CHAPTER 2

Questions

1. What is the first principle we discussed in this chapter for protocol layering that needs to
be followed to make the communication bidirectional?

To make the communication bidirectional, each layer needs to be able to provide two opposite
tasks, one in each direction.

2. Which layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in a link-layer switch?

The link-layer switch is normally involved in the first two layers of the TCP/ IP protocol suite:
a. the physical layer, b. and the data-link layer.

3. A router connects three links (networks). How many of each of the following layers can the
router be involved with?
The router is involved in: a. three physical layers, b. three data-link layers, c. and only
one network layer.
4. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, what are the identical objects at the sender and the receiver
sites when we think about the logical connection at the application layer?
The identical objects are the two messages: one sent and one received

5. A host communicates with another host using the TCP/IP protocol suite. What is the unit
of data sent or received at each of the following layers?

a. At the application layer, the unit of data is a message.

b. b. At the network layer, the unit of data is a datagram.
c. c. At the data-link layer, the unit of data is a frame.

6. Which of the following data units is encapsulated in a frame?

A frame is a link-layer data unit. It encapsulates a data unit coming from the network
layer. In this case, the data unit is a datagram.

7. Which of the following data units is decapsulated from a user datagram?

A user datagram is a transport-layer data unit. It decapsulates a data unit going to the
application layer. In this case, the data unit is a message.

8. Which of the following data units has an application-layer message plus the header from
layer 4?
The data unit should belong to layer 4. In this case, it is a user datagram.

9. List some application-layer protocols mentioned in this chapter.

We mentioned HTTP, FTP, SMTP, SNMP, TELNET, SSH, and DNS.

10. If a port number is 16 bits (2 bytes), ¿what is the minimum header size at the transport
layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite?

The transport-layer packet needs to include two port numbers: source and destination
port numbers. The transport-layer header needs to be at least 32 bits (four bytes) long,
but we will see in Chapter 24 that the header size is normally much longer because we
need to include other pieces of information.

11. What are the types of addresses (identifiers) used in each of the following layers?

a. At the application layer, we normally use a name to define the

destinationcomputer name and the name of the file we need to access. An example
is something@somewhere.com.
b. At the network layer, we use two logical addresses (source and destination) to
define the source and destination computers. These addresses are unique
universally.
c. At the data-link layer, we use two link-layer addresses (source and destination) to
define the source and destination connections to the link.

12. When we say that the transport layer multiplexes and demultiplexes applicationlayer
messages, do we mean that a transport-layer protocol can combine several messages from
the application layer in one packet? Explain.
The answer is no. Multiplexing/demultiplexing at the transport layer does not mean
combining several upper-layer packets (from the same or different applications) into
one transport-layer packet. It only means that each of the transport-layer protocols
(such as TCP or UDP) can carry a packet from any application-layer protocol that needs
its service. However, a transport-layer packet can carry one, and only one, packet from
an application-layer protocol. For example, UDP can carry a message from FTP in one
user datagram and a message from HTTP in another user datagram.

13. Can you explain why we did not mention multiplexing/demultiplexing services for the
application layer?

The application layer is the top layer in the suite; it does not provide services to any
layer, which means multiplexing/demultiplexing does not exist for this layer.

14. Assume we want to connect two isolated hosts together to let each host communicate
with the other. Do we need a link-layer switch between the two? Explain.
We do not need a link-layer switch because the communication in this case is
automatically one-to-one. A link-layer switch is needed when we need to change a one-
to-many communication to a one-to-one.
15. If there is a single path between the source host and the destination host, do we need a
router between the two hosts?
We do not need a router in this case because a router is needed when there is more
than one path between the two hosts; the router is responsible for choosing the best
path at each moment.
Problems

1. Answer the following questions about Figure 4 when the communication is from Maria to
Ann:

Figure 4. A three-layer protocol

a. ¿What is the service provided by layer 1 to layer 2 at Maria’s site?

Layer 1 takes the ciphertext from layer 2, inserts (encapsulates) it in an envelope and
sends it.

b. ¿What is the service provided by layer 1 to layer 2 at Ann’s site?

