Unit 10 Automatic Identification

10.1 Unit Introduction

10.2 Unit Objectives
10.3 Overview of Automatic Identification Methods
10.4 Barcode Technology
10.5 Two-Dimensional Bar Codes
10.6 Radio Frequency Identification
10.7 Other AIDC Technologies
10.8 Case Study
10.9 Unit Review
10.10 Self Assessment
10.11 Self Assessment Answers

10.1 Unit Introduction

Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) is the use of technology to

provide direct data entry to a computer, or other micro-processor controlled
system, without resorting to manual methods of data-entry. Data collection and
retention has increasingly been automated to the point where AIDC systems can
operate without relying upon human operators for basic data identification and
capture. The following applications are regularly operated in AIDC mode:
material handling, storage, sorting, order picking, kitting of parts for assembly;
monitoring work order status, work-in-process, machine utilisation, worker
attendance, and other measures of factory operation and performance.

KEYPOINT
Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) is the use of technology to
provide direct data entry to a computer.
END KEYPOINT

The alternative to AIDC is manual data collection and retention; this suffers from
higher rates of error, greater requirements on time, and higher labour costs than
AIDC. This unit investigates AIDC with a primary emphasis on bar code
technology and radio frequency identification (RFID). Other AIDC technologies,
including magnetic stripes, optical character recognition, and machine vision

10.2 Unit Learning Objectives

After completing this unit you will be able to:

BULLET LIST
Identify the concept of Automatic Identification and Data Capture

Specify the types of barcode technology that can be identified

Name the major barcode standard that informs the use of barcodes made by
most of contemporary industry

Outline the two basic types of two-dimensional barcodes

List advantages of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology

Identify the principal elements of an RFID system

Explain how RFID middleware acts in the RFID system

List other AIDC technologies

ENDLIST

10.3 Overview of Automatic Identification Methods

There are three specific components that comprise technologies for Automatic
Identification and Data Capture (AIDC) (see Figure 10.1); these are:

NUMLIST
Data encoder—data must be coded into a machine-readable format compatible
to the requirements of AIDC. A label or tag containing the encoded data is
attached to the item to be identified

Machine reader or scanner—this is used to read the encoded data, typically

converting it into the form of an electrical analogue signal

Data decoder—this transforms the electrical signal into digital data and finally
back into the original alphanumeric characters
ENDLIST

KEYPOINT
AIDC technologies consist of three principal technologies that are applied
sequentially; these are data encoding, machine reading, and data decoding.
END KEYPOINT
Figure 10.1: Data encoding, reading and decoding using bar codes

AIDC technologies can be categorised into the six types outlined in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1: Categories of AIDC technology

Technology Description
Optical Uses an optical scanner for the reading of high-contrast
graphical symbols. Can include one- and two-dimensional
barcodes, optical character recognition, and machine vision.

l
Electromagnetic Best known application of these technologies is radio
frequency identification (RFID), which is substantially
encroaching upon optical technology markets, such as
barcode usage. RFID technology deploys a tag capable of
holding significantly more data than traditional barcodes.

Magnetic Data is encoded magnetically, either by means of a magnetic

strip (for example as used in credit cards), or by means of
magnetic ink character recognition (used in the banking
industry for cheque processing).

Smart card Cards with embedded microchips that are capable of holding
large amounts of information; also known as chip cards, or
integrated circuit cards.

Touch techniques These technologies include touch screens and button

 memory.

Biometric Technologies used to identify humans, or to interpret vocal

commands of humans. They include voice recognition,
fingerprint analysis, and retinal eye scans.

KEYPOINT
AIDC can be categorised into optical, electromagnetic, magnetic, smart card,
touch technique, and biometric technology types.
END KEYPOINT

AIDC technologies may be applied in receiving, shipping, order picking, finished

goods storage, manufacturing processing, work-in-process storage, assembly,
and sorting. Some techniques of AIDC are semi-automatic, in that they still
require personnel to operate some of the identification equipment in the
application. Other applications may be fully automated.

