) 43.25% (iii) 33.9% (iv) 78.4%]
4. A nine cylinder, two-stroke engine is required to develop an indicated power of 9.32 MW
at a speed of 115 rev/min with an indicated thermal efficiency of 40%. The calorific value
of the fuel is 41,800 kJ/kg and its specific gravity 0.868 kg/dm3 (or 868 kg/m3) Determine
the fuel consumption in tonne/h and the volume of fuel delivered per injection.
[2 tonne/h, 37 cm3]
5. A six cylinder 2-stroke diesel engine running at 120 rev/min has a bore of 900mm and a
stroke of 1300mm. The brake torque is 700 kNm, mechanical efficiency 94% and
specific fuel consumption on a brake power basis 0.24 kg/kW h. Determine:
(i) the brake power developed,
(ii) the indicated thermal efficiency,
(iii) the IMEP.
The calorific value of the fuel used is 42 MJ/kg.
[ (i) 8796 kW, (ii) 38%, (iii) 9.44 bar]
Gas Turbines
GAS TURBINES
1. SIMPLE GAS TURBINE PLANT
Fuel Combustion chamber
2 3
Compressor Turbine
4
1
Air Exhaust
Ideally, the compression in the rotary compressor and the expansion in the turbine are
adiabatic and frictionless i.e. ISENTROPIC.
The combustion process occurs at approximately constant pressure

h (enthalpy)
qSUPPLIED wT
isobar p3=p2
2 4
qREJECTED
wC isobar p4=p1
s (entropy)
Gas Turbines
The working substance is assumed to be a perfect gas, so h = CpT
The gas turbine is a steady flow device, and the Steady Flow Energy Equation can be
applied to individual processes within the cycle:
q + w = h (ignoring potential and kinetic energy)
(Q - W  mh, Q  mq, W  mw)
The flow rate through the compressor and turbine is high, and the surface area for energy
transfer by heating is small compared with the work term and can generally be ignored
 wC = h2 - h1 = Cp (T2 - T1)
wT = h4 - h3 = Cp (T4 - T3)
The combustion process is modelled as a workless heating process
 qSUPPLIED = h3 - h2 = Cp (T3 - T2)
p3 p2  p3 p2 
Pressure ratio rp     
p4 p1  p1 p4 
Processes 1  2 and 3  4 are ideally isentropic
 1

T2 T3

T1 T 4
 rp   
(pv = constant, pv = RT)
Thermal Efficiency
Net work Output w 

 wCompressor
 TH  
Turbine
Energy Supplied by Heating q SUPPLIED
ηth=
C T  T   C T  T 
p gas 3 4 pair 2 1
C T  T  p gas 3 2
The Cp term is not cancelled as Cp changes in the combustion process due to the change
in the composition of the working fluid.
Gas Turbines
Isentropic Efficiency:
In reality, the expansion and compression are not frictionless, due to turbulence and fluid
friction resulting from the high flow rates. These irreversible processes produce entropy.
Thus for a real expansion in a turbine, or compression in a rotary compressor, the entropy
increases. Entropy production is always associated with a loss of useful work. The amount
of entropy increase is a measure of the frictional losses.
4
/
2 4
2/
In the turbine, friction means that less of the enthalpy will be converted into work.
In the compressor, friction means that more work has to be done to produce the same
pressure rise and the enthalpy increase will be greater.
For a perfect gas, enthalpy change is proportional to temperature change
The isentropic efficiency compares the temperature change for the real process with the
temperature change for the ideal frictionless process:
T3  T4  T1
TURB  COMP  T 2
/
T3  T4/ T 2  T1
Gas Turbines
Example:
Calculate the thermal efficiency and work output per kg of working fluid of a simple gas
turbine plant, given the following conditions:
The maximum and minimum temperatures of the cycle are 1000K and 288K respectively,
the pressure ratio is 6, and the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.85
and 0.90 respectively. Take the working fluid as air throughout.
First, calculate the isentropic temperature changes in the turbine and compressor:
0.4 /1.4
T 2 /  288 x 6 = 288 x 1.6685 = 481K
1000
T4/   599K
1.6685
Thus, actual temperatures
T 2 /  T1 481  288
T2   T1   288  515K
COMP 0.85
T 4  T 3  TURB  T 3  T 4 /   1000  0.901000  599  639K
thus,
wC = Cp (T2 - T1) = 1.005 (515 - 288) = 228 kJ /kg
wT = Cp (T4 - T3) = 1.005 (639 - 1000) = - 363 kJ /kg
qsupplied = Cp (T3 - T2) = 1.005 (1000 - 515) = 487 kJ /kg
TH = - w C  w T  = 363  228

= 0.277
qsupplied 487
work output = -(wC + wT) = 363 - 228 = 135 kJ /kg
Gas Turbines
2. GAS TURBINE WITH EXHAUST HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger, which preheats the working fluid before the combustion chamber (but
after the compressor), will increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle by recovering waste
energy from the exhaust, thus reducing the fuel required.
Fuel Combustion chamber
Compressor Turbine
2
5
3
1
Air Heat exchanger

6
Exhaust
5
3 
5’
2
2’  6
Gas Turbines
There must be some temperature difference for finite heating rates, so T 3 is less than T5.
T2 is less than T6
The performance of the heat exchanger can be described:
temperature rise of the air

Thermal ratio =
maximum temperature difference available
T3  T2
Thermal ratio =
T5  T2
Energy supplied by the fuel is thus reduced to:
qsupplied = Cp (T4 - T3)
 1
T2 / T
 4  rp 
T1 T5 /
 
net work output  Cp g T 4  T 5   Cp a T 2  T1 ,
Cp g T 4  T 5   Cp a T 2  T1
TH 
Cp g T 4  T 3 
T4  T5  T1
TURB  COMP  T 2
/
T4  T5 / T 2  T1
Normally, the solution procedure would be:
 1
calculate T 2 / and T 5 / using T 2/  T 4 
rp   
T1 T5/
(T4 is usually given as it is limited by metallurgical considerations at turbine inlet)
 T1 T4  T5
COMP  T 2 and TURB 
/
calculate T2 and T5 using
T 2  T1 T4  T5 /
T3  T2
calculate T3 using Thermal ratio = (Heat Exchanger)
T5  T2
calculate net work and thermal efficiency
 m
calculate power or mass flow rate using W w
Gas Turbines
An Example of a Marine Gas Turbine
Rolls Royce recently published details of a 25 MW high efficiency and low emissions
marine gas turbine (WR21) and (LM2500).
The exhaust gas heat exchanger, intercooler and variable area nozzles on the turbine
have radically increased the efficiency compared to a simple cycle.
The exhaust gas heat exchanger is a type called a recuperator. The variable area nozzles
close progressively as the power reduces, reducing the mass flow rate. This keeps the
part load exhaust temperature high enough to maintain the recuperator temperature
differential for effective heat transfer.
The two-stage compression with intercooling reduces compressor work. The first two
stages of the turbine drive the two compressor stages. A separate power turbine drives the
propeller.
Ref. English and Tooke, Sea Australia 2000.
Gas Turbines
EXERCISES: GAS TURBINES
1. In a gas turbine plant working on the ideal cycle the inlet temperatures to the
compressor and turbine are 15°C and 650°C respectively. If the pressure ratios are
both 4:1 determine the heat supplied per kg of working fluid during combustion, the
temperature at outlet from the turbine and the thermal efficiency of the plant. Assume
 is 1.4 and Cp=1.005 kJ/kg K.
[497.5 kJ/kg, 347°C, 32.5%]
2. A simple gas turbine plant consists of a compressor and turbine, both having a
pressure ratio of 4:1. The inlet to the compressor is at 15°C and the compressor
isentropic efficiency is 0.8. The air passes from the compressor into a combustion
chamber where fuel of calorific value 43.5 MJ/kg is burnt. The outlet from the
combustion chamber and inlet to the turbine are at 650°C. Calculate:
(a) the temperature at compressor outlet;

(b) the temperature at turbine outlet if the isentropic efficiency is 0.7;
(c) the mass of fuel burned per kg of air.
Assume  = 1.4 and Cp for both air and combustion products to be 1000 J/kg K.
[(a) 190°C; (b) 438°C; (c) 0.01053 kg of fuel]
3. A gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 6:1 and a maximum cycle temperature of
600°C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.82 and 0.85
respectively. Calculate the power output of an electric generator geared to the turbine
when the air enters the compressor at 15°C with a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.
For air Cp is 1005 J/kg K and  is 1.4
For the combustion gases Cp is 1110 J/kg K and  is 1.333

[919 kW]
4. A simple gas turbine consists of a compressor, turbine and generator on the same
shaft. The air leaving the compressor is heated in an exhaust heat exchanger prior to
entering the combustion chamber, which it leaves at 600°C. The pressure ratio of both
compressor and turbine is 4:1 and they each have an isentropic efficiency of 80%. Air
enters the compressor at 15°C. The heat exchanger has a thermal ratio of 75%.
Assuming the working fluid to be air, which may be treated as a perfect gas, calculate
the efficiency of the cycle.
[0.195]
Gas Turbines
5. A simple gas turbine plant takes in air at 18°C, has a pressure ratio of 5 and an
isentropic efficiency of 84% for both compression and expansion. The temperature of
the gases entering the turbine is 670°C. Determine the theoretical percentage
improvement in thermal efficiency caused by the addition of an exhaust heat
exchanger having a thermal ratio of 75%. Assume  = 1.4 throughout.
[35.6%]
6. (i) Explain how an exhaust gas heat exchanger improves the efficiency of a gas
turbine.
(ii) A gas turbine unit uses a heat exchanger for recovery of waste energy in the
exhaust. The thermal ratio of the heat exchanger is 0.75. The pressure ratio for both
turbine and compressor is 6:1. The turbine isentropic efficiency is 0.85. The
compressor isentropic efficiency is 0.81. The air temperature at inlet to the compressor
is 25°C and the temperature of the combustion gases at inlet to the turbine is 720°C.
The power output is 8.7MW. Calculate:
(a) mass flow rate of air
(b) thermal efficiency
for air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, =1.4
for combustion gases, Cp=1.17 kJ/kgK, =1.33
Sketch the plant layout and sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram.
(81.12kg/s, 27.01%)
Properties of Liquids and Vapours
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND VAPOURS

Saturation, Dryness Fraction, Superheat
Unlike perfect gases, the properties of liquids and vapours cannot be expressed in simple
formulae. It is necessary to use experimentally derived tables and charts of properties.
Envisage a constant pressure non-flow heating process as a means of constructing a
diagram of properties.
weighted piston
Constant pressure
heating device
system
Q
The temperature of a fixed mass of liquid, which is maintained at a constant pressure,
increases as its internal energy is increased. This continues until the onset of boiling.
When a liquid at boiling point (saturated liquid) is heated further, the additional energy
supply changes the phase from liquid to vapour. During this change of phase, liquid and
vapour exist together (mixed phases) and the temperature remains constant if the pressure
is held constant. This temperature is called the saturation temperature and it is a function of
pressure.
The vapour that is produced by the boiling process is called saturated vapour. The mixture
of saturated liquid and saturated vapour is called wet vapour. When the liquid has just
evaporated completely, the vapour is called dry saturated vapour
When dry saturated vapour is further heated its temperature rises above the saturation
temperature and it becomes superheated vapour.
As yet more energy is added, the temperature of the vapour departs further and further from
its saturation temperature, and its behaviour approaches that of a perfect gas.
T
all saturated liquid
o o all saturated vapor
mixed phase region superheated region
u
liquid internal energy
region of evaporation
Advancd Marine Thermodynamics 91

heating a liquid at constant pressure

The difference between the actual temperature of a superheated vapour and the saturation
temperature at the pressure of the vapour is the degree of superheat
(Tsuper – Tsaturated)
When a vapour is in contact with its liquid, any extra heating will only evaporate more liquid,
not raise the temperature (if the pressure is held constant). The state of the mixture cannot
be defined by pressure and temperature alone. The condition of a wet vapour is defined by
its dryness fraction.
Dryness fraction x = mass of saturated vapour in 1kg of the mixture
x = 1  saturated vapour only
x = 0  saturated liquid only
saturated vapour
saturated liquid
In the simple case of boiling water at constant pressure, the system is composed of two
well-separated phases - saturated liquid and saturated vapour. In real cases, the physical
distribution of the liquid and vapour in the mixture may not be so well defined. For instance
in the late stages of a steam turbine, the steam may become wet and small liquid droplets
will form.
Whatever the case, wet vapour can be considered to be a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapour in the proportions indicated by the dryness fraction.
Latent Energy of Evaporation
The energy supplied to convert unit mass of a saturated liquid into saturated vapour at
constant pressure is the latent energy of evaporation
But q  h for a constant pressure non-flow process so the latent energy of evaporation is
given by the enthalpy difference between saturated vapour and saturated liquid at the given
pressure. Latent energy of evaporation is also known as enthalpy of evaporation.
Latent energy of evaporation varies with pressure.
(Note that the enthalpy of evaporation is greater than the internal energy of evaporation
because part of the supplied energy is used to do the work of expansion)
Remember: h=u+pv h2-h1=(u2-u1)+(p2v2-p1v1)
Δh=Δu+Δpv

Property Diagrams
The constant pressure heating experiment can be repeated for a range of values of
pressure, and the changes of the thermodynamic properties plotted on convenient
diagrams.
Pressure - volume:
SATURATED VAPOUR LINE
SATURATED LIQUID
LINE
isotherm (constant temperature)
v
lines of constant temperature are horizontal
in the wet vapour region
A line, which joins the points at which the liquid begins to boil, is the saturated liquid line.
A line which joins the points at which the liquid is just all evaporated is the saturated vapour
line.
The point where the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapour line meet is called the
critical point.
"saturated" liquid - any heating will cause it to evaporate

"saturated" vapour - any cooling will cause it to condense.

Pressure - enthalpy:
p
SATURATED LIQUID LINE
SATURATED VAPOUR LINE
isotherm
(constant temperature)
note:
-Lines of constant temperature (isotherms) are nearly vertical in the liquid region so
the enthalpy of liquids is nearly independent of pressure - depends only on
temperature (like the perfect gas)
-lines of constant temperature are horizontal in the wet vapour (mixed phase) region.
A p-h diagram for Refrigerant 134a is reproduced on the following page. It contains lines of
constant temperature, constant entropy, constant density and constant dryness fraction.