Layer 1 receives the mail, removes (decapsulates) the ciphertext from the envelope
and delivers it to layer 2.

2. Answer the following questions about Figure 4 when the communication is from Maria to
Ann:
a. ¿What is the service provided by layer 2 to layer 3 at Maria’s site?

Layer 2 takes the plaintext from layer 3, encrypts it, and delivers it to layer 1.
b. ¿What is the service provided by layer 2 to layer 3 at Ann’s site?
Layer 2 takes the ciphertext from layer 1, decrypts it, and delivers it to layer 3.

3. Assume that the number of hosts connected to the Internet at year 2010 is five hundred
million. If the number of hosts increases only 20 percent per year, what is the number of
hosts in year 2020?

In 10 years, the number of hosts becomes about six times (1.2010 ≈ 6.19) the number
in 2010. This means the number of hosts connected to the Internet is more than three
billion.

4. Assume a system uses five protocol layers. If the application program creates a message of
100 bytes and each layer (including the fifth and the first) adds a header of 10 bytes to the
data unit, what is the efficiency (the ratio of applicationlayer bytes to the number of bytes
transmitted) of the system?
 The system transmits 150 bytes for a 100-byte message. The efficiency is 100/ 150 or
66.66%.

5. Assume we have created a packet-switched internet. Using the TCP/IP protocol suite, we
need to transfer a huge file. What are the advantage and disadvantage of sending large
packets?

The advantage of using large packets is less overhead. When using large packets, the
number of packets to be sent for a huge file becomes small. Since we are adding three
headers to each packet, we are sending fewer extra bytes than in the case in which the
number of packets is large. The disadvantage manifests itself when a packet is lost or
corrupted during the transmission; we need to resend a large amount of data

6. Match the following to one or more layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite: a. route
determination b. connection to transmission media c. providing services for the end user

a. The network layer is responsible for route determination.

b. The physical layer is the only layer that is connected to the transmission media.
c. The application layer provides services for the end users.

7. Match the following to one or more layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite: a. creating user
datagrams b. responsibility for handling frames between adjacent nodes c. transforming
bits to electromagnetic signals

a. User datagrams are created at the transport layer.

b. The data-link layer is responsible for handling frames between adjacent nodes.
c. The physical layer is responsible for transforming bits to electromagnetic signals.

8. In Figure 2.10, when the IP protocol decapsulates the transport-layer packet, how does it
know to which upper-layer protocol (UDP or TCP) the packet should be delivered?

There should be an upper-layer identifier in the header of the IP protocol to define to

which upper-layer protocol the encapsulated packet belongs. The identifier is called the
protocol field (See Figure 19.2 in Chapter 19).
9. Assume a private internet uses three different protocols at the data-link layer (L1, L2, and
L3). Redraw Figure 2.10 with this assumption. Can we say that in the data-link layer, we
have demultiplexing at the source node and multiplexing at the destination node?

The following shows the situation. If we think about multiplexing as many-toone and
demultiplexing as one-to-many, we have demultiplexing at the source node and
multiplexing at the destination node in the data-link layer. However, some purists call
these two inverse multiplexing and inverse demultiplexing

10. Assume that a private internet requires that the messages at the application layer be
encrypted and decrypted for security purposes. If we need to add some information about
the encryption/decryption process (such as the algorithms used in the process), does it
mean that we are adding one layer to the TCP/IP protocol suite? Redraw the TCP/IP layers
(Figure 2.4 part b) if you think so.
 Every time any packet at any layer is encapsulated inside another packet at the same
layer, we can think of this as a new layer being added under that layer. The following
shows the new suite.

11. Protocol layering can be found in many aspects of our lives such as air travelling. Imagine
you make a round-trip to spend some time on vacation at a resort. You need to go through
some processes at your city airport before flying. You also need to go through some
processes when you arrive at the resort airport. Show the protocol layering for the round
trip using some layers such as baggage checking/claiming, boarding/unboarding,
takeoff/landing.

The following shows the layers. Note that we have not shown the security checking that
you need to pass through because it does not have the counterpart when you arrive. It
must be included in baggage/checking layer.