AIDC provides high levels of data accuracy, in real time, and at reduced labour
costs. The error rate of barcode technology is approximately 10,000 times lower
than in manual keyboard data entry. While other technology cannot achieve the
same levels of accuracy as barcode technology, they are still significantly better
than manual techniques, where we are reliant upon human workers to make the
data entry. A second reason for the success of AIDC techniques is the reduction
of time required for the input of data: the speed of data entry for handwritten
documents is approximately 5-7 characters per second, and—at best—10-15
characters per second for keyboard entry. AIDC methods can accomplish
hundreds of characters per second.

KEYPOINT
AIDC provides high levels of data accuracy in real time, and at reduced labour
costs.
END KEYPOINT

Errors, however, can occur with AIDC technology; and these are measured by
two parameters:

NUMLIST
First Read Rate (FRR)—the probability of a successful, or correct, reading by the
scanner in its initial attempt.

Substitution Error Rate (SER)—the probability or frequency with which the

scanner incorrectly reads the encoded character as some other character. The
expected number of errors is given by:

Exp.  SER ( n)
where Exp. Is the expected number of errors; SER is the Substitution Error Rate;
and n is the data set with that numbers of characters.
ENDLIST

The aim of the system is, of course, to have a high FRR, and thus not require an
SER reading.

KEYPOINT
Errors with AIDC technology are measured by two parameters: First Read Rate,
and the Substitution Error Rate.
END KEYPOINT

10.4 Barcode Technology

There are two basic types of barcode technology, linear and two-dimensional.

KEYPOINT
Two types of barcode technology can be identified: linear barcode technology,
and two-dimensional barcode technology.
END KEYPOINT

Linear or one dimensional bar code technology is the most widely used AIDC
technique. There are two forms of linear barcode: width-modulated barcodes,
and height-modulated barcodes. These are outlined in some detail in Table 10.2.

Table 10.2: Linear barcode forms

Type Description
Width-modulated barcode Used widely in retailing and manufacturing, the barcode consists of
bars and spaces of varying width, with the bars and spaces being
in highly-contrasting colours, such as black and white. The pattern
of bars and spaces is coded to represent numeric or alphanumeric
characters. This code is subsequently interpreted by a barcode
reader; this reading action is done by scanning and decoding the
sequence in which the bars fall.
The barcode reader itself consists of a scanner and decoder. The
scanner emits a beam of light that is either automatically or
manually swept over the barcode to be read, thus allowing the
reader to sense light reflections from the barcode that
 distinguishes between bars and spaces. A photodetector coverts
the resultant reflections into an electrical signal, where spaces
represent the signal, and bars represent its absence. Bar-width is
thus converted into electrical signal duration. The decoder
analyses the pulse train to validate and interpret the corresponding
data.
Height-modulated barcode Niche-industry barcode technology, operative in the US Postal
service, where it is deployed for ZIP code identification. The
barcode in question is distinguished by a series of evenly-spaced
bars of varying height. Operative principles are similar to those
outlined for width-modulated barcodes.

KEYPOINT
There are two forms of linear, or one-dimensional, barcode: width-modulated
barcodes, and height-modulated barcodes.
END KEYPOINT

The growth and industrial acceptance of barcodes (width-modulated barcodes in

particular) occurred in the 1970s, when retailers started to rely upon the
technology for product identification, and to aid storage management techniques.
In 1973, the grocery industry adopted the Universal Product Code (UPC) as its
standard for item identification. UPC uses a 12-digit barcode where six digits
identify the manufacturer and five digits the product, and one digit acts as a
check character. Another major endorsement of this technology came from its
acceptance as the standard product identifier by the US Department of Defence
in 1982, compelling its vendors to adopt the technology.

10.4.1. Bar Code Symbols

The barcode standard adopted by most major industries is a subset of Code 39,
known as AIM USD-2 (Automatic Identification Manufacturers Uniform Symbol
Description-2). Code 39 uses a series of bars and spaces to represent
alphanumeric and other characters, where, in binary terms, the bars are
equivalent to 1 and the spaces are equivalent to 0 (see Figure 10.2). Bars and
spaces can differ in width by as much as 3 times their conventional size, which
has a corresponding effect upon reading produced. However, the width-to-narrow
ratio, whatever it is set-to, must be consistent across the barcode to facilitate
accurate interpretation of the pulse train produced.
Figure 10.2: Code 39

KEYPOINT
Most major industries use a barcode standard that is based upon a subset of
Code 39, known as AIM USD-2.
END KEYPOINT

The name ‘Code 39’ comes from the physical appearance of the barcode, which
consists of nine elements (bars and spaces) used for each character, while three
of these elements are wide. It is the placement of the wide spaces and wide bars
that uniquely designates the character. Each code begins and ends with either a
wide or narrow bar. In addition to the character set in the barcode, there is also a
‘quiet-zone’ that precedes and succeeds the barcode; this ensures that the
decoder is not confused by the absence of bars and spaces in regions outside of
the barcode field.

