Plant and Animal Oil

Maulana Ainul Yaqin

2314100138
LIPID A
1. Plant Oil
1.1 Edibility

Plant oils are fats taken from plants — usually from plants’ seeds. Like most food
fats, plant oils help improve the palatability of foods and serve as a medium for
cooking. The variety of plant oils has expanded in the past few decades. There are
three primary types of plant oil, differing both the means of extracting the relevant
parts of the plant, and in the nature of the resulting oil:
 Vegetable fats and oils were historically extracted by putting part of the plant
under pressure, squeezing out the oil.
 Macerated oils consist of a base oil to which parts of plants are added.
 Essential oils are composed of volatile aromatic compounds, extracted from plants
by distillation.

Furthermore, there is classification of plant oil whether their capability of being

disgested by human:

Edible Oil

Edible oils and fats are biological mixtures of plant origin consisting of ester
mixtures derived from glycerol with chain of fatty acids. Both the physical and
the chemical characteristics of oils and fats are greatly influenced by the kind and
proportion of the fatty acids on the triacylglycerol. Fatty acids can be classifed in
classes as saturated, mono-unsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA)
fatty acids. On the other hand, the unsaturated ones are classifed into series
known as mega, being ω-9 considered nonessentialfor humans, and the ω-3 and
ω-6 as essential fatty acids, because the latter ones cannot be synthesized by
mammals; therefore, they are obtained from diet. The predominant fatty acids
present in vegetable oils and fats are saturated and unsaturated compounds with
straight aliphatic chains.
An important feature common to most plant origin oils and fats is the high
percentage of unsaturated fatty acids in the triacylglycerols. In general, higher
degree of unsaturation of fatty acids in vegetable oils, the more susceptible they
are to oxidative deterioration. Therefore, it is essential to know the composition
of fatty acids of an oil or fat, to identify their characteristics and to determine the
possible adulteration, as well as to know the stability and physical – chemical
properties of these products. The short chain fatty acids are of lower melting point
and are more soluble in water. Whereas, the longer chain fatty acids have higher
melting points. Unsaturated fatty acids have a lower melting point compared to
saturated fatty acids of similar chain length. Vegetable oils are one of the major
components of human diets, comprising as much as 25% of average.
(Kostik, 2013)

a. Major oils

These oils make up a significant fraction of worldwide edible oil production. All
are also used as fuel oils.

 Coconut oil, a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well.
Extracted from the kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm. Common in
the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids
dominant
 Corn oil, one of the principal oils sold as salad and cooking oil
 Cottonseed oil, used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and
industrially
 Olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil
lamps
 Peanut oil (Ground nut oil), a clear oil with some applications as a salad
dressing, and, due to its high smoke point, especially used for frying
 Rapeseed oil, including Canola oil, one of the most widely used cooking oils
 Safflower oil, until the 1960s used in the paint industry, now mostly as a
cooking oil
 Sesame oil, cold pressed as light cooking oil, hot pressed for a darker and
stronger flavor
 Soybean oil, produced as a byproduct of processing soy meal
 Sunflower oil, a common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel

b. Nut oils

Nut oils are generally used in cooking, for their flavor. Most are quite costly,
because of the difficulty of extracting the oil.

 Almond oil, used as an edible oil, but primarily in the manufacture of

cosmetics
 Beech nut oil, from Fagus sylvatica nuts, is a well-regarded edible oil in
Europe, used for salads and cooking
 Brazil nut oil contains 75% unsaturated fatty acids composed mainly of oleic
and linolenic acids, as well as the phytosterol, beta-sitosterol, and fat-soluble
vitamin E. Extra virgin oil can be obtained during the first pressing of the nuts,
possibly for use as a substitute for olive oil due to its mild, pleasant flavor.
 Cashew oil, somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting
dental cavities
 Hazelnut oil, mainly used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its
slight astringent nature
 Macadamia oil, with a mild nutty flavor and a high smoke point
 Mongongo nut oil (or manketti oil), from the seeds of the Schinziophyton
rautanenii, a tree which grows in South Africa. High in vitamin E. Also used
in skin care
 Pecan oil, valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil
 Pine nut oil, sold as a gourmet cooking oil, and of potential medicinal interest
as an appetite suppressant
 Pistachio oil, a strongly flavored oil with a distinctive green color
 Walnut oil, used for its flavor, also used by Renaissance painters in oil paints.

c. Citrus oils

A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil,
are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils. The seeds of many
if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils.

 Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi).
Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be
suitable for making soap
 Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold
pressed essential oils. Used as a flavoring agent and in aromatherapy
 Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90%
d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods
d. Food supplements

A number of oils are used as food supplements (or "nutraceuticals"), for their
nutrient content or purported medicinal effect. Borage seed oil, blackcurrant seed
oil, and evening primrose oil all have a significant amount of gamma-Linolenic
acid (GLA) (about 23%, 15–20% and 7–10%, respectively), and it is this that has
drawn the interest of researchers.

 Açaí oil, from the fruit of several species of the Açaí palm (Euterpe) grown in
the Amazon region.
 Black seed oil, pressed from Nigella sativa seeds, has a long history of
medicinal use, including in ancient Greek, Asian, and Islamic medicine, as well
as being a topic of current medical research
 Blackcurrant seed oil, from the seeds of Ribes nigrum, used as a food
supplement. High in gamma-Linolenic, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids
 Borage seed oil, from the seeds of Borago officinalis
 Evening primrose oil, from the seeds of Oenothera biennis,[58] the most
important plant source of gamma-Linolenic acid, particularly because it does not
contain alpha-Linolenic acid
 Flaxseed oil (called linseed oil when used as a drying oil), from the seeds of
Linum usitatissimum. High in omega-3 and lignans, which can be used
medicinally. A good dietary equivalent to fish oil. Easily turns rancid.

Non-Edible Oil

Non-edible vegetable oils are not suitable for human food due to the presence
of some toxic components in the oils. The selection of non-edible vegetable oils
as feedstocks for biodiesel production requires reviewing the existing works.
Recent comprehensive reviews on biodiesel production from various feed stocks
show the advantages of non-edible oils over edible oils. Production of biodiesel
from non-edible oils feedstocks can over come the problems of food verse fuel,
environmental and economic issues related to edible vegetable. Moreover, Non-
edible biodiesel crops are expected to use lands that are largely unproductive and
those that are located in poverty stricken areas and in degraded forests. They can
also be planted on cultivators’ field boundaries, fallow lands, and in public land
such as along railways, roads and irrigation canals. Non-edible biodiesel
development could become a major poverty alleviation program for the rural poor
apart from providing energy securityin general and to rural areas in particular and
upgrading the rural non-farm sector. All of these issues have a great impact on the
sustainability of biodiesel production. Many researchers have concluded that non-
edible feedstocks of biodiesel should be considered as sustainable and alternative
fuels.
Non-edible oil plants are well adapted to arid, semi-arid conditions and
require low fertility and moisture demand to grow. Moreover they are commonly
propagated through seed or cuttings. Since these plants do not compete with food,
seed cake after oil expelling may be used as fertilizer for soil enrichment. Several
potential tree borne oil seeds (TBOs) and non-edible crop source have been
identified as suitable feedstock for biodiesel.
(Atabani, 2012)
A number of plants, bearing non-edible oil seeds exist in nature. For example :
 Karanja (Pongamia pinnata)
 Mahua (Madhuca indica)
 Ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas)
 Neem (Azadirachta indica)
(Bhatt, Y. C., Murthy, N. S., & Datta, R. K. 2003)
1.2 Lipid Composition

Table 1. Lipid Composition of Plant Oil

Soybea Sunflow Almo
Parameter Olive Palm Coconut Sesame
n er nd
TG 93 96,5 72,5 94 9,15 95 89
DG 2,8 - 25,3 3 20,36 4 6,5
MG 0,25 - 1,2 1,8 12,75 4,5 -
FFA 0,8 0,65 0,09 1 37,53 0,8 1,2
Wax &
0,8 0,6 - 0,2 0,2 2,3 1
Gum
Unsaponif Unsaponif
Phospholipids
Others iables : iables : 0,91 - 20,21 3,3
: 0,2
1,5 1,1