Solid Water
The behaviour of solids is only of passing interest in this subject. The specific volume of
solids is so small that they would not be detectable on a scaled p-v or T-v diagram.
H 2O isobar
liquid Evaporation
Evaporation
Fusion
normal substance isobar
liquid
solid
v
Water behaves differently from other substances in that it contracts on melting and also
contracts before it expands as its temperature is raised above the melting point.
Triple Point
At 273.16K, 0.006112 bar, ice, water and steam can coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium
in a closed vessel. This is the triple point, and is used as an easily reproducible point at
which to assign an arbitrary zero for the internal energy and enthalpy of water and for zero
on the Celsius scale.
- plot of boiling, melting and sublimation temperatures against pressure for water

VAPOUR TABLES (Steam Tables)

Refer to MAYHEW AND ROGERS "Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids" SI
units. These list properties of a number of common working fluids in their liquid and vapour
states.
Subscripts and nomenclature
ts, ps - saturation pressure and temperature (the s could stand for saturation).
vg, ug, hg sg - properties of saturated vapour (the g could stand for gas).
vf, uf, hf, sf - properties of saturated liquid (the f could stand for fluid).
hfg - change in enthalpy at constant pressure between saturated liquid
and saturated vapour (the fg could stand for gas – fluid).
(hfg = hg - hf ="latent energy of evaporation")
Units
h, u kJ/kg
s kJ/kgK
p bar
t °C
T K
𝜗 𝑚3⁄
𝑘𝑔
Saturated Water and Steam: (page 2)
The fluid properties on the saturation envelope are tabulated against temperature from 0°C
to 100°C.
Saturated Water and Steam (pages 3-5)
The fluid properties on the saturation envelope are tabulated against pressure. Each value
of pressure has one corresponding value of saturation temperature.
Latent energy of evaporation is maximum for lowest pressure and zero at the critical
pressure (221.2 bar)
Properties of Wet Vapour
Wet vapour is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapour. Whenever a liquid is in
equilibrium contact with its vapour, the vapour and liquid will be saturated.
The physical form of the mixture varies. The boundary between the saturated liquid and the
saturated vapour may be clearly defined in some cases. Or, initially superheated vapour
may become wet vapour during the expansion in a turbine, in which case the liquid will be
finely dispersed particles throughout the vapour. During the boiling process in a water tube
boiler, the physical form of the liquid/vapour mixture will be different again.
Regardless of the physical form of the wet vapour, its equilibrium properties are determined
by its dryness fraction
mass of saturated vapour mg
Dryness Fraction, x  x
mass of saturated vapour and saturated liquid m f  mg

Wet vapour is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapour:
saturated vapour
mg, vg, ug, hg
saturated liquid
mf, vf, uf, hf
Total internal energy of the system:
U = mf uf + mg ug
Specific internal energy of the system:
U mf mg
u  uf  ug
m m m
where m = mf + mg = total mass.
mg
but x   dryness fraction
mf  mg
 u  1 xuf  xug

 uf  x ug  uf 
similarly
h = hf + x (hg - hf) = hf + x hfg
and
v = vf + x (vg -vf)
but vf << vg
 v  xv g (not exact but quite accurate)

in summary

u  uf  x ug  uf 
h  hf  x hfg
PROPERTIES OF WET VAPOUR
s  s f  x s fg
v  x vg
Example: Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific internal energy of steam
at 7 bar with enthalpy 2600 kJ/kg
At 7bar, hg = 2764kJ/kg, hf = 697kJ/kg
 the steam is wet vapour.
At 7 bar, hfg = 2067 kJ/kg

vg = 0.2728 m3/kg
h  hf 2600  697
x    0.921
hfg 2067
and v = xvg = 0.921 x 0.2728 = 0.2512 m3/kg
At 7 bar, uf = 696 kJ/kg, ug = 2573 kJ/kg

 u  uf  x ug  uf 
= 696 + 0.921 (2573 - 696) = 2424kJ/kg

Properties of Superheated Vapour: (pages 68)

For vapour in the superheat region, temperature and pressure are independent properties.
When the pressure and temperature are known for superheated steam, then the state is
defined and all other properties can be found. However, superheated steam is not a perfect
gas and the property relations are not easily defined from theory. The properties have been
measured and tabulated.
The degree of superheat is defined as the difference between the actual steam temperature
and the saturation temperature at the given pressure.
i.e. t-ts = degree of superheat (used in refrigerant tables)
The superheat properties are tabulated against pressure and temperature, and the
corresponding saturation temperature is given in brackets under the pressure values. v g,
ug, hg and sg are also tabulated for comparison.
Example: Steam at 110 bar has a specific volume of

0.0196 m3/kg. Find the temperature, enthalpy and
internal energy.
At 110 bar, vg = 0.01598 m3/kg, but v is given as 0.0196 m3/kg.  the steam is superheated
as v>vg at the given pressure.
From the superheat tables at 110bar, v = 0.0196 m 3/kg at a temperature of 350°C, so this
is the steam temperature.
t=350°C isotherm
110 bar
t - ts = 350-318
= 32K
ts =318°C
v
Also, at 110 bar, 350°C, h = 2889 kJ/kg
and u = h-pv = 2889 - 110x102 x 0.0196 x 10-3 = 2673.4 kJ/kg

Interpolation of Steam Tables

For state points, which are not tabulated exactly in the tables, linear interpolation between
the tabulated values is used.
interpolated value = start of interval + fraction of interval x (end of interval - start of interval)
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙−𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
NV=first +fraction(last – first) 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡−𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Example: Find the temperature, specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy of
saturated steam at 9.8bar.
Interpolate between the values at 9 bar and the values at 10 bar, linearly.
9 bar 10 bar
ts 175.4 179.9
vg 0.2149 0.1944
ug 2581 2584
hg 2774 2778
 9.8  9 
t s  175.4   (179.9  175.4)
 10  9 
=175.4 + 0.8 x 4.5 = 179°C
hg = 2774 + 0.8 (2778 - 2774) = 2777.2 kJ/kg
ug = 2581 + 0.8 (2584 - 2581) = 2583.4 kJ/kg
vg = 0.2149 + 0.8 (0.1944 - 0.2149) = 0.1985 m3/kg
Example: Find the enthalpy of steam at 55 bar 320°C.
In this case, a double interpolation is required.
300°C 350°C
50 bar 2927 3070
60 bar 2887 3045
First, interpolate for pressure
at 300°C, 55 bar
55  50
h  2927  (2887  2927)  2907kJ / kg
60  50
at 350°C, 55bar
55  50
h  3070  (3045  3070)  3057.5kJ / kg
60  50
Second, interpolate for temperature
at 320°C, 55 bar
320  300
h  2907  (3057.5  2907)  2967.2kJ / kg
350  300
Air in Condensers
The condenser pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of the air and the partial pressure
of the steam. Assume that the steam is saturated vapour at the condenser temperature.
Example:
A regenerative condenser, having a steam space of 5m 3 operates under the conditions
shown in column (i) of the following table. Some weeks later, during which there has been
a change in seawater temperature, the conditions shown in column (ii) of the table are
recorded. (1 hPa = 100 Pa = 1 millibar = 0.1 kPa)
(i) (ii)
Condenser Vacuum (hPa) 970 920
Steam temperature (OC) 29 35
Barometer (hPa) 1020 990
Determine the loss of vacuum due to increased air in the condenser and the mass of air in
the condenser under each set of conditions.
(i) absolute pressure = 1020-970 = 50 hPa =0.05 bar
vapour pressure of steam at 29OC = 0.04004 bar
partial pressure of air = 0.05 - 0.04004 = 0.00996 bar
(ii) absolute pressure = 990-920 = 70 hPa =0.07 bar
vapour pressure of steam at 35OC = 0.05629 bar
partial pressure of air = 0.07 - 0.05629 = 0.01371 bar
loss of vacuum = 0.01371- 0.00996 = 0.00375 bar = 3.75 hPa
pV=mRT
pV 0.996(kPa)  5(m3 )
 mass of air in (i) =   0.0574kg
RT 0.2871(kJ / kgK)  302(K)
pV . (kPa)  5(m3 )
1371
mass of air in (ii) =   0.0775kg
RT 0.2871(kJ / kgK)  308(K)

EXERCISES: PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND VAPOURS
1. Complete the following table using steam tables. Insert a dash for irrelevant items, and
interpolate where necessary.
p bar t °C v m3/kg x degree of h kJ/kg u kJ/kg
superheat
1 90 2.364
2 20 2799
3 5 0.3565
4 188 2400
5 34 0.9
6 81.3 0.85
7 3 200
8 15 0.152
9 130 3335
10 250 1.601
11 38.2 0.8
12 297 0.95
13 2.3 300
14 44 420
2. Sketch a pressure-volume diagram for steam and mark on it the following points, labelling
clearly the pressure, specific volume and temperature of each point. For each point in
the superheat region, sketch the isotherm on which it lies.
(a) p = 20 bar, t = 250°C
(b) t = 212.4°C, v = 0.09957 m3/kg
(c) p = 10 bar, h = 2650 kJ/kg
(d) p = 6 bar, h = 3166 kJ/kg
3. Calculate the internal energy for each of the four states given in exercise 2.
(2681, 2600, 2470, 2881, kJ/kg)
4. A vessel of volume 0.03 m3 contains saturated steam at 17 bar. Calculate the mass of
steam in the vessel and the enthalpy of this mass.
(0.257 kg, 718 kJ)

5. A quantity of steam, dryness fraction 0.7, occupies a volume of 0.197 m 3 at a pressure

of 1.4 MN/m2. If the pressure is kept constant, determine the energy transfer by heating
required to make the steam just dry, and the percentage of this energy, which appears
as external work. If, now, the volume is kept constant whilst the steam is cooled until the
pressure falls to 1.25 MN/m2, find the dryness fraction and the energy transferred by
heating from the steam.
(1174.6 kJ, 10.06%, 0.897, 372.8 kJ)
6. A regenerative condenser, having a steam space of 5m 3 operates under the conditions

shown in column (i) of the following table. Some weeks later, during which there has been
a change in seawater temperature, the conditions shown in column (ii) of the table are
recorded. Determine the loss of vacuum due to increased air in the condenser and the
mass of air in the condenser under each set of conditions
(i) (ii)
Condenser Vacuum (hPa) 965 925
Steam temperature (°C) 31 36
Barometer (hPa) 1020 1000
(0.00552bar, 0.05782kg, 0.08801kg)
7. The vacuum in a large regenerative marine condenser is recorded as 980 hPa at a time
when the exhaust steam temperature entering the condenser is 29°C and the barometer
reading is 1030 hPa. Determine the vacuum in the condenser at a later date when the
exhaust steam temperature is 32°C and the barometer is 980 hPa, assuming the mass
of air in the condenser is the same on both occasions. Determine also the mass of air
present per cubic meter of condenser volume.
(922.4 hPa, 0.01149 kg/m3)

SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 1
p bar t°C v m3/kg x degree of h kJ/kg u kJ/kg

superheat
0.70 90 2.364 1 0 2660 2494
20 212.4 0.09957 1 0 2799 2600
5 151.8 0.3565 0.951 - 2646 2468
12 188 0.1461 0.895 - 2576 2400
34 240.9 0.0529 0.9 - 2627 2447
0.5 81.3 2.75 0.85 - 2300 2161.6
3 200 0.7166 - 66.5 2866 2651
15 250 0.152 - 51.7 2925 2697
130 500 0.02447 - 169.2 3335 3017
1.5 250 1.601 - 138.6 2973 2733
38.2 247.6 0.0417 0.8 - 2456.5 2296
82.38 297 0.0216 0.95 - 2683 2505
2.3 300 1.184 - 175.8 3071 2808
44 420 0.0696 - 164.3 3254 2952
SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 2

Steam Cycles
STEAM POWER CYCLES
1. RANKINE CYCLE WITH SUPERHEAT
superheater
6
5 1
boiler turbine
2
4
3
feed condenser
pump
1
superheat
evaporation
5
6 expansion in turbine
4
feed pump
2
3 condensation 2’
s2’ = s1
s

Steam Cycles
APPLY STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION TO COMPONENTS:
q  w  h, neglecting KE & PE changes

boiler q = h 1 - h4
turbine w = h2 - h1 (assuming q=0)
condenser q = h 3 - h2
feed pump w = h 4 - h3 0 h4  h3
Feed pump work is usually negligible, so h4  h3 and net work = turbine work.
Condensation is best taken to saturated liquid (no undercooling),

so h3  hf at the condenser pressure.
Net work output h h

TH   1 2  RANKINE EFFICIENCY
Energy supplied by heating h1  h4
Steam Flow (kg / h)

Specific Steam Consumption (SSC)= = Steam flow in kg/h required
Power Output (kW )
to develop 1 kW
3600
also, SSC = kg/kWh.
w turbine
Isentropic Efficiency
In the turbine, friction means that less of the enthalpy will be converted into work. Friction is
an irreversible process and results in entropy production. For adiabatic reversible expansion
in the turbine, s2 = s1. For adiabatic irreversible expansion in the turbine,
s2 > s1.
define Isentropic Efficiency:

h h work done between 1 and 2 w12  real 
turbine  2 1    
h2'  h1 work done between 1 and 2 w12'  ideal 
note:
wturbine = w12 = turbine (h2' - h1)

Steam Cycles
EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS ON RANKINE EFFICIENCY
Tmin
note : max imum efficiency of any heat engine = 1 -
Tmax
This illustrates that the thermal efficiency of a cycle can be increased by increasing the
temperature of the working fluid during the heating part of the cycle and by decreasing the
temperature of the working fluid during the cooling part of the cycle
(a) Superheating
Superheating increases the mean temperature of the working fluid during the heating part
of the cycle and thus the thermal efficiency. An added advantage is that the steam is less
wet when in the low-pressure end of the turbine. Superheat increases the enthalpy of the
steam and so allows greater work output for the same steam flow. The maximum superheat
temperature is fixed by metallurgical considerations at about 600°C.
For any heat engine,

wout = qsupplied - qrejected
For a T-s diagram, the area under the

process line equals the energy transferred
by heating, if the process is reversible.
Thus, for the Rankine Cycle, the area
between the boiler pressure isobar and the
condenser pressure isobar represents the
net work.
(b) Boiler Pressure
With superheat, TH increases with increased

boiler pressure because the mean temperature
of the working fluid during the heating part of the
cycle is increased. For fixed superheat
temperature, the dryness fraction of the steam at
turbine exit decreases as boiler pressure
increases, which is a disadvantage.
from Cengel and Boles

Thermodynamics
(c) Condenser pressure

Steam Cycles
Reduction in condenser pressure results in lower steam condensation temperature and

hence higher thermal efficiency. (The mean temperature of the working fluid during the
cooling part of the cycle is reduced.) For fixed superheat temperature, the dryness fraction
of the steam at turbine exit decreases as condenser pressure decreases, which is a
disadvantage.
The condenser pressure is governed by the temperature of the cooling medium. The
condenser pressure is usually limited by the temperature of the available cooling water to
about 0.035 bar.

Thermodynamics
REHEAT
To increase the dryness fraction of the steam on exit from the turbine, the expansion in the
turbine can be split into more than one stage and the steam passed back through the boiler
between stages.

Thermodynamics

Steam Cycles
Example of Rankine Cycle with Superheat:
A steam plant operates with a boiler pressure of 42 bar and condenser pressure 0.035 bar.
The steam is superheated to 500°C. Calculate the Rankine thermal efficiency and specific
steam consumption. Neglect feed pump work. Assume isentropic expansion in the turbine.
from superheat tables, by interpolation at 42bar

h1 = 3442.6 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.066 kJ/kgK
also, s2 = s1 (isentropic, turbine  1)
and s2= sf2 + x2 sfg2
from saturation tables, sf2 = 0.391 kJ/kgK
sfg2 = 8.130 kJ/kgK
at 0.035 bar
s  sf 2 7.066  0.391
 x2  2   0.821
sfg2 8.130
h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2 hf2 = 112 kJ/kg hfg2 = 2438 kJ/kg at 0.035 bar
 h2  112  0.821 x 2438  2113 kJ / kg
also, h3 = hf3 at 0.035 bar = 112 kJ/kg
Thus, wturbine = h2 - h1= 2113-3442.6 = -1329.6 kJ/kg
and qboiler = h1 - h4  h1 - h3 if the feed pump work is negligible
= 3442.6 - 112 = 3330.6 kJ/kg
NET WORK h h
TH   1 2
Thermal efficiency, ENERGY SUPPLIED BY HEATING h1  h3
1329. 6
  0. 399 (39.9%)
3330. 6
3600 3600
Specific steam consumption =   2.71 kg / kWh
NET WORK 1329.6

Steam Cycles
Example of Turbine Isentropic Efficiency
A steam turbine is supplied with steam at 50 bar and 350°C. The exhaust pressure is 0.5
bar, and the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.8. The steam consumption is 0.45 kg/s.
Calculate the power output.
T
50 bar
1
0.5 bar
2’ 2
s2’ = s1
s
T-S diagram
5 bar
h 350 OC
1
0.5 bar
2 saturation line
/
2
Mollier diagram

Steam Cycles
chart:
h1 = 3065 kJ/kg h2’ = 2269 kJ/kg
h h
turbine  2 1  h2  h1  turbine h2'  h1
h2'  h1
= 3065 + 0.8 (2269 - 3065)
= 2428.2 kJ/kg
wturbine = h2 - h1 = 2428.2 - 3065 = -636.8 kJ/kg
. .
W turbine  m h2  h1  0.45 x 636.8  286.56 kw
h1  3070 kJ / kg 
tables 350 C, 50 bar
s1  6.451 kJ / kgk 
and s2' = s1 , s = sf + x sfg
at 0.5 bar sf = 1.091 kJ/kgK,

sfg = 6.502 kJ/kgK
s - s f 6. 451 1. 091
x =   0. 8244
s fg 6. 502
 h2'  hf  x hfg  340  0. 8244 x 2305

 2240.15 kJ / kg
 w turbine  0.8 224015

.  3070 = - 663.88 kJ / kg
.
 W turbine  0. 45 x - 663. 88   298. 74 kw
note: tables are more accurate.