KEYPOINT
Barcodes in Code 39 consist of an arrangement of nine bars and spaces, which
form a unique character for each arrangement; and a quiet-zone, consisting of
empty space, which both precedes and succeeds the barcode in its presentation.
END KEYPOINT

10.4.2 Bar Code Readers

There are different types of barcode readers, generally classified as either

contact or non-contact readers. These are outlined further in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3: Barcode reader types

Type Description
Contact readers Consist of hand-held devices, such as wands or light pens, which are
operated by moving the tip of the wand quickly past the barcode on the
object or document. They are ‘contact’ devices because the wand or
pen must touch the barcode surface, or be in very close proximity, for
effective reading. They can be mounted as well as hand-held, such that
they form part of a keyboard entry terminal; in such situations the
reader is stationary and the object’s barcode is swept-past the device
so that it may be read.
Portable reading units are also available, which makes them suitable to
be carried-around the factory or warehouse by a worker. These are
typically battery-powered and include a solid-state memory device
capable of storing data acquired during operation. They may also
include a keypad so that non-barcode data may be manually entered.
Non-contact readers These focus a light beam on the barcode to scan and decode the
barcode in the conventional way, but at a distance of from several
inches to several feet. They can be classified as fixed beam and moving
beam scanners.
Fixed beam readers are stationary units that use a fixed beam of light.
They can be mounted beside a conveyor to scan items as they pass,
and thus record what is being placed upon the conveyor. Typical
applications occur in warehousing and material handling operations.
Moving beam readers use a highly focused beam of light to search for
the barcode upon an object. A particular scan is defined as a single
sweep of the light beam through an angular path specified by a rotating
mirror used to project the beam on to the object. Typically the mirror
rotates at very high scan rates—up to 1440 scans/sec; thus, when a
barcode is located, it may be read more than once, permitting
verification of the reading. Typical applications include being mounted
alongside conveyors, just like fixed beam readers, or as portable
devices that the user points at objects, in the same manner as a pistol.
Again these applications occur in warehousing and material handling
operations.

KEYPOINT
Barcode readers may be classified as either contact or non-contact devices.
END KEYPOINT

LEARNING ACTIVITY 10.1

Visit www.youtube.com and look up videos that illustrate the design and
operation of various types of bar code equipment outlined in Table 10.1 and
Table 10.3. Make a note of the manufacturers names. Visit the web site of the
most common names and evaluate their product and service offerings.
END LEARNING ACTIVITY 10.1

10.5 Two-Dimensional Bar Codes

Two-dimensional (2-D) barcode schemes were introduced in 1987, and have

grown into more than a dozen symbol classifications, with more expected to be
produced. 2-D barcodes can store greater amounts of data at higher area
densities than their one-dimensional counterparts; their disadvantage is the
requirement for special scanning apparatuses to read the codes, and the
associated expense of purchasing such equipment.

KEYPOINT
Two-dimensional barcodes store greater amounts of data at higher area
densities than their one-dimensional counterparts.
END KEYPOINT

The two basic types of 2-D barcodes are: stacked barcodes, and matrix
symbologies. These are outlined in some detail in Table 10.5.

Table 10.5: Two-dimensional barcode types

Type Description
Stacked barcode Consists of multiple rows of conventional linear barcodes stacked on top
of each other. The data density of stacked barcodes is typically five to
seven times that of the linear barcode 39. Various stacking schemes may
be applied to achieve the build-up of barcodes one on top of the other,
and still allow them to be read.
Decoding in a stacked barcode is done by using a laser-type scanner that
reads the lines sequentially. Issues with barcode-reading include: keeping
track of the different rows during scanning; dealing with scanning swaths
that cross between rows; and detecting and correcting localised errors.
There can also be printing defects, similar to one-dimensional barcodes.
Matrix barcode Consists of 2-D patterns of data cells that are usually square and are
coloured dark (usually black) or white. Introduced around 1990, they can
contain more data than stacked barcodes, and also have the potential for
higher data densities (up to 30 times more dense than code 39). However
they are more complex than stacked barcodes, and they require more
sophisticated printing and reading equipment.
The symbols must be produced and interpreted both horizontally and
vertically, which is referred to as area symbologies. Recent advances
have seen considerable improvements in data matrix readers, which are
easier to set up and use, as well as being more robust, and reliably
operating under a range of conditions.

