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sistem Petroleum dari Indonesia

Artikel di Kelautan dan Petroleum Geology · Februari 2008

DOI: 10,1016 / j.marpetgeo.2007.05.007

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Doust ron Noble

Universitas Utrecht Agra Energi Indonesia

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Kelautan dan Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103-129

www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

sistem Petroleum dari Indonesia

Harry Doust Sebuah, . Ron A. Noble b, 1

Sebuah Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Belanda
b Unocal Indonesia Company, Jakarta, Indonesia

Received 13 October 2006; received in revised form 13 March 2007; accepted 4 May 2007

Abstract

Indonesia contains many Tertiary basins, several of which have proven to be very prolific producers of oil and gas. The geology and petroleum systems of these productive basins
are reviewed, summarized and updated according to the most recent developments. We have linked the recognized petroleum systems to common stages in the geological evolution of
these synrift to postrift basins and classified them accordingly. We recognize four Petroleum System Types (PSTs) corresponding to the four main stages of geodynamic basin
development, and developed variably in the different basins depending on their depositional environment history: (i) an oil-prone Early Synrift Lacustrine PST, found in the Eocene to
Oligocene deeper parts of the synrift grabens, (ii) an oil and gas-prone Late Synrift Transgressive Deltaic PST, located in the shallower Oligocene to early Miocene portions of the synrift
grabens, (iii) a gas-prone Early Postrift Marine PST, characteristic of the overlying early Miocene transgressive period, and (iv) an oil and gas-prone Late Postrift Regressive Deltaic
PST, forming the shallowest late Tertiary basin fills. We have ascribed the petroleum systems in each of the basins to one of these types, recognizing that considerable mixing of the
predominantly lacustrine to terrestrial charge has taken place. Furthermore, we have grouped the basins according to their predominant PSTs and identified ‘‘basin families’’ that share
important aspects of their hydrocarbon habitat: these have been termed proximal, intermediate, distal, Borneo and eastern Indonesian, according to their palaeogeographic relationship
to the Sunda craton of Southeast Asia.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Indonesia; Tertiary; Sedimentary basins; Rifts; Petroleum system; Petroleum system types

1. Introduction number of sedimentary basins and petroleum provinces encountered

Petroleum exploration in Indonesia has had a long and successful history.
Some of the earliest oil production of the modern age comes from shallow
fields in Java and Sumatra, and discoveries have been made throughout the
past century up to the present day. Knowledge of the petroleum habitat has
been encouraged since the 1970s, partly thanks to an enlightened policy of
cooperation by the petroleum community in Indonesia, through technical
conferences and through publications sponsored by the Indonesian Petroleum
Association (IPA). This cooperation amongst industry participants has grown
from the need to develop a comprehensive understanding of the large
throughout the archipelago.
Description of the petroleum systems of Indonesia can thus rest upon a
foundation of an extensive, comprehensive and reliable database that can be
found, for the most part, in the public domain. Many of the publications are
detailed, but several overviews have been published through the years,
concentrating particularly on the various charge and reservoir systems as well
as on the common play types represented in the different basins. In this paper,
we make reference only to a restricted number of ‘‘key’’ publications that
provide good summaries of the various themes or areas. They all provide
access to a much larger literature, which we have used to prepare both text
and figures.

In an early and excellent publication, Soeparjardi et al. (1975) identified

important characteristics of the basins which were known to contain
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Harrydoust@hotmail.com (H. Doust). hydrocarbon accumulations: namely, Eocene to Miocene transgression,
1 Current address: Anadarko Indonesia Company, Jakarta, Indonesia.
followed by

0264-8172/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2007.05.007
 PASAL DALAM PERS
104 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
mid-Miocene to Pliocene regression and Quaternary transgression. They also
described the six main reservoir systems that were known in productive
basins-transgressive clastics, regressive clastics, deltaic deposits, carbonate
platform complexes, pinnacle reefs and fractured volcanics. Their publication
formed the basis for all subsequent attempts to review the hydrocarbon habitat
of Indonesian basins, and provides the foundation of the approach presented
here.
Following the formalization of the petroleum system concept ( Magoon and
Dow, 1994 ), Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995) used a modified and more
practical approach to summarize the petroleum systems of Indonesia in a
landmark paper. They tabulated 34 petroleum systems associated with
documented accumulations as well as others that were thought to exist but in
which no discoveries had yet been made. For the known systems, they
presented plots of cumulative ultimate discovery volumes (in million barrels of
oil equivalent) versus number of fields in discovery order (so-called creaming
curves).
Gambar. 1. Lokasi peta cekungan Indonesia, dikelompokkan menurut volume sumber daya. Mereka yang kurang dari 10MMboe tidak mengandung sistem petroleum dijelaskan di sini. MM, juta; B, miliar; boe,
barel minyak-setara.
Kami mengacu pada banyak plot ini dalam publikasi ini. Yang penting, mereka
mencatat bahwa banyak dari 34 sistem tidak mengandung area tunggal
dewasa batuan, tetapi diwakili sebenarnya gabungan dari beberapa daerah
sumber yang berbeda. Dalam rangka untuk bekerja dengan angka dikelola
sistem, dan dengan demikian mengidentifikasi persamaan dan perbedaan di
antara mereka, kami percaya perlu untuk kelompok sistem petroleum individu
ke dalam keluarga. Doust (2003)
disajikan kerangka yang diusulkan untuk pengidentifikasian sistem minyak
bumi di tenggara (SE) Asia, dan ini diterapkan dalam klasifikasi yang disajikan
di sini.
Ada banyak-bantalan minyak cekungan sedimen di Indonesia ( Darman dan
Hasan Sidi, 2000 ), Jumlah tergantung pada apakah setiap graben synrift
individu dihitung, atau apakah mereka dikelompokkan berdasarkan provinsi.
Kami telah mengikuti klasifikasi yang digunakan oleh IPA untuk set mereka
lapangan atlas (Indonesian Petroleum Association, 1997-1991), yang juga
merupakan penggunaan umum. Deskripsi geologi dan hidrokarbon habitat dari
cekungan rumit oleh kebanyakan formasi lokal
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
Nama (banyak dari mereka pada dasarnya lithofacies dan lithofacies setara) dan
saling bertentangan atribusi usia. Kami telah mengadopsi stratigraphies dari atlas
pada umumnya, meskipun kami memiliki modi fi ed mereka di mana kami merasa
ini adalah dibenarkan. Kami telah meninjau secara rinci sistem minyak bumi
dengan komersial, atau segera menjadi komersial, fi ladang saja. Seluruh
Indonesia sistem potensial lainnya dikembangkan (ditunjukkan, misalnya, dengan
infiltrasi yang minyak di cekungan frontier), tetapi objek utama kami di sini adalah
untuk mengidentifikasi dan menekankan karakteristik utama dari orang-orang yang
sukses dan produktif, sehingga pelajaran dapat diterapkan di tempat lain.
2. tektonostratigrafi evolusi cekungan minyak bumi Tersier timur jauh
Cekungan sedimen dari Indonesia membentuk inti dari keluarga cekungan
Tersier dikembangkan di seluruh Asia Tenggara ( Gambar. 1 ). Though they
may differ slightly in age and development, they share many characteristics:
nearly all of them pass through an early Tertiary synrift to late Tertiary postrift
geological history, they all have an almost exclusively land–plant and/or
lacustrine–algal charge system and they are characterized by rapid short
wavelength sedimentary variations involving a distinct suite of depositional
environments and their associated lithofacies.
Fig. 2. Chronostratigraphy of Indonesian petroliferous basins, showing stages, background tectonics and geodynamic events. Seafloor spreading events and continental collisions are from Longley (1997) .
105
In nearly all of the basins, four stages of tectonostratigraphic evolution can
be recognized ( Fig. 2 ):
1. Early Synrift (typically Eocene to Oligocene)—corresponds with the period of
rift graben formation and the following period of maximum subsidence.
Often deposition is limited to early-formed half-grabens.
2. Late Synrift (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene)— corresponds with the
period of waning subsidence in the graben, when individual rift elements
amalgamated to form extensive lowlands that filled with paralic sediments.
3. Early Postrift (typically Early to Middle Miocene)— corresponds with a period
of tectonic quiescence following marine transgression that covered the
existing graben–horst topography.
4. Late Postrift (typically Middle Miocene to Pliocene)— corresponding to
periods of inversion and folding, during which regressive deltas were
formed.
A final transgressive period characterizes the Quaternary, but it has no
significance to petroleum habitat and will not be referred to further.
These stages can be related to the area’s plate tectonic evolution ( Hall,
1997 ), particularly to early Tertiary
 PASAL DALAM PERS
106 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
transtensional stresses generated by the India–Asia collision (including opening
of the South China Sea (30–20Ma) and with late Tertiary uplift and inversions
caused by collisions and plate rotations. They can also be correlated with the
four phases or stages of SE Asian tectonostratigraphic evolution as defined by Longley
or lacustrine) cannot be readily distinguished from others in the same group,
(1997) . His Stage I
(50–43.5Ma) corresponds to a period of early continental collision, which led to
the formation of many of the older synrift grabens, while his Stage II ( 43.5–32Ma),
during which major plate reorganizations took place, resulted in the formation
and active subsidence of a younger population of rifts. Stage III ( 32–21Ma),
contemporaneous with sea floor spreading in the South China Sea, was a
period during which rifting ceased, local inversion took place and a major
marine transgression marked the beginning of postrift development. Stage IV ( 21–0Ma)
was characterized by a maximum transgression, followed by several collision
phases that led to inversions, uplift and the development of regressive deltaic
sequences. This is equivalent to the early and late postrift stages.
3. Relationship of tectono-stratigraphic history to petroleum system
development
For many years, it has been recognized that most sedimentary basins have
complex histories that can be divided into stages or cycles (mentioned above). Kingston
et al. (1983) described a method by which various basin types could be
categorized by their sequence of evolutionary stages. SE Asia Tertiary basins
were classified as two-stage wrench or shear basins, in recognition of their
early synrift phase with probable transtensional origin, followed by almost
inevitable inversions related to the inherent instability (reflected in the poor
preservation potential of this basin type). They also noted that each basin stage
typically comprised a transgressive–regressive sedimentary cycle, which today
we can recognize as a first order sequence, containing lowstand, transgressive
and highstand systems tracts, bounded by regionally correlatable horizons.
It is our belief that in many basins, petroleum systems can be related
directly to basin stage, since first-order sedimentary sequences often contain
source, reservoir and seal rocks, frequently in a favourable vertical succession.
We have applied this concept to Indonesian petroleum systems, albeit with
some modifications in recognition of the synrift development (which does not
lend itself easily to the classic model of sequence stratigraphy) and the rapid
facies variations.
Doust and Lijmbach (1997) and Doust (1999) proposed that almost all of the
petroleum systems developed in Indonesian basins could be ascribed to one of
four basic types, each with its characteristic source, reservoir and seal facies.
By classifying them in this way, it is possible to make broad comparisons of
basin prospectivity. Recognition of discrete petroleum systems depends on
geochemical correlation between source rocks and their related hydrocarbon
accumulations. In Indonesia, this is rendered very difficult by the fact that: (a)
many source rocks are thin and/or widely distributed within the sequence, (b)
most oils and gases derived from any particular type of source rock (e.g. deltaic
and (c) a large amount of mixing of lacustrine and terrestrial oils appears to
have taken place. Ten Haven and Schiefelbein (1995) nevertheless were able
to define whether charge in each basin in Indonesia was derived from Tertiary
lacustrine, terrigenous or marine source rocks or whether it came from
Mesozoic sources: In fact, they used this to define which petroleum systems
were present, in much the same way as presented here— although we relate
the petroleum systems more specifically to the basin development stage.
The extensive mixing is probably a consequence of the limited development
of regional seals, and its effect is that charge from some of the petroleum
system types defined here contributes to accumulations in younger petroleum
system types.
The four basic petroleum system types (or PSTs; for more detail see Doust
and Lijmbach (1997) , where they are referred to as hydrocarbon systems)
correlate well with the four basin stages described in the previous section, and
have the following characteristics (for a summary see Fig. 15 ):
1. Early Synrift Lacustrine PST: This is strongly oil prone
due to the widespread development of organic-rich lacustrine type I/II
source rocks, and is common in western Indonesian basins. Reservoirs
comprise fluviolacustrine clastics and volcaniclastics of limited quality,
intimately interbedded with non-marine shales. A comprehensive summary
of this PST is given by Sladen (1997) .
2. Late Synrift Transgressive Deltaic PST: Deltaic or
urutan paralik dengan perkembangan backstepping keseluruhan
melambangkan PST ini. Sumber batuan terdiri tipe II / III bara dan shale hitam
legam yang menghasilkan minyak dan gas, interbedded dengan reservoir
pasir fl uvio-delta dan segel, sering dari kualitas yang sangat baik.
3. Awal Postrift Kelautan PST: Sumber batuan dalam hal ini terutama
laut urut shale terutama ramping dan / atau gas rawan. Waduk utama
terdiri karbonat laut terbuka, termasuk buildups reefal. PST ini berisi hanya
segel daerah luas di banyak cekungan Indonesia.
4. Akhir Postrift Regresif delta PST: PST ini memiliki
lingkungan yang sama dan karakteristik sebagai Late synrift PST kecuali
bahwa perkembangan delta keseluruhan biasanya progradational daripada
retrogradational. Dalam kebanyakan kasus, itu terletak pada kedalaman
terlalu dangkal untuk generasi hidrokarbon, tetapi di mana delta besar
dikembangkan pada margin benua, itu merupakan sistem yang dominan.
4. Aspek sistem hidrokarbon
Pada bagian ini, kami merangkum karakteristik unsur-unsur utama yang
umum untuk sistem minyak bumi Indonesia.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129 107