Steam Cycles
2. REGENERATIVE CYCLE
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased further by arranging for the feed water
to be delivered to the boiler at a temperature as close as possible to the saturation
temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure. This raises the average temperature of
heat addition in the cycle.
In the ideal case, the heating of the feedwater would be complete and achieved reversibly,
resulting in the Regenerative cycle. This is not quite possible in reality.
(a) Open Feed Heater
1 kg
condenser
1
boiler
turbine
3
2
4
bled steam y kg 1-y kg
7
6 5
feed pump feed pump

open feed heater
7 2
6
4 3

Steam Cycles
The amount of steam bled to the heater (y kg) is arranged to heat the incoming feedwater
up to the saturation temperature corresponding to the bled steam pressure.
y kg at h2
(1-y) kg at h4
1 kg at h6
Energy balance: yh2 + (1-y) h4 = h6
h h
 y= 6 4
h2  h4
and h6 = hf at the bled pressure.
It is desirable to increase the number of feed heaters so the feedwater enters the boiler as
close as possible to the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure, but
the mechanical complexity of the plant restricts the number of feed heaters in a marine plant
to a maximum of about 5.
N.B. The bleed pressures are chosen to make the saturation temperature intervals between
boiler and condenser approximately equal.
For this cycle,
NetWork h  h 2  (1  y)( h 2  h 3 )
TH   1
Heat Supplied h1  h 7
(b) Closed Feed Heaters
With open feed heater, the number of feed pumps required is always one more than the
number of heaters, because the feedwater must be brought to the bleed pressure before it
can mix with the bled steam in each heater. This can be avoided by using closed feed
heaters, where the bleed steam and the feedwater are separated physically.
NB Open feed heaters have been used to remove air from the steam. Modern practice
involves removing air from the steam in the condenser.
Boiler steam is often used to drive the feed pumps, and the return steam from the pump
turbines then used for feed heating.

Steam Cycles
Example of Regenerative Cycle with one (1) Open Feed Heater
Steam at 40 bar and 400°C is supplied to a turbine, which exhausts at 0.035 bar and 0.9
dryness fraction. To improve the thermal efficiency of the plant, regenerative feed heating
is employed. Steam is bled from the turbine at 3 bar, where it is just dry saturated, and
mixed in an open feed heater with the condensate, which has been pumped to 3 bar. The
resulting mixture is saturated liquid. Calculate:
(a) the amount of bled steam per kg of steam supplied
(b) the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Neglect feed pump work
p1 = 40 bar
t1 = 400°C
p2 = 3 bar, saturated
p3 = 0.035 bar
x3 = 0.9
from tables h1 = 3214 kJ/kg

h2 = 2725 kJ/kg
h3 = 112 + 0.9 x 2438 = 2306.2 kJ kg
h5 = h4 = hf at 0.035 bar = 112 kJ/kg
h7 = h6 = hf at 3 bar = 561 kJ/kg
for the heater: y h2 + (1-y) h5 = h6
h h
 y 6 5
561 112
 0.1718
h2  h5 2725  112
 0.1718 kg bled per kg of steam supplied.
Net Work h  h  1 yh2  h3

TH   1 2
Heat Supplied h1  h7
ηTH  3214  2725  1 01718

. 2725  2306.2 = 0.315 (31.5%)
3214  561

Steam Cycles
EXERCISES: STEAM POWER CYCLES
1. A Rankine cycle has steam supplied to the turbine at 15 bar, 162°C of superheat. The
steam exhausts from the turbine at 0.07 bar and 0.85 dryness fraction. Calculate the
thermal efficiency.
[32%]
2. Steam at 15 bar and 300°C is supplied to the turbine in a Rankine cycle. If the steam
is exhausted from the turbine at 0.07 bar, find
(i) the condition (i.e. dryness fraction) of the steam after isentropic expansion;
(ii) the Rankine efficiency;
(iii) the specific steam consumption (kg/kWh).
[ (i) 0.824 dry; (ii) 30.98%; (iii) 4.04 kg/kW h]
3. A stage of steam turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 50 bar and a

temperature of 350°C, and exhausts at a pressure of 5.5 bar. The isentropic efficiency
of the stage is 0.82, and the steam consumption is 22.7 kg/min. Determine the power
output of the stage.
[143 kW]
4. A steam turbine is supplied with steam at 50 bar and 350°C. The exhaust pressure is
0.5 bar, and the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.8. If the power output is 300
kW, determine the mass flow rate of steam.
(0.451 kg/s)
5. Steam at 15 bar and 300°C is supplied to a turbine, which exhausts at 0.07 bar and
0.83 dryness fraction. For feed heating steam is bled off at 1.7 bar and 0.963 dryness
fraction, raising the feed water temperature to the saturation temperature of the bled
steam. Calculate the thermal efficiency with and without the heater.
[31.8% with and 30.4% without]
6. A steam turbine works between the limits of 20 bar and 400°C, and 0.35 bar.
For each of the following schemes, calculate the cycle efficiency and the specific steam
consumption.
(a) A simple Rankine cycle;
(b) A regenerative cycle, with one bleed point (open feed heater) at 2 bar. Assume
the feedwater leaving the feed heater is at the saturation temperature
corresponding to the bleed pressure.
Assume isentropic expansion in the turbine stages, and neglect feed pump work.
Show each cycle on a T-s diagram.

(27.9%, 4.4 kg/kWh, 28.9%, 4.54 kg/kWh)

Steam Cycles
7. List advantages and disadvantages (if any) for the steam power cycle of the following:
(a) Increasing superheat temperature
(b) Increasing boiler pressure
(c) Decreasing condenser pressure
(d) Feed heating
(e) Reheat
8. Explain how superheat increases the thermal efficiency of the steam power cycle.
Illustrate your answer with a T-s diagram.
9 Explain how feed heating increases the thermal efficiency of the steam power cycle.
10. Explain what is meant by “isentropic efficiency”.

Steam Turbines
STEAM TURBINES
1. IMPULSE TYPE
High-pressure steam is passed through nozzles where it accelerates while
decreasing in pressure. This high velocity steam is directed on to moving curved
blades where its velocity is decreased in magnitude and changed in direction,
thus producing a force on the blades. The pressure of the steam remains constant
as it moves across the turbine blades, the whole of the pressure drop having
taken place in the nozzles.
The velocity of the steam as it leaves the nozzle is called the absolute velocity at
inlet, Cai.
The nozzle is inclined at angle i to the blade velocity.
The mean blade speed, Cb is taken at the mean height of the blades.
The velocity of the steam at inlet relative to the blades, Cri, is found by combining
Cai and Cb. Cri will be inclined to the blade velocity at angle i. If the steam is to
enter the blades without shock, then it must enter tangentially, so i must be the
inlet angle of the blades.
Similarly, at exit, the steam will leave the blade with an exit relative velocity C re
at an angle e to the blade velocity, which is the exit angle of the blade.
The absolute velocity at exit, Cae, is at angle e to the blade velocity.

Steam Turbines
The inlet and exit velocity triangles can be combined about the common vector
Cb
(Note that in the diagrams, the subscript only is shown for the velocities.)
If the blade is symmetrical, then i =e .

From the velocity triangles,
BE
i = blade inlet angle tan 1
AE
Cri = relative velocity at inlet = AE2  BE2
where BE = Cai sin i
AE = Cai cos i - Cb
Some velocity will be lost due to friction in the blades. Thus,

Cre = kCri, where k = a factor to allow for friction.

Steam Turbines
Now, by Newton’s Second Law,

Force = rate of change of momentum
= mass flow rate x change of velocity
Thus, the force in the direction of the blade motion = mass flow rate x change of
 (AE + AD)
relative velocity in the direction of motion = m
(The force on the blade is determined by the velocity changes relative to the
blade. Imagine you are standing on the blade observing the flow)
Now, AE = Cricosi AD = Crecose
 ( Cricosi + Crecose)
Driving force on wheel = m
Power output = force on wheel x velocity of wheel

 Cb(Cricosi + Crecose)
Power output = m
Blade (or Diagram) Efficiency =


Work done by blade / kg steam Power output / m 2C b ( C ri cos  i  C re cos  e )
 
Energy supplied / kg steam 2 2
C ai / 2 C ai
2C b ( C ri cos  i  C re cos  e )
Blade Efficiency =
2
C ai
Note: Cri = AE = Cai cos i - Cb
Note:
The component of Cai parallel to the blade velocity, Cwi, is called the velocity of
whirl at inlet. It so happens that AE +AD = Cwi +Cwe
where Cwi=Caicosi and Cwe=Caecose
The component of Cai along the axis of rotation, Cfi, is called the velocity of flow
at inlet. A change in the velocity of flow across the moving blades produces an
end thrust on the rotor, due to the momentum change in the axial direction.

Steam Turbines
Example:
The following data apply to a stage in an impulse turbine:
Nozzle outlet angle = 28.4o
Nozzle outlet steam velocity = 1000m/s
Steam Mass flow rate = 12kg/s
Mean blade diameter = 2m
Turbine speed = 4200 rpm
Turbine blades are symmetrical
There is a 10% loss of steam velocity in the blades due to friction
Determine the blade inlet angle for shockless entry of the steam, the power
developed and the blade efficiency.
4200    2
Cb   439.82 m/s
60
BE = Cai sin i = 1000sin28.4 = 475.64 m/s
AE = Cai cos i - Cb = 1000cos28.4 - 439.82 = 439.83 m/s
BE 475.64
i = tan 1  tan 1  47.24 o
AE 439.83
Cri = AE2  BE2  475.64 2  439.83 2  647.83 m/s
Cre = kCri = 0.9 x 647.83 = 583.05m/s
 ( Cricosi + Crecose)
driving force on wheel = m
= 12(439.83 + 583.05cos47.24) = 12 x 835.68 = 10028N
 Cb(Cricosi + Crecose) = 439.82 x 10028 = 4.4106x106 W

power output = m
2Cb ( Cri cos i  Cre cos  e ) 2  439.82  835.68

Blade Efficiency  2
  0.735
C ai 1000 2

Steam Turbines
Compounding of Impulse Turbines
Practically, if the expansion from boiler pressure to condenser pressure was to

occur in one stage, the speed of rotation of the turbine would be too high.
Methods of reducing the speed are: Velocity Compounding, Pressure
Compounding and Pressure-Velocity Compounding.
In Pressure-Velocity Compounding, steam is partially expanded in a set of

nozzles where its velocity is increased. The steam then enters a few rows of
velocity compounding. From this stage, the steam then enters a second set of
nozzles where its velocity is again increased. This is followed by another few
rows of velocity compounding, and so on. In the velocity compounding rows,
two rows of moving blades are separated by a row of fixed blades, which
redirect the exit steam from the first moving row onto the second moving row.
Each moving row partially reduces the velocity of the steam supplied by the
nozzles.

Steam Turbines
2. REACTION TYPE
Generally, the reaction type consists of alternate rows of fixed and moving blades,
with the same shape steam passage in both the fixed and moving blades. The
fixed blade channels are of nozzle shape and there is a drop in enthalpy (and
pressure) accompanied by an increase in velocity. The steam then passes over
the moving blades and, as in the impulse turbine, a force is exerted on the blades
by the steam. In the reaction type, however, there is a further drop in enthalpy
(and pressure) as the steam passes through the moving blades, since the moving
blade channels are also of nozzle shape, and therefore there is an increase in
the steam velocity relative to the blades.
The steam velocity in a reaction turbine is not very high and hence the speed of
the turbine is relatively low. Reaction turbines are commonly used as the final
stages in large turbine units.
The degree of reaction is defined as

enthalpy drop in the moving blades
enthalpy drop in the fixed and moving blades
Generally, half the enthalpy drop is in the fixed blades and half in the moving
blades (50% reaction - Parsons type)

Steam Turbines
For a 50% reaction turbine, with the same shape steam passage in both the fixed
and moving blades, the moving blade exit angle is same as the fixed blade exit
angle, and likewise for inlet angles. The steam leaving the moving blade must be
travelling in such a direction that it enters the fixed blades at the fixed blade inlet
angle, so that Cae must be inclined to the blade velocity at the same angle as Cri
(e = i).
If, in addition, the turbine is designed so that there is no axial thrust due to velocity
changes (no change in velocity of flow across the moving blades) then the
combined velocity triangle will be symmetrical.
Due to acceleration in the moving blades, Cre>Cri.
Velocities are lower than in impulse turbines, so the effect of friction is not so
significant.
Change of relative velocity in the direction of motion = AE +AD

= Cri cos i  Cre cos  e
As the velocity triangle is symmetrical,
AE + AD = 2(Cai cos i  Cb )  Cb = 2Cai cos  i  Cb (AE=OD)
Thus,
 (2Caicosi  Cb )
driving force on wheel = m
and
 Cb (2Caicosi  Cb )
power output = m

Steam Turbines
EXERCISES: STEAM TURBINES
1. A single stage impulse rotor has a mean blade ring diameter of 0.7m and it
rotates at 8000rpm. The nozzles are inclined at 20°to the direction of motion
and the steam velocity leaving the nozzles is 1000m/s. Determine the blade
inlet angle so that the steam will enter the blades without shock, and the power
developed for a steam flow of 3600kg/h. Assume a blade friction coefficient of
0.86 and that the blades are symmetrical.
(27.87º, 352.58 kW)
(Cb = 293.22m/s, Cri = 731.36 m/s)
2. A stage of an impulse turbine has a nozzle angle of 22 O and the blades are
symmetrical. The mean blade speed is 330m/s and the steam leaves the
nozzles at 500m/s. If 12% of the relative velocity at inlet is lost in friction,
determine the blade angles and the power developed for a steam flow of
720kg/h.
(54.4º, 16.6kW)
3. An impulse turbine has nozzles inclined at 20º to the blade wheel and the
steam leaves the nozzle at 900m/s. If the blade inlet angle is 32º, determine
the mean blade speed. During its passage through the blades the steam loses
10% of its relative velocity due to friction. If the blade outlet angle is 37º,
determine the velocity and direction of the steam leaving the blade.
(353m/s, 321m/s at 78.42ºto blade velocity)
BE = Cai sin I
BE
Cri  Cre  kCri
sin i
AE  AB2  BE2
OE  Cai cos  i
Cb  OE  AE  353.12 m / s
DC  Cre sin e  314.64 m / s
DA  Cre
2
 DC2
DO  DA  Cb
C ae  OC  DC 2  DO 2  321.17 m / s
DC
 e  sin 1  78.42 0
C ae

Steam Turbines
4. Sketch the inlet velocity triangle, the outlet velocity triangle and the combined
velocity triangle for an impulse turbine.
5. At one stage of a reaction turbine the velocity of the steam leaving the fixed
blades is 100m/s and the exit angle is 20º. The velocity of the moving blades
is 65m/s and the steam flow is 1800kg/h. Assuming fixed and moving blades
to be identical section calculate the blade entrance angle, the force on the
blades and the stage power.
(49.73º, 61.5N, 4kW)

Refrigeration
REFRIGERATION
Vapour Compression Cycle
energy rejected
to surroundings
condenser
throttle
valve compressor
evaporator
(in cold space) heat leakage
through insulation
4 to 1 energy supply by heating to cold, low pressure refrigerant

2 to 3 energy rejection by heating from hot, high-pressure refrigerant
3 to 4 irreversible throttling from high to low pressure
1 to 2 isentropic compression from low to high pressure
condenser isobar
2
T
condensation compressor
3
throttle evaporator isobar
evaporation
4 1
ideally s2 = s1
s (entropy)

Refrigeration
p energy rejected by heating
3
2
condenser pressure
undercooling
increases the
refrigerating effect
evaporator pressure
1
4
h
refrigerating effect compressor
(energy absorbed by work
heating)
Steady Flow Energy Equation
q+w= h (ignoring changes in kinetic and potential energy)