KEYPOINT
The two basic types of 2-D barcodes are stacked barcodes, and matrix
symbologies.
END KEYPOINT
10.6 Radio Frequency Identification

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags and their associated RFID technology
is currently a much-discussed concept, and represents the greatest threat to
conventional barcode dominance as a data-capture mechanism. RFID
technology has been available since the 1940s, but real interest in the concept
as a commercial entity was only sparked in the 1980s and early 1990s, when
miniaturisation made the concept feasible for individual product-related issues,
and with the development of both “passive” (i.e. battery-free) tags, and read/write
tags that furthered the technology’s potential flexibility. Since the mid-1990s the
growth and use of RFID technology has grown exponentially to include all sorts
of applications in niche markets, and also applications that integrate and increase
efficiency across the supply chain. The advantages of RFID technology include:

BULLETLIST
Identification does not depend on physical contact or direct line of sight
observation by the reader

Much more data can be contained in the RFID tag than with most AIDC
technologies

Data in read/write tags can be altered for historical usage purposes or reuse of
the tag
ENDLIST

KEYPOINT
RFID technology advantages include non-contact and non-direct identification,
greater data-containment opportunities, and the ability to re-write to some tags, if
necessary.
END KEYPOINT

One disadvantage of RFID technology is its expense: it is only recently that the
cost of producing RFID tags, as well as associated RFID readers and
middleware, has dropped sufficiently to make it a viable alternative to barcode
technology.

10.6.1 General Infrastructure

An RFID system consists of an infrastructure of tags and readers. The tag, or

transponder, contains a microchip, capacitors and antenna coil embedded into
an encapsulation material (such as the product). This tag infrastructure
communicates via radio signals with a specialised reader, either a peripheral or
handheld device, which can subsequently send the collected data to a backend
application system. Powered tags contain batteries that operate the tag’s
electronics; un-powered tags rely, not on batteries, but power derived from the
RFID reader. Figure 10.3 depicts a typical RFID tag, with microchip and capacitor
set-up at the centre, while the antenna-coil encircles it.

Figure 10.3: Passive and Active RFID tags respectively

KEYPOINT
An RFID tag consists of an infrastructure that contains a microchip, capacitors,
and antenna-coil. Depending on the tag type, it may or may not contain a battery.
END KEYPOINT

Each tag has a certain amount of internal memory where information about the
object is stored, such as its unique ID number, or in some cases more detailed
data including the date of manufacture, product composition, etc. The
communication process between the reader and tag is managed and controlled
by one of several protocols, such as ISO 15693, ISO 18000-3, ISO 18000-6, and
Electronic Product Code (EPC) for different radio frequencies. In addition,
different types of anti-collision algorithms are defined as part of these protocol
standards, so that many tags presenting to one reader at the same time can be
sorted and individually selected.

Once the reader is on, it starts emitting a signal at a selected frequency. Any
corresponding tag in the vicinity of the reader will detect the signal and use the
energy from it to “wake-up” and supply operating power to its internal circuits.
Once the tag has decoded the signal as valid, it replies with information to the
reader thereby identifying the object. This information, called a notification, is
then sent to RFID middleware. To deal with huge volumes of data (or
notifications) from RFID tags, RFID middleware has been developed to act as a
buffer between the RFID tag and the computing systems of the plant. RFID
middleware has the ability to handle data operations, such as filtering,
aggregation, and enrichment etc., as well as ensuring that data is processed into
an appropriate format for application in the middleware. A reverse
communication from the middleware to the RFID tag is also possible, which is
called commands. Commands for RFID readers may be reading or writing
commands which are emitted from the middleware based upon certain
implemented rules.