1.3 Fatty Acids Profile of Plant Oil

Table 2. Fatty Acids of Plant Oil

Parameter Olive Soybean Sunflower Palm Almond Coconut Sesame

Saturated
C 12:0 - - 0,02 0,1 0,09 48 -
C 14:0 - - 0,09 1 0,07 16 -
C 16:0 10 10 6,2 44,3 6,8 9 9,7
C 18:0 2 4 2,8 4,6 2,3 2 6,5
Unsaturated
C 16:1 1,8 - 0,12 0,15 0,53 - 0,11
C 18:1 78 23 28 38,7 67,2 7 0,32
C 18:2 7 51 62,2 10,5 22,8 2 40,9
C 18:3 1 7 0,16 0,3 - - 0,21
2. Animal Oil
2.1 Edibility
Edible animal fats are from animals specifically bred, reared, and
slaughtered and are processed for human consumption in accordance with
European Food Hygiene
Premium grade fat is cut from under the skin and from the abdominal
cavity. It is purified, filtered and refined to produce high grade oils and fats. The
major edible animal fats are tallow, derived from cattle, lard, which is derived
from pigs, and poultry oils.
Edible animal fats are a natural and beneficial part of a balanced diet.
People need fat in their diet and edible animal fats is a source of it. Fat is a source
of energy and is stored in adipose tissue as a fuel reserve. It helps the body absorb
the vitamins A, D, E and K and it contributes to the cell membrane structure.
According to the WHO/ FAO, in a healthy diet 15 to 30-35% of the daily calories
should come from dietary fat.
In spite of these useful biological functions, edible animal fats have,
mistakenly, a negative reputation concerning health mainly due to their content of
saturated fatty acid. However, as all oils and fats animal fats contain both
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Edible animal fats consist of almost equal
amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (figure 2). Coconut oil, dairy
butter, cocoa butter have higher amounts of saturated fatty acids than lard, tallow
and poultry.
(Martin, 2010)
2.2 Lipid Composition

Table 3. Lipid Composition of Animal Oil

Parameter Fish Cow Pig Lamb Camel Goat Chicken
TG 92,3 39,11 97,3 99,53 62,6 99,6 24,7
DG 0,8 16,82 1,3 0,3 23 0,25 7,7
MG 1,7 7,45 - 0,01 - 0,01 -
FFA 0,9 1,29 0,4 0,11 0,7 0,07 0,7
Wax &
- - - - - - 34
Gum
Others 4,3 - - - - - -

2.3 Fatty Acids Profile

Table 4. Fatty Acids of Animal Oil

Fish Cow Pig Lamb Camel Goat Chicken

Parameter
(%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt) (%wt)
Saturated
C 12:0 - 2,07 - - 1 3,8 -
C 14:0 6,9 3 2 3,3 11,9 9,8 1
C 16:0 13,2 27 27 21,9 18,04 25,8 22
C 18:0 2,8 7 11 22,6 16,3 7,2 6
Unsaturated
C 16:1 6,5 11 4 2,2 6,7 0,8 6
C 18:1 13,1 48 44 28,7 29,4 26,7 37
C 18:2 1,9 2 11 1,3 2,8 2,8 20
C 18:3 1 0,48 1,43 0,97 1,2 0,6 1
3. Utilization of Plant and Animal Oil
PLANT OIL
Here some common uses of Plant Oil on human daily basis:
Culinary uses
Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in
food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard,
and Schmaltz. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:

 Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture.

 Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less.
 Flavor – while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, some oils,
such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the
flavor they impart.
 Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, since
many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for
this objective must have a high flash point. Such oils include the major cooking
oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc.
Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are particularly valued in
Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high
flash points.

Hydrogenated oils

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete

"hydrogenation" into oils of higher melting point. The hydrogenation process
involves "sparging" the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the
presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon–
carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, two hydrogen atoms
each form single bonds with the two carbon atoms. The elimination of double
bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation; as the degree of saturation
increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be
hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its
physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation increases, the oil's viscosity
and melting point increase.

The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never been completely

satisfactory. Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by
the end fatty acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids, thus
making the resulting fat more. A margarine made from naturally more saturated
oils will be more plastic (more "spreadable") than a margarine made from
hydrogenated soy oil. While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty
acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty
acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in the oil mixture due to the heat used in
hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to
an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease, among other increased
health risks.

Industrial uses

Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many

manufactured products. Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin
products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some
oils are particularly suitable as drying oils, and are used in making paints and
other wood treatment products. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar
resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden
boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as
insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if
spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable
chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to
oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic
tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains
compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by
Fischer esterification. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and
have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce
biodegradable hydraulic fluid and lubricant.
 Pet food additive

Vegetable oil is used in production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines

vegetable oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained by
extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.

