Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) possesses two isoforms of plastidic ATP/ADP transporters (AtNTT1 and AtNTT2) exhibiting
similar biochemical properties. To analyze the function of both isoforms on the molecular level, we examined the expression
pattern of both genes by northern-blot analysis and promoter-b-glucuronidase fusions. AtNTT1 represents a sugar-induced
gene mainly expressed in stem and roots, whereas AtNTT2 is expressed in several Arabidopsis tissues with highest
accumulation in developing roots and young cotyledons. Developing lipid-storing seeds hardly contained AtNTT1 or -2
transcripts. The absence of a functional AtNTT1 gene affected plant development only slightly, whereas AtNTT2::T-DNA,
AtNTT1-2::T-DNA, and RNA interference (RNAi) plants showed retarded plant development, mainly characterized by
a reduced ability to generate primary roots and a delayed chlorophyll accumulation in seedlings. Electron microscopic
examination of chloroplast substructure also revealed an impaired formation of thylakoids in RNAi seedlings. Moreover,
RNAi- and AtNTT1-2::T-DNA plants showed reduced accumulation of the nuclear-encoded protein CP24 during deetiolation.
Under short-day conditions reduced plastidic ATP import capacity correlates with a substantially reduced plant growth rate.
This effect is absent under long-day conditions, strikingly indicating that nocturnal ATP import into chloroplasts is important.
Plastidic ATP/ADP transport activity exerts significant control on lipid synthesis in developing Arabidopsis seeds. In total we
made the surprising observation that plastidic ATP/ADP transport activity is not required to pass through the complete plant
life cycle. However, plastidic ATP/ADP-transporter activity is required for both an undisturbed development of young tissues
and a controlled cellular metabolism in mature leaves.
ATP represents the universal energy currency of all do not show substantial structural similarities to the
living cells. Due to both size and charge, adenylates do functional AAC homologs in mitochondria (Winkler
not cross biomembranes freely, making the involve- and Neuhaus, 1999). In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thali-
ment of highly specific transport proteins necessary. In ana), two plastidic ATP/ADP transporters are present,
eukaryotic cells mitochondria export ATP previously and both exhibit very similar biochemical transport
generated via oxidative phosphorylation at the matrix properties when heterologously expressed in Escher-
site in strict counter exchange to cytosolic ADP. The ichia coli (Möhlmann et al., 1998; Tjaden et al., 1998b).
corresponding ADP/ATP carriers (AAC) function The main function of plastidic ATP/ADP trans-
as dimers, comprising two identical subunits, each porters is the supply of storage plastids with ATP
exhibiting six predicted transmembrane domains (Schünemann et al., 1993; Kang and Rawsthorne, 1994;
(Klingenberg, 1989). AAC proteins belong to the best Neuhaus and Emes, 2000). In potato (Solanum tuber-
characterized solute transporters and are the subject of osum) tubers, the plastidic ATP/ADP transporter ex-
numerous publications (Fiore et al., 1998). erts significant control on starch accumulation (Tjaden
We identified the plastidic ATP/ADP transporter as et al., 1998a), leading to a high-flux control coefficient
a second type of eukaryotic-adenylate carrier protein within this metabolic pathway (Geigenberger et al.,
(Kampfenkel et al., 1995). Plastidic ATP/ADP trans- 2001). In contrast, a recently made metabolite flux
porters exist in all higher and lower plants analyzed so analysis on developing rapeseed (Brassica napus) em-
far (Linka et al., 2003), exhibit 11 to 12 predicted trans- bryos indicated that ATP import into corresponding
membrane domains (Winkler and Neuhaus, 1999), and plastids is not required to achieve high rates of lipid
biosynthesis (Schwender et al., 2004).
All orthologs of the plastidic ATP/ADP transporter,
1
e.g. the two isoforms from Arabidopsis, a potato
This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemein- ortholog, or an ortholog from the primitive red alga
schaft, Schwerpunktprogramm 1108 (Pflanzenmembrantransport).