1 to 2 Adiabatic Reversible Compression
w = h2 - h1
2 to 3 Energy Rejected By Heating
q = h 3 - h2
3 to 4 Throttling
h4 = h 3
(throttling is a constant enthalpy process, q = 0, W = 0)
h3 = h at t3 (this is at the intersection of the vertical line 3 – 4, and the
saturated liquid curve)
4 to 1 Energy Absorbed By Heating
q = h1 - h4 = Refrigerating Effect

Refrigeration
Coefficient Of Performance
heat input h1  h 4
COPREFRIG  
work input h2  h1
heat output h2  h3
COPHEAT PUMP  
work input h2  h1
As a refrigerator, the vapour compression cycle removes energy from a heating
source at a temperature below that of its surroundings, and rejects this energy
plus the compressor work to the surroundings.
As a heat pump, the vapour compression cycle takes low-grade heat from the
surroundings and supplies this energy plus the compressor work to a load at a
temperature above that of the surroundings.
Heat Output = Heat Input + Compressor Work
h2-h3=(h1-h4)+(h2-h1)=(-h4+h2) However, h3=h4 (throttling) thus (h2-h3)=(h2-h4)
e.g. A heat pump working at a COP = 3 will deliver 3 kW as heating to a room
when supplied with only 1 kW of electrical power to drive the compressor.
Refrigerating Effect
Refrigerating effect = h1 - h4
Refrigerating effect (and COP) can be improved by reducing the enthalpy of the
refrigerant leaving the condenser. This is achieved by maintaining a good flow
rate of the cooling fluid in the condenser and by keeping the cooling surfaces
clean. The lower the temperature of the cooling fluid the better.
Evaporator and Condenser Pressure

The pressure in the evaporator and condenser are determined by the properties
of the refrigerant and by the temperature. This is because the refrigerant exists
mostly as a wet vapour in the evaporator and condenser, and the pressure and
temperature of a wet vapour are not independent. For a given value of pressure,
the temperature of a wet vapour is the saturation temperature. Similarly, for a
given value of temperature of the wet vapour, the pressure is the saturation
pressure for the particular refrigerant.
Thus, the pressure in the evaporator is determined by the temperature of the cold
space and the properties of the refrigerant. The pressure in the condenser is
determined by the temperature of the cooling medium and the properties of the
refrigerant.
It is desirable that a refrigerant will have saturation pressure above atmospheric
pressure at normal cold space temperatures to avoid air leakage into the system.
It is also desirable that a refrigerant will have a saturation pressure at normal
condenser temperatures which is not so high as to require excessively heavy
components.
For example, Refrigerant 134a has saturation pressure of 1.0637bar at -25°C
and saturation pressure of 7.7 bar at 30°C.

Refrigeration
Numerical Example Of Vapour Compression Cycle
The pressure in the evaporator of an ammonia refrigerator is 1.902 bar, and the
pressure in the condenser is 12.37 bar. Calculate the refrigerating effect per kg
of refrigerant and the COP REFRIG when dry saturated vapour is delivered to the
compressor, the liquid after condensation is undercooled by 10K and the
compression is isentropic (s1=s2).
p1 = 1.902 bar p2 = 12.37 bar s1 = sg at 1.902 bar = 5.623 kJ/kgK
T
2
1
4
h1 = hg 1420 kJ/kg
s2 = s1 = 5.623 kJ/kgK
s  5.397 kJ / kgK
at 12.37 bar, 50K superheat, 
h = 1613.0 kJ / kg

s  5.731 kJ / kg K
at 12.37 bar, 100K superheat, 

h = 1739.3 kJ / kg
5.623 - 5.397
 h2  1613 + x 1739.3 - 1613.0 = 1698.5 kJ/kg
5.731- 5.397
To find h3, assume h3 = hf at t3 (enthalpy of a liquid is independent of pressure)
t3 = ta - 10 ta = ts at 12.37 bar
= 32°C
 t3 = 22°C thus h3 = 284.6 kJ/kg = h4 (throttling)
Refrigerating effect = h1 - h4 = 1420 - 284.6

= 1135.4 kJ/kg
h h 1135. 4
COP REFRIG  1 4   4. 08

h2 h1 1698. 5  1420

Refrigeration
Mass Flow Of Refrigerant
  (h1  h4 ) . This is also

The rate of cooling in the evaporator is: Cooling rate  m
called the refrigerating capacity or refrigerating rate.
  Cooling rate kW
m  kg / s
Refrigerat ing effect kJ/kg
  mw
W 
  mq
Q 
Mechanical Efficiency Of The Compressor
Power delivered to refrigerant

MECH 
Power into compressor from driving motor
 h 2  h1
m kW
 ,
Compressor power kW
Compressor Calculations (Reciprocating)
Actual volume induced

Volumetric Efficiency =
Swept volume
.
V1
i.e. vol 
N V SWEPT
where N = revs/second for a single acting compressor

V 1 = volume flow rate at intake pressure and temperature (m3/second)
also, V 1  m
 v1
where v1 = specific volume at compressor inlet (m3/kg)

Refrigeration
Factors Affecting Performance:

(a) Reducing evaporator temperature reduces refrigerating capacity and
reduces COP. (for fixed condenser pressure and exit temperature)
As the evaporator temperature decreases, the evaporator pressure decreases
and the refrigerant specific volume increases, because they are dependant
properties for wet vapour. The decreasing evaporator pressure means the
compressor will have to do more work per unit mass of refrigerant to raise the
refrigerant to the condenser pressure. The volumetric efficiency of the
compressor will also decrease. Reduced volumetric efficiency and increased
specific volume each results in
reduced mass flow rate. Also,
p
for fixed condenser pressure
and exit temperature of the
refrigerant from the
3 condenser, reducing
2
condenser pressure evaporator pressure results in
reduced refrigerating effect.
Thus, refrigerating capacity is
reduced, as it is the product of
1
refrigerating effect and mass
evaporator pressure 4
flow rate.
Reduced refrigerating effect
refrigerating effect
reduced by h and increased compressor
decreasing work means reduced COP.
evaporator pressure
(note: As the evaporator

temperature decreases, the refrigerant mass flow decreases. At the same time,
the pressure ratio across the compressor increases resulting in more work per
unit mass. The net result may be a peak compressor power in the middle of the
evaporator temperature range)
(b) Increasing condenser pressure reduces refrigerating capacity and

reduces COP (for fixed evaporator temperature)
As the condenser temperature increases, the condenser pressure increases, as
they are dependent on wet vapour. The increasing condenser pressure results
in increased compressor work per unit mass of refrigerant and reduced
volumetric efficiency. Reduced volumetric efficiency results in lower mass flow
rate. Thus, refrigerating capacity decreases and COP decreases. The effect is
not as strong as for reduced evaporator temperature

Refrigeration
Coefficient of Performance as a function of the evaporating and condensing

temperatures. (8-cylinder Sabroe 108L compressor using ammonia)
Flooded Evaporator:
direct expansion (tx valve) evaporator compared

with a flooded evaporator
The evaporator may be configured as shown, or the liquid refrigerant may be

circulated through remote evaporators.
Refrigeration
2 stage compression with flash chamber:

The liquid refrigerant expands in the first expansion valve to the flash chamber
pressure, which is the same as the compressor interstage pressure. Part of the
liquid vapourises in this process. This saturated vapour (state 3) is mixed with
the superheated vapour from the low-pressure compressor (state 2) and the
mixture enters the high-pressure compressor at state 9. The saturated liquid
from the flash chamber expands through the second expansion valve into the
evaporator. The compression process resembles 2-stage compression with
intercooling, so the compression work decreases.

Thermodynamics
Alternatively, the superheated vapour from the first compression stage may be
bubbled through the liquid in the flash chamber before continuing to the second
stage of compression. In this case the vapour will enter the second stage as
saturated vapour.

Refrigeration
Refrigerants:
Refrigerant types:
CFC
- only carbon, chlorine and fluorine atoms
- atmospheric lifetimes 60 to 540 years
- ozone depleting
- includes R11 and R12
- phased out on January 1st 1996
HCFC
- hydrogen, carbon, chlorine and fluorine atoms
- atmospheric lifetimes 2 to 22 years
- low ozone depletion
- includes R22
- phase out by 2030
HFC
- contains only hydrogen, carbon and fluorine atoms (no chlorine)
- no ozone depletion
- includes R134a
Inorganic
- includes ammonia (NH3, R717), water, CO2 and air
- no ozone depletion
Refrigerant usage:
In 1994 about 80% of new refrigerated containers used R134a, the remainder
using R22. The new R134a units have at least comparable refrigeration
capacity to the previous R12 units, and are typically capable of holding a cargo
temperature of -28ºC in a 38ºC ambient temperature. The majority of R12
systems have been retrofitted with R134a, although this was not a simple "drop
in". R134a has some limitations for very low temperature applications due to its
relatively high boiling temperature. Ammonia (R717) is being used in some new
systems with appropriate safety measures. The ammonia plant must be
completely isolated and a secondary refrigerant used to cool the cargo space.
Refrigerant properties:
Evaporating pressure above atmospheric is desirable to prevent leakage into

the system. Condensing pressure should be low to avoid heavy construction of
components. Compressor discharge temperature should be lower than about
150ºC so as not to carbonise lubricating oil or damage discharge valves.

Refrigeration
R12 R22 R134a R717

(CFC12) (HCFC22) (HFC134a) (ammonia)
ODP (ozone depleting potential 1.0 0.05 0 0

relative to R12)
GWP (global warming potential 7100 1500 1200 0

relative to CO2 over 100years)
TLV *(ppm) 1000 1000 1000 25
Flammable or explosive? no no no yes
toxic/irritating decomposition yes yes yes no

products?
Volumetric refrigerating capacity at 2740 4344 2860 4360

0ºC (kJ/m3)**
Boiling temperature at atmospheric -30 -40.8 -26 -33.3

pressure (ºC)
Condensing pressure at 38ºC (bar, 8.9 13.9 9.6 14.3

absolute)
Evaporating pressure at 4ºC (bar, 3.5 5.7 3.4 5.0

absolute)
* TLV-TWA, threshold limit value - time weighted average concentration is a

concentration to which workers can be exposed over an 8 hour work day and
a 40 hour work week without adverse effect
** Volumetric refrigerating capacity illustrates the size of compressor needed for

a given refrigerating effect
Refs:
Institute of Marine Engineers Marine Refrigeration 1995
Wang, Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration 1993

Refrigeration
Screw Compressors
The separate processes

undergone by the vapour in
passing through the screw
compressor are: (1) filling of a
cavity with suction vapour, (2)
sealing of the vapour between screw compressor rotors
the rotors and housing, (3)
reducing the volume of the cavity
to perform the compression and
(4) uncovering the discharge
opening to expel the
compressed vapour to the
discharge line.
These processes can be pictured diagrammatically with a side view of the screws.
(In this diagram the threads
move to the right as the
rotors turn.) The suction
vapour enters the top of the
rotors and as the rotors turn
a cavity appears at 1. Cavity
2 is continuing to fill and
cavity 3 is completely filled.
Cavity 4 has now trapped
vapour between its threads
and the housing. Cavity 5 is
in the compression process
with the volume shrinking as
the cavity bears against the
end of the housing. When
the thread of the rotor
reaches the discharge port, the compressed gas flows into the discharge line.

Refrigeration
Pressures during intake, translation, compression and discharge are shown

below when (a) the discharge line pressure equals the discharge pressure, (b)
the discharge line pressure is higher and (c) the discharge line pressure is lower
Because the screw compressor completes its expulsion of gas with virtually no
volume remaining, there is no clearance volume to re-expand in contrast to the
reciprocating compressor. Thus, the volumetric efficiency and refrigerating
capacity will drop off less with a screw compressor compared with a reciprocating
compressor as the pressure ratio increases.
Ref. Stoecker, Industrial Refrigeration Handbook 1998

Refrigeration
EXERCISES: REFRIGERATION
1. In a Freon-12 plant, compressor discharge pressure is 10.84 bar at 60°C,

and suction pressure is 0.8071 bar. After undercooling in the condenser,
the liquid refrigerant enthalpy is 59 kJ/kg. The vapour is dry saturated at
entry to the compressor.
Determine:
(a) COPREF for the machine;
(b) Refrigerant mass flow for a cooling rate of 200 MJ/h;
(c) Compressor power required for a mechanical efficiency of 85%.
(2.51, 0.49 kg/s, 26 kW)
2. A heat pump using ammonia as the refrigerant operates between saturation

temperatures of 6°C and 38°C. The refrigerant is compressed isentropically
from dry saturation and there is 6°C of undercooling in the condenser.
Calculate, the COPHP, the heat available per kilowatt input to the
compressor and the mass flow of refrigerant per kilowatt input to the
compressor
(8.8; 8.8 kW; 25.06 kg/h)
3. An ammonia vapour-compression refrigerator has a single stage, single-

acting reciprocating compressor which has a bore of 127mm, a stroke of
152mm and a speed of 240 rev/min. The pressure in the evaporator is 1.588
bar and that in the condenser is 13.89 bar. The volumetric efficiency of the
compressor is 80% and its mechanical efficiency is 90%. The vapour is dry
saturated on leaving the evaporator and the liquid leaves the condenser at
32°C. Calculate the mass flow of refrigerant, the cooling rate, and the power
required to drive the compressor if the compression is isentropic.
(0.5003 kg/min, 9.04 kW, 3.05 kW)
4. Using sketches of the refrigeration cycle on a p-h diagram, illustrate:

increased superheat in the evaporator, changed evaporator pressure,
changed condenser pressure, increased undercooling in the condenser,
reduced compressor cooling
5. What factors determine the evaporator and condenser pressure?

Refrigeration
6. A refrigerating plant using Refrigerant 134a operates between pressures of

7.7bar and 1.3272bar. The refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated
vapour and leaves the condenser at 20°C. The swept volume of the
compressor is 0.24m3, the volumetric efficiency is 80% and the compressor
speed is 250RPM. Assume the compression is isentropic.
Calculate:
(i) the refrigerating effect (kJ/kg)
(ii) the Coefficient of Performance
(iii) the mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s).
Sketch the cycle on a p-h diagram.
(159 kJ/kg; 4.36; 5.43 kg/s)
7. A cold storage plant is used to cool 9000 litres of milk per hour from 27°C
to 4°C, and the heat leakage into the plant is estimated at 3600 kJ/min. The
refrigerant is to be ammonia and the temperature required in the evaporator
is -6°C. The compressor delivery pressure is 10.34 bar and the condenser
liquid is undercooled to 24°C before throttling. Determine, assuming that
the vapour is dry saturated on leaving the evaporator and that the
compression process is isentropic:
(i) the power input required in kW taking the mechanical efficiency of the
compressor as 90%
(ii) the swept volume of each cylinder of the twin-cylinder, single-acting

compressor, for which the volumetric efficiency can be taken as 85%
(the rotational speed is 200 rev/min),
For milk: specific heat = 3.77 kJ/kgK; density = 1030 kg/m3
(42.61 kW; 0.01573 m3)
8. List the advantages (or disadvantages) of R134a compared with R717.
9. What is the difference between a refrigerator and a heat pump?
10. It is proposed to use water instead of R134a as the working fluid in air-
conditioning applications where the minimum temperature never falls
below freezing point. Would you support this proposal? Why?
11. What is the advantage of two-stage compression in a refrigeration

cycle?
12. If evaporator temperature decreases for fixed condenser conditions, what

is the effect on COP and refrigerating capacity? Explain.
13. If condenser temperature increases for fixed evaporator conditions, what

is the effect on COP and refrigerating capacity? Explain.