12. The presentation of data is becoming more and more important in today’s Internet. Some
people argue that the TCP/IP protocol suite needs to add a new layer to take care of the
presentation of data. If this new layer is added in the future, where should its position be
in the suite? Redraw Figure 2.4 to include this layer.

The following shows the position of the presentation layer. The new layer is at the same
position as the presentation layer in the OSI model if we ignore the session layer.
13. In an internet, we change the LAN technology to a new one. Which layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite need to be changed?

The only two layers that need to be changed are the data-link layer and the physical
layer. The new hardware and software need to be installed in all host, routers, and link-
layer switches. As long as the new data-link layer can encapsulate and decapsulate
datagrams from the network layer, there is no need to change any protocol in the upper
three layers. This is one of the characteristics of the protocol layering.

14. Assume that an application-layer protocol is written to use the services of UDP. Can the
application-layer protocol uses the services of TCP without change?

The reason for having several protocols in a layer is to provide different services to the
upper-layer protocols. The services provided by UDP are different from the services
provided by TCP. When we write an application program, we need to first define which
transport-layer protocol is supposed to give services to this application program. Note
that this does not violate the principle of layer independence. The independency of a
layer means that we can change a protocol in a layer as long as the new one gives the
same services as the old one. This does not mean that we can replace UDP by TCP,
because they provide different services.
15. Using the internet in Figure 1.11 (Chapter 1) in the text, show the layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite and the flow of data when two hosts, one on the west coast and the other
on the east coast, exchange messages.

The following shows the layers and the flow of data. Note that each host is involved in
five layers, each switch in two layers, and each router in three layers.
 CHAPTER 3

Questions

1. What is the relationship between period and frequency?

La frecuencia y el periodo son inversos entre si.
1 1
f = ;𝑇 =
𝑇 𝑓

2. What does the amplitude of a signal measure? What does the frequency of a signal
measure? What does the phase of a signal measure?
La amplitud de una señal mide el valor de la señal en cualquier punto.
La frecuencia de una señal se refiere a la cantidad de periodos en un segundo.
La fase nos muestra la posición de la forma de onda relativa al tiempo cero.
3. How can a composite signal be decomposed into its individual frequencies?
Usando en análisis de Fourier, el cual proporciona una respuesta en el dominio de la
frecuencia de una señal.
4. Name three types of transmission impairment.
Los tres tipos de impedimentos son la atenuación, la distorcion y el ruido.
5. Distinguish between baseband transmission and broadband transmission.
La transmisión en banda base significa enviar una señal digital o analógica sin modulación
usando un canal de pasa bajo, y la transmisión banda ancha significa modular una señal
digital o analógica usando una canal pasa banda.
 6. Distinguish between a low-pass channel and a band-pass channel.
Un canal pasa bajo tiene un ancho de banda que empieza desde cero.
Un canal paso de banda tiene un ancho de banda que no comienza desde cero.
7. What does the Nyquist theorem have to do with communications?
Este teorema define la tasa de bits máxima de un canal sin ruido.
8. What does the Shannon capacity have to do with communications?
Tiene que ver la capacidad de información que puede circular a través del canal de
comunicación.
9. Why do optical signals used in fiber optic cables have a very short wave length?
Esto se debe a que las señales ópticas tienen frecuencias muy altas. Ya que una frecuencia
𝑐
alta significa que tenra una onda corta. Donde 𝜆 = 𝑓
10. Can we say whether a signal is periodic or nonperiodic by just looking at its frequency
domain plot? How?
Una señal es periódica si su diagrama de dominio de frecuencia es discreta, una señal no
es periódica si su diagrama de dominio de frecuencia es continuo.
11. Is the frequency domain plot of a voice signal discrete or continuous?
El dominio de frecuencia de una señal de voz es normalmente continuo porque la voz es
una señal no periódica.
12. Is the frequency domain plot of an alarm system discrete or continuous?
Un Sistema de alarma es normalmente periódico, su diagrama de minio de fecuencia por
lo tanto es discreto.
13. We send a voice signal from a microphone to a recorder. Is this baseband or broadband
transmission?
Es la transmisión de banda base porque no esta involucrada la modulación.
14. We send a digital signal from one station on a LAN to another station. Is this baseband or
broadband transmission?
Es la transmisión de banda pase porque no esta involucrado la modulación.
15. We modulate several voice signals and send them through the air. Is this baseband or
broadband transmission?
Es la transmisión de banda ancha porque implica modulación.