2 Galderia sulfuralia, exhibit similar transport properties
This paper is dedicated to a nestor of plant physiology and great
biologist, Prof. Dr. Dr. hc Erwin Latzko (Kranzberg, Germany), on
in respect to substrate specificity and substrate affinity
the occasion of his 80th birthday. (Möhlmann et al., 1998; Tjaden et al., 1998a, 1998b;
* Corresponding author; e-mail neuhaus@rhrk.uni-kl.de; fax Linka et al., 2003). Therefore, the observation of similar
0631–205–2600. transport properties and the contradictory information
Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at on the involvement of plastidic ATP/ADP transport-
www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/doi/10.1104/pp.104.049502. ers in plastidic storage product synthesis (Tjaden et al.,
3524 Plant Physiology, November 2004, Vol. 136, pp. 3524–3536, www.plantphysiol.org Ó 2004 American Society of Plant Biologists
Plastidic ATP/ADP Transporter
accumulated in days 1 and 2, and declined from day 3 genic plants harboring either an AtNTT1-promoter::
to a level still above the AtNTT1 mRNA (Fig. 1C). GUS- or AtNTT2-promoter::GUS gene, respectively.
To reveal whether plastidic ATP/ADP-transporter During the first 6 d of development the AtNTT1
gene expression responds on altered sugar availabil- promoter is hardly active (Fig. 2A). At day 2 AtNTT1
ities, we floated source leaf discs in either water promoter activity is slightly detectable in the center of
(control) or 100 mM Glc or Suc (Fig. 1D). The incuba- the primary root (Fig. 2A), and at day 6 cells compris-
tion of leaf discs for 24 h in water did not alter the ing the vascular structures in photosynthesizing coty-
levels of AtNTT1 or AtNTT2 mRNA (Fig. 1D). In ledons exhibited AtNTT1 promoter activities (Fig. 2A).
contrast, the presence of Glc or Suc strongly increased In contrast to this, AtNTT2 promoter activity is very
the accumulation of AtNTT1 mRNA but did not in- high at day 1, especially in the root tip and developing
fluence AtNTT2 mRNA concentration (Fig. 1D). cotyledons (Fig. 2A). At day 3, highest AtNTT2 pro-
To perform a second independent approach to study moter activity is detectable in the root hair zone and at
regulation of gene expression, we generated trans- the basis of cotyledons. At day 6, we still observed
Figure 4. Molecular characterization of homozygous AtNTT2 knock- Analysis of Germination and Growth Pattern of
out mutants. A, Analysis of the AtNTT2-T-DNA-insertion line Garlic_ Wild-Type and Transgenic Arabidopsis Plants
288_E08.b.1a.Lb3FA (designated AtNTT2::T-DNA). The insertion in
AtNTT2::T-DNA is localized in the second exon. The primers used for After 1 d of germination, Arabidopsis shows a pri-
PCR analysis are marked as arrows. Primer NTT2/4 was chosen from mary root of about 3 to 4 mm length, exhibiting a root
the AtNTT2-promoter region, primer NTT2/2 from the 3#-untranslated hair zone of about 1 mm following the root tip (Fig.
region, and GARLIC_LB-primer from the left border of the T-DNA. B, 6A). Mutant plants lacking the functional transporter
PCR analysis on genomic DNA of wild-type (WT) and homozygous
AtNTT2::T-DNA mutants. C, RT-PCR analysis of the expression of the
AtNTT2-genes in wild-type and in AtNTT2::T-DNA mutant plants.
cDNA was isolated from rosette leaves. Actin PCR revealed correct PCR
conditions. D, Northern-blot analysis of wild-type and AtNTT2::T-DNA
mutant plants. Total RNA was extracted from rosette leaves. EtBr
staining revealed equal RNA loading. Blots were hybridized with
AtNTT1 or AtNTT2 specific probes, respectively.