Combustion
COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Introduction
Combustion is a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen. It is the rapid
oxidation (combination with oxygen) of a fuel resulting in the release of useable
energy and the production of a visible flame.
If air and fuel are mixed together and introduced to a suitable ignition source,
combustion will occur. The ignition source is initially necessary to initiate the
combustion process. However, once the combustion starts, enough energy is
released due to the combustion to keep the process going.
When a fuel burns, energy is released. The combustion products are hot and
supply energy to the working fluid.
There are also undesirable side effects due to combustion. These include:
creation of pollutants and greenhouse gases affecting the atmosphere; and
generation of waste heat due to combustion, which can result in unwanted
explosions and fires.
Constituents of Fuel and Air
Air:
Fuel oxidises. This means that fuel reacts with oxygen. The most convenient
source of oxygen is the atmosphere, i.e., air.
Air is a mixture of 76.8% (by mass) nitrogen and 23.2% (by mass) oxygen with a
small amount of carbon dioxide and other gases. Since the components of air
that are not nitrogen or oxygen are relatively small, they are normally considered
to be part of the nitrogen content. These elements exist as molecules within the
air mixture.
The proportions of nitrogen and oxygen by volume and mass in air are:
by Volume:
Oxygen 20.9% Nitrogen 79.1%
by Mass:
Oxygen 23.2% Nitrogen 76.8%
Fuel:
There are many different types of substances used as fuels. The main fuels are
those obtained from crude oils, such as petrol, gas oil, diesel oil, and heavy oil.
All fuel oils are made up from mixtures of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are
compounds that consist of a mixture of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Although fuels mainly consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms, there are other
elements in the fuel molecule. From a combustion aspect, sulphur is one of the
most important additional elements.
The most important elements for combustion in fuel oils are carbon, hydrogen
and sulphur. In addition, fuel may also have elements such as: vanadium, silicon,
aluminium, and water.

Combustion
Air/Fuel Ratio
For complete combustion to occur between fuel and air, they have to mix at a
given ratio. This ratio is called the air/fuel ratio. The exact proportion of air to
fuel necessary to give complete combustion is called the stoichiometric air/fuel
ratio.
If excess air (and therefore excess oxygen) is supplied, the mixture is said to be
lean and that the flame is referred to as oxidising. The excess oxygen plays no
part in the combustion process. However, it is an energy loss, since the excess
oxygen absorbs some of the energy released.
If excess fuel (insufficient air) is supplied, the mixture is said to be rich and the
flame is referred to as reducing. This leads to incomplete combustion. This will
give:
some fuel having incomplete combustion with oxygen;
some fuel remaining unburnt.
In the first case, the fuel will combine with oxygen. However, the oxygen is
insufficient to burn the fuel completely.
For example, consider the production of carbon dioxide (CO2), by the combustion
of carbon (C) and oxygen (O2).
C + O2  CO2 + energy released
If there is insufficient oxygen, then the combustion will not be complete. Thus,
the carbon and oxygen will combine, but at a lesser ratio, (not at the ratio of one
carbon to two oxygen as in the above equation). Thus,
C + O  CO + energy released
In this reaction, one atom of carbon reacts with one atom of oxygen (instead of
two atoms of oxygen). This produces carbon monoxide (CO). Unfortunately, this
reaction releases 70% less energy than when carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced.
In addition, some fuel molecules may not combine at all with oxygen. Some of
the fuel, which has not mixed with oxygen, may be broken down by the heat from
the combustion process. This gives soot, which is mainly unburnt carbon that
results in a black colour exhaust gas from the combustion process. As well as
being an energy loss, soot can collect in the uptakes of the engine or boiler and
can be the fuel source for an uptake fire.
In practice, complete combustion can only be achieved by supplying an amount
of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount. This amount of air is naturally called
excess air. The energy loss of the air is accepted in favour of ensuring that
complete combustion will occur. The amount of excess air can be calculated
from the formula:
actual air/fuel ratio  stoichiome tric air/fuel ratio
excess air (%)  x 100
stoichiome tric air/fuel ratio
A steam boiler plant may require 5% to 30% excess air, while a CI engine will
often require around 100% excess air.

Combustion
Combustion Products
The products of combustion are summarised in the following table:
Product Cause of Product
carbon dioxide reaction between carbon and oxygen
water vapour reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
carbon reaction between carbon and oxygen

monoxide (due to insufficient oxygen, poor combustion)
oxides of reaction between oxygen and nitrogen
nitrogen (at very high temperatures during combustion)
oxides of reaction between sulphur and oxygen
sulphur
unburnt due to poor combustion or insufficient oxygen
hydrocarbons
particulate from other constituents of the fuel and/or soot
matter from poor combustion
Poor combustion gives an exhaust gas which is black or dark brown.

Too much excess air, or water in the fuel gives an exhaust gas, which is white in
colour.
Correct combustion is indicated by exhaust gas, which is colourless to a light
brown/grey haze.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx):
Nitrogen (N2) is the major element in air. Therefore, it will be present in any
combustion process between fuel and air. Although nitrogen usually remains
inert during the combustion process it may, at very high temperatures, form
compounds of nitrogen and oxygen. These compounds are called nitrogen
oxides (NOx).
Nitrogen oxides have been identified as an atmospheric pollutant, and the new
Annex 6 of the IMO’s MARPOL Convention seeks to limit the amount of nitrogen
oxides and other atmospheric pollutants, which may be generated from shipboard
processes. There are two ways to reduce the amount of NO x in exhaust gas
emissions. The methods are:
Primary - adjust the combustion process to minimise the amount of NOx created.
Secondary - use a process called Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), where the
exhaust gas is mixed with ammonia and passed through a catalyst. Here the
NOx is reduced to water vapour and nitrogen gas.
Sulphur Oxides (SOx):
During combustion, sulphur and oxygen combine to give sulphur oxides (SO x).
These compounds combine with water (H2O) present in the exhaust gas to give
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), which is highly corrosive.

Combustion
Sulphur oxides are also atmospheric pollutants, which are to be limited in

accordance with Annex 6 of the MARPOL convention. There are chemical and
mechanical washing/scrubbing processes that can remove SOx. However, the
simplest and cheapest method of reducing SOx, is to use fuel with a low sulphur
content, (usually below 1.5% to 2% of sulphur).
Low Temperature Corrosion

Fuel, especially low-grade fuel, has of a small amount of sulphur (S). During
combustion, the sulphur reacts with oxygen to give sulphur dioxide (SO2). Some
of this then reacts again with oxygen to give sulphur trioxide (SO3), as shown
below.
S + O2  SO2 + O2  SO3
One of the other products during combustion is water, (H2O)
2 H2 + O2  2 H2O
The water vapour and sulphur trioxide (SO3) in the exhaust will react to give,
H2O + SO3  H2SO4
Do you know what the molecule H2SO4 stands for? It is sulphuric acid, a strong
acid. And as you know acid corrodes metal at a very high rate.
Usually the sulphuric acid will go out with the exhaust. However, if the exhaust
temperature falls below about 160 0C, the acid will condense out of the exhaust
gas and settle on engine components and the exhaust system. This will cause
extensive corrosion in the exhaust system and combustion spaces.
Therefore, engines should not run at low loads, for long periods of time. The
resulting low exhaust temperature will give sulphuric acid. This is especially so
for engines using low-grade fuel, due to the higher sulphur content. In addition,
the cooling water temperature should be maintained at the required level, i.e. not
too cold.
High Temperature Corrosion

Fuels also consist of a small quantity of Vanadium. At very high temperatures
(above 550°C), the vanadium reacts with oxygen to give vanadium pentoxide
VO5.
This is a very hard and extremely corrosive compound, that tends to stick on to
exhaust valves and attacks the steel. They will cause grooves and dents on the
valve seat due to corrosion and the pounding of the valves. These grooves will
result in hot exhaust gasses passing through them at high velocity, further
damaging the valve seating surfaces.
For this reason exhaust temperatures should not be allowed to reach high values
during operation. In addition, some exhaust valves have corrosion resistant
coatings such as Stellite and Nimonic steel.

Combustion
Calorific Value of Fuel

As combustion occurs, energy is released. It is this energy, which heats the
working fluid. For example, heating water in a boiler or the gas in the cylinder of
an internal combustion engine.
The amount of energy released will depend on the compounds that are
undergoing combustion and the resulting products.
The calorific value of a substance is the amount of energy released during
complete combustion.
The units are: MJ/kg (mega Joules per kilogram) or kJ/kg
Thus, when carbon (C) reacts with oxygen (O2) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2),
the combustion process will release 33.7 MJ of energy per kg of carbon burnt.
Thus,
C + O2  CO2 + 33.7 MJ/kg
Similarly, where hydrogen (H2) burns with oxygen (O2) to give water (H2O), 144
MJ of energy is released per kg of hydrogen consumed.
2 H2 + O2  2 H2O + 144 MJ/kg
Sulphur (S) releases 9.3 MJ of energy per kg of sulphur burnt.
Therefore, if we know all the combustion processes that occur when a fuel burns
with air, we can obtain the total energy released during the combustion
processes.
Lower and Higher Calorific Value
Consider the combustion process of hydrogen (H2) with oxygen (O2) to give water
(H2O). When this combustion takes place, the product (i.e. water), can exist in
two possible states. It could exist as liquid water or as steam.
When steam converts to liquid water, energy is rejected, i.e. the latent energy of
evaporation. If the water in the exhaust condenses, then it will reject this energy.
When a hydrocarbon fuel is burnt with air, the product will have water, from the
combination of hydrogen in the fuel with oxygen. If we measure the energy
released due to combustion, we will get a higher value if we allow the water in
the combustion products to condense.
If the product water is in the form of:
liquid, then the energy released will be higher, and the total energy released for
this process is called the Higher (gross) Calorific Value; (HCV) or
steam, then the energy released will be lower, and the total energy released for
this process is called the Lower (net) Calorific Value. (LCV)
Higher Calorific Value: the energy released during combustion, when the
water in the product is liquid.
Lower Calorific Value: the energy released during combustion, when the
water in the product is steam.
Higher Calorific Value = Lower Calorific Value + latent energy of evaporation of
water in the products.

Combustion
In exhaust gas from an engine or boiler, the water exists as steam due to the high
temperatures. Therefore, the energy released during the process will be the
Lower Calorific Value of the fuel. Thus, all calculations should be carried out with
the Lower Calorific Value. If the water in the exhaust does condense, it will occur
after the combustion gases have heated the working fluid. Thus the latent energy
of evaporation will not be available to the working fluid.
Bomb Calorimeter:
The calorific value of liquids and solids can be obtained experimentally by the use
of an apparatus called the Bomb Calorimeter. Briefly, the apparatus consists of a
closed container surrounded by a known quantity of water. A known mass of fuel
is burnt completely in the calorimeter and the increase in temperature of the
surrounding water is recorded.
The energy released by the fuel is absorbed by the calorimeter and the water.
Since the mass of the water and the increase in temperature is known, it is
possible to calculate the energy absorbed by it, and hence the energy released
by the fuel.
The value given is the Higher Calorific Value for the fuel, since the water in the
products condenses inside the calorimeter. This has to be then adjusted to give
the more useful Lower Calorific Value.
Flash Point & Associated Dangers

Fuel burns and releases energy. This should only occur at the correct moment
in time, that is, in the combustion chamber after ignition. Fuel should not combust
at any other time or place, for example, while it is in its storage tank.
Flash point is the minimum temperature at which a fuel is able to form an
ignitable mixture with air.
The value of flash point is determined by laboratory tests.
Closed flash point is the flash point when the fuel is in a container, such as a
storage tank.
Flash point relates to the fire and explosion risk of the fuel during storage and
transportation. Thus, it is an important safety factor.
Fuel used for propulsion or electrical generation on board ship should have a
closed flash point of a least 66oC. In order to minimise the possibility of fire or
explosion during storage and transportation, the fuel should not be anywhere
near this temperature. Typical fuels used at sea have flash points well in excess
of 66oC.
Some fuels, (such as heavy fuel oils), must be heated prior to use. It is important
not to allow the fuel to be heated to a temperature close to its flash point.
Another hazard with allowing fuel to be heated excessively is that the fuel may
vaporise, giving a loss of fuel flow and creating an explosion danger within the
fuel line. This is called “gassing” in the fuel line.

Combustion
Combustion Calculations
We have seen that fuels contain combustible elements, which readily combine
with oxygen, and the energy released during this combustion is known as the
calorific value of the fuel. The chief combustible elements in fuels are carbon,
hydrogen and sometimes a small amount of sulphur.
In order to calculate the mass of air required for complete combustion of the fuel
it is necessary to know the composition of the fuel and the molar masses of its
constituents.
The constituents of fuel will change according to the type of fuel used. Typical
percentage by mass for petroleum oils are given below:
Element Motor Vaporising Kerosene Diesel Light Heavy

Oil Fuel Oil Fuel Oil
Petrol Oil
C 85.5 86.8 86.3 86.3 86.2 86.1
H 14.4 12.9 13.6 12.8 12.4 11.8
S 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.9 1.4 2.1
Other elements may also be present, but at very small levels.

Molar Mass:
For combustion calculations, we need to understand the concept of molar mass:
The SI unit for the amount of a substance is the kg-mole, abbreviated as kmole.
1 kmole of any pure substance contains 6.023 x 10 26 molecules (Avogadro’s
Number).
The mass of 1 kmole of a substance is its molar mass (kg/kmole)
The mass of a substance is found by multiplying the number of kmoles by the
molar mass
Substance Symbol Molar Mass (kg/kmole)

Hydrogen H 1
Oxygen 0 16
Nitrogen N 14
Carbon C 12
Sulphur S 32
Carbon Monoxide C0 28
Carbon Dioxide C02 44
Water or Steam H20 18
Sulphur Dioxide S02 64
Combustion Equations:

Combustion
Combustion of fuels involves many complex intermediate reactions. We do not

need to examine these. Instead, we start with the amount of C, H, S, etc in the
fuel, allow these to combine with sufficient oxygen, and then calculate the
resulting combustion products CO2, H2O and SO2.
We use combustion equations. The basic principle is that, for each species, the
number of atoms on one side of the equation must equal the number of atoms on
the other side.
(i) Carbon to Carbon Dioxide
C + O2  CO2
i.e. 1 atom of C plus 2 atoms of O (1 molecule of O2) combine to form one
molecule of CO2
or 1 kmole of C plus 2 kmoles of O give 1 kmole of CO2
now,
1 kmole of C has mass 12 kg (molar mass of C = 12 kg/kmole)
2 kmoles of O have mass 32 kg (molar mass of O = 16 kg/kmole)
1 kmole of CO2 has mass 44 kg (molar mass of CO2 = 44 kg/kmole)
thus,
12 kg C + 32 kg O  44 kg CO2
or
1 kg C + 8/3 kg O  11/3 kg CO2
i.e.
1 kg of C requires 8/3 kg O2 to produce 3 2/3 kg CO2
(ii) Sulphur to Sulphur Dioxide

S + O2  SO2
32 + 32  64
1+12
1 kg of S requires 1 kg O2 to produce 2 kg SO2
(iii) Hydrogen to Water or Steam

4H + O2  2H2O
4x1 + 2x16  2[(2x1) + 16]
4 + 32  36
1+89
1kg hydrogen requires 8 kg O2 to produce 9 kg H2O

Combustion
Summary
Substance O2 Required Product of Combustion in kg
per kg
CO2 H2O SO2
C 8/3 11/3
H 8 9
S 1 2
Combustion Air:
Air is a mixture of many gases but for practical purposes is assumed to consist
of oxygen and nitrogen in the following proportions:
% by mass % by volume
02 23.2 21
N2 76.8 79
During combustion the fuel reacts with oxygen to liberate energy. The inert gas
N2 slows down the rate of combustion, reduces the flame temperature and
absorbs a quantity of the heat liberated, the greater portion of which may be
carried away to waste with the exhaust gases. Generally, combustion of a fuel/air
mixture will only take place within certain limits:
Too little air: carbon left deficient of O2.
 CO in the exhaust gases and reduced CO2.
Too much air: Complete combustion of all products, excess of free oxygen and a
preponderance of nitrogen in the exhaust gases.
Theoretical Air Supply:
The minimum amount of air theoretically required to ensure complete
combustion, i.e. stoichiometric requirement
i.e. All carbon converted to CO2
All hydrogen converted to H2O
All Sulphur converted to SO2