This is possible because the basins share a relatively limited number of
environmentally related lithofacies and have similar tectonic settings. The
basins situated proximal to the Sunda shelf have a stronger component of
proximal lacustrine–deltaic lithofacies throughout their development, while
those at the edges of the Tertiary continental margin develop more marine
facies characterized by thick marine shales and carbonates. This is reflected
directly in their hydrocarbon habitat, so that the petroleum systems and plays
developed in the various basins can be linked directly to the overall
three-dimensional facies/environmental sequence and the tectonic history.
4.1. Source rocks
The geochemistry of oils and source rocks from Indonesia has been
reviewed by many authors, and there is general consensus that the host
organic matter originated from land–plants and/or algal–lacustrine source
material. A summary of information on source types in the major petroleum
provinces of Indonesia is presented in Fig. 3 . The source rock depositional
environments, described in
detail by Todd et al. (1997) and by Schiefelbein and Cameron (1997) , are as
follows:
Lacustrine: Lacustrine oils originate from mainly algal type I/II kerogen,
which accumulated in deep or shallow fresh to brackish water lakes, primarily
in the early synrift stage of basin development. Several sub-families have been
recognized (e.g. in Central Sumatra, Williams and Eubank, 1995 ) which are
linked to variable water chemistry and the admixture of terrestrial organic
detritus.
Paralic or deltaic: Hydrocarbons from source rocks of this type arise from
coals and coaly shales deposited in a variety of fluvial to estuarine lower
coastal plain environments, typically in the late synrift and late postrift basin
stages. The kerogen is mainly of terrigenous (land plant) origin, type II/III, but
may contain some algal elements derived from floodplain lakes. In general, a
mixture of oil and gas is generated.
Marine: Hydrocarbons generated from marine source rocks have
geochemical characteristics that are broadly similar to those from the paralic
environments in that they are derived from detrital land plant organic matter.
The typical type II marine source rocks seen extensively in

Fig. 3. Source rock types in Indonesian basins based on oil typing from Todd et al. (1997) , showing lithology, age, and the basin stage in which they are developed and total associated reserve volumes in million
barrels of oil-equivalent. ES, Early Synrift; LS, Late Synrift; EP, Early Postrift; LP, Late Postrift; HC, hydrocarbons.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
108 H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
other parts of the world are not present in any abundance here. However, the
presence of marine biomarkers (e.g. C30-steranes in some oils from Java and
North Sumatra) indicate that the source rocks were deposited in a marine
setting, even though the bulk of the organic material represents transported
land plant material. In the Mahakam Delta, source rock facies have been
identified recently in deep water turbidites where once again, the organic
matter is predominantly of terrestrial origin ( Dunham et al., 2001 ; Peters et al.,
2000 ; Guritno et al., 2003 ; Saller et al., 2006 ). Away from deltaic depocenters it
is likely that marine shales of the early postrift interval, many of which contain
low percentages of disseminated terrestrial organic material, have generated
significant quantities of gas. In eastern Indonesia, oils of marine clastic, marly
and carbonate affinities occur. These oils have geochemical characteristics
typical of marine oils globally ( Peters et al., 1999 ) and are derived from either
pre-Tertiary source rocks (e.g. onshore Seram), or from Miocene marine marls
(e.g. the Salawati Basin).
As was noted by Shaw and Packham (1992) , the higher
than average heat flow experienced in several Tertiary Indonesian basins plays
an important role in raising the hydrocarbon prospectivity of some of the
shallower basins.
It is noticeable that many oils show a mixed lacustrine and paralic
geochemical signature (e.g. in South Sumatra). These may arise from shallow
lake margin facies or from mixing of charge from two distinct source rocks
during vertical migration. This mixing, plus the overall similarity of geochemical
fingerprints, complicates the identification of a discrete source system for
groups of geochemically related oils, as proposed in the original definition of a
petroleum system ( Magoon and Dow, 1994 ).
4.2. Reservoirs
Reservoir rocks are abundant throughout Indonesian basins in a variety of
sedimentary facies. As with source rocks, their development is closely related
to depositional environment and basin evolution.
Non-marine siliciclastics: These characterize the early synrift section of
proximal basins. They typically comprise fluvio-deltaic sands that are often thin,
with a significant content of lithic material and limited sorting. Porosities are
below 20% and permeabilities up to 100mD and, in general, the quality and
development are highly variable. Alluvial fans adjacent to basin bounding faults
may contain coarse clastics, but are poorly sorted and shaleout rapidly.
Fluvio-deltaic to shallow marine siliciclastics: These facies form the best
clastic reservoirs of Indonesia, with porosities up to 25% and often multi-Darcy
permeabilities. Delta plain and coastal sands, derived from older cratonic
areas, provide the best reservoirs. These typically occur within the late synrift
package. Late postrift sands of Sumatra and Java often have a significant
lithic/arkosic component that reduces the permeability. The cyclic regressive
units of the
late postrift deltaic sediments in Kalimantan, on the other hand, have excellent
reservoir properties.
Deep marine siliciclastics: Turbiditic sands have provided a focus for
exploration in recent years, primarily in the offshore Kutei–Mahakam Delta ( Dunham
and McKee, 2001 ). Drilling activity in the deepwater Makassar Straits has
shown that reservoir quality sands were deposited in slope and basin floor
settings ( Dunham and McKee, 2001 ). Sands disimpan di kompleks
saluran-tanggul di lereng dan di uncon fi ned penggemar kapal selam telah
berhasil telah ditargetkan menggunakan seismik 3D. Studi tentang hubungan
antara lereng dan lembah fl oor memberikan wawasan ke dalam distribusi pasir
dan lokasi waduk potensial ( Saller et al., 2004 ).
Platform dan reefal karbonat: waduk tersebut, karakteristik daerah akhir
synrift lebih distal dan tahap postrift, memberikan waduk porositas lokal yang
tinggi ( Hai 38% di tempat). Secara umum, reefoid dan back-reef facies memiliki
karakter waduk terbaik, sementara platform yang karbonat memiliki potensi
yang lebih terbatas.
4.3. segel
segel juga bisa terkait erat dengan tahap baskom dan baik intra-formational
atau lebih regional dikembangkan.
segel delta interbedded: segel shale Intra-formational khas dari urutan delta,
di mana mereka sering bertindak sebagai segel atas untuk pasir interbedded
atau, dalam kombinasi dengan kesalahan, sebagai segel sisi untuk kesalahan
penutupan (sering memberikan kontribusi smear tanah liat). Orang-orang dari
synrift akhir digambarkan di Kaldi dan Atkinson (1997) , Yang mengkaji
interbeds shale dari Formasi Talang Akar Jawa Northwest dalam hal kapasitas
segel, geometri dan integritas. The lithofacies penyegelan utama, peringkat
dalam rangka peningkatan kapasitas seal, terdiri delta plain, saluran, prodelta
dan delta depan serpih. Kesimpulan ini mungkin juga berlaku untuk urutan
delta dari postrift terlambat.
formasi segel tebal dan segel daerah: Serpih laut dari postrift awal
merupakan satu-satunya segel daerah asli dari cekungan Indonesia. Mereka
dapat bertindak segel sebagai utama untuk sedimen synrift delta terlambat
atau mereka mungkin benar-benar menyelimuti karbonat build-up dari postrift
awal.
4.4. perangkap
Berbagai jenis trap yang hadir di cekungan Indonesia, tergantung pada
lokasi dan sejarah tektonik. Konsentrasi terbesar perangkap dapat ditemukan
di cekungan berdekatan dengan busur Sumatera-Jawa, di mana sabuk dorong
luas dikembangkan, dan di urutan marjin benua Kalimantan Timur. Di tempat
lain, perangkap yang terletak di atas kesalahan batas keretakan yang telah
diaktifkan selama inversi dan di provinsi-provinsi karbonat reefoid luas di
bagian distal dari cekungan tanjung. Jenis perangkap berikut umumnya
dikembangkan-mereka sering mendefinisikan drama yang hadir.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
Folded dip closures: NW–SE to W–E trending anticlinal dip closures are
abundant in Sumatra and Java basins (which developed into foreland basins in
the late postrift stage), where they may affect the entire syn- and postrift
sequences. They form elongate drag folds, are frequently cross-faulted and are
often bounded by reverse faults or thrusts nucleated above synrift boundary
faults (the so-called ‘‘Sunda folds’’). Many of these structures are related to
wrench inversions of the synrift and are located adjacent to graben boundary
faults. At shallower levels, unfaulted drape closures may occur, especially
where structural growth has been continuous, or where structural detachment
has taken place in postrift shales.
Dip/fault closures: Many individual traps related to anticlinal structures
demonstrate fault/dip closure. Footwall closures are especially common: they
may be simple or complex, and are sometimes related to intrabasinal horst
blocks or structural noses.
Fig. 4. Stratigraphic sections of southern and western Indonesian basins, showing basin stage, common formation names, lithology and predominant depositional environments (thicknesses are not indicated).
109
Synsedimentary structures: In the Kutei and Tarakan basins growth-fault
related structures, many of them inverted by subsequent movements, are
developed. Traps, usually in the hangingwall block, may be dip closed or fault
related. In the deeper water, toe-thrust anticlinal structures fall into this
category.
Basement topography: A relatively small number of fields are found in
basement high blocks, where the reservoir is frequently represented by
fractured rocks the pre-rift sequence. In other cases, onlap onto the basement
surface appears to define the trap morphology.
Reefoid carbonate structures: Carbonate reservoirs occur in anticlines, but
trapping is often assisted by platform growth or reefoid relief. In most cases,
these are of relatively low relief, but in the East Natuna and Salawati basins,
high relief pinnacle reefs are developed.
Clastic stratigraphic traps: Sedimentary pinch-out often appears to contribute
to trapping, but rarely is the main constituent of a trap. Exceptions are where
channels cut
 PASAL DALAM PERS
110 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
structural noses in the deltaic sequences of the late synand postrift section.
Deep water plays of the Mahakam Delta may also have a component of
stratigraphic trapping, particularly in ponded mini-basins in intra-slope
environments.
5. Summary of Indonesian petroleum basin geology
In this section, we summarize the stratigraphic and structural development
of the various productive basins of Indonesia, and relate them to the petroleum
system framework presented above ( Figs. 4 and 5 ). It should be noted that
many of these are composite basins, comprising a number of separate synrift
grabens overlain by a blanket of postrift deposits. In many cases, the facies
vary considerably across the various provinces, depending on the proximity to
or distance from the contemporary open ocean (in the synrift) and to zones of
active deformation (in the postrift).
Note that in ascribing reservoir levels to petroleum system types and basin
stages, we have included PST 3 basal carbonates within PST 2 in those areas
where, because there is no regional seal between them, they essentially form
one combined group of reservoirs. Examples of this include areas where the
Batu Raja Formation directly overlies the Talang Akar Formation in the South
Sumatra Basin. Unless stated, we have followed the petroleum systems
classification as defined by Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995) .
5.1. North Sumatra Basin
The North Sumatra Basin comprises a series of north– south trending ridges
and grabens formed in Early Oligocene time ( Fig. 6 ). Almost the entire basin fill
is marine, much of it, especially in the north, comprising basinal deeper marine
claystones, shales and shallow water reefoid limestones, the latter developed
on structural highs. Regressive shallow water deltaic facies are found in the
southeast. The sequence is predominantly argillaceous and the division into
four-basin stages is somewhat arbitrary.
Early Synrift (Early Oligocene): Coarse-grained conglomerates and
bioclastic limestones are recorded at the bases of the graben fills and on
their adjacent highs. Late Synrift (Late Oligocene): This comprises thick,
deep marine claystones, mudstones and dark shales of the Bampo
Formation. These represent the main source rock for the gas in the
northern part of the basin: although lean ( 1% TOC, type III), they are very
thick and may reach high maturities.
Early Postrift (Early to Middle Miocene): This sequence, corresponding to
the Peutu Formation, comprises thick basinal deeper marine shales and
marls, with extensive reefoid carbonate buildups developed on structural
highs. The latter form excellent reservoirs, with porosities averaging 16% in
the Arun field. Deep
water sandy facies (Belumai Fm) are present in the south.
Late Postrift (Middle Miocene to Pliocene): This regressive sequence
comprises the argillaceous Baong Fm (in which turbidite sands occur) and
the overlying paralic shales, silts and sands of the Keutapang and Seurula
formations. In the north, deeper marine facies continued, while towards the
southeast, these formations became shallower with the deposition of
regressive deltaic sands of moderate to good reservoir quality.
Tectonic development in the basin is subdued. Following the Palaeogene rift
formation, a Late Oligocene local unconformity and a Mid Miocene regional
unconformity are recorded, while the deltaic sequence in the southeast was
folded during successive wrench phases in the Middle Miocene to Pliocene.
5.1.1. Petroleum systems
Two major systems are recognized: The Bampo – Peutu (!) petroleum system
( Buck and McCulloh, 1994 ) is present in the north. It is sourced from the deep
marine Bampo Formation, with a possible secondary contribution from the
Miocene Peutu Formation. The main reservoir/traps are carbonate build-ups of
the Peutu (or Arun) Formation, with minor contribution from the equivalent
sandy Belumai Formation and basement. Fifteen trillion cubic feet (tcf) of gas
and 1 billion barrels (bbl) of condensate, respectively, have been located in 10
fields, dominated by the Arun field with almost 14 tcf of gas. This system
comprises a late synrift source of early postrift affinity and early postrift
reservoir and traps.
The Baong – Keutapang (!) petroleum system, located in the southeast, is
more oil-prone and contains many of the shallow fields that produced the first
reserves in Indonesia. Charge is thought to be derived from marine/deltaic
coaly source rocks of the Baong Formation, but re-migration from deeper
reservoirs may also contribute. Reservoirs occur in the rather ill-sorted sandy
deltaic facies of the late postrift Keutapang and Seurula formations,
representing cyclic regressive phases. About 75% of the fields produce or
produced both oil and gas, and all hydrocarbons are characterized by API
gravities of over 40. Traps are mainly dip closures related to NW–SE trending
folds, and most are faulted to some extent (only a few are clearly related to
thrusts). Stratigraphic pinch-outs appear to contribute to trapping in some
cases, but in only one field (Peudawa) does the trap appear to be primarily
stratigraphic.
Howes dan Tisnawijaya (1995) dibedakan sistem petroleum ketiga potensi
di baskom, yang Miosen - Belumai
( ) Sistem petroleum yang beberapa ladang di ujung selatan cekungan
(misalnya Wampu) mungkin milik.
Creaming kurva untuk minyak / kondensat dan gas ( Howes dan Tisnawijaya
1995 ) Menunjukkan bahwa Sumatera Utara merupakan provinsi yang sangat
matang yang telah dieksplorasi dengan moderat efisiensi.
 PASAL DALAM PERS
H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129 111