To complete our picture on the effects of altered wild-type seedlings after already 8 h of light induction
NTT gene expression on chloroplast development, we (Fig. 8B). CP24 levels in corresponding RNAi tissue
additionally analyzed the accumulation of nuclear- (lines 10, 9, and 14) and null mutants were signifi-
encoded chloroplast protein during initiation of cantly lower than in wild-type tissue (Fig. 8B, and data
deetiolation. For this, we germinated wild-type, RNAi, not shown). After 24 h of light incubation, CP24 levels
and null mutant seedlings for 6 d in the dark and were high in wild-type tissue and still significantly
illuminated etiolated seedlings for 8 or 24 h (at lower in RNAi- (lines 10, 9, and 14) and null mutants
100 mmol quanta m2 s21). Subsequently, the change (Fig. 8B; data not shown).
in the chlorophyll content was monitored, and the Besides the direct import of ATP via a plastidic
accumulation of chlorophyll-binding protein CP24, as ATP/ADP transporter, plastids may regenerate en-
indicator for altered plastidic protein import/matura- dogenous ATP via glycolytic enzyme activities. To
tion capacity, was examined by western-blot analysis. raise evidence on an up-regulation of plastidic glyco-
After 6 d of dark incubation, the chlorophyll levels lytic activity during deetiolation in mutants, we quan-
in wild-type and all mutant seedlings were similarly tified the level of mRNAs encoding enzymes and
low and amounted to less than 0.01 mg/plant (Fig. transporters involved. For this we germinated wild-
8A). After 8 and 24 h of illumination the chlorophyll type or RNAi plants for 6 d in the dark and illumi-
level in wild-type leaves increased already to about nated subsequently etiolated seedlings for 8 h before
0.045 mg/g fresh weight (FW) and 0.160 mg/g FW, cDNA was prepared. Gene-specific primers were
respectively (Fig. 8A). In contrast, RNAi lines 10, 9, 14, chosen to amplify about 500-bp fragments coding for
and the null mutant showed much less chlorophyll either plastidic phosphoglycerate kinases 1 and 2;
accumulation, amounting to only about 0.050 mg/g pyruvate kinases 1, 2, and 3; or plastidic triose P/P,
FW after 24 h of illumination (Fig. 8A; data no shown). Glc 6-P/P, phosphoenolpyruvate/P transporters 1 and
This reveals that also during the sudden induction of 2, and xyluose 5-P/P transporter. We observed in-
deetiolation, mutant plants showed a reduced capacity creased mRNA levels of plastidic PGK1, PK1, and PK3
for chlorophyll synthesis. in RNAi plants compared to wild-type plants (Fig. 9),
In none of the Arabidopsis lines analyzed was CP24 whereas the mRNA levels of the PGK2, PK2, and all
detectable after 6 d of dark germination (Fig. 8B). plastidic phosphate transporters have not been
However, appreciable levels of CP24 were present in changed substantially in mutant tissues (Fig. 9).
Wild-type and AtNTT1::T-DNA plants grown for
50 d under short-day conditions exhibited an average
rosette size of about 12 cm (Fig. 10A; data not shown).
AtNTT2::T-DNA plants, RNAi, or null mutants
showed, however, a strongly reduced average size of
the leaf rosette, approaching only 6 and 3 cm on
average (Fig. 10A; data not shown). Interestingly,
under long-day conditions (16 h light/d), the growth
difference between wild-type plants and null mutants
is nearly abolished (Fig. 10B).