Combustion
Excess Air Supply: Generally excess air is supplied rather than the theoretical
or stoichiometric required for complete combustion. This is to cover deficiencies
in fuel/air mixing and in some instances to give a measure of control over heat
release rates.
This excess is usually in the region of 30-10% depending on the velocities and
combustion chamber design involved. In recent downfired watertube boilers, high
flame temperatures and longer periods for flame propagation allow a close
approach to stoichiometric combustion (i.e. 3% excess air).
actual air supply - theoretica l air supply
% excess air  x 100
theoretical air supply
BOILER EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a boiler is the ratio between the energy transferred by heating
to the feed water in producing the required steam condition and the heat released
by the fuel used.
.
msteam hsteam  hfeed
i.e. boiler = .
x 100%
mfuel x LCV
where:  steam = Evaporation rate of steam (kg/sec)

m
hsteam = Resultant steam enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hfeed = Feed water enthalpy (kJ/kg)
 fuel = Fuel used (kg/sec)

m
LCV = calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg)

Combustion
Example: Theoretical Air Supply And Combustion Products

A fuel oil consists of the following percentage analysis by mass:
82% C, 12% H, 2% 0, 1% S, 3% N
Calculate:
(i) Stoichiometric A/F i.e. theoretical air supply for complete combustion of 1
kg of fuel.
(ii) Products of combustion as percent by mass and percent by volume for
20% excess air.
Solution:
Fuel Mass Per Oxygen Required Products

Constituent kg fuel per kg fuel per kg fuel
C 0.82 0.82 x 8/3 0.82 x 11/3

= 2.186 kg = 3.007 kg C02
H 0.12 0.12 x 8 0.12 x 9
= 0.96 kg = 1.08 kg H20
0 0.02 -0.02 kg -
S 0.01 0.01 x 1 0.01 x 2
= 0.01 kg = 0.02 kg S02
N 0.03 - 0.03 kg N2
total O2 required = 3.136 kg/kg fuel
kg O 2
 theoretical air required = 3.136/0.232 = 13.520 kg/kg fuel (  0.232 )
kg air

Combustion
(ii)
actual air supply - theoretica l air supply
% excess air  x 100
theoretical air supply
20
 actual air supply = x 13.520 + 13.520 (20% excess air)= 16.224 kg/kg
100
of fuel (or air(actual)=1.2×13.520=16.224 kg/kg of fuel)
N2 associated with this air = 16.224 x 0.768 = 12.460 kg/kg fuel
 N2 in exhaust = 12.460 + 0.03 = 12.490 kg/kg fuel
 O2 in exhaust = 20% of O2 required (20% excess air supplied)
= 0.2 x 3.136
= 0.627 kg/kg fuel
The products are summarised in the following table:

(note: % by volume = % by mole)
product mass per % by moles per % by volume

kg fuel mass kg fuel (dry)
3. 01
C02 3.007 17.46% = 0.068 12.71%
44
H20 1.08 6.27% - -
0. 63
02 0.627 3.64% = 0.0197 3.68%
32
N2 12.49 72.52% 12.49 = 0.4468 83.49%

28
0. 02
S02 0.02 0.12% = 0.000315 0.059%
64
---- ------------
17.224 kg/kg fuel 0.535 moles/kg fuel

Combustion
EXERCISES: COMBUSTION OF FUELS
1. A fuel consists of 88% carbon and 12% hydrogen, by mass. Calculate the
theoretical quantity of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of
this fuel.
(14.25 kg)
2. The analysis of a fuel used in a boiler trial was as follows: 88% carbon,
3.6% hydrogen, 4.8% oxygen and 0.5% sulphur, by mass, the remainder
being ash. Determine the stoichiometric quantity of air required to effect
combustion.
(11.17 kg of air/kg of fuel)
3. The analysis by mass of a fuel is 80% carbon, 13.5% hydrogen and 3.1%
oxygen, the remainder being incombustible material. If 18.5kg of air is
supplied/kg of fuel used, determine:
(a) the mass of C02 in the exhaust gases/kg fuel;

(b) the percentage excess air supplied.
(2.93 kg, 34.87%)
4. Determine the volume of air, at 15°C and 100 kN/m2, which is required for
the combustion of 1 kg of fuel having the following gravimetric analysis:-
carbon = 85%, hydrogen = 8%, oxygen = 3%. Assume 50% excess air is
supplied. Take R for air as 287 J/kg K.
(15.373 m3)
5. During a boiler trial, a sample of coal gave the following analysis by mass:
carbon 89%, hydrogen 4%, oxygen 3%, sulphur 1%, the remainder being
incombustible.
Determine the theoretical mass of air required/kg of coal for chemically

correct combustion. If 60% excess air is supplied, estimate the percentage
analysis by mass of the dry flue gas.
(11.523 kg air/kg coal; C02 17.13% S02 0.11% 02 8.42%, N2 74.34%)
Calculate the analysis by volume of the dry flue gas.

(CO2 11.767%; SO2 0.0496%, O2 7.953%; N2 80.231%)

Combustion
6. A boiler generates 900 kg of steam/h, 0.96 dry at 1.4 MN/m2 from feed water
at 52°C, the boiler efficiency being 71% and the calorific value of the coal
27,300 kJ/kg. The coal has a composition by mass: carbon 83%; hydrogen
5%; oxygen 3%; ash 9%, and the air supply is 22% in excess of that
theoretically required for perfect combustion. Calculate:
(a) the mass of coal used/h;

(b) the mass of air supplied/h;
(c) the percentage analysis by mass of the dry flue gases.
Molar masses: carbon 12; oxygen (O2) 32; hydrogen (H2) 2; nitrogen (N2)
28.
(116 kg/h; 1575 kg/h; CO2 21.669%, O2 4.047%, N2 74.285%)
Calculate the analysis by volume (dry).

(CO2 15.05%, O2 3.864%, N2 81.084%)
7. A single cylinder, four-stroke, compression-ignition oil engine gives 15 kW

at 5 rev/s and uses fuel having the composition by mass: carbon 84%;
hydrogen 16%. The air supply is 100% in excess of that required for perfect
combustion. The fuel has a calorific value of 45,000 kJ/kg and the brake
thermal efficiency of the engine is 30%.
Calculate:
(a) the mass of fuel used/cycle,

(b) the actual mass of air taken in/cycle,
(c) the volume of air taken in/cycle at 100 kN/m2 and 15°C.
Take R = 0.29 kJ/kg K.
(0.445 g/cycle; 0.0137 kg/cycle; 0.0115 m3/cycle)
8. Explain low temperature corrosion, high temperature corrosion, calorific

value and flash point.

Heat Transfer
HEAT TRANSFER
Overview
Energy transfer by heating is called “heat transfer”.
There are three ways by which energy is transferred by heating:
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation.
Each of these requires a temperature difference (temperature gradient). Heat is
energy in transition due to a temperature gradient.
(a) Conduction - transfer of energy through matter on a molecular scale,
without detectable mass motion.
e.g. “heat transfer” along a metal bar heated at one end.
The rate of energy transfer depends on the temperature gradient in the
matter (dT/dx), the thermal conductivity of the matter (k), and the cross-
sectional area.
. dT
i.e. Q  kA
dx
(-ve sign as heat transfer occurs in the direction of decreasing
temperature).
.
Q
kA
tHOT  tCOLD 
x
Metals have high thermal conductivity. Gases have low thermal
conductivity. Thermal insulators have low thermal conductivity.
(b) Convection - energy transfer by heating resulting from temperature

differences between fluids and solid boundaries. Here conduction is
enhanced by mass transport.
The fluid is heated by conduction as it passes
near the wall, and the energy so transferred is carried
away as internal energy in the moving fluid.
In natural convection, density differences arising
from temperature differences in the fluid being
heated induce the fluid motion.
In forced convection, the fluid motion is induced
wall
by mechanical means.
(t ) moving fluid Forced convection is more effective than free
w
(t) convection. Convection is more effective than
conduction in liquids and more so in gases. In fact, if
a layer of gas is contained so the fluid motion is
negligible, then it can act as a thermal insulation.
Many ‘solid’ insulators derive their effectiveness from
the poor thermal conductivity of the air trapped in
their pores.

Heat Transfer
For convection
.
Q  hA t w  t
where h depends on the properties of the fluid (thermal conductivity,
specific heat capacity) and on the form of the fluid motion.
(c) Thermal radiation - is electromagnetic radiation produced as a result of

temperature. Unless it is at absolute zero temperature, all matter
continuously emits thermal radiation.
The rate at which a substance emits thermal radiation is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature (T4) as well as surface and
geometrical properties.
If two bodies at different temperatures are facing each other, then the body
at the lower temperature will receive more radiation than it radiates (all
other factors being equal), so a net transfer of energy will result, and the
internal energy of the colder body will decrease while the internal energy
of the hotter body will increase.
Heat transfer from a soldering iron is mainly by conduction, although convection

and radiation are present. A hair dryer is a forced convection device. The sun is
the best example of a system, which transmits energy by radiation.

Heat Transfer
Conduction
The ability of a material to transfer energy by conduction is measured by the

coefficient of thermal conductivity, k.
Table of Average Values of Coefficients of Thermal Conductivity
Substance Coefficient of thermal

conductivity k W/mK
Aluminium 206
Asbestos, slab 0.052
Brass 104
Brick, common 1.15
Concrete 0.85
Copper 378
Cork, ground 0.043
Diatomaceous earth 0.086
Felt 0.038
Glass 1.04
Glass, fibre 0.04
Iron, cast 52
Magnesia 0.65
Plastic cellular 0.04
Steel 45
Vermiculite 0.065
Wood 1.7
Wallboard, paper 0.076
Still air at 27oC 0.026
Conduction through a flat plate or wall
Consider a flat plate, or wall, thickness x and transfer area A. Let the temperature
of its faces be t1 and t2 respectively.

Heat Transfer
Fourier's Law states:

  kA dT
Q
dx
(-ve sign as heat transfer occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature).
  kA t1  t2
Q
x
where,
 = heat transfer rate, W;= J/sec

Q
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity, W/mK;
A = area of transfer, m2
t1 = inlet face temperature, °C; or K
t2 = exit face temperature, °C; or K
x = thickness, m.
Note, from the Fourier equation,
Qx
k
A t1  t 2 
the units of k become,
Wm W
2

m K mK

Heat Transfer
Conduction through a composite wall
Consider the composite wall. In this case there are shown three layers.
 Watts are passing through this wall then Q Watts are passing through each
If Q
layer of this wall.
  k1 A t1  t2
Q (1)
x1
k 2 A t2  t3
 (2)
x2
k 3 A t3  t 4 
 (3)
x3
As it stands none of these equations are soluble since the interface temperatures
t2 and t3 are, as yet, unknown.
Transposing equations (1), (2) and (3), then,
.
Q x1
t1  t2  (4)
k1 A
.
Q x2
t2  t3  (5)
k2 A
.
Q x3
t3  t4  (6)
k3 A

Heat Transfer
Adding equations (4), (5) and (6), then,
.
Q  x1 x2 x3 
t1  t4      attention: x = thickness in metres (7)
A  k1 k 2 k 3 
From equation (7),

  A t1  t 4 
Q (8)
x1 / k1  x2 / k 2  x3 / k3
Thus, the quantity of heat passing per second can be calculated. When this is
known, by substituting back into equations (1), (2) and (3), the interface
temperatures can be calculated.
EXAMPLE
A brick wall 250mm thick is faced with concrete 50mm thick. The brick has a
coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.69 W/m K while that of the concrete is 0.93
W/m K. If the temperature of the exposed brick face is 30°C and that of the
concrete is 5°C, determine the heat loss/h through a wall 10m long and 5m high.
Determine, also, the interface temperature.
. A t1  t 3 10 x 5x30  5
Q 
x1 / k1  x 2 / k 2 0.25 / 0.69  0.05 / 0.93
50 x 25 1250
   3000W  3000J / s
0.362 + 0.054 0.416
= 3kJ / s
 Heat lost / h = 3 x 3600 = 10800kJ
For the brick wall,

. k1 A t1  t2
Q
x1
.
Q x1 3000 x 0.25
 t2  t1   30 
k1 A 0.69 x 50
= 30 - 21.7 = 8.3°C = interface temperature
Alternatively, for the concrete,

. k 2 A t 2  t 3 
Q
x2
Qx2 3000 x 0.05
 t2  t3  5
k2 A 0.93 x 50
= 5 + 3.3 = 8.3°C
(attempt exercise 2 and 3)

Heat Transfer
Conduction through a thin cylinder
There is no hard and fast rule on what constitutes a thin cylinder and what
constitutes a thick cylinder. A thin cylinder may be considered as a cylinder
whose internal surface area is very nearly the same as its external surface area.
From a heat transfer point of view, if this is the case, then the area through which
the heat is passing is always very nearly the same.
For a thin cylinder of radius r (either internal or external or mean, since they are
all very nearly the same) and thickness x, then for a length of cylinder L, the area
of heat transfer = 2rL
Hence,
2rLk t1  t2
Q 
x
where, k = coefficient of thermal conductivity,

t1, t2 = surface temperatures.
Conduction through a thick cylinder
In the thick cylinder, the internal surface area is considerably smaller than the
external surface area and hence the thick cylinder does not allow the simple
treatment in the case of the thin cylinder. However, part of the solution follows
the thin cylinder solution.
In the thick cylinder shown of internal radius r1 and external radius r2. The cylinder
length is L and its internal surface temperature is t1, while its external surface
temperature is t2.
Assume that heat transfer is from inside to outside, in which case t1 > t2.
.
Let the heat transfer/s = Q
Consider an elemental cylinder within the cylinder of radius r and thickness r.
Let the change of temperature across this elemental cylinder = t.

Heat Transfer
Then, for this elemental thin cylinder,
. t
Q  k 2rL (1)
r
The negative sign is because t/r is negative since there is a temperature fall
across the cylinder.
From equation (1),
.
Q r
t 
k 2L r
Integrating across the thick cylinder, then
  k 2Lt1  t 2
Q (2)
lnr 2 / r 1
EXAMPLE
A steam pipe is 75mm external diameter and is 30m long. It conveys 1000kg of
steam/h at a pressure of 2MN/m2. The steam enters the pipe with a dryness
fraction of 0.98 and is to leave the other end of the pipe with a minimum dryness
fraction of 0.96. This is to be accomplished by suitably lagging the pipe, the
coefficient of thermal conductivity of the lagging being 0.19 W/mK. Assuming
that the temperature drop across the steam pipe is negligible, determine the
minimum thickness of the lagging required to meet the necessary conditions.
Take the temperature of the outside surface of the lagging as 27°C.
At 2 MN/m2,(=20bar) specific enthalpy of evaporation
= hfg = 1888.6 kJ/kg
 Heat loss/kg steam passing through the pipe
= (0.98 - 0.96) x 1888.6 = 0.02 x 1888.6 = 37.77kJ/kg
 Heat loss/s through pipe
. 1000
Q x 37.77 = 10.5kJ /s
3600
Now for a thick cylinder,
. k 2Lt1  t 2 
Q
ln r 2 / r 1
From this,

Heat Transfer
k2L t1  t 2
ln r 2 / r1  .
Q
Saturation temperature at 2MN/m2 = 212.4°C
0.19 x 2 x 30 x 212.4 - 27

 ln r 2 / r1 
10.5 x 103
0.19 x 2 x 30 x 185.4

10.5 x 103
 0.632
From this,
r2/r1 = 1.883
Hence,
r2 = 1.883r1
75
 1883
. x
2
=70.6mm
Minimum thickness of lagging = 70.6 - 75/2

= 70.6 - 37.5
= 33.1 mm
Conduction through a composite thick cylinder
The solution to this arrangement is similar to that used on the composite wall.
. .
If Q heat units/s pass through the composite thick cylinder, then Q heat units/h
pass through each separate thick cylinder.
Hence, for the composite thick cylinder:

Heat Transfer
. k1 2L t1  t2
Q (1)
lnr 2 / r1
k2 2L t2  t3
 (2)
lnr 3 / r 2
Again, neither of these equations is soluble due to the lack of knowledge of the
interface temperature t2.
Hence, transposing equations (1) and (2),
.
 lnr / r 
Q
t1  t 2 
2 1
(3)
k12L
.
 lnr / r 
Q
t2  t3 
3 2
(4)
k 2 2L
Adding equations (3) and (4),
 ln r 2 / r1 ln r3 / r 2 

.
Q
t t  
2L  k1
 
1 3
k 2 
from which,
2Lt1  t 3 2Lt1  t 3k 1 k 2

   
ln r 2 / r1 ln r3 / r 2 
Q and also Q (5)
r  r 
 k 2 ln  2   k 1 ln  3 
k1 k 2  r1   r2 
.
Since Q is known from equation (5), then substitution into either equation (1) or
(2) determines the interface temperature t2.
The solution to a composite thick layer cylinder with more than two thicknesses
follows the same procedure.
 