Gambar. 5. bagian stratigrafi cekungan Indonesia utara dan timur, menunjukkan tahap baskom, nama formasi umum, litologi dan lingkungan pengendapan dominan (ketebalan tidak ditunjukkan).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
112 H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
Fig. 6. North Sumatra Basin—simplified location and structure map showing depocenters and oil/gas
fields classified according to the basin stage in which they occur.
5.2. Cekungan Sumatera Tengah
The Central Sumatra Basin comprises a number of separate synrift grabens
below a postrift sequence ( Williams and Eubank, 1995 ). Most of the many
hydrocarbon accumulations present lie directly above or adjacent to the synrift
grabens, a consequence of the relatively shallow burial and immaturity of the
postrift sequence ( Fig. 7 ).
The five productive grabens (Bengkalis, Aman, Balam, Tanjung Medan and
Kiri/Rangau) contain similar stratigraphic successions with relatively proximal
facies associations ( Williams and Eubank, 1995 ). They were formed along
pre-Tertiary structural trends (north–south and WNW–ESE) and originated as
half-grabens in an oblique extension stress regime. The four-stage basin
history can be recognized, as follows:
Early Synrift (Late Eocene to Oligocene): Pematang and Kelesa formations.
These consist of an association of alluvial, shallow to deep lacustrine and
fluvio-deltaic facies represented by laminated shales, silts and sands with
coals and conglomeratic intervals. Deep lake organic rich shales containing
algal/amorphous material
Fig. 7. Central Sumatra Basin—simplified location and structure map showing synrift basins (inferred
to be areas of hydrocarbon generation) and oil/gas fields classified according to the basin stage of the
reservoir in which they occur. Oil families (1–4) and typical trap types described by characteristic
fields are from Williams and Eubank (1995) .
with thin sands (Brown Shale Formation), and shallow lake light grey shales
with humic coals ensure that charge from the early synrift is mixed
lacustrine and terrestrial, mainly type I/II, within which four oil families have
been distinguished ( Katz, 1995 ). The best reservoirs are found in
fluvio-deltaic sands, where porosities and permeabilities may be up to 17%
and 100mD, respectively.
Late Synrift–Early Postrift (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene): This
sequence, equivalent to much of the Sihapas Group, includes several
paralic facies that record a gradual transgression: The Menggala Formation
is still fluvial, but is overlain by shallow marine sandy (Bekasap Formation)
and argillaceous (Bangko Formation) facies, the latter forming a regional
seal. The Menggala and Bekasap formations contain the best reservoirs of
the basin, with porosities of the order of 25% and permeabilities of up to
four Darcies.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
Early Postrift (Early to Middle Miocene): This includes the distal marine
facies of the Sihapas Group, which records the final stages of transgression
(Duri Formation delta front sands and shales) followed by the period of
maximum Tertiary flooding (Telisa Formation shales and silts).
Late Postrift (Middle Miocene to Quaternary): This stage represents the Late
Tertiary sedimentary fill of the basin, and includes regressive deltaic and
alluvial sediments interrupted by several unconformities. Only the deepest
part of this sequence (Petani Formation with marine shales, sands and
coals) has significance for petroleum accumulation.
Three phases of geodynamic development are recognized:
An Eocene–Oligocene extensional phase with four sub phases as indicated
here ( Williams and Eubank, 1995 ), leading to formation of the synrift
grabens and early deformation of the sedimentary fill ( Shaw et al., 1997 ).
The first three sub-phases correspond to the early synrift period, while
phase 4 belongs to the late synrift.
1. Early Eocene: N–S and NW–SE shearing and formation of isolated rifts
and half grabens, with the major boundary faults on the western flanks.
2. Middle Eocene: rapid subsidence.
3. Oligocene: continued subsidence and episodic dextral wrenching.
4. Late Oligocene–Early Miocene: waning subsidence accompanied by
uplift.
An Early–Middle Miocene phase of uplift and gentle folding accompanied
by wrench faulting along a NW–SE (Barisan) trend. This period follows the
early postrift. It was responsible for the formation of most of the structural
traps, such as the forced drapes over the basin margin faults.
Movement continued up to the Plio-Pleistocene in the form of NW–SE
dextral wrench faulting, corresponding to the final stage of postrift
development.
5.2.1. Petroleum systems
In the Central Sumatra Basin almost all of the hydrocarbons appear to have
been derived from lacustrine to terrestrial source rocks of the early synrift
stage, possibly with some contribution from coals of the late synrift. Four
families of oils are recognized ( Williams dan Eubank, 1995 ), Pada dasarnya
berhubungan dengan variasi dalam facies sumber synrift ( Gambar. 7 ). tidur
potensi sumber di postrift yang belum matang.
Waduk tingkat terjadi di seluruh urutannya,
meskipun sebagian besar ladang ditemukan di beberapa tingkat di bawah
segel regional di postrift awal (Bangko dan Telisa formasi). Dengan demikian
kita dapat mengenali, sistem petroleum tunggal, meskipun kompleks, disebut Pematang
- Sihapas
(!) Sistem seperti didefinisikan oleh Howes dan Tisnawijaya (1995) dengan tiga
subdivisi: Pematang - Pematang ( sekitar
113
20 akumulasi), Pematang - Sihapas ( sekitar 90 akumulasi) dan Pematang - Duri ( sekitar
23 akumulasi).
Jenis perangkap berikut dapat diakui di IPA Atlas ( Indonesian Petroleum
Association, 1991a, b ) Daftar lebih dari 100 ladang: (1) dip penutupan
berkaitan dengan lipatan sederhana dan menggantungkan (59 akumulasi),
menyodorkan (44 akumulasi) dan kesalahan kunci (7 akumulasi),
mempengaruhi baik syn dan postrift urutan, (2) kesalahan- dip, penutupan
terutama footwall (22 akumulasi), dan (3) basement topografi (2 akumulasi
saja). Dalam 12 akumulasi, stratigrafi pinch-out muncul untuk berkontribusi
perangkap. Ada muncul, bagaimanapun, tidak ada fi medan yang menjebak ini
terutama stratigrafi.
Williams dan Eubank (1995) noted that most of the oilfields are
concentrated in drape structures over basement palaeo-highs and along the
eastern flanks of the half graben rifts updip of the basin centre source rocks,
while others are developed in drag and inversion folds (‘‘Sunda folds’’) adjacent
to the basin boundary faults. Repeated phases of structural movement are
evident from variations in the thickness of the sequence.
In total about 25 billion barrels STOIIP have been located in the basin, of
which 8 and 4 billion barrels are located in the Minas and Duri fields,
respectively. The Minas field is the largest in SE Asia. Noticeable is the lack of
gas, illustrative of the dominance of the highly oil-prone lacustrine charge of
Petroleum System 1 ( Schiefelbein and Cameron, 1997 ). The creaming curve ( Howes
and Tisnawijaya, 1995 ) is indicative of efficient exploration and a very mature
province.
5.3. South Sumatra Basin
The South Sumatra Basin also comprises a series of semi-connected
NNW–SSE trending synrift basins with a common postrift sequence ( Bishop,
2000a ). Two main rift provinces are recognized, both of which contain
hydrocarbon fields. The smaller and more proximal of the two is Jambi,
whereas the larger and deeper is situated in the Palembang area. Most of the
oil and gas fields are concentrated along thrust and fold trends above or close
to the areas of active mature source rocks ( Fig. 8 ).
Early Synrift (Eocene to Early Oligocene): This comprises the continental
Lahat and Lematang formations. These are separated by an unconformity,
indicating that at least two phases of rift formation were involved. Facies
include alluvial, lacustrine and brackish-water sediments represented by
tuffaceous sands, conglomerates and claystones. In places the sequence
may be over 1 km thick. The Lahat Formation contains both source and
reservoir rocks, both very variable in character and quality ( Williams et al.,
1995 ).
Late Synrift (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene): The main part of this
sequence comprises a retro-regressive
 PASAL DALAM PERS
114 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
Gambar. 8. Sumatera Selatan Cekungan-menyederhanakan lokasi fi ed dan peta struktur yang
menunjukkan daerah disimpulkan dari generasi hidrokarbon aktif, dan minyak / gas fi medan
diklasifikasikan menurut tahap cekungan di mana reservoir utama terjadi. Lokasi potensial minyak
bumi sub-sistem ditunjukkan (1-4). medan signifikan fi ( 4 10 juta barel) diberi nomor.
deltaic section belonging to the Talang Akar Formation, by far the most
important reservoir in the basin and strongly time transgressive. Sediments
were derived from the northeast and the facies deepen southwestwards
from fluvial to basinal. Reservoirs include delta plain to marine sands, silts
and shales. Many of the sands are quartzose (derived from the Sunda
shelf) and are of good quality with porosities of up to 25%. Coals and coaly
shales of the Talang Akar Formation represent important type II and III
source rocks.
Early Postrift (Early to Middle Miocene): During this transgressive marine
period, platform and build-up carbonates of the Batu Raja Formation
accumulated above the rift shoulders, while deeper marine shales (Gumai
or Telisa Formation) were deposited above the synrift grabens. Bathyal
environments lay to the southwest, where the sequence is very thick (over
2 km). The Batu Raja is in an important reservoir, with porosities of
up to 38% in reefoid facies. The Gumai Formation represents an excellent
regional seal for the underlying deltaic formations.
Late Postrift (Middle Miocene to Quaternary): During the late postrift stage,
two phases of deltaic progradation, represented by the Air Benakat and
Muara Enim Formations (also called the Lower to Middle Palembang) filled
the basin, gradually covering larger areas as the environment became
shallower, so that by Quaternary times widespread alluvial continental
sediments accumulated. The sands contain reservoirs with good porosities
of up to 25%.
Three main tectonic phases are recognized:
Paleocene to Early Miocene extension and graben formation;
Early Miocene to Early Pliocene quiescence, with some normal faulting;
and
Pliocene to Recent thick-skinned dextral transpression and inversion,
forming extensive sub-parallel WNW–ESE anticlinal trends.
5.3.1. Petroleum systems
The South Sumatra Basin is a large and complex area, in which multiple
hydrocarbon source and reservoir systems are present. Bishop (2000a) ,
however, related all accumulations to the Lahat – Talang Akar (!) petroleum
system, while noting that considerable mixing of oils derived from lacustrine
and paralic sources is evident. Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995)
also recognized only one PS, the Talang Akar (!).
From our analysis, based on Indonesian Petroleum Association (1990) , we
believe that four distinct areas can be distinguished ( Fig. 8 ). In the absence of
more precise geochemical typing, we cannot clearly ascribe each of these to
an individual petroleum system; however, the primary reservoir level differs in
each case and the accumulations probably have a mixed charge. We can
therefore look upon these as potentially suggestive for four separate petroleum
subsystems.
1. Terutama dikembangkan di Subbasin tangkapan Jambi dan Merangan,
mengandung akumulasi minyak dan gas di urutan postrift terlambat.
Dengan asumsi biaya yang berasal dari batuan sumber delta, sistem
petroleum ini dapat disebut sebagai Talang Akar / Palembang - Palembang
(.) PS.
2. Terletak di Jambi sub-basin, terdiri dari gas tunggal lapangan (Grissik)
terletak di waduk postrift awal. lapangan ini juga bisa bersumber dari
bagian postrift awal dan, jika demikian, bisa mewakili hipotetis Gumai - Gumai
(?) PS.
3. Terletak di daerah Palembang, mengandung hampir semua minyak dan gas
fi medan yang lebih besar di baskom dan dikembangkan dalam synrift akhir
Talang Akar dan awal postrift formasi Batu Raja. Ini adalah Lahat / Talang
Akar - Talang Akar (!) PS.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129 115