The observation that RNAi and null mutants ex-
hibited severely impaired growth tempted us to study
physiological and morphological changes in these
mutants in more detail. As the impaired growth is
due to processes connected to a reduced plastidic ATP
supply under conditions of long-night phases we first
focused on changes in starch levels at the end of the
day and night phase. However, we did not observe
specific changes in transitory starch metabolism in
AtNTT1-; AtNTT2::T-DNA; RNAi lines 10, 9, and 14; or
in null mutants when compared to wild-type leaves
(plants were grown under short-day conditions). All
plant lines exhibited starch contents equivalent to
Figure 8. Chlorophyll content and accumulation of nuclear-encoded about 30 mmol C6/mg chlorophyll at the end of the
CP24 protein in wild-type and mutant plants. Wild-type and transgenic day and about 7.5 mmol C6/mg chlorophyll at the end
seedlings were germinated for 6 d in the dark, and etiolated seedlings
of the night.
were subsequently illuminated for up to 24 h (at 100 mmol quanta m2
s21). A, Change in the chlorophyll content during illumination. For each
measurement, 0.1-g seedlings without root tissue were harvested (wild Seed Quality Produced by Arabidopsis Plants with
type, black bar; RNAi, gray bar; AtNTT1-2::T-DNA, white bar). B, Reduced Plastidic ATP/ADP-Transporter Activity
Accumulation of chlorophyll-binding protein CP24 during illumina-
tion. Western-blot analysis was carried out using a polyclonal anti- To analyze the effect of reduced plastidic ATP/
serum raised against the purified CP24 protein. ADP-transporter activity on seed quality, we grew
3530 Plant Physiol. Vol. 136, 2004
Plastidic ATP/ADP Transporter
DISCUSSION
Figure 10. Growth analysis of wild-type and null mutants. Plants were
Regulation of NTT Isoform Expression grown on soil for 50 d in a climate-controlled growth chamber at 22°C
and 100 mmol quanta m2 s21. A, Growth pattern under short-day
ATP represents a uniquely important cellular- conditions (10 h light). B, Growth pattern under long-day conditions
energy source and is required in most cell compart- (16 h light).
In the case of developing leaf tissue several pro- seeds is remarkable low (Figs. 1B and 2C). Obviously,
cesses are negatively affected by reduced plastidic even low mRNA levels allow the maintenance of
ATP/ADP-transporter activity. First, the accumulation sufficient plastidic ATP import capacity.
of chlorophyll is delayed in AtNTT2::T-DNA-, It is important to note that the reduced seed oil
AtNTT1-2::T-DNA, and RNAi seedlings (Figs. 7A and phenotype is evident under long-day conditions,
8A). Second, the generation of functional thylakoid where the effects of gene knockout on whole-plant
structures is impaired in plants with strongly reduced physiology, and hence maternal carbon supply to the
plastidic ATP import capabilities (Fig. 7C); and third, embryo, were absent. These effects on storage product
the accumulation of nuclear-encoded proteins in content are therefore likely to be specific to alterations
developing-mutant chloroplasts is reduced (Fig. 8B). to NNT gene expression in the seed. From this result
Both chlorophyll synthesis and protein import are we conclude that, similar to rapeseed and cauliflower
dependent upon the presence of ATP at the stromal (Brassica oleracea) inflorescence plastids (Möhlmann
site (Soll and Tien, 1998; Buchanan et al., 2000), and the et al., 1994; Eastmond and Rawsthorne, 1998), Arabi-
inhibition of both processes in mutant plastids strik- dopsis embryo plastids need to import cytosolic ATP
ingly show that alternative routes for ATP regenera- to achieve the highest rates of lipid synthesis. This
tion do not compensate for insufficient import conclusion is fully consistent with recent observations
capacity. Interestingly, we did not observe an accumu- that the overall energy status of developing rapeseed
lation of CP24 preprotein in mutant tissues exhibiting seeds correlate with lipid synthesis (Vigeolas et al.,
impaired accumulation of the mature CP24 protein 2003).