2L t1  t 4  
ln r 2 / r1 ln r3 / r 2  ln r4 / r3 
Q
 
k1 k2 k3

Heat Transfer
EXAMPLE
A 100mm-diameter steam main is covered by two layers of lagging. The inside

layer is 40mm thick and has a coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.07 W/mK.
The outside layer is 25mm thick and has a coefficient of thermal conductivity of
0.1 W/mK. The main conveys steam at a pressure of 1.7 MN/m 2 (=17bar) with
30 K superheat. The outside temperature of the lagging is 24°C. If the steam
main is 20m long, determine:
(a) the heat lost/h;

(b) the interface temperature of the lagging.
Neglect the temperature drop across the steam main.
. 2L t1  t3
Q
lnr 2 / r1
(a)
ln r 3 / r 2

k1 k2
Saturation temperature at 1.7 MN/m2 = 204.3°C
t1 = 204.3 + 30 = 234.3°C
100
r1   50mm
2
r 2  50  40  90mm
r 3  90  25  115mm
. 2 x 20 x 234.3 - 24
Q 
ln90 / 50 ln115 / 90

0.07 0.1
2 x 20 x 210.3 2 x 20 x 210.3
 
ln1.8 ln128
. 0.587 0.246
 
0.07 0.1 0.07 0.1
2 x 20 x 210.3 2 x 20 x 210.3
 
8.4 + 2.46 10.86
 2440 W
 Heat lost/h = (2440 x 3600) J
2440 x 3600
3 = 8780kJ
10
2 k1L t1  t2
b Q 
.
ln r 2 / r1

Heat Transfer
.
.
Q lnr 2 / r 1
 t2  t1 
2 k1L
2440 ln 90 / 50
 234.3 
2 x 0.07 x 20
2440 x 0.587
 234.3 
20.07 x 20
= 234.3 - 163
= 71.3°C = interface temperature.
Alternatively, the solution could have been determined using the equation,
. 2 k 2 L t2  t3
Q
ln r 3 / r 2
(attempt exercises 4 & 5)

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer by Convection.
When the heat transfer is from a solid through the medium of a fluid that has
motion relative to the solid, then the method of transfer is called convection. In
free convection the transfer is caused through motion due to the density gradients
in the fluid. In forced convection the motion is caused by the pumping action of
a fan or compressor.
For an elementary treatment it is usual to express heat transfer by convection as:

  h At  t 
Q c c a w
.
where Q c = heat flow by convection;
hc = a surface heat transfer coefficient or simply a film coefficient since it
applies to the boundary layer, or film. Units are hc = W/m2 K;
ta = fluid temperature (ambient)
tw = surface wall temperature.
The film coefficient, hc includes the small effect of direct conduction through the
fluid.
In examples of heat transfer already covered, surface temperatures only have

been given. However, the control temperatures in any heat transfer system will
be the surrounding, or ambient, temperatures.
A simple solution can be obtained by using experimental methods to determine

the heat transfer through known and commonly used systems. Many commonly
used systems appear in buildings, refrigerators, heat exchangers, etc.
Experimental rather than analytical solutions can be applied to these systems.

Heat Transfer
Consider the composite wall shown.
.
As before, heat transfer Q passes through each layer of the wall.
Let,
ta1 = ambient temperature on the inlet side of the wall.
t1 = inlet face temperature
t2 = interface temperature
t3 = exit face temperature
ta2 = ambient temperature on the exit side of the wall.
Now, ta1 > t1 and t3 > ta2, because there must be a temperature difference in order
that heat transfer can take place.
The solution at the surfaces is obtained by using the equations,
.
Q = hc1 A (ta1 - t1) (1)
.
Q = hc2 A (t3 - ta2) (2)
Again consider the composite wall shown. Two thicknesses are shown but the
solution is similar for a single or any multi-thickness wall.
  k1A t1  t 2
Q (5)
x1
  k 2 At 2  t 3 
Q (6)
x2
From this,
.
t  t   QA
a1 1
(7)
h c1

Heat Transfer
.
Q
 t1  t2  xA1 (8)
k1
.
Q
 t2  t3  xA2 (9)
k2
.
t  t   QA
3 a2
(10)
h c2
Adding equations (7), (8), (9), (10),

.
 1 1
 ta1  ta2  QA   x1  x2   (11)
hc1 k1 k 2 hc 2
From which,
  A ta1  ta2 
Q (12)
 1 x1 x2 1 
    
 
 hc1 k1 k 2 hc 2 
= U A (ta1 - ta2) (13)
where,
1
U
 1 x1 x2 1
    
 hc1 k1 k 2 hc 2 
U= Overall Transfer Coefficient, sometimes called the ‘U’ coefficient.
The units of U will be W/m2K, as for the surface transfer coefficient.
The overall transfer coefficient can be determined directly for known systems by
experiment.
EXAMPLE
A composite wall is made up on an external thickness of brickwork 110mm thick

inside which is a layer of fibreglass 75mm thick. The fibreglass is faced internally
by an insulating board 25mm thick. The coefficients of thermal conductivity for
the three materials are as follows:
Brickwork 1.15 W/mK

Fibre-glass 0.04 W/mK
Insulating board 0.06 W/mK

Heat Transfer
2
The surface transfer coefficient of the inside wall is 2.5 W/m K while that of the
outside wall is 3.1 W/m2 K.
Determine the overall transfer coefficient for the wall and, using the coefficient,
determine the heat lost/h through such a wall 6m high and 10m long. Take the
internal ambient temperature at 27°C and the external ambient temperatures as
10°C.
1
U
 1 x1 x 2 x 3 1 
     
 hc1 k1 k 2 k 3 hc 2 
1

 1 0.025 0.075 0.110 1 
     
 2.5 0.06 0.04 115
. 3.1
1

0.4  0.417  188
.  0.0957  0.322
1

3.1147
= 0.321 W/m2K
.
Q = UA (ta1 - ta2)
= 0.321 x 6 x 10 x (27 - 10) = 0.321 x 60 x 17
= 327W
327 x 3600
 Heat lost / h = 3
 1178kJ
10
(Attempt exercise 6)

Heat Transfer
EXAMPLE
A steam pipe, which is 150mm external diameter, carries wet steam at 3.6 MN/m2.
It is covered with two layers of lagging each 40mm thick. The coefficients of
thermal conductivity for the two layers are 0.07 W/m K for the inner layer and 0.1
W/mK for the outer layer. The surface transfer coefficient for the outer surface is
3.0 W/m2 K. Calculate the heat loss/h for a 50m length of the lagged pipe. The
ambient temperature is 27°C. What would be the surface temperature of the
lagging? Neglect the thickness of the steam pipe and assume that its
temperature is constant throughout and, together with the inside surface of the
inner layer of lagging, is at the same temperature as the wet steam.
. k1 2L t1  t2
Q (first layer of lagging) (1)
ln r 2 / r1
k 2L t 2  t 3
 2 (second layer of lagging) (2)
ln r 3 / r 2
= hc 2r3L(t3 - ta) (outer surface film - thin cylinder) (3)
From this,
.
ln r 2 / r1
 t1  t2  2Q
L k 2
(4)
.
ln /
 t2  t3  Q r 3 r 2 (5)
2L k 2
.
1
 t3  ta  2Q
L hc r 3
(6)
Adding equations (4), (5) and (6),

Heat Transfer
  ln r 2 / r1 ln r 3 / r 2
Q 1 
t1  ta     
2L  k1 k2 hc r 3 
Hence,
.
2Lt1  t a 
1
Q (7)
 ln r 2 / r 1 ln r 3 / r 2 1 
   
 k1 k2 hc r 3 
From steam tables, saturation temperature at 3.6 MN/m2(36bar) t1 = 244.2°C.

r1 = 75mm
r2 = 75 + 40 = 115mm
r3 = 75 + 40 + 40 = 155mm = 0.155m
 From equation (7),
1
x 2 x 50 x 244.2 - 27
.
Q
 ln115 / 75 ln155 / 115 1 
   
 0.07 0.1 3 x 0.155 
1
 x 100217.2
 ln1535
. ln 135
. 1 
   
 0.07 0.1 3 x 0.155 
100  x 217.2

 0.427 0.3 1 
   
 0.07 0.1 0.465 
100 x 217.2 100 x 217.2

 
6.1+ 3 + 2.15 11.25
= 6,069.8W = 6,069.8 J/sec
6069.8 x 3600
 Heat loss/ h = 3
 21851kJ
10
From equation (3),
Q  hc 2 r 3 L t3  ta
.
t3  t a 
Q  27 
6060
= 27 + 41.5
h 2 r
c 3
L 3 x 2 x 0.155 x 50
= 68.5°C = surface temperature of lagging.
(attempt exercise 7 and 8)

Heat Transfer by Radiation

Heat Transfer
All bodies radiate energy. Radiant energy is transferred at the speed of light.
Two similar bodies isolated together in a vacuum radiate energy mutually to each
other, but the colder would receive more energy than the hot body and thus
become heated.
Like the transmission of other electromagnetic waves to a substance, some of

the energy waves will be reflected, some absorbed, and some transmitted
through the substance. For most opaque (=dark, non-transient) substances the
radiant energy is either absorbed or reflected.
A body, which absorbs all the radiant heat, is called a black body. A black body
will also be the best radiator.
Most radiating surfaces are grey and have an emissivity factor,  (epsilon), less
than unity, where:
Actual radiation of grey body


Radiation of similar black body
It can be shown that the emissivity or ability to radiate energy is equal to the
absorptivity or ability to absorb radiant energy and justify the statement that good
absorbers are good radiators.
A brightly polished surface will have a low absorptivity and low emissivity,
remaining cool in the hot sun, or retaining energy if containing a hot liquid, e.g.
aluminium or chromium-plated thermos flasks.
The concept of black bodies is used to establish the experimental Stefan-

Boltzmann law of radiation.
.
Q r = AT
4
.
where Q r = heat radiated in watts
A = surface area radiating heat in m2
T = temperature of the surface in K;
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
In most practical cases a relatively small body, say of surface area A 1, radiates
energy into a large room or space,
In this case, it can be shown that:

. 4 4
Q r = A11 (T1 - T2 )
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

where 1 = emissivity of the body = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 =< 1
Radiation Film Coefficient

Heat Transfer
As with convection, a film coefficient hr may be adopted where:

.
Q r = hr A (T1 - T2) temperatures T are always in Kelvin
 4 
 T1  T24 
 
hr   ,
T1  T 2
more commonly written as

 T  4  T  4
 1    2  
  100   100  

hr  5.67
T1  T 2
Combined Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient. For the total heat flow through
the boundary layer separating a fluid and a solid the two film coefficients for
convection and radiation are usually added together:
hs = hc + hr
Example - Film Coefficients for a Steam Line. A steam line in an ambient

temperature of 32.2ºC is found to have a surface temperature of 54.4ºC. The
pipe was wrapped with insulation with an emissivity factor of 0.945. If the total
film coefficient hs is 11.40 W/m2 K, calculate the radiation and convection film
coefficients.
T1=273+54.4=327.4K, T2=273+32.2=305.2K
 327.4  4  305.2  4 
5.67 0.945    
 100   100  
hr  327.4  305.2
5.67 0.945 (114.900 - 86.764)

hr   6.79W / m2 K
22.2
hc = 11.40 - 6.79 = 4.61 W/m2K

Heat Transfer
Heat Exchangers
Introduction. These are devices where one fluid heats another, usually through
a thin metal wall. Common examples are:
(a) Steam condenser, transferring energy from steam to the circulating water.
(b) The radiator of a car, transferring energy from the hot engine coolant to the
atmosphere.
In heat exchangers the temperature of the fluids along the walls of the tubes used
will not be uniform except for steam condensers.
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, between the two fluids can be calculated.
U will be a function of the temperature of the fluids, but will be assumed constant
here.
To apply Fourier’s Law, it will be necessary to determine a mean temperature

difference,  Tm, between the two fluids along the whole length of the heat
exchanger, so that
 = UATm
Q
By calculus it can be shown that:
T2  T1
Tm  (ΔTm is called the LMTD)
 T2
ln
 T1
This is called the Log Mean Temperature Difference and applies to both the
parallel flow heat exchanger and the contra-flow heat exchanger

Heat Transfer
Example - Contra-flow Heat Exchanger.
In an oil cooler of the contra-flow type, 1.26 kg/s of oil of specific heat capacity
2.4 kJ/kgK are cooled from 39.1ºC to 23.7ºC by means of 1.51 kg/s of water,
which enters at 13.7ºC. Find the required cooling surface area of the
exchanger if the overall heat transfer coefficient between the two fluids is 908
W/m2K and Cwater = 4.2 kJ/kg
The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids is:

 m
Q  aCp (Ta  Ta )  m
 bCp (Tb  Tb )
a 1 2 b 1 2
substituting:
1.26(2.4)(39.1-23.7)=1.51(4.2)( Tb1 -13.7)
so, Tb1 =21.04ºC
( T2  T1) (23. 7  13. 7)  (39.1 21. 04)

Tm  =  13. 64o C
T2 (23. 7  13. 7)
ln ln
T1 (39.1 21. 04)
  UAT =908(A)13.64=1.26(2.4x103)(39.1-23.7)=46.57x103 W
Q m
so, A=3.76m2
(attempt exercise 9, 10)

Heat Transfer
EXERCISES: HEAT TRANSFER
1. Discuss the three ways in which energy transfer by heating. Give an

example of each.
2. A wall is made up of two layers of bricks each 155mm thick with a 40mm air
space between them. The coefficients of thermal conductivity are as
follows:
Inside brick 0.69 W/mK

Still Air 0.0605 W/mK
Outside brick 1.038 W/mK
The wall is 6.15m long and 5.5m high. Determine the heat loss/h through
the wall if the inside face temperature is 24°C and the outside face
temperature is 7°C. Determine, also, the interface temperatures.
(2000kJ, 20.3°C, 9.45°C)
3. A refrigerator room has a wall 6.0m long and 3.0m high. The wall is built of
120mm thick brick, insulated on the inside with an 80mm layer of cork faced
with a thin metal sheet. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the brick
is 1.15 W/mK while that of the cork is 0.043 W/mK. The exterior brick
surface temperature of the wall is 21°C and that of the interior metal faced
surface is -4°C. The temperature of the metal sheet can be considered as
being at -4°C throughout. Estimate the heat leakage through the wall in 24h
and also the temperature of the interface between the cork and brick.
(19,788kJ, 19.7°C)
4. During a test on pipe lagging a 2m length of pipe, 80mm external diameter

was covered with a 40mm thickness of lagging. The pipe was then coupled
to a steam main, which supplied steam at 7 bar and 0.9 dry. As a result of
heat loss through the lagging, 0.565 kg of condensate was collected from
the pipe in 1 hour. The condensate was at saturation temperature for 7 bar.
The outside surface temperature of the lagging was 38°C. Assuming that
the inside temperature of the lagging was the same as the saturation
temperature for the steam, estimate the coefficient of thermal conductivity
of the lagging in W/m K.
(0.1268 W/mK)

Heat Transfer
5. A steel pipe 150mm external diameter conveys steam at temperature of

260°C and it is covered by two layers of lagging, each 50mm thick. The
thermal conductivity coefficient of the inside layer of the lagging is 0.0865
W/m K while that of the outside layer is 0.0952 W/m K. The outside surface
temperature of the steel pipe can be taken as being the same as the
temperature of the steam. The outside surface temperature of the lagging
is 27°C. Determine:
(a) the heat lost/h for a pipe length of 30m;