4. Di daerah Muara Enim (dekat ke depan gunung), berisi sejumlah ladang minyak
yang lebih kecil. Ini merupakan jenis yang sama dari sistem minyak bumi
sebagai 1 (atas), meskipun fakta bahwa hampir semua ladang menghasilkan
minyak hanya menunjukkan bahwa mereka dapat baik diisi dari daerah
sumber terpisah, atau bahwa kedewasaan dan retensi mendefinisikan
campuran minyak dan gas yang berbeda .

Traps in both the synrift and postrift sequences are dominantly anticlinal,
associated with elongate inversion trends, and many are reverse or thrust
faulted, especially where the WNW–ESE fold trends cross N–S—trending rift
boundary fault trends. Several fields are fault dependant (largely footwall
closures), while the relief of traps in the Batu Raja carbonates is often
enhanced by reefoid facies developments up to 100m thick. Stratigraphic
pinch-out on structural noses and basement onlap are responsible for trapping
in a small number of syn- to early postrift accumulations.

The creaming curve for oil suggests that the basin is mature ( Howes and
Tisnawijaya, 1995 ), but there is little sign of creaming in the gas discovery
trend, and more gas discoveries could be expected.

5.4. The Natuna Sea

Laut Natuna dibagi menjadi dua provinsi minyak bumi yang berbeda dengan
punggung bukit yang luas, Natuna Arch ( Gambar. 9 ). Kedua memiliki sejarah
awal yang umum, tetapi kompleks cekungan barat tetap lebih proksimal dari
daerah timur pada periode postrift.

Awal synrift (Eosen Akhir ke Awal Oligosen): Urutan terdiri fl uvio-delta
untuk fl uvial dan pasir aluvial Formasi Lama ditindih oleh serpih endapan
danau dangkal dari Formasi Benua, yang secara lokal membentuk kaya
batu minyak dan sumber gas. Di atas kebohongan tersebut fl uvio-delta
pasir dan serpih dari Bawah Gabus Fm.
Akhir synrift (Oligosen Akhir ke EarlyMiocene): Deposisi endapan danau
untuk fl sedimen uvio-delta formasi Keras dan atas Gabus terus selama
periode ini.
Awal Postrift (awal ke Tengah Miosen): This period was marked by a marine
transgression and is represented by shales of the Barat and Arang
formations. In western Natuna, the former are non-marine with coals, while
in eastern Natuna they are open marine. Conditions on structural highs
were favourable for the later development of platform and reefoid
carbonates (Terumbu Formation).
Late Postrift (Late Miocene to Quaternary): During this period conditions
remained shallow marine, partially restricted, and claystones of the Muda
Formation were deposited. Minor developments of deltaic sands are
recorded locally.
The tectonic history of the Natuna basins is complex, being significantly
different from west to east. Late Eocene
Fig. 9. Natuna Sea basins—simplified location and structure map showing inferred areas of active
hydrocarbon generation and oil/gas fields classified according to the basin stage in which they occur.
to Oligocene extension phases were responsible for formation of the rifts
throughout the area, while Early to Middle Miocene NE–SW and NW–SE
wrench movements recording complex plate readjustments affected west
Natuna, producing basin margin inversions. In east Natuna, opening of the
South China Sea continued until late in the Tertiary and there is little evidence
for compressional movements. Local to regional unconformities are present at
the end of the early synrift and during the early postrift periods.
5.4.1. Petroleum systems
In West Natuna many hydrocarbon fields are associated with Sunda-type
inversion folds formed in the Miocene adjacent to the main boundary faults of a
number of the rift basins. These dip-closed anticlinal structures are sometimes
associated with thrusts and are often faulted. The charge is derived from synrift
lacustrine shales and the main reservoirs comprise paralic to marine sands of
the Gabus Formation. Keras and Barat shales form efficient regional seals.
Most of the fields are shallow (maximum
 PASAL DALAM PERS
116 H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129

2 km), have high API gravities and produce both oil and gas. In comparison to
other basins with similar stratigraphy, there are a few fields. This is due to the
fact that traps are largely limited to complex wrench-reactivated boundary fault
zones with NE–SW or NW–SE orientations. Along such fault trends, several
small fault-dependant fields may be clustered. This petroleum system is known
as the Benua – Gabus (!) PS.

One large, as yet non-productive gas field, ‘‘D-Alpha’’ is present in a large

carbonate buildup in eastern Natuna ( May and Eyles, 1985 ). The gas contains
a high percentage of CO 2, suggesting that the charge is derived from
deepseated sources associated with crustal faults along the western margin of
the South China Sea. Hydrocarbon charge for this PS may be derived partly
from the pre-rift, but is more likely to be derived from the synrift and it is
referred to here as the Tertiary – Terumbu (.) PS.

The creaming curves for Natuna presented by Howes and Tisnawijaya

(1995) show no signs of creaming. However, the number of fields is too small
to provide reliable statistics. The complex geology and continuous tectonics
have led to significant issues related to the timing of migration versus trap
formation. Re-migration may be common, and this is probably reflected in the
apparently poor finding efficiency.

5.5. Sunda and Asri basins

The geology of these two rich hydrocarbon basins shows many similarities
to one another, as described by Bushnell and Temansja (1986) , Wight et al.
(1997) and Sukanto et al. (1998) . The location of major fields and structural
elements are shown in Fig. 10 . The stratigraphic nomenclature is similar to that Gambar. 10. NW Java, Sunda dan Asri cekungan-menyederhanakan lokasi fi ed dan peta struktur yang

of South Sumatra. menunjukkan daerah disimpulkan dari generasi hidrokarbon dan minyak / gas fi medan diklasifikasikan
menurut tahap cekungan di mana reservoir utama dikembangkan.

Early Synrift (Early Oligocene): This is represented by the Banuwati

Formation, an excellent lacustrine deep water type I source rock with TOC
of up to 8% and a hydrogen index (HI) of up to 650mg/g. A basal marginal
alluvial sandy/conglomeratic facies, without source potential, also occurs.
Late Synrift (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene): This stage commences with
fluvio-deltaic sediments of the Talang Akar Formation, and continues with
Batu Raja carbonates, as in South Sumatra. Both form excellent reservoirs.
A coaly-shale potential source horizon is also present, but although rich, is
immature at this level. Intraformational shale seals are found in the upper
part of the sequence (upper Gita member).
Early Postrift (Middle Miocene): Transgressive marine shales of the Air
Benakat Formation form excellent seals for the underlying reservoirs.
Late Postrift (Late Miocene to Quaternary): This regressive sequence
(Cisubuh Formation) culminates in deltaic sediments with coals, but lies too
shallow to contribute to hydrocarbon generation.
The tektonik ini cekungan terisolasi sangat tenang dibandingkan dengan
cekungan lainnya Sumatera. evolusi meliputi pra pembentukan keretakan
Oligosen Awal mengakibatkan setengah grabens bersama en-eselon
kesalahan, diikuti oleh synrift subsidence dan tahap postrift tenang dengan
terbatas kunci reaktivasi.
5.5.1. sistem Petroleum
Itu Banuwati - Talang Akar (!) PS. Howes dan Tisnawijaya (1995) menyebut
ini Banuwati-Batu Raja PS. Ini mencakup semua hidrokarbon terperangkap di
Cekungan Sunda. pasir delta dari Formasi Talang Akar serta karbonat platform
yang onlapping dan terumbu dari atasnya Batu Raja bentuk reservoir Formasi
penting, sering dalam kombinasi. The medan terkonsentrasi pada tertinggi
interbasinal dan horsts dan penutupan footwall bersama hidung menyalahkan
pada cekungan lembut Kompi. Sebanyak sekitar 950 millionboe (barel minyak
ekuivalen) telah ditemukan, yang 90% adalah minyak. Menurut Bishop (2000b) 75%
dari cadangan yang terletak di Formasi Talang Akar.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
In the Asri Basin, the same elements of the petroleum system occur, but all
accumulations are in Talang Akar sands as the Batu Raja reservoir is absent.
Approximately 500 millionboe has been discovered in nine fields, mainly in
faulted anticlines on the half-graben dip flank. In the Widuri Field, trapping is
assisted by stratigraphic pinch-out ( Carter, 2003 ).
Sukanto et al. (1998) proposed that oil-saturated sands in the early synrift
indicate that a second PS is present in the Asri Basin. They referred to this as
the Banuwati –
Harriet (.) PS. However, there is as yet no commercial production from it.
Kurva creaming dari dua cekungan ini berbeda. Meskipun kurva Sunda
menunjukkan eksplorasi relatif yang efisien, 1988 penemuan Widuri lapangan
con fi rmed prospectivity dari Cekungan Asri pada tahap yang sangat
terlambat. Pendek dan berlimpah migrasi jalur dari pusat cekungan yang
mengarah ke akumulasi dalam waduk terbaik (Talang Akar dan Batu Raja) di
lembah fl anks berkontribusi pada efisiensi sistem, seperti halnya kehadiran
segel batulempung luas.
5.6. Java laut
Northwest Java Basin ( Gambar. 10 ) Terletak baik di dan
lepas pantai dan terdiri dari dua setengah utama graben-de fi depocentres ned:
orang kaya lepas pantai Ardjuna Basin ke arah barat dan Jatibarang Basin
onshore di tenggara ( Noble et al., 1997 ). The onshore and nearshore areas
contain clastic wedges derived from the Java hinterland in the postrift, while the
more distal offshore areas remained dominated by carbonates.
Early Synrift (Late Eocene to Early Oligocene): This comprises tuffs and
minor interbedded lacustrine shales of the Jatibarang Formation.
Volcaniclastics provide the reservoir facies for some onshore Java fields,
whereas the source rock appears to have a significant deltaic component,
indicative of major contributions from the overlying Talang Akar Formation.
Late Synrift (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene): As in South Sumatra, this
sequence comprises a transgressive sequence of fluvio-deltaic, coastal and
shallow marine sands, shales and coals (Talang Akar Formation), followed
by platform and reefoid carbonates (Batu Raja Formation), both of which
are productive.
Early Postrift (Early to Middle Miocene): In contrast to the basins further to
the west, parts of the Java basins remained in an open to distal marine
carbonate environment longer. This makes it difficult to distinguish early
from late postrift stages. While a number of regressive clastic deltaic
phases are recognized onshore and nearshore in the Cibulakan Formation,
much of the area is characterized by shelf marine sands (‘‘Massive’’ and
‘‘Main’’) that are important reservoirs in offshore northwest Java.
Late Postrift (Late Miocene to Quaternary): Platform carbonates and
regressive clastics of the Parigi and
117
Cisubuh formations reflect a reduction in subsidence and the onset of
inversion movements linked to Pliocene folding in the south.
The tectonic history of the area ( Gresko et al., 1995 ) can
be traced back to the earliest Tertiary, when cooling followed metamorphism of
the basement rocks. Rifting related to dextral wrenching followed in the Eocene
(50–40Ma), while Middle to Late Miocene collision events (dated 17–5Ma) led
to repeated local inversions along the onshore trend.
5.6.1. Petroleum systems
Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995) recognized two primary petroleum systems
in the area. The dominant one is the
Talang Akar – Main/Massive (!) PS, and is characteristic of the offshore Arjuna
Basin. Charge is derived from the late synrift Talang Akar coals and coaly
shales, while most of the accumulations are located in Cibulakan sandstones of
the early postrift (‘‘Massive’’ and ‘‘Main’’). Although multiple reservoirs are
represented, only few fields are found in early and late synrift or late postrift
reservoirs. The second petroleum system proposed by Howes and Tisnawijaya
(1995) is represented by the early synrift Jatibarang interval, located in the
onshore, and which includes the Jatibarang Field, the only accumulation to
have been located in this highly faulted tuffaceous reservoir. However, a more
detailed study of Northwest Java by Noble et al. (1997) indicated that the
Talang Akar source system was overwhelmingly the major contributor of oil and
gas in all of the sub-basins, including the onshore region. Seven primary
depocenters were recognized which, based on geochemical data, showed
strong oil-source correlations with Talang Akar coals and carbonaceous shales.
Facies variations within the Talang Akar source rocks were noted, ranging from
fluviodeltaic to marginal marine. In contrast to other Sunda-style basins in the
Java–Sumatra region, no evidence was found to support major charge from the
lacustrine synrift sequence.
Of the traps described in the IPA Field Atlas volume IV ( Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 1989a, b ), at least half are formed by anticlines, many
of them highly faulted. Fault-dependant closures, mainly footwalls are also
common, while a few fields are trapped in reefoid carbonate mounds. As in
other basins, stratigraphic trapping plays a minor contributory role only.
A separate petroleum system, referred to as the
Biogenic – Parigi (.) petroleum system, has been proposed to cover shallow
biogenic gas accumulations in carbonates of the late postrift. The charge for
accumulations within this system comes from biogenic conversion of organic
matter at shallow depth, while reservoirs comprise north– south trending
porous bioherms in the southern part of the NW Java offshore (e.g. APN field).
The Arjuna Basin, as in many offshore provinces, shows high exploration
efficiency for oil and suggests that little remains to be found. For gas, the curve
suggests that as yet,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
118 H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129