(Fig. 8B). This observation might indicate that a so-far However, Arabidopsis embryo plastids obviously
unknown signaling exists between the developing possess, in addition to ATP/ADP-transporter pro-
chloroplast and the nucleus regulating the expression teins, endogenous sources for ATP regeneration be-
of genes encoding for chloroplastic proteins. It should cause the absence of both transporter activities does
be mentioned here that we were not able to compare not correlate with a total loss of storage product (Fig.
altered NTT mRNA accumulation in transgenic mu- 11B). In general two other metabolic pathways might
tant lines with alterations of corresponding transport allow stromal regeneration of ATP: First, chlorophyll-
protein levels. For such analysis we will attempt to containing embryo plastids might regenerate ATP by
generate isoform-specific antisera in the near future. photo-phosphorylation. Secondly, stromal-located gly-
colytic sequences might regenerate ATP at the enzymic
Reduced ATP Supply into Developing Seed Plastids steps catalyzed by phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), or
Limits Lipid Accumulation pyruvate kinase (PK). We would like to exclude the
first possibility, since in case of rapeseed the light
We showed in the past that starch accumulation in transmission into the developing seed tissue is sup-
potato tubers is strongly affected by altering the posed to be too low (Eastmond et al., 1996). Moreover,
plastidic ATP/ADP-transporter activity (Tjaden et al., rapeseed mutants showing strongly reduced chloro-
1998a) leading to a high metabolic-flux control co- phyll levels in developing embryos did not contain
efficient (Geigenberger et al., 2001). Therefore, we less lipids than wild-type plants (Tsang et al., 2003).
analyzed whether reduced plastidic ATP import ca- These independent observations point to stromal
pacity governs the end-product accumulation in Ara- glycolysis as the alternative source for endogenous
bidopsis embryos to a similar extent as observed in ATP resynthesis. This assumption is substantiated by
potato. This analysis was further encouraged, since the demonstration that Glc 6-phosphate is a very
experiments on isolated rapeseed seed-embryo plas- suitable carbon precursor for fatty-acid synthesis in
tids showed that the highest rates of fatty-acid syn- rapeseed plastids (Kang and Rawsthorne, 1996). In
thesis depend upon the supply with exogenous ATP addition, the observation that developing leaf plastids
(Eastmond and Rawsthorne, 1998; Rawsthorne, 2002), from RNAi plants exhibited increased accumulation of
whereas a recently developed mathematical carbon- plastidial PGK- and PK mRNAs during deetiolation
flux model indicated that net ATP import is not (Fig. 9) might indicate that heterotrophic Arabidop-
required for maximal fatty-acid synthesis in rapeseed sis plastids use endogenous glycolysis for ATP re-
embryos (Schwender et al., 2004). synthesis. The latter observation is moreover in full
As given in Figure 11, AtNTT1::T-DNA did not show agreement with the demonstration of a DHAP-driven
altered seed weight, lipid, and protein content when ATP production in etioplasts from dark-grown barley
compared to wild-type seeds, whereas AtNTT2:: leaves (Batz et al., 1992). Obviously, some types of
T-DNA seeds showed reduced weight, which corre- heterotrophic plastids use endogenous glycolysis for
lates with reduced levels of lipids and storage protein stromal ATP production, which contribute to energize
(Fig. 11, A–C). Strongest reduction of the lipid content anabolic reactions and compensate partly the lack of
showed seeds generated from double-knockout mu- plastidic ATP import capacity in mutant plants (Figs.
tants as these seeds contained only about 50% of the 6, 7, 8, 10, and 11). Moreover, the observation that
lipid content present in wild-type seeds (Fig. 11B). This mRNA coding for plastidic glycolytic enzymes specif-
result is surprising, because the expression level of ically accumulated in deetiolating plastids from RNAi
NTT1 and NTT2 mRNA in developing siliques and plants (Fig. 9) might indicate that the stromal ATP
Plant Physiol. Vol. 136, 2004 3533
Reiser et al.
(energy) status is sensed and governs expression of TACC-3#. The sense construct was restricted with XhoI and EcoRI and the
antisense construct with XbaI and BamHI. Restriction sites added by the
genes allowing regeneration of ATP by alternative primers ensured the correct orientation of the resulting sense and antisense
sources. constructs. The resulting pHANNIBALL constructs were subcloned as NotI
fragments into pART27, and the final plasmid was subsequently transformed
into Agrobacterium. Transformation of Arabidopsis was conducted according
to the floral-dip method.