Fuel

Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like
conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles
but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared
vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The use of
vegetable oils as alternative energy is growing and the availability of biodiesel
around the world is increasing.

ANIMAL OIL
Here some common uses of Animal Oil on human daily basis:

Feed Additive
Fats and oils are high energy sources. Consequently when fats and oils are
relatively cheap compared to starch rich grains and grain by-products often high
fibre (low energy) feed stuffs become attractive. Feed costs can therefore be
reduced when higher amounts of fats and oils can be used in feed production.
The spraying of animal fat or plant oils with a lower u/s ratio (to maintain pellet
hardness) in either the mixer or after pelleting (coating) is often needed in order
to increase the inclusion level. From a nutritional stand point the amount of
(fermentable) carbohydrates might need to be maximised and emulsifiers might
be needed if the u/s ratio is low. The addition of fat and oil can increase feed
production capacity since the work as lubricants in the die. Also a low amount of
fats and oil can help prevent dust in mash feeds.
(Jannes, 2015)
Biodiesel
Animal fat feedstocks result in biodiesel with a high cetane number, which
is an important quality parameter for diesel fuels. The saturated fatty acids are the
source of this high cetane number and values over 60 are common. Soybean oil
based biodiesel usually has a cetane number of about 48-52 and petroleum-based
diesel fuel is usually between 40 and 44. When animal fat biodiesel is blended
with petro-diesel, this high cetane number can help the engine start more quickly
and run more quietly.
Superfood
In fact, natural, animal source CLA may be one of the most broadly
beneficial and potent cancer-fighting substances in our diet. It is somewhat
uniquely able to (in very small amounts) block all three stages of cancer: 1)
initiation 2) growth/promotion and 3) metastasis. Most “anticancer nutrients” are
typically helpful in only one of these areas. To date, beneficial effects of natural
CLA from animal fat have been found in cancers of the breast, prostate, colon and
skin. In animal studies, as little as one half of one percent CLA in the diet of
experimental animals reduced tumor burden by more than 50 percent. As if this
wasn’t exciting enough, there is more direct evidence that CLA may reduce
cancer risk in humans. In a Finnish study, women who had the highest levels of
CLA in their diet had a 60 percent lower risk of breast cancer than those having
the lowest levels. Switching from grain-fed to exclusively grass-fed meat literally
places women in this lowest risk category! Additionally, French researchers
measured CLA levels in the breast tissues of 360 women and found that
the women with the most CLA had the lowest risk of cancer. In fact, the women
with the most CLA had a staggering 74% lower risk of breast cancer than the
women with the least CLA. Other studies have additionally shown breast cancer
and even colon cancer preventative benefits. In keeping with this, CLA
additionally exerts potent anti-inflammatory effects. The inherent stability of
CLA also seems to maintain itself even when meat is cooked. One study pointed
put the following, “Of the vast number of naturally occurring substances that
have been demonstrated to have anticarcinogenic activity in experimental
models, all but a handful of them are of plant origin. Conjugated linoleic acid is
unique because it is present in food from animal sources, and its anticancer
efficacy is expressed at concentrations close to human consumption levels.”
(Castro-Webb, 2012)
4. Conclusion
Fats, oils, and waxes are the general terms describing a structurally diverse
bio-macromolecule called Lipids. Lipids are esters of glycerol and fatty acids. One
glycerol molecule is esterified with three fatty acid residues to form a triglyceride.
Physical, chemical, and structural diversity of fats varies with the fatty acid
composition in the triglycerides. Lipids with saturated fatty acids (saturated fat) tend
to be solid at room temperature and hence, we generally call it as fat. On the other
hand, lipids with unsaturated fatty acids (unsaturated fat) tend to be liquid at room
temperature and thus they are called oils.
Similiraties between animal fats and plant oils:
1. Both fats are triglycerides
2. Food reserve of the cell
3. Unsaturated and saturated fats occurs in both

Difference between animal fats and plant oils:

Animal Fats
1. Rich in saturated fatty acids
2. Stay solid in room temperature
3. Oxidative rancidity is observed more frequently
4. Stored in liver, beneath the skin etc. in cells specifically called adipocytes

Plant Oils
1. Rich in unsaturated fatty acids
2. Stay liquid in room temperature
3. Oxidative rancidity is relatively less
4. Stored in fruits and seeds in form of granules in the endosperm
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