creaming has not been achieved. The Jatibarang sub-basin curve is typical of Akhir synrift (akhir Oligosen ke Awal Miosen): Unit sedimen ini didominasi
complex situations where one, probably stratigraphically assisted trap, dengan platform dan karbonat reefoid dari Kujung dan Prupuh formasi
dominates the basin. dengan, di dasar, serpih laut (dengan pasir tipis) menunjukkan bahwa
cekungan ini terletak dekat dengan margin benua saat ini.
5.7. Northeast Java

The East Java Basin area comprises a complex of NE–SW trending Awal Postrift (awal untuk Akhir Miosen): Pada awal periode ini, platform
troughs, separated by ridges and arches ( Fig. 11 ). Several of these basins karbonat tenggelam dan luas klastik lebih dalam laut (Tuban dan Woncolo
contain hydrocarbon accumulations while several others represent, as yet, serpih Formasi dan Ngrayong pasir Formasi) diendapkan. Lokal, karbonat
frontier provinces. As in West Java, there are significant differences between bertahan dan volkaniklastik yang hadir.
the clastic dominated onshore basins in the southwest and the
carbonate-dominated areas below the East Java Sea.
Akhir Postrift (Miosen Akhir ke Kuarter): tektonik lokal dan vulkanisme aktif
meluas mendominasi periode ini, sehingga berbagai urutan dikembangkan,
termasuk tanah liat laut, volkaniklastik, karbonat dan pasir, disimpan dalam
Awal synrift (Eosen Akhir ke Awal Oligosen): Ini diwakili oleh Formasi berbagai dangkal dengan lingkungan air yang lebih dalam.
Ngimbang, di mana endapan danau basal untuk urutan paralik dengan
batuan sumber dengan cepat digantikan oleh serpih laut terbuka dengan
pasir dan karbonat.
Sejarah tektonik melewati Eosen ke tahap rifting Awal Oligosen, di mana
sejumlah setengah grabens dibentuk, diikuti oleh fase ketenangan dan, dimulai
pada Miosen akhir (di 7mA),
lokal
deformasi dan vulkanik aktif. Lipatan sabuk darat adalah kompleks, dan
diperkirakan berasal dari memilukan miring dari ruang bawah tanah dan inversi
melibatkan urutan shale tidak stabil (mungkin termasuk kesalahan
pertumbuhan gravitasi diinduksi). Di lepas pantai wilayah timur Madura,
memilukan aktif di sepanjang tren E-W telah mengakibatkan pembentukan
struktur inversi yang luas dan sangat muda (misalnya di daerah Pulau
Kangean utara dari Bali).

5.7.1. sistem Petroleum

Lima sistem minyak bumi telah diakui di Jawa Timur Laut, sebagai awalnya
diusulkan oleh Howes dan Tisnawijaya (1995) dan kemudian diperbarui:

1. Ngimbang - OK Ngrayong (.) PS di daerah Cepu dari Timur

Jawa;
2. Ngimbang - Ngimbang (!) PS di daerah Kangean
daerah lepas pantai utara Bali;
3. Ngimbang - Kujung (!) PS di Cepu amd Madura
cekungan;

4. Tersier - Miosen (.) PS di Muriah Basin-ini

sebagian besar sistem gas biogenik; dan
5. Tersier - Pliocene (!) PS in the southeast Madura and
north Bali areas, a biogenic gas system.

Fields in the IPA Field Atlas volume IV ( Indonesian Petroleum Association,

1989b ) comprise mainly older oil accumulations from onshore east Java. By
far, the majority of these are located in sandstones and calcareous sandstones
of the early postrift Ngrayong, OK, Tuban and Woncolo formations, and with a
few exceptions, they occur in shallow faulted and detached thrust anticlines of
small dimensions and now are shut-in or abandoned. A few fields occur in reef
limestone of the late synrift, while some others
Fig. 11. East Java Basin—simplified location and structure map showing inferred areas of
hydrocarbon generation and oil/gas fields classified according to the basin stage in which the main
reservoir occurs.
 PASAL DALAM PERS
H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129 119

are found in calcareous and volcanic sands of the late postrift.

The three petroleum systems of greatest commercial significance at the

present time are the Ngimbang – Kujung
(!), Ngimbang – Ngimbang (!) and Tertiary – Pliocene (!). The Ngimbang–Kujung
PS is actively being pursued in the Madura and East Java basins, targeting the
Kujung and CD carbonate reservoirs ( Essam Sharaf et al., 2005 ). Further to
the east, large offshore gas discoveries have been made in the late synrift
section (e.g. Pagerungan, Kangean Barat). The origin of this gas is likely to be
from over mature Ngimbang fluvio-deltaic coaly source rocks, which have also
sourced oil accumulations (e.g. JS53). Biogenic gas fields from the
Tertiary–Pliocene system, such as Terang–Sirasun (1.1 tcf) are also attracting
industry interest.

Exploration in East Java has a long history, dating from the late 19th
century, when many of the small onshore fields were discovered. Following a
long period without success, the move offshore in the late 1970s has resulted
in a significant rejuvenation of oil discoveries and spectacular success in
locating large gas fields. Onshore exploration has also been rekindled, with the
Kujung play in the Cepu area bringing new life to an old basin. Recent
discoveries in the Cepu area rank amongst the largest made in Indonesia over
the past 20 years.

5.8. Barito Basin

The Barito Basin of southern Kalimantan ( Fig. 12 ),

though older than most other basins in West Indonesia, passed through a
similar history, with syn- and postrift stages. The maximum transgression
interval appears to be late Oligocene in age. The bulk of the synrift sequence
Gambar. 12. Kalimantan Timur, Barito dan Kutei-Mahakam cekungan-menyederhanakan lokasi fi ed dan
belongs to cycles of the Tanjung Group. peta struktur menunjukkan Barito Basin depocenter, Delta Mahakam tren lapangan dan minyak / gas fi
medan diklasifikasikan menurut tahap cekungan di mana mereka terjadi.

Early Synrift (Paleocene to Early Eocene): In at least five rift basins, alluvial
to lacustrine sediments, with good source rock potential accumulated.

horsts dan grabens di Barito Basin. Di Akhir Tersier, kompresi terus menerus
Late Synrift (Middle to Late Eocene): During this period, retroregressive
dan pengangkatan pegunungan Meratus menyebabkan reaktivasi sinistral dari
fluvio-deltaic sediments with coals, followed by marine shales with
kesalahan batas graben ( Satyana et al., 1999 ).
carbonates were deposited.