Problems

1. Given the frequencies listed below, calculate the corresponding periods.

a) 24 Hz
𝟏 𝟏
𝑻= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟕 𝒔.
𝒇 𝟐𝟒𝑯𝒛
b) 8 MHz
𝟏 𝟏
𝑻= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒖𝒔.
𝒇 𝟖𝑴𝑯𝒛
c) 140 KHz
𝟏 𝟏
𝑻= = = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟒 𝒖𝒔.
𝒇 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝑲𝑯𝒛
2. Given the following periods, calculate the corresponding frequencies.

a) 5 s
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= = = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑯𝒛.
𝑻 𝟓
b) 12 us
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= = = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝑯𝒛
𝒇 𝟏𝟐 𝒖𝒔
c) 220 ns
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝒇 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝒏𝒔

3. What is the phase shift for the following?

a) A sine wave with the maximum amplitude at time zero

90 grados
b) A sine wave with maximum amplitude after 1/4 cycle
0 grados
c) A sine wave with zero amplitude after 3/4 cycle and increasing
90 grados

4. What is the bandwidth of a signal that can be decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies at 0, 20, 50, 100, and 200 Hz? All peak amplitudes are the same. Draw the
bandwidth.
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐴𝐵 = 200 𝐻𝑧 − 0

𝐴𝐵 = 200 𝐻𝑧

Figura 1. Frequency domain ejercice 4.

5. A periodic composite signal with a bandwidth of 2000 Hz is composed of two sine waves.
The first one has a frequency of 100 Hz with a maximum amplitude of 20 V; the second
one has a maximum amplitude of 5 V. Draw the bandwidth.

La frecuencia más baja 100Hz

El ancho de banda es 2KHz.
 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛

2000𝐻𝑧 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 100𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2100𝐻𝑧.

Figura 2. Frequency domain ejercice 5.

6. Which signal has a wider bandwidth, a sine wave with a frequency of 100 Hz or a sine wave
with a frequency of 200 Hz?
Cada señal es una señal simple para este caso, por lo que el ancho de banda para una
señal simple es cero. Entonces el ancho de banda para las dos señales va a ser el mismo.

7. What is the bit rate for each of the following signals?

a. A signal in which 1 bit lasts 0.001 s
1
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) =
𝑡(𝑠)
1
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) = = 1𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
0.001

b. A signal in which 1 bit lasts 2 ms

1
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) = = 500 𝑏𝑝𝑠
0.002

c. A signal in which 10 bits last 20 μs

10 𝑏𝑖𝑡 20𝑢𝑠
1 𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑥 = 2 𝑢𝑠

1
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) = = 500 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
2 𝑢𝑠

8. A device is sending out data at the rate of 1000 bps.

a. How long does it take to send out 10 bits?

1
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) =
𝑡(𝑠)
 1 1
𝑡(𝑠) = =( ) ∗ 10 = 0.01 𝑠.
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) 1000 𝑏𝑝𝑠

b. How long does it take to send out a single character (8 bits)?

1 1
𝑡(𝑠) = =( ) ∗ 8 = 8𝑚𝑠.
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) 1000 𝑏𝑝𝑠

c. How long does it take to send a file of 100,000 characters?

1 1
𝑡(𝑠) = =( ) ∗ 100000 ∗ 8 = 800 𝑠.
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) 1000 𝑏𝑝𝑠

9. What is the bit rate for the signal in Figure 3?

Figure 3. Problem 9.

1 1
𝑉(𝑏𝑝𝑠) = =( ) ∗ 8 = 500𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝑡(𝑠) 16 𝑛𝑠

10. What is the frequency of the signal in Figure 4?

Figure 4. Problem 10.

1 1
𝑓= =( ) ∗ 8 = 2000𝐻𝑧
𝑇 4 𝑚𝑠

11. What is the bandwidth of the composite signal shown in Figure 5?

 Figure 5. Problem 11.