CONCLUSION
Arabidopsis contains two isoforms of plastidic ATP/ Generation of AtNTT1::Promoter-GUS and
ADP transporter to allow an optimal spatially and AtNTT2::Promoter-GUS Plants
developmentally regulated adaptation of gene expres- For the generation of promoter-GUS constructs the binary vector pGPTV
sion. Surprisingly, Arabidopsis does not need plastidic (Becker et al., 1992) containing the b-glucuronidase-(uidA-) gene from Escher-
ATP/ADP-transporter activity to pass through the ichia coli was used. For the generation of promoter-GUS fusion constructs
complete developmental cycle. However, plastidic a promoter region of about 1.4 kb of either the AtNTT1 or AtNTT2 gene was
ATP/ADP-transporter activity is required for a con- cloned upstream of the GUS gene. The promoter region of the AtNTT1 or
AtNTT2 gene (including 21 bp of the coding region) was amplified by PCR
trolled development of young tissues, especially shown from genomic DNA. Both promoters were sequenced to check that the correct
for roots and cotyledons, and is required in mature products were amplified. For amplification of the AtNTT1 promoter the
chloroplasts at night. The absence of plastidic ATP following primers were used: JR1-sense, 5#-TGGACCTACATATGGGTTC-
import in developing embryo tissue correlates with GATTCGACTCC-3#; and JR2ant, 5#-AAGAGAGAAGCCCCCGGGTTT-
GAATCACAGC-3#. For amplification of the AtNTT2 promoter the following
a reduction of lipid accumulation, which however still primers were used: JR3-sense, 5#-GGAAGAATCTGAAGTTTTGGAACCC-3#;
occurs at appreciable levels. This observation points to and JR4-anti, 5#-GAGAGAATTCCCCGGGTTTGAATCAG-3#. After blunt-
an ATP regeneration by stromal-located glycolytic end ligation of the PCR products in T7 orientation into the SmaI-restricted
enzymes, which seems to participate on ATP provision. pBSK vector, both promoters were restricted with HindIII and SmaI and
subsequently inserted in frame with the GUS gene. The resulting constructs
were used for Agrobacterium transformation. Transformation of Arabidopsis
was as given above.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
AtNTT1 (AtNTT1::T-DNA) and AtNTT2 (AtNTT2:: Generation of AtNTT1- and AtNTT2-Specific Probes
T-DNA) Knockout Mutant Plants for Northern-Blot Analysis
The heterozygous AtNTT1::T-DNA mutant plant (Salk_013530) was pro- Gene-specific probes, each corresponding to the respective 3#untrans-
vided by the SALK library. In that mutant the T-DNA is located in the first lated region, were generated by PCR on cDNA. AtNTT1-specific probes
exon of AtNTT1 (locus At1g80300) on bp position 777. The heterozygous were amplified with the following primers: At1oligo3sense, 5#-GGA-
AtNTT2::T-DNA mutant (GARLIC_ 288_E08.b.1a.Lb3Fa) was provided by the GAAATCTGCTCC-3#; and At1oligo1anti, 5#-ACTTCAACGATACACA-
Torrey Mesa Research Institute (San Diego). In that mutant the T-DNA is CAAAGG-3#. AtNTT2-specific probes were amplified with the following
located in the second exon of AtNTT2 (locus At1g15500) on bp position 1,015. primers: At2oligo3sense, 5#-ACTGGCATTTAGACG-3#; and At2oligo1anti,
To confirm that we generated homozygous mutants after backcrossing, 5#-CTAGTTTGGTATTGG-3#. The PCR products were subsequently cloned
we used gene- and T-DNA-specific primers. For PCR on genomic DNA into the pGEMTeasy vector. For northern-blot analysis the cloned fragments
the following primers were used: NTT1/1 (5#-TTTCTTCTGTGTATCTG- were excised, separated by gel electophoresis, gel purified, and radioac-
CGGGAGAGAGTG-3#); NTT1/2 (5#-CTTTCTTTCCCCCCCAACAAAACC- tively labeled with [a32P]-dCTP by random priming, using the Ready To Go
AAATA-3#); SALK_LB (5#-ACTCAACCCTATCTCGGGCTATTC-3#); NTT2/4 kit (Amersham-Pharmacia, Freiburg, Germany).