Early Postrift (Oligocene to Early Miocene): During this period, stable

marine conditions prevailed and shallow marine carbonates of the Berai
Formation covered much of the area. A minor regressive phase is recorded
in the Late Oligocene.
Akhir Postrift (Miosen Tengah ke Kuarter): Uplifts menyebabkan
perkembangan kondisi delta regresif dan karbonat tenggelam oleh klastik
regresif dari Warukin dan Dahor formasi.
rifting Tersier awal bersama tren NW-SE diikuti Jurassic Akhir untuk
emplacement Cretaceous dari Meratus ophiolitic kompleks sepanjang margin
sebelah tenggara dari Sundaland ( Hutchinson, 1996 ), Dan menyebabkan
pengembangan
5.8.1. Petroleum sistem Tanjung - Tanjung (!) sistem petroleum: beberapa
ladang dalam minyak cekungan menghasilkan (dengan API gravitasi 30-40 1) dan
gas dan mungkin bersumber dari salah satu yang sangat matang Tanjung
batuan sumber Formasi atau campuran awal dan akhir synrift endapan danau
dan sumber delta batu. Dalam cekungan cacat secara kompleks ini,
hidrokarbon terjebak dalam prerift untuk postrift tingkat waduk (basement dan
Eosen sampai Miosen pasir) dalam struktur Anticlinal thrusted dan sangat
menyalahkan. Setidaknya setengah dari hidrokarbon yang terletak di salah
satu lapangan (Tanjung, ditemukan di
1937) dan kurva creaming ( Howes dan Tisnawijaya 1995 ) Merefleksikan ini.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
120 H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
5.9. Kutei-Mahakam Delta Basin
The Kutei-Mahakam Delta Basin adalah cekungan terbesar di Indonesia
(165.000 km 2) dan salah satu provinsi hidrokarbon terkaya dengan beberapa
medan raksasa ( Gambar. 12 ). Ini memiliki sejarah yang kompleks ( Moss et al.,
1997 ), Dan merupakan salah satu dari hanya cekungan Indonesia telah
berevolusi dari patah internal / basin tanjung rift basin menjadi marginal-sag.
Banyak dari awal cekungan fi ll di Kutei Basin telah terbalik dan terkena ( Satyana
et al., 1999 ), Dan postrift akhir Mahakam Delta mendominasi prospectivity
tersebut. Yang terakhir ini juga berisi margin benua deepwater bermain langka
di cekungan Indonesia lainnya.
Awal synrift (Paleocene ke awal Eosen): Sediments of this stage comprise
alluvial sediments filling in the topography of NE–SW and NNE–SSW
trending rifts in the onshore Kutei Basin. They overlie a basement
comprising late Cretaceous to early Tertiary deep marine sequences.
Late Synrift (Middle to Late Eocene): During this period, a major
transgression took place in the Kutei Basin, partly related to rifting in the
Makassar Strait, and bathyal shales with thin sands accumulated.
Early Postrift (Oligocene to Early Miocene): During this period, bathyal
conditions continued to dominate and several thousand meters of
predominantly shales accumulated. On structurally shallow areas open
marine carbonate platforms were developed.
Late Postrift (Middle Miocene to Quaternary): From Middle Miocene
onwards a major passive margin deltaic sequence prograded into the deep
water Makassar Strait, forming the Mahakam Delta sequence, the primary
hydrocarbon-bearing portion of the basin. A variety of on- and offshore
deltaic depositional environments are developed in the Balikpapan and
Kampung Baru formations, including deeper water slope and basin floor
facies. Excellent source and reservoir rocks are present, with interbedded
sealing shales. During this period, erosion reworked large parts of the Kutei
synrift sequence.
The tectonic history may be summarized as follows: Following deformation
of the late Cretaceous to earliest Tertiary basement, extension and rifting
associated with opening of the Makassar Straits continued through to the end
of the Eocene. Oligocene subsidence and sag were followed by inversion of
the early Kutei Basin fill along its initial boundary faults in the early Miocene,
resulting in the erosion of several thousand meters of the synrift sequence ( Satyana
et al., 1999 ). This in turn led to a major deltaic progradation over the continent
margin to the east (to form the Mahakam Delta sequence). Continental
collisions in the area are thought to have been responsible for younger
inversions affecting the early Miocene sequence. Within the shelf Mahakam
Delta sequence, the dominant trap-forming mechanism comprises
syn-sedimentary
growth faulting. The slope to basin floor section is characterized by toe-thrust
structures.
5.9.1. Petroleum systems
In this basin, a number of petroleum systems can be recognized, each with
associated sub-systems:
1. In the onshore Kutei Basin, largely comprising inverted synrift sequences
where as yet few hydrocarbons have been located, Howes and Tisnawijaya
(1995) suggested that an early synrift to early postrift petroleum system, the
Tanjung – Berai (.) PS may be developed. However, it remains speculative.
2. The onshore to offshore Mahakam Delta, which includes the majority of
prospective sequences, belongs to a thick, late postrift continental margin
stage of development. In this rich oil and gas province, almost all of the
hydrocarbons are sourced from and trapped in reservoirs of the late postrift
stage. Accordingly, the deltaic Balikpapan – Balikpapan (!) PS is
overwhelmingly the dominant one in this area. Reservoir sands, belonging
to a series of stacked regressive deltaic progradational sequences range in
age from Middle Miocene to Pleistocene (Balikpapan to Kampung Baru
formations), and most accumulations occur at several levels, separated by
intraformational sealing shales representing maximum flooding surfaces.
As in other Tertiary deltas, a range of trap types is represented, including:
(a) Hangingwall anticlinal rollovers associated with
growth faults, many cut by synthetic and antithetic faults to form
‘‘collapsed crest’’ structures. Trapping of individual stacked
accumulations is partlyfault dependant (i.e. in footwall or hanging wall
blocks). The structures are frequently dome-shaped or oval in shape
and occur mainly in nearshore and shallow offshore areas.
(b) Elongated inverted anticlinal deltaic rollover struc-
tures with a NNE–SSW trend, related to thrusts and reverse faults,
often on both flanks. These occur primarily in the onshore part of the
delta and contain many of the larger fields. Characteristic of many
fields are cross faults that divide the accumulations into separate
units. McClay et al. (2000) demonstrated that many of these structures
originate from inversion of growth-faulted structures above a ductile
substrate. (c) Stratigraphic traps related to deltaic sand bodies
encased in shales. In many cases stratigraphic changes contribute to
trapping only, for instance where deltaic channels are draped over
anticlinal trends, but in a few cases sand pinch-out appears to define
the trap (e.g. in the Bongkaran and Tambora fields), while a
hydrodynamic effect can sometimes be identified.
Duval et al. (1998) summarized some of the most important parameters
that impact hydrocarbon prospectivity. They indicated that the main charge
for fields in the Tambora and Tunu trends is derived from thick
 PASAL DALAM PERS
H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129 121

deltaic coals and coaly shales in the intervening syncline, with minor
contributions from a marine and leaner source rock in the offshore trend
between the Tunu and Sisi fields. They noted that efficient short migration
paths up to 15 km in length lead from these charge kitchens into adjacent
structures. They noted a gradual transition from oil, in more proximal
anticlinal fields (Tambora, Handil) to gas/condensate rich fields in more
distal trends, where source rocks are leaner, and thicker shale packages
restrict migration of heavier hydrocarbons. These observations relate to the
shallow progradational deltaic sequences.A number of anticlinal structures
contain oil and gas fields in early Miocene regressive sands, for instance in
the Wailawi field. These deltaic sands, with interbedded shales and coals
(Klinjau Formation) were deposited during the period of maximum
transgression when carbonate facies were extensively developed in the
Kutei/Makakam area. They provide evidence for the local strength of the
deltaic system and suggest that an early postrift petroleum system exists in
places. This can be referred to as the
di sisi lain, yang ditandai oleh serangkaian langkah re fl ecting penemuan
besar, menunjukkan sedikit bukti untuk creaming. kurva '' relatif yang efisien ''
creaming seperti khas untuk daerah delta di mana ada pergeseran arah laut
bertahap dalam eksplorasi sebagai teknologi baru menjadi tersedia.
5.10. Cekungan Tarakan
Cekungan Tarakan memiliki perkembangan yang sama dengan
Kutai-Mahakam Basin ( Lentini dan Darman, 1996 ), Yang menyerupai dalam
banyak hal ( Gambar. 13 ). Ini terdiri dari empat Subbasin tangkapan, dua darat
(Tidung dan Berau synrift basins- terutama Eosen Akhir untuk Miosen Tengah),
dan dua lepas pantai (yang Belungan-Tarakan dan Muara postrift cekungan
dengan terutama muda fi ll). Seperti dalam Kutei-Mahakam Basin, hidrokarbon
telah berada dalam tahap postrift akhir saja.

Awal synrift (Eosen Tengah): Urutan ini didominasi oleh batuan vulkanik
dan volkaniklastik Formasi Sembakang. Hal ini sangat tectonized.

Klinjau - Klinjau (.) PS.

3. Baru-baru ini, fokus eksplorasi telah pindah ke bagian air yang lebih dalam
dari delta, di mana medan sedang ditemukan di waduk turbidit disimpan di
saluran lereng dan lembah sistem fl oor. Penemuan milik sistem petroleum
baru yang disebut Miosen - Mio / Pliosen (.) PS. pasir kualitas reservoir telah
ditemukan didistribusikan secara luas di Miosen Tengah hingga Pliosen
bagian. Akumulasi minyak dan gas diperkirakan telah menerima biaya dari
bahan organik yang berasal dari tumbuhan darat, diangkut ke dalam
pengaturan air dalam oleh kekeruhan mengalir ( Dunham et al., 2001 ; Lin et
al., 2000 ). Peters et al. (2000) dibedakan dua keluarga yang berhubungan
dengan jatuh tempo minyak yang berasal dari sistem air yang dalam,
keduanya kurang lilin dari minyak onshore.

anticlines kompresional dan menyodorkan jari membentuk perangkap

struktural utama dalam sistem deepwater Mahakam. pasir Reservoir terjadi
pada con fi ned kompleks digabung saluran-tanggul (misalnya penemuan
Merah Besar dan West Seno), dan sebagai uncon fi ned lembar-seperti
kipas kapal selam ( Dunham dan McKee, 2001 ). Karena sifat dari tubuh
pasir, peluang jelas ada untuk menjebak stratigrafi. Masih banyak yang
harus dipelajari tentang geometri dan produktivitas tubuh pasir ini sebagai
penemuan tambahan yang dibuat dan dinilai. Barat Seno lapangan,
ditemukan oleh Unocal di akhir 1990-an, adalah pengembangan deepwater
pertama di Indonesia, laras pertama minyak yang diproduksi pada
pertengahan tahun 2003.