(b) the interface temperature between the two layers of lagging.
(16750kJ, 114°C)
6. A cold room has the internal dimensions of 6m x 6m x 3m high. Each

containing wall, including the ceiling and floor, consists of an inner layer of
25mm thick wood, backed up with a 75mm thick layer of fibreglass and, on
the outside, a 110mm layer of brick. The coefficients of thermal conductivity
are:
Wood 1.7 W/mK

Fibreglass 0.04 W/mK
Brick 1.15 W/mK
Surface transfer coefficients are:
Wood to still air 2.5 W/m2 K

Moderately turbulent air to brick 4 W/m2 K
Average external ambient temperature can be taken as 15°C. It is required

to maintain the interior ambient temperature of the cold room at -15°C. The
enthalpy of evaporation of the refrigerant in the evaporator is 158.7 kJ/kg.
The refrigerant is 0.1 dry at entry to the evaporator and is dry saturated at
exit. Determine:
(a) the overall transfer coefficient in W/m2K;

(b) the mass flow of refrigerant through the refrigeration plant in kg/h;
(c) the temperature, (i) of the exposed surfaces;
(ii) of the interfaces
Neglect corner effects at surface joints.
((a)0.3795W/m2K, (b)41.3 kg/h, (c) (i) 12.15°C, -10.45°C (ii) 11.07°C,-10.16°C)

Heat Transfer
2
7. Wet steam at 2 MN/m flows through a pipe 20m long. The pipe has an
external diameter of 80mm. The pipe is covered with lagging 35mm thick,
which has a coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.065 W/mK. The outer
surface transfer coefficient is 4.5 W/m2K and ambient temperature is 15°C.
The steam flow rate is 300 kg/h and it enters the pipe with a dryness
fraction of 0.97. Assuming that there is no temperature drop across the
pipe and that the pipe temperature is the same as the steam temperature,
determine:
(a) the dryness fraction of the steam as it leaves the pipe;

(b) the surface temperature of the lagging.
(0.9575, 61.3°C)
8. A steam pipe of external diameter 130mm carries wet steam at 15 bar. It

is covered with two layers of insulation, each 35mm thick. The thermal
conductivity of the inner layer of insulation is 0.05 W/mK and the thermal
conductivity of the outer layer of insulation is 0.08 W/mK. The surface
heat transfer coefficient for the outer surface 2.9 W/m2K. The ambient
temperature is 26°C. The pipe length is 20m. The temperature of the
outside surface of the steam pipe can be assumed to be the same as the
steam temperature. Assume the steam remains at its saturation
temperature throughout. Calculate:
(a) the rate of heat transfer(kW) from the steam to the surroundings,
(b) the temperature of the outer surface of the inner layer of insulation.
(1.451kW, 98.82°C)
9. In an oil cooler of the contra-flow type, 0.25 kg/s of oil of specific heat
capacity 2.3 kJ/kgK are cooled from 65.9ºC to 15.9ºC by means of 0.125
kg/s of water, which enters at 7.6ºC. Find the required cooling surface area
of the exchanger if the overall heat transfer coefficient between the two
fluids is 908 W/m2K
(5.67m2)
10. What is the main advantage of contra-flow heat exchangers compared

with parallel flow heat exchangers?

Air Conditioning
AIR CONDITIONING - PSYCHROMETRY

Atmospheric air contains water vapour, normally at a partial pressure much less
than its saturation pressure. Partial pressure is the pressure of a component of
the mixture if it alone would have occupied the container at the temperature of
the mixture.The water vapour is sufficiently superheated to be considered as a
perfect gas.
The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of the components
Consider atmospheric air at 1.013 bar and 15°. The saturation pressure of water
vapour at 15°C is 0.01704 bar. Unless liquid water is in contact with the air, the
water vapour will be at a partial pressure less than 0.01704 bar.
p = pa + pv
where pa = partial pressure of the dry air

pv = partial pressure of the water vapour (v - vapour)
p = mixture pressure
(Dalton's law of Partial Pressures)
Specific Humidity: (Absolute Humidity, Moisture Content)
mv
w=
ma
where mv = mass of water vapour
ma = mass of dry air
w = specific humidity
now, pv V = mv Rv T, pa V = ma Ra T
(Each gas behaves as though it occupies the whole volume)
Ra p v
w=
R v pa
8.3144
Ra = 0.2871 kJ/kgK, Rv = = 0.4615 kJ/kgK
18.015
(Molar mass of water  16 + 2 = 18)
pv
w = 0.622
pa
pa = p - pv
pv
 w = 0.622 Specific Humidity
p  pv

Air Conditioning
Relative Humidity:
pv
Relative Humidity  =
ps
where pv = partial pressure of the water vapour
ps = saturation pressure of water vapour at the mixture
temperature.
The ease with which the atmosphere takes up moisture from any surface
depends on how far the air is short of being saturated () rather than upon the
absolute vapour content (w)
Dew Point:
The dew point temperature (td) is the temperature to which the air must be cooled
(at constant pressure) for water to condense on the cooling surface. It is the
saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapour.
Numerical Examples:
1. The air supplied to a room of a building in winter is to be at 17°C and have

a relative humidity of 60%. If the barometric pressure is 1.01325 bar,
calculate the specific humidity. What would be the dew point under these
conditions?
At 17°C, from tables, ps = 0.01936 bar.
pv
=  0.6 (60%)
ps
 pv = 0.6 x 0.01936 = 0.011616 bar
pv
w = 0.622
p  pv
0.622 x 0.011616
 0.007213
 w = 1.01325 - 0.011616 kg/kg dry air
Dew point temp (td) is the saturation temperature corresponding to 0.011616 bar.
- interpolate the steam tables.
(0.011616  0.01147)
td = 9 + (10 - 9)
(0.01227  0.01147)
 td = 9.18°C

Air Conditioning
2. If air at 1.01325 bar, 17°C, 60% relative humidity, is passed at the rate of
0.5 m3/s over a cooling coil, which is at 6°C, calculate the amount of vapour,
which will be condensed. Assume that the air leaving the coil is saturated
and at the temperature of the cooling coil.
Cooling
coil
2 1
o
6C 3
100% 0.5 m /s
o
relative 17 C
60% relative
humidity
humidity
 is constant throughout the

For mass continuity, the mass flow rate of dry air, m
process.
a= 
pa V
m , pa  p  p v
Ra T
pv = 0.011616 bar (from example 1)
pa = 1.01325 - 0.011616 = 1.00163 bar
 a = 1.00163 x 10 x 0.5 = 0.6017 kg/s

5
m
287 x 290
mv1  v1
m
w1 = 
ma ma
w1 = 0.007213 kg/kg dry air (from ex 1)
 v = 0.007213 x 0.6017 = 0.004340 kg/s

m 1
After the coil,  = 1 since the air is saturated, so pv = ps
At 6°C, ps2 = 0.009346 bar (from tables)
pv2
w2 = 0.622
p  pv2

Air Conditioning
0.009346
 w2 = 0.622 x = 0.00579 kg/kg dry air
1.01325  0.009346
v
m 2
w2 =
ma
 v = 0.00579 x 0.6017 = 0.003483 kg/s

m 2
 v m
Mass of condensate = m v
1 2
= 0.004340 - 0.003483
= 0.0008562 kg/s
= 3.082 kg/h
EXERCISES: PSYCHROMETRY
1. Air at 32°C is saturated with water vapour and the barometric pressure is
1.013 bar. Determine the partial pressure of the vapour and of the dry air.
What volume of the mixture would contain 1kg of vapour? Calculate also
the mass of air associated with this amount of vapour and the specific and
relative humidity of the mixture.
(0.04754 bar, 0.9655 bar, 29.6m3, 32.6 kg, 0.031, 1)
2. The pressure of the water vapour in an atmosphere, which is at 32°C and

1.013 bar, is 0.02063 bar. By how much is the water vapour superheated?
What are the specific and relative humidity of the air? To what temperature
would the air have to be cooled for it to be just saturated with water vapour?
If the air is cooled to 10°C from its original condition, how much condensate
is formed per kg of dry air?
(14K; 0.01293; 43.4% 18°C; 0.0053 kg)
3. A mixture of air and water vapour at 1.013 bar and 16°C has a dew point of
5°C. Determine the relative and specific humidity.
(48%, 0.0054 kg/kg dry air)
4. An air-conditioned room is maintained at a temperature of 21°C and a

relative humidity of 55% when the barometric pressure is 740mm Hg. What
is the absolute humidity? Calculate the temperature of the inside of the
windows in the room if moisture is just beginning to form on them.
Remember: Standard atmosphere = 1.01325 bar = 760 mm Hg
What mass of water vapour per kg of dry air in the room must be removed
from the mixture in order to prevent condensation on the windows when
their temperature drops to 4°C, Calculate the initial relative humidity to
satisfy this condition if the temperature remains at 21°C. The barometric
pressure remains constant.
(0.00876; 11.62°C; 0.0036 kg; 32.7%)

Air Conditioning
Psychrometric Chart
Define, H = hair + whvapour (water)
where H = enthalpy of moist air expressed as kJ/kg dry air.
ha is fixed solely by the dry bulb temperature t (perfect gas) & the zero for h a is
taken at 0°C.
pv
w = 0.622 , so that if w and p are known, pv is fixed. If in addition, t is
p  pv
known, hv is fixed (steam tables)
The psychrometric chart is drawn for a fixed value of pressure, p, so w and t are
the only independent variables. Thus lines of constant H are plotted against w
and t.
Now,
pv pv
= , w = 0.622
ps p  pv
i.e.  is a function of w, pv and ps for fixed pressure.
ps is a function of t
pv is a function of w
Thus lines of constant  are plotted against w and t.

Air Conditioning
* Lines of constant wet bulb temperature are also included.
Note that the wet bulb temperature at any state along the saturation line ( =
100%) is equal to the dry-bulb temperature, and also the dew point, at that state.
The lines of constant wet bulb temperature follow the lines of constant enthalpy
very closely.
* Lines of constant specific volume of the dry air in the mixture, va, are usually
included.
Ra T
va = i.e. function of t and pv for fixed p
p  pv
pv is a function of w for fixed p.
The psychrometric chart can be used for a reasonable range of p without

significant error.
Typical Air
Conditioning
System
(from Rogers and
Mayhew)

Air Conditioning
Example: On a summer's day the air has a pressure of 1 bar, a temperature of

35°C and a relative humidity of 90%. An air conditioning plant is to deliver
30 m3/min at a temperature of 20°C and with a relative humidity of 55%. This is
to be accomplished by cooling the air to the dew point of the delivery and
reheating it. An axial-flow fan, situated before the cooler, absorbs 1.1kW. Find
the temperature to which the air must be cooled by the cooling coils, and the heat
transfer rates required in the cooler and heater. Assume that the whole of the
intake consists of atmosphere air, and that the pressure remains constant
throughout the process at 1 bar.
Heating Cooling
coil coil
3 2 1
20oC
35oC
=55%
3 =90%
30m /min
The air at 2 must be at the moisture content required at 3.

 t 2  10.7o C from chart
td3 = saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of the water

vapour at 3.
 = pv/ps,
refer to the chart:
1 a cooling to dew point corresponding to state 1, w constant
a  2 cooling and condensation to dew point corresponding to state 3

(w2 = w 3)
2  3 heating to final state, w constant

Air Conditioning
from the chart, H1 = 120.0kJ/kg dry air
H2 = 31.0 kJ/kg dry air
H3 = 40.5 kJ/kg dry air
v3 = 0.84 m3/kg dry air
w1 = 0.0331 kg/kg dry air
w2 = 0.0080 kg/kg dry air

V
m
a  3 = 30 = 35.71 kg/min
v3 0.84
 
Q 23 = m a (H3 - H2)
= 35.71 (40.5 - 31.0) = 339.2 kJ/min
 = m
Q 12
 a (H2 - H1) + m 
 w 4 hw4 - W
hw4 = hf at t2
t2 = 10.7°C from the chart
hw4 = 44.9 kJ/kg (from steam tables)

  
m w4 = m v1  m v2

= ma  w1  w2
= 35.71 (0.0331 - 0.0080)
= 0.896 kg/min

 Q 12 = 35.71 (31.0 - 120.0) + 0.896 x 44.9 - 1.1 x 60= - 3203.9 kJ/min

Air Conditioning
EXERCISES: PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
1. Where possible, rework the psychrometric exercises using the chart.
2. An air conditioning plant takes in outside air at 30oC and 90% relative
humidity and delivers it at 22oC and 50% relative humidity. The plant uses a
cooler to dehumidify the air followed by a heater to return it to the required
temperature. An axial flow fan situated before the cooler absorbs 1.5 kW. If
the plant is to deliver 35 m3/min, calculate the temperature to which the air
must be cooled by the cooling coils and the heat transfer rates required in
the cooler and heater. Use the psychrometric chart.
(11.3oC, 2480 kJ/min, 460 kJ/min)
3. 1000 kg/min of turbine condenser cooling water are sprayed into a natural
draught cooling tower at a temperature of 26oC, and the water returns to the
condenser at 12oC. Air is drawn into the tower at 15oC, with a relative
humidity of 55% and leaves the tower saturated at 24 oC. Calculate the mass
flow rate of moist air into the tower and the rate of loss of cooling water by
evaporation. It may be assumed that the total pressure throughout the tower
is 1 atm. Use the psychrometric chart.
(1411 kg/min, 18.31 kg/min)

Pipe Flow
11.

LIST OF SYMBOLS
symbol meaning units
c velocity m/s
COP coefficient of performance
Cp specific heat capacity at constant pressure J/kgK
Cv specific heat capacity at constant volume J/kgK
g gravitational constant m/s2
H enthalpy J
h specific enthalpy J/kg
m mass kg

m mass flow rate kg/s
N cycles per second cycles/s
n number of cylinders, polytropic index
p pressure Pa
Q energy transfer by heating J
q energy transfer by heating J/kg

Q rate of energy transfer by heating W
R gas constant J/kgK
Re Reynolds Number
rp pressure ratio
rv volume ratio
S entropy J/K
s specific entropy J/kgK
T torque Nm
T absolute temperature K
t temperature 0C
U internal energy J
u specific internal energy J/kg
V volume m3
v specific volume m3/kg

V volume flow rate m3/s
W work J
w work J/kg

W work per time (power) W
z height m
 ratio of specific heats
 density kg/m3
 viscosity kg/ms
MECH mechanical efficiency
TH thermal efficiency
TURB turbine isentropic efficiency
COMP compressor isentropic efficiency
VOL volumetric efficiency

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JNE312

Australia Maritime College

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 3

Internal Energy (U)

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 1

SYSTEM AND WORKING SUBSTANCE

fluid in 1 system boundary

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 2

- some derived units:

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 3

Multiplying factor Prefix Symbol

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 4

PROPERTY AND STATE

gh = gauge pressure

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 5

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 6

Exercises: Specific Heat Capacity

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 7

Intensive and Extensive Properties

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 8

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 9

It is thus possible to represent the state of the system as

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if its thermodynamic properties do not change

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 10

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

net force resisting force

Examples of Irreversible Processes

initial state final state

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 11

(b) Stirring work (paddle work, viscous damping) - friction

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 12

REVERSIBLE WORK OF COMPRESSION OR EXPANSION W, w

net force resisting force

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 13

if v2 is greater than v1 it is an expansion process (work - ve)

EXERCISES: REVERSIBLE WORK

1. A piston of diameter 10 cm rests inside a cylinder at an initial distance of 25 cm from

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 14

(b) Convection - energy transfer by heating resulting from temperature differences

wall In forced convection, the fluid motion is induced by

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 15

(c) Thermal radiation - is electromagnetic radiation produced as a result of temperature.

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 16

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 17

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 18

First Law of Thermodynamics

where each term has the units Joules

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 19

 q  420  200  300  80kJ / kg

EXERCISES: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (NON FLOW)

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 20

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

datum (eg ground

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 21

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 22

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 23

EXAMPLES OF STEADY FLOW PROCESSES

fluid in 1 system boundary

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 24

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 25

The exit velocity C2 becomes then C  2000h when enthalpy h is in kJ/kg

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 26

No work is done on or by the system.

Advanced Marine Thermodynamics 27