(5#-TCTCTTCTCCTCTCTACCCAGAGC-3#); NTT2/2 (5#-CCAAATCCCAA-
AACCCTTTTATTCATC-3#); and GARLIC_LB (5#-TAGCATCTGAATTTCA- Gene Expression Studies
TAACCAATCCGATACAC-3#).
Poly(A1) mRNA was isolated from rosette leaves or whole seedlings (0.1 g
each) by use of Dynabeads (Dynal AS, Oslo) and converted to cDNA by
Generation of Double-Knockout Plants reverse transcription (SuperscriptII, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). For semi-
(AtNTT1-2::T-DNA) quantitative RT-PCR reactions were carried out with 1 mL template and 1 unit
Taq-Polymerase in a total volume of 50 mL. PCR conditions were 3 min at
To generate double-knockout mutants (designated AtNTT1-2::T-DNA)
95°C, followed by 25 cycles of 30 s at 96°C, 30 s at 50°C, and 60 s at 72°C.
lacking both functional plastidic ATP/ADP-transporter genes, homozygous
Primers used for amplification are listed. Gene-specific primers were used to
AtNTT1::T-DNA and homozygous AtNTT2::T-DNA mutant plants were
amplify PCR products of 450 to 550 bp. The following primers were used:
crossed. Although both genes reside on chromosome 1, we were able to
pyruvate kinase I-fp, (At1g32440) 5#-GTGCGACTCTTCCATCCATT-3#; pyruvate
identify double-knockout mutants by use of the primers given above.
kinase I-rp, (At1g32440) 5#-GGTTCTCAACGCCACAGTAT-3#; pyruvate kinase
II-fp, (At3g22960) 5#-CAAGGCGCTCACGGTTCTAA-3#; pyruvate kinase-II-rp,
Generation of RNAi Mutants (At3g22960) 5#-CATGTCCGAGACTGCGATCA-3#; pyruvate kinase III-fp,
(At3g52920) 5#-CTCCTGAAGATGTGCCTAAC-3#; pyruvate kinase III-rp,
Transgenic RNAi plants were generated to achieve strongly reduced (At3g52920) 5#-CCAGTCCTTCTCAGTGATTG-3#; phosphoglycerate kinase I-fp,
mRNA-levels of both AtNTT1 and AtNTT2. For Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis (At1g56190) 5#-ACGATGGCGAAGAAGAGTGT-3#; phosphoglycerate kinase
thaliana) transformation the pART27 vector (Gleave, 1992) was used. For this I-rp, (At1g56190) 5#-ACCACCAAGCAGAAGGATGT-3#; phosphoglycerate
we cloned a 418-bp fragment from AtNTT1 (corresponding to bp positions kinase II-fp, (At3g12780) 5#-CTACCGAAGGAGTCACTAAG-3#; phosphoglycer-
1,006–1,424) in sense and antisense orientation into the pHANNIBALL vector ate kinase II-rp, (At3g12780) 5#-CTGAGTCTCCTCCTCCTATT-3#; phosphoenol-
(Wesley et al., 2001). This cDNA sequence of AtNTT1 exhibits 92% identity to pyruvate translocator I-fp, (At5g33320) 5#-CATCTTGCCGCTTGCTGTTGT-3#;
the corresponding cDNA sequence of AtNTT2. For the sense construct, the phosphoenolpyruvate translocator I-rp, (At5g33320) 5#-TGGAAGCAGAGTGCA-
following primers were used: RNAi-sense-XhoI-fp, 5#-GATATGTTCCTCGAG- GCGATAA-3#; phosphoenolpyruvate translocator II-fp, (At3g01550) 5#-TCAG-
CAACCCGTA-3#; and RNAi-sense-EcoRI-rp, 5#-GGAATTCCAAGTAGC- CGTTGAGCAGAAGAAG-3#; phosphoenolpyruvate translocator II-r, (At3g-