Provinsi Kutei-MahakamDelta adalah salah satu terkaya di Indonesia,

dengan penemuan total lebih dari 3,5 miliar barel minyak dan 35 tcf gas. Ini
mendukung proyek LNG penting dan berkembang. Kurva creaming untuk
minyak menunjukkan bahwa, kecuali signi fi cadangan baru tidak bisa berada
diidentifikasi di air yang dalam, akumulasi bertahap hanya kecil dapat
Gambar. 13. Cekungan Tarakan-menyederhanakan lokasi fi ed dan peta struktur yang menunjukkan daerah
diharapkan di masa depan. Kurva gas, disimpulkan dari generasi hidrokarbon aktif dan Late minyak / gas tren lapangan Postrift.
 PASAL DALAM PERS
122 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
? Akhir synrift (Eosen Akhir): Ini terdiri fl uvio-delta untuk serpih laut dangkal,
menandai fase transgresif cepat.
Awal Postrift (Oligosen ke Awal Miosen): This period is dominated by open
marine carbonate platform development on shallow blocks, with deeper
marine environments represented by shales and marls in the intervening
depressions. Local late Oligocene uplift can be linked to a minor clastic
progradation from the west.
Late Postrift (Middle Miocene to Quaternary): This forms the main
hydrocarbon-bearing sequence and is composed of a number of regressive
progradations of interbedded fluvio-deltaic sands, shales and coals.
NE–SW trending growth faults intersect with four NW–SE trending fold
trends. To the south and north of the deltaic depocenters, carbonates
continued to accumulate.
Eocene rifting was followed by a generally quiescent basin history,
interrupted by a phase of uplift in the onshore area in the Late Oligocene.
Traps were formed in the Pliocene and Pleistocene and rely on a combination
of growth faults and discrete NW–SE trending compressional folds and faults
produced during a series of uplift and inversion events.
5.10.1. Petroleum systems
All hydrocarbons in the Tarakan basin are derived from and trapped in late
postrift stage sediments. Source rocks are Middle to Late Miocene coals and
coaly shales of the Tabul Formation, while fluvio-deltaic sands belonging to the
Late Miocene Tabul and Plio-Pleistocene Tarakan formations form the main
reservoirs. A variety of trap types are present, concentrated at points where
growth faults culminate above the NW–SE trending anticlinal arches. Several
hangingwall dip closures, assisted or not by fault closure are represented, as
well as local pure footwall closures. All accumulations belong to the Tabul – Tarakan
(!) PS. The deepwater area remains largely unexplored to date with only a few
wells having been drilled, so far without commercial success.
The creaming curve for this basin is dominated by the discovery of the
Bunyu field in 1922. Since then only minor quantities of mainly gas have been
added.
5.11. Eastern Indonesia: Bula (Seram), Salawati, Bintuni and East Sulawesi
Basins
Eastern Indonesian Basins ( Indonesian Petroleum Association, 1998 ) differ
from those of western Indonesia ( Fig. 14 ). They include significantly older
sedimentary sequences derived from slices of the Australian continental margin
that were incorporated in the eastern Indonesian collision zone during the
Middle and Late Tertiary ( Hutchinson, 1996 ). Thus, although Tertiary
depositional environment and lithofacies developments are recognizable,
the Tertiary synrift to postrift basin development cannot be readily applied to
the petroleum habitat.
The Bula Basin in Seram overlies and is partly incorporated in a fold/thrust
and zone formed where the outer margin of Australian continental shelf collided
with Irian Jaya in the mid-Tertairy ( Hutchinson, 1996 ). The bulk of the
sequence is composed of a variety of Mesozoic to Middle Tertiary open marine
pelagic and oceanic deposits, including clays, limestones and thin sands. The
first oil discoveries, which were made by the Dutch in the early 1900s, focussed
on Pliocene to Pleistocene marginal marine sands and limestones. More recent
discoveries in the complex fold and thrust belt successfully located oil in
fractured Jurassic limestones (e.g. Oseil Field; Charlton, 2004 ). Geochemical
studies ( Peters et al., 1999 ) demonstrate that the oil is derived from
Triassic–Jurassic marine carbonate type II source rocks.
Two hydrocarbon-bearing late Tertiary successor basins, the Salawati and
Bintuni basins, are found in the Bird’s Head region of West Papua (formerly
called Irian Jaya). Both overlie Australian continental basement. Permian and
Mesozoic are known to occur in the Bintuni Basin and provide an important
hydrocarbon habitat.
In the Salawati Basin the pre-Tertiary does not contribute to the petroleum
system and if present, occurs at depths of no commercial consequence:
Early Synrift (Paleocene to Eocene): During this period, outer neritic to
bathyal shales and carbonates of the Waripi Formation were deposited,
indicating that rift formation took place in deep water.
Late Synrift (Late Eocene to Oligocene): The deepwater environments were
succeeded by a carbonate platform (Fauma Formation) and deltaic clastics
(Sirga Formation) as the rift was in-filled.
Early Postrift (Miocene): This period represents a transgressive period
during which extensive carbonate platforms and reefs of the Kais Formation
developed. The reefs are surrounded by marginal clastics of the deep water
Klamogun Formation. This shoaled into the Late Miocene. Rapid
subsidence is evidenced by high-standing pinnacle reefs. Charge in the
basin may be derived from marine type II/III source rock marls and shales
of the Klasafet Formation ( Peters et al., 1999 ).
Late Postrift (Plio-Pleistocene): A rapidly deposited and very thick sequence
of regressive clastics, including sands and shales of the Klasaman
Formation accumulated. The underlying Late Miocene Klasafet source rock
attained maturity as a result of this thick sedimentary wedge.
Berikut pertambahan urutan bawah tanah di Paleocene, penurunan itu
cepat margin benua ini basin. gerakan transcurrent sepanjang sesar Sorong
dimulai pada Miosen akhir dan memimpin untuk mengangkat dan
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
Fig. 14. East Indonesia basins—location map (top left), West Papua and Seram basins (Salawati, Bintuni and Bula, respectively, top right) and Tomori Basin, Sulawesi (bottom left). Oil and gas fields are
classified according to the basin stage in which they occur.
erosi berdekatan dengan cekungan-ini disediakan sedimen untuk postrift akhir
yang menutupi karbonat Miosen. gerakan Wrench terus sampai hari ini.
Bagian Tersier daerah Wiriagar ( Gambar. 14 ) dari
Bintuni Basin memiliki stratigrafi mirip dengan Salawati Basin, dengan
pengecualian bahwa terumbu puncak tidak berkembang ke tingkat yang sama,
mungkin karena tingkat penurunan yang berlebihan. Low bantuan terumbu
Kais Pembentukan, di mana ini, diketahui mengandung minyak, tetapi volume
kurang signifikan dibandingkan dengan tren Salawati. Sistem petroleum utama
cekungan Bintuni terjadi dalam bagian Mesozoikum, seperti yang ditunjukkan
oleh penemuan gas besar di Wiriagar ( Dolan dan Hermany 1988 ), Vorwata dan
Ubadari (secara kolektif dikenal sebagai Tagguh lapangan). Sumber untuk
hidrokarbon ini terletak dalam urutan Permian tebal, kaya tipe III bara, dengan
beberapa kontribusi dari overmature berlempung jenis marine II / III sumber
batu dari Mid-Akhir Jurassic.
Itu Tomori Basin Sulawesi Timur ( Gambar. 14 ) beruang
banyak kesamaan dengan Salawati dan Tersier Bintuni daerah cekungan.
Meninggalkan gerakan strike-slip lateral yang sepanjang sesar Sorong telah
mengakibatkan pertambahan fragmen microcontinental Australia ke daerah
Sulawesi Tenggara dan Banggai-Sula ( Milsom et al., 1999 ). tabrakan ( Hall,
1997 ) Dan obduction bahan ophiolitic
di East
Sulawesi, diperkirakan telah terjadi selama Pliosen, menciptakan sistem
flip-dorong dengan tanjung terkait
123
cekungan yang disebut Tomori Basin. Di daerah Senoro-Toili dan Tiaka, baik
minyak dan gas telah ditemukan di Miosen waduk biohermal usia mirip dengan
waduk di Salawati dan Buntuni cekungan ( Davies, 1990 ).
5.11.1. sistem Petroleum
Dalam Bula Basin, hanya satu kecil yang memproduksi lapangan hadir
(Bula-Lemun, sekitar 15millionbbl). Ini milik sistem minyak bumi yang dapat
didefinisikan sebagai telah diisi dari Triassic-Jurassic laut karbonat tipe II
sumber batu lumpur batu dan memiliki Pleistosen reefoid berpasir waduk batu
kapur. Hal ini didefinisikan di sini sebagai Mesozoikum - Fufa (!) PS. Dua medan
minyak fi kecil, sekarang ditutup di, terletak di marjinal waduk pasir laut di
urutan Jurassic dan Trias thrusted, menunjukkan bahwa sistem petroleum
kedua hadir. Ini kita mengacu pada Mesozoikum - Manusela (.) PS, seperti
didefinisikan oleh
Howes dan Tisnawijaya (1995) . Sebuah penemuan baru dalam sistem minyak
bumi ini, Oseil lapangan, saat ini sedang dikembangkan ( Nilandaroe et al.,
2001 ). Itu Salawati Basin is characterized by a compact area with a rich
petroleum system, from which more than 300millionbbl of oil have been
produced from 15 fields (half of it from one field, Walio). We refer to it as the
Klasafet – Kais (!) PS. It is characterized by the following elements: Source
rock—late Miocene marine shales and
 PASAL DALAM PERS
124 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
marlstones (type II/III) of the Klasafet Formation; reservoir rock/trap—Kais
Formation limestones and dolomitic limestones in pinnacle reefs underlying
surface drape anticlines composed of sealing shales. The pinnacle reefs are
situated updip of the probable source kitchen to the north, allowing for efficient
migration from overlying shales into porous migration conduits. In this small
province with a single play, exploration has been highly efficient, as can be
seen from the creaming curve ( Howes and Tisnawijaya, 1995 ). Following the
mid-1970s few new discoveries have been made and, as in many carbonate
provinces, the production has since been in steep decline.
Two petroleum systems are developed in the Bintuni Basin area: the Tertiary
– Kais (.) PS and the Aifam – Roabiba
(!) PS in the pre-Tertiary sequence. The Tertiary–Kais system has yielded little
in the way of commercial oil discoveries, although with improved seismic, better
definition and location of reefal facies may be possible. The Aifam–Roabiba
system is by far the more important, giving rise to a major new LNG project
based on the over 18 tcf of certified gas reserves of the Tangguh field area.
The Roabiba sands, which form the primary reservoir, are similar in age and
properties to the highly productive Plover Fm, well known from Timor Sea
region of the Northwest shelf of Australia ( Whittam et al., 1996 ). A secondary
reservoir in Paleocene turbiditic sands is also present, but the reservoir
properties appear less uniform than those of the primary Roabiba sands.
Structural development in the Tangguh area was two fold: an early phase of
Late Mesozoic postrift folding, followed by Plio-Pleistocene compression
associated with the development of the Lengguru fold and thrust belt to the
east. Charge from the Permian/Jurassic source system was initiated during the
Pliocene by rapid subsidence and burial within a foreland setting west of the
Lengguru thrust front.
In the Tomori basin of East Sulawesi, two petroleum systems have been
observed to date. The first is the
Tomori – Tomori (.) PS in which oil has been found in fractured limestones of the
Lower Miocene Tomori Formation ( Davies, 1990 ). The reservoir facies is a
platform limestone, with lower porosity and permeability than the reefoid facies
seen elsewhere in the region. Charge for this system is derived from marine
shales and marls of the Lower Miocene Tomori Formation, which has
geochemical properties similar to those of the Klasafet Formation in the
Salawati basin (albeit of slightly different age). The second system is the Minahaki
– Mantawa (.) PS. Sistem ini meliputi serangkaian penemuan gas di reservoir
biohermal dari Akhir anggota Miosen Mantawa dari Formasi Minahaki. gas
tampaknya sebagian besar asal biogenik, yang berasal dari konversi bakteri
dari bahan organik di Minahaki dan Matindok sekitarnya batulempung.
Beberapa akumulasi gas memiliki rim minyak kecil dan hasil kondensat tinggi,
yang menunjukkan bahwa sistem sumber campuran aktif, dengan biaya
minyak yang berasal dari serpih Tomori yang mendasari ( Noble et al., 2000 ).
sumber daya gas di wilayah ini sedang
dinilai dengan kemungkinan pengembangan komersial masa depan untuk
pasar lokal maupun ekspor.
6. sistem petroleum umum dan perkembangan mereka
Dalam pembahasan di atas, kita telah membatasi sistem petroleum
diidentifikasi dan dibahas dengan yang terjadi di cekungan hidrokarbon
produktif di Indonesia dan yang diwakili oleh medan atau akumulasi berpotensi
komersial. Indikasi untuk sistem lain yang bisa, misalnya, dibuktikan dengan
menjanjikan cakrawala source rock dan / atau infiltrasi yang belum
dimasukkan, juga memiliki sistem petroleum potensi cekungan non-produktif
(yang ada beberapa). Alasan untuk ini adalah bahwa ketidakpastian terkait
dengan sistem minyak potensial dan spekulatif ini begitu besar sehingga ada
sedikit yang harus dipelajari dari mereka-bukan, pelajaran berasal dari sistem
yang dikenal dibahas di atas harus diterapkan untuk mengevaluasi potensi
mereka. Untuk daftar yang lebih lengkap sistem potensial dan spekulatif
(mereka yang tidak penemuan to date), Howes dan Tisnawijaya (1995)
dan Bradshaw et al. (1997) . Yang terakhir ini termasuk daftar sistem minyak
bumi di Zona Indonesia-Australia Kerjasama (Zoca).
Daftar sistem petroleum disajikan merupakan estimasi terbaik kami
berdasarkan prinsip mengelompokkan mereka dalam satu daerah cekungan
(seperti saat ini dalam penggunaan umum di Indonesia) yang didukung oleh
studi korelasi geokimia. Seperti meningkatkan terakhir, daftar akan perlu revisi
konstan.
6.1. sistem Petroleum dalam konteks tahap basin mereka
Sebagian besar sistem petroleum diidentifikasi di atas dapat dikelompokkan ke
dalam salah satu dari empat jenis sistem petroleum dijelaskan dari SE Asia secara
umum dengan Doust dan Lijmbach (1997) dan ditampilkan di Gambar. 15 . Dengan
demikian kita membuat link antara geologi minyak bumi dan evolusi cekungan,
sehingga kita dapat mengidentifikasi unsur-unsur umum dari sistem minyak bumi
yang dikembangkan dalam empat tahap cekungan dan membawa keluar variasi
dalam diri mereka-biasanya terakhir yang berkaitan dengan perbedaan urutan
lingkungan pengendapan. Kita dapat mengenali dua kategori di setiap jenis sistem
petroleum:
Kategori (i): Mereka di mana kedua sumber dan berbaring waduk dalam tahap
cekungan yang sama (yaitu PS merupakan bagian integral tahap itu).
Kategori (ii): Mereka di mana reservoir terletak pada yang lain, biasanya
lebih muda, baskom tahap dari sumber.
Jenis sistem petroleum dasar yang dijelaskan di bawah ini kadang-kadang
disingkat dalam teks dan fi gures untuk PST 1, PST 2, PST 3 dan PST 4:
1. Awal synrift Lacustrine jenis sistem petroleum (PST 1) Kategori (i)
Pematang-Pematang (!) PS (Central Sumatra Basin).