𝐴𝐵 = 5 ∗ 5 = 25 𝐻𝑧

12. A periodic composite signal contains frequencies from 10 to 30 KHz, each with an
amplitude of 10 V. Draw the frequency spectrum.

Figure 5. Problem 12.

13. A nonperiodic composite signal contains frequencies from 10 to 30 KHz. The peak
amplitude is 10 V for the lowest and the highest signals and is 30 V for the 20-KHz signal.
Assuming that the amplitudes change gradually from the minimum to the maximum,
draw the frequency spectrum.

Figure 6. Problem 13.

14. A TV channel has a bandwidth of 6 MHz. If we send a digital signal using one channel,
what are the data rates if we use one harmonic, three harmonics, and five harmonics?

Usando el primer armonico, velocidad de datos = 2 ∗ 6 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 12 𝑀𝐻𝑧

2∗6 𝑀𝐻𝑧
Usando el primer armonico, velocidad de datos = 3
= 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2∗6 𝑀𝐻𝑧
Usando el primer armonico, velocidad de datos = 5
= 2.4 𝑀𝐻𝑧
15. A signal travels from point A to point B. At point A, the signal power is 100 W. At point B,
the power is 90 W. What is the attenuation in decibels?

𝑃𝐵
𝑃(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log ( )
𝑃𝐴

90
𝑃(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log ( ) = −0.46 𝑑𝐵
100

16. The attenuation of a signal is −10 dB. What is the final signal power if it was originally 5
W?

𝑃𝐿
𝑃(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log ( )
𝑃𝑆

𝑃𝐿
−10 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log ( )
5

𝑃𝐿
−1 = log ( )
5

𝑃𝐿
10−1 = ( )
5

𝑃𝐿 = 0.5 𝑊

17. A signal has passed through three cascaded amplifiers, each with a 4 dB gain. What is the
total gain? How much is the signal amplified?

La ganancia total es: 3 ∗ 4 𝑑𝐵 = 12 𝑑𝐵

12 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log(𝐺)

1.2 = log(𝐺)

101.2 = (𝐺)

La señal se amplifica con un factor de 15.84

18. If the bandwidth of the channel is 5 Kbps, how long does it take to send a frame of
100,000 bits out of this device?

𝑀𝐸𝑆𝑆𝐴𝐺𝐸
𝑡(𝑠) =
𝐴𝐵

100000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑡(𝑠) = = 20𝑠.
5 𝐾𝑝𝑏𝑠
19. The light of the sun takes approximately eight minutes to reach the earth. What is the
distance between the sun and the earth?

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡(𝑠) =
𝐶

𝑘𝑚
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (480 𝑠) ∗ 300000 = 144000000 𝑘𝑚
𝑠

20. A signal has a wavelength of 1 μm in air. How far can the front of the wave travel during
1000 periods?

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1 𝑢𝑚 ∗ 1000 = 1𝑚𝑚

21. A line has a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 and a bandwidth of 4000 KHz. What is the
maximum data rate supported by this line?

𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

𝐶 = 4000 𝐾𝐻𝑧 log 2 (1 + 1000)

𝐶 = 40 𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠

22. We measure the performance of a telephone line (4 KHz of bandwidth). When the signal
is 10 V, the noise is 5 mV. What is the maximum data rate supported by this telephone
line?

𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

10
𝐶 = 4000 𝐾𝐻𝑧 log 2 (1 + )
0.005

𝐶 = 43.86 𝑏𝑝𝑠

23. A file contains 2 million bytes. How long does it take to download this file using a 56-Kbps
channel? 1-Mbps channel?

𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 2000000 ∗ 8 = 16000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 56 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠

16000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑡(𝑠) = = 289 𝑠
56 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 1 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

16000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑡(𝑠) = = 16 𝑠
1 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
24. A computer monitor has a resolution of 1200 by 1000 pixels. If each pixel uses 1024
colors, how many bits are needed to send the complete contents of a screen?

Para representar los 1024 colores se necesita log 2 1024 = 10 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠.

El número total de bits es:
1200 ∗ 1000 ∗ 10 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 12000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠

25. A signal with 200 milliwatts power passes through 10 devices, each with an average noise
of 2 microwatts. What is the SNR? What is the SNRdB?