GGTGTCATACC-3#. For the antisense construct, the following primers were 01550) 5#-TCACCGAGCAAGAGAACAGA-3#; triose-phosphate translocator-fp,
used: RNAi-antisense-XbaI-fp, 5#-GATATGTTCCTCTAGAAACCCGTA-3#; (At5g46110) 5#-CTGAAGGTGGAGATACCGCTG-3#; triose-phosphate translo-
and RNAi-antisense-BamHI-rp, 5#-CGGGATCCCGAAGTAGCGGTGTCA- cator-rp, (At5g46110) 5#-GAGTGCGATGATGGAGATGTA-3#; Glc 6-phosphate
translocator-fp, (At5g54800) 5#-TTCCATCGACGGAGCTTCCA-3#; Glc-6-phos- was added and further homogenized. The suspension was transferred into
phate translocator-rp, (At5g54800) 5#-ACGCAGGTTCACCACTCTTG-3#; a 1.5-mL reaction tube and incubated for 12 h at 4°C on a laboratory shaker at
xylulose-5-phosphate translocator-fp, (At5g17630) 5#-CCGTTGGCTCATCGGA- 100 rpm. Subsequently, samples were centrifuged at 12,000g for 10 min and
TTCAA-3#; xylulose-5-phosphate translocator-rp, (At5g17630) 5#-GCTCTGTAA- the supernatant was transferred into preweighted 1.5-mL reaction tube. Tubes
GCTACGTTTAGA-3#; Actin-fp, 5#-TGTACGCCAGTGGTCGTACAACC-3#; were incubated at 60°C for 8 h to evaporate the isopropanol. Subsequently,
and Actin-rp, 5#-GGAGCAAGAATGGAACCACCG-3#. total lipid was quantified gravitometrically.
For seed protein quantification 0.1-g seeds were homogenized in a mortar
at room temperature. Subsequently, 1,000 mL buffer medium 1 (50 mM HEPES,
Cultivation of Plant Material 5 mM MgCl2, pH 7.5, 1% Triton X-100, 15% glycerol, 2% SDS, 1 mM EDTA,
PMSF, 1/100 [v/v]) was added and further homogenized. The suspension was
Wild-type and transgenic Arabidopsis plants (ecotype Columbia) were transferred into 1.5-mL reaction tubes, and samples were centrifuged at
grown in a climate-controlled chamber on soil at 22°C and 100 mmol quanta 12,000g at room temperature for 10 min. The supernatant was transferred into
m2 s21. Prior to germination, seeds were incubated for 2 d in the dark at 4°C new 1.5-mL reaction tubes, and proteins were quantified with bicinchoninic
for imbibition (Weigel and Glazebrook, 2002). For short-day growing con- acid reagent (Pierce Chemical, Rockford, IL) according to manufacturer’s
ditions, the light was given for 10 h/d; for long-day conditions light was instructions.
present for 16 h/d. For root growth and seedling analysis, surface-sterilized
seeds were sown on half-concentrated Murashige and Skoog (1962) plates,
containing 0.8% Agar, 0.05% MES (adjusted to pH 5.7 with KOH), and 1% Suc. Chlorophyll Quantification
Prior to germination, plates were incubated at 4°C for 2 d in the dark and
subsequently transferred to the growth chamber, and growth was continued Chlorophyll quantification was carried out according to a standard pro-
for 24 h under long-day conditions. tocol (Arnon, 1949).
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