H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
Fig. 15. The four petroleum system types (PSTs) typical of Southeast Asian Tertiary basins and their relation to basin stages, from Doust and Lijmbach, (1997) . A number of the most important characteristics of
each are shown.
Banuwati-Harriet Mbr (.) PS,
cekungan).
Tanjung-Tanjung (!) PS, (Barito Basin). Kategori (ii)
Pematang-Sihapas (!) PS, waduk di PST 2 (Central Sumatra
Basin).
Pematang-Duri (!) PS, waduk di PST 3 (Central Sumatra Basin).
Benua-Gabus (!) PS, waduk di PST 2 (West Natuna Sea).
Banuwati-Talang Akar (!) PS, waduk di PST 2 (Sunda / Asri
cekungan).
Ngimbang-Kujung (.) PS, waduk di PST 2 (NE Java Basin).
Ngimbang-Ngrayong (.) PS, waduk di PST 3 (NE Java Basin).
Ngimbang-Pliosen (.) PS, waduk di PST 4 (NE Java Basin).
Tanjung-Kutei (.) PS, waduk di PST 3 (Kutai Basin).
2. Akhir synrift jenis sistem transgresif fluvio-delta minyak bumi (PST 2)
Kategori (i)
Talang Akar-Talang Akar (!) PS, termasuk kemungkinan biaya dari
PST 1 (Sumatera Selatan Basin). Kategori (ii)
Bampo-Peutu (!) PS, waduk di PST 3 (North Sumatra Basin).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
125
(Sunda / Asri Talang Akar–Palembang (.) PS, reservoir in PST 4 (South Sumatra
Basin).
Talang Akar–Main/Massive (!) PS, reservoir in PST 3 (NW Java
Basin). Talang Akar–Jatibarang (.) PS, reservoir in PST 1
(Jatibarang tuffs onshore Java).
3. Early Postrift Marine petroleum system type (PST 3) Category (i)
Gumai–Gumai (.) PS (South Sumatra Basin). Tertiary–Terumbu
(.) PS, origin of charge unknown (East Natuna Sea).
Klinjau–Klinjau (.) PS (Mahakam Delta Basin). Klasafet–Kais (!)
PS (Salawati Basin). Tertiary–Kais (.) PS Bintuni Basin.
Tomori–Tomori (.) PS Tomori Basin.
4. Late Postrift Regressive Deltaic petroleum system type (PST 4)
Category (i)
Baong–Keutapang (!) PS (North Sumatra Basin).
Balikpapan–Balikpapan (!) PS (Mahakam Delta Basin).
Miocene–Mio/Pliocene (.) PS (Deepwater Makassar Straits).
Tabul–Tarakan (!) PS (Tarakan Basin). Category (ii)
Tertiary–Belumai (.) PS, source possible Baong, reservoir in PST 3
(North Sumatra Basin).
 PASAL DALAM PERS
126 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
A number of petroleum systems do not lend themselves to classification in
the four PSTs. These include:
Biogenic–Parigi (.) PS, for which the charge is biogenic rather than
thermogenic (NW Java);
Mesozoic–Fufa (!) PS, charge from prerift Mesozoic into reservoir in PST 4
(Bula Basin);
Mesozoic–Manusela (.) PS, charge and reservoir in the prerift Mesozoic
(Bula Basin);
Aifam–Roabiba (!) PS, charge from pre-Mesozoic, reservoir in Mesozoic
early post rift (Bintuni Basin); and
Minahaki–Mantawa (.) PS, biogenic charge from Late Miocene sediments
(Tomori BSIN).
7. Basin families, their tectonostratigraphic evolution and prospectivity
The distribution of the petroleum systems identified is dependent on the
sedimentary basin history. Knowledge of the syn- and postrift basin evolution
and the succession of depositional environments makes it possible to identify
and/or predict which petroleum systems (and their constituent plays) may be
present. To aid this, we have distinguished a number of characteristic
Indonesian basin families, which have distinct ‘‘trajectories’’ ( Doust, 2003 )
through a matrix of deepening depositional environment and basin
development phase ( Fig. 16 ).
Proximal basins: These are basins that throughout their development
maintained relatively proximal depositional environments. They are located
close to the core of the preTertiary Sunda Craton.
Evolution: Early Synrift, lacustrine; Late Synrift, deltaic; Early Postrift,
marine (clastic); Late Postrift, deltaic.
Dominant petroleum system type(s): PST 1 Early Synrift Lacustrine.
Example basins: Central Sumatra, West Natuna, Asri.
Gambar. 16. Petroleum sistem jenis di Indonesia dikelompokkan ke dalam keluarga menunjukkan evolusi lingkungan pengendapan dalam kaitannya dengan tahap cekungan tektonik, setelah Doust (2003). '' Lintasan '' dari
proksimal, Intermediate, distal dan Borneo (Kalimantan) cekungan yang akan ditampilkan.
cekungan proksimal yang sangat minyak rawan, menerima biaya dari yang
kaya synrift awal endapan danau ke delta batuan sumber. Waduk terbaik dan
sebagian besar akumulasi hidrokarbon yang terletak di akhir synrift klastik
delta, yang mendasari segel postrift dini regional. Pemeliharaan lingkungan
proksimal menyiratkan bahwa penurunan terbatas, dan kedewasaan sering
merupakan masalah krusial: biasanya medan terletak langsung di atas synrift
awal sumber dapur aktif.
cekungan menengah: Ini memiliki perkembangan synrift biasanya proksimal,
tetapi menjalani subsidence lebih besar dalam postrift, di mana mereka
ditandai dengan lingkungan yang lebih distal.
Evolusi: Awal synrift, endapan danau ke delta; Akhir synrift, delta; Awal
Postrift, kelautan (klastik dan karbonat); Akhir Postrift, delta.
jenis sistem petroleum dominan (s): PST 2 Late Synrift Transgressive
Deltaic, PST 1 Early Synrift Lacustrine, with minor PST 3 Early Postrift
Marine.
Example basins: South Sumatra, East Natuna, Sunda, NW Java onshore,
NE Java onshore, Barito.
cekungan Menengah mengandung keragaman terbesar dari jenis sistem
minyak bumi, berkat campuran mereka biaya synrift dan postrift kaya waduk.
Mereka berdua minyak dan gas berkat rentan terhadap penurunan
ditingkatkan, yang membawa synrift terlambat untuk jatuh tempo, sehingga
memungkinkan untuk biaya dari campuran awal dan akhir endapan danau
synrift dan sumber delta. Kehadiran laut klastik dan karbonat waduk ditutupi
oleh serpih laut daerah meningkatkan efisiensi dari cekungan. Almarhum urut
postrift delta mengandung batuan sumber hitam legam dan pasir waduk, tetapi
jatuh tempo tidak tercapai, sehingga biaya untuk tingkat ini dapat dicapai
hanya apabila segel postrift dini adalah proksimal dan dilanggar (seperti di
daerah Jambi Sumatera Selatan).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Doust, R.A. Noble / Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103–129
cekungan distal: cekungan distal menempati tepi craton preTertiary Sunda,
dan memiliki sebuah sejarah subsidence substansial atau berada distal
terhadap postrift perkembangan mengangkat dan delta.
Evolusi: Awal synrift, delta; Akhir synrift, kelautan; Awal Postrift, kelautan
(karbonat dan klastik); Akhir Postrift, delta ke laut yang lebih dalam.
jenis sistem petroleum dominan (s): PST 2 Akhir synrift transgresif delta,
PST 3 Awal Postrift Kelautan, PST 4 Akhir Postrift Regresif delta.
Contoh cekungan: Sumatera Utara, NW Java lepas pantai, Jawa NE lepas pantai.
cekungan distal yang terbuka ke laut di synrift awal dan kehilangan
pengembangan endapan danau, sehingga sebagian besar dari biaya yang
terestrial (delta dan / atau laut). Akibatnya, mereka cenderung lebih gas rentan
(kecuali dalam kasus bagian selatan Sumatera Utara, di mana sumber dan
waduk berada di tahap postrift). Dalam banyak kasus, waduk utama adalah
karbonat-ini postrift awal cekungan berada di luar pengaruh dari wedges klastik
Tersier.
cekungan Borneo: The Kutei-Mahakam dan Tarakan cekungan Kalimantan
milik keluarga yang dikembangkan pada akhir Mesozoikum ke kerak Tersier
dan kemudian datang untuk berbaring di sepanjang margin benua pasif. tahap
awal evolusi cekungan menjadi sasaran inversi luas dan hanya postrift akhir
kontribusi untuk geologi minyak bumi.
Evolution: Early Synrift, alluvial; Late Synrift, deep marine; Early Postrift,
deep marine (carbonate and clastic); Late Postrift, deltaic to deeper marine.
Dominant petroleum system type(s): PST 4 Late Postrift Regressive
Deltaic.
Example basins: Kutei–Mahakam, Tarakan.
These basins show the late postrift prospectivity best— they are very rich,
with excellent deltaic reservoirs and source rocks. The interbedded nature of
the source, reservoir and seals results in multiple stacked accumulations,
containing major reserves of both oil and gas.
Eastern Indonesian basins: These basins have complex and variable
histories, in which the tectonic development is spread over the Mesozoic and
Tertiary. Nevertheless, we can still identify similar patterns as in the other
basins in the Tertiary.
Evolusi: synrift Awal, laut terbuka untuk air yang dalam; Akhir synrift,
karbonat dan deltaics; Awal Postrift, platform karbonat dan klastik laut;
Akhir Postrift, delta.
jenis sistem Petroleum dominan (s): Mesozoikum-Tersier, PST 3 Awal
Postrift Kelautan.
Contoh cekungan: Tomori, Bula, Salawati, Bintuni.
Dalam Salawati, Tersier Bintuni dan Tomori cekungan, biaya tampaknya
timbul dari Miosen sumber batu. Di
127
daerah lain, batuan Mesozoikum dan pra-Mesozoikum dengan kuat afinitas
untuk urutan Australia menyediakan baik sumber dan waduk.
Detail lebih lanjut tentang parameter habitat hidrokarbon yang berkaitan
dengan lingkungan direpresentasikan dalam berbagai jenis cekungan
dijelaskan di atas dalam bagian pada aspek sistem hidrokarbon.
It is interesting to note that, as with many basins, Indonesian basins usually
comprise suites of proximal to distal environments at each stage in their
history. The characteristics of the various basin types noted above, therefore,
can be applied to the description and evaluation of portions of basins as much
as to that of the basins as a whole. The basin families referred to are elements
of a much larger system of similar basins, developed throughout the Tertiary of
the Far East and SE Asia ( Doust and Sumner, 2007 ).
8. Summary and conclusions
Indonesian petroliferous basins share a number of important characteristics:
most are Tertiary in age and pass through early Tertiary synrift to late Tertiary
postrift stages of geological development. They are filled with non-marine to
marine sediments subject to rapid environmentallycontrolled facies variations
and receive charge almost exclusively from terrestrial and/or lacustrine source
material.
The petroleum systems present in the various basins can be classified into
four PSTs, which can be related directly to the main stages of basin
development. These PSTs are:
Early Synrift Lacustrine PST—strongly oil-prone, thanks to charge from rich
lacustrine source rocks, located in the deeper Eocene to Oligocene parts of
the rift basins.
Late Synrift Transgressive Deltaic PST—commonly with oil and gas derived
from terrestrial deltaic source rocks, occupying the shallower Oligocene to
early Miocene parts of the rift basins. Early Postrift Marine PST—mainly
gas prone, with charge from marine shales, corresponding to an early
Miocene period of transgression that flooded the synrift grabens and their
surrounding platforms. Late Postrift Regressive Deltaic PST—oil and gas
prone, derived from rich deltaic terrestrial source rocks deposited in deltas
that prograded out over the basins in the late Tertiary in response to
collisional and inversion events.
The development and distribution of petroleum systems in Indonesian
basins is dependent on a number of factors, including the source rock facies
and maturity, variability in the development of reservoir facies, whether the
sealing horizons are intra-formational or regional in extent and on the style and
development of structural traps. Charge cannot in general be ascribed to
individual source horizons
 PASAL DALAM PERS
128 H. Doust, RA Noble / Kelautan dan Geologi Minyak 25 (2008) 103-129
and it is clear that considerable mixing has taken place. This is reflected in the
fact that in many cases an older and deeper-lying PST has apparently charged
reservoirs belonging to shallower PSTs.
Not surprisingly, the predominant depositional environment and lithofacies
of the basins dictates the predominant petroleum system type that is present.
We have recognized the following ‘‘basin families’’, based on their location with
respect to the continental core of SE Asia, the Sunda Craton:
Proximal basins (e.g., Central Sumatra, West Natuna, Asri) in which the
Early Synrift Lacustrine PST is predominant.
Intermediate basins (e.g. South Sumatra, East Natuna, Sunda, onshore
Java, Barito), which contain both synrift PSTs as well as, in some cases, a
contribution from the Early Postrift Marine PST.
Distal basins (e.g. North Sumatra, Java offshore) in which the dominant
PSTs are the Late Synrift Transgressive Deltaic and the Marine and
Regressive Deltaic PSTs of the postrift.
Borneo basins (e.g. Kutei–Mahakam, Tarakan) in which only the Late
Postrift Regressive Deltaic PST is developed.
Eastern Indonesian basins (e.g. Tomori, Bula, Salawati, Bintuni) in which
the petroleum system is either Mesozoic or belongs to the Early Postrift
Marine PST.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all of the authors whose work over the years has
contributed so abundantly to knowledge of Indonesian petroleum
geology—without them a synthesis of the main trends, as we have attempted
here, would be impossible. One of us (H.D.) is also grateful to Shell
International Petroleum Company for the opportunity (in the 1990s) to study,
with an outstanding team, the fascinating geology of Far East Tertiary basins.
Some of the ideas presented here were conceived during this period.
R.A.N. is grateful for the support of Unocal Indonesia Company and for their
permission to publish this article. Finally, we are very grateful to anonymous
reviewers who helped us in many ways to increase the quality and consistency
of the text.
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