200𝑚𝑊
𝑺𝑵𝑹 = 10000
10 ∗ 2𝑢𝑊

𝑆𝑁𝑅(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log(10000) = 40 𝑑𝐵

26. If the peak voltage value of a signal is 20 times the peak voltage value of the noise, what
is the SNR? What is the SNRdB?

𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝑵𝑹 =
𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

La potencia es proporcional al cuadrado del votaje obteniendo.

𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝟐
𝑺𝑵𝑹 = ( )
𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑺𝑵𝑹 = (20)2 = 400

𝑆𝑁𝑅(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log(400) = 26.02 𝑑𝐵

27. What is the theoretical capacity of a channel in each of the following cases?

a. Bandwidth: 20 KHz SNRdB = 40

(𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 ) 40
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ∗ = 20𝐾𝐻𝑧 ∗ ( ) = 267 𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠
3 3

b. Bandwidth: 200 KHz SNRdB = 4

c.
(𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 ) 4
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ∗ = 200𝐾𝐻𝑧 ∗ ( ) = 267 𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠
3 3

d. Bandwidth: 1 MHz SNRdB = 20

(𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 ) 20
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ∗ = 1𝑀𝐻𝑧 ∗ ( ) = 6.67 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
3 3
28. We need to upgrade a channel to a higher bandwidth. Answer the following questions:
a. ¿How is the rate improved if we double the bandwidth?
La velocidad de datos se duplica 𝐶2 = 2 ∗ 𝐶1

b. How is the rate improved if we double the SNR?

Cuando la SNR se duplica, la velocidad de datos aumenta ligeramente 𝐶2 = 𝐶1 + 1

29. We have a channel with 4 KHz bandwidth. If we want to send data at 100 Kbps, what is
the minimum SNRdB? What is the SNR?

(𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 )
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ∗
3

(𝐶 ∗ 3)
(𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 ) =
𝐴𝐵

100𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠 ∗ 3
(𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 75 𝑑𝐵
4𝐾𝐻𝑧

75 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log(𝑆𝑁𝑅)

7.5 = log(𝑆𝑁𝑅)

107.5 = 𝑆𝑁𝑅

𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 31.62 𝑥 10 6

30. What is the transmission time of a packet sent by a station if the length of the packet is 1
million bytes and the bandwidth of the channel is 200 Kbps?
𝑀𝐸𝑆𝑆𝐴𝐺𝐸
𝑡(𝑠) =
𝐴𝐵

8 ∗ (1000000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝑡(𝑠) = = 40 𝑠.
200𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠

31. What is the length of a bit in a channel with a propagation speed of 𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 if the
channel bandwidth is
a. 1 Mbps?
(𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ) = (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) × (𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝑥108 𝑚 1
𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2 ∗( ) = 200 𝑚
𝑠 1𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
b. 10 Mbps?

𝑥108 𝑚 1
𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2 ∗( ) = 20 𝑚
𝑠 10𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

c. 100 Mbps?
 𝑥108 𝑚 1
𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2 ∗( )=2𝑚
𝑠 100𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

32. How many bits can fit on a link with a 2 ms delay if the bandwidth of the link is
a. 1 Mbps?
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 1𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 ∗ 2𝑚𝑠 = 2000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠

b. 10 Mbps?

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 10𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 ∗ 2𝑚𝑠 = 20000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠

c. 100 Mbps?

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 100𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 ∗ 2𝑚𝑠 = 200000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠

33. What is the total delay (latency) for a frame of size 5 million bits that is being sent on a link
with 10 routers each having a queuing time of 2 μs and a processing time of 1 μs. The
length of the link is 2000 Km. the speed of light inside the link is 2 × 108 m/s. The link has
a bandwidth of 5 Mbps. Which component of the total delay is dominant? Which one is
negligible?

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 + 𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒖𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 +

𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 + 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10 × 1 𝜇𝑠 = 10 𝜇𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒔

𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10 × 2 𝜇𝑠 = 20 𝜇𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒔

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 5,000,000 / (5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠) = 𝟏 𝒔

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = (2000 𝐾𝑚) / (2 × 108) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒔

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟎 𝒔