KEYPOINT
A RFID system consists of a number of RFID tags, RFID middleware, and the
systems back-end computing systems.
END KEYPOINT

10.6.2 RFID Tags

There are two types of RFID tag: Active tags—that is, they contain and are
independently powered by a battery; Passive tags (or unpowered tags)—which
rely on power drawn from the reader to be activated.

Active tags are larger, more expensive and, owing to the presence of the battery,
have a limited life. Passive tags, on the other hand, are lighter, smaller, cheaper
and have an unlimited life; however, they are inhibited by their relatively short
read ranges, the requirement for high-powered readers, and by the fact that they
can only be written to once (i.e. they are read-only). In contrast, active tags can
use greater variability in readers and can be read at significantly longer
distances, while they usually contain facilities to read and write a multiple number
of times.

KEYPOINT
There are two types of RFID tag: active tags, which are battery-powered; and
passive tags, which rely on power drawn from the reader to be activated.
END KEYPOINT

There also exist hybrids called semi-passive tags that use small batteries to
operate the RFID chip’s circuitry, but rely on reader-power for communication.
Table 10.6 summarizes some general aspects of RFID tag performance across a
range of environments.

Table 10.6: RFID tag performance

Frequencies Low Frequency High Frequency Ultra-High Microwave
Frequency
General Long antennas, Shorter Smaller, Similar to ultra-
more expensive. antennas, less Cheaper. Higher high freq. but
Less prone to expensive than frequency means faster read rates.
interference from low freq. tags. these tags are Much more
metals and liquids. This frequency potentially more susceptible to
Largely installed has the widest powerful and interference by
but will be application have greater metals and
overtaken by higher scope. Best range. More liquids. This
frequencies. suited for susceptible to frequency band is
applications that interference by shared by other
do not require metals and technologies,
long range liquids. Different including
reading of large frequencies and bluetooth and
amounts of tags. power allocated many other short-
by different range radio
countries. devices.
Standards ISO/IEC 18000-2 ISO/IEC 18000-3, ISO/IEC 18000-6 ISO/IEC 18000-4
Specifications AutoID HFclass1, AutoID class0,
ISO 14443, AutoID class 1
ISO 15693

Typical Read < 0.5metres 1metre 4~5metres for 1metre

Range (typical unlicensed
values in metres) readers and
10metres for site
license in the US;
2metres in
Europe as power
emissions
increase to 2
watts.
Typical Access Control, Smart cards, Pallet and box Electronic toll
Applications Animal tagging Access Control, tagging, collection,
Payment, Baggage Tracking the real
Baggage control, handling, time location of
Biometrics, Electronic toll goods
Libraries, collection
Transport
Tag Read Rate Slowest Slow Medium Fast

KEYPOINT
RFID tag performance depends upon the frequency under which it operates, as
well as the RFID tag type.
END KEYPOINT

Current memory configurations on RFID tags tend to favour low-cost, memory-

light, read-only tags that may only contain a unique serial number of the item,
which, in this guise, operates in much the same way as a one-dimensional
barcode. However, there are methods that can increase the memory capacity of
an individual RFID tag, albeit with a consequent increase in its production cost.
Vendors are regularly offering prospective customers ever-greater memory
capacities, some as much as 128 kilobytes on high frequency, passive RFID
applications.

10.6.3 RFID Memory

There are three different types of RFID memory:

NUMLIST
ROM (read only memory) that stores security data, a unique device identifier and
operating systems instructions, with electrically erasable programmable read only
memory (EEPROM) being a specific type of ROM that has the ability to save tag
data in its non-operative, power-saving state
RAM (random access memory) that stores data accrued during transponder
interrogation and response

WORM (write once / read many memory) that is similar in functionality to RAM.
ENDLIST

KEYPOINT
There are three different types of RFID memory: read only memory; random
access memory; and write once / read many memory.
END KEYPOINT

LEARNING ACTIVITY 10.2

Search the internet for videos, slides, articles and vendors for RFID technology
used in industry. Write a short note of your findings.
END LEARNING ACTIVITY 10.2

10.6.4 RFID Readers

RFID readers communicate with the RFID tags via radio waves and pass
information to the backend computer system in digital form. Readers can be
configured in many formats including handheld devices, portals, or they may be
conveyor-mounted. The user can change or customise the reader’s operations to
suit a specific requirement by issuing commands through the RFID middleware.

The purpose of an RFID reader is not to store data; rather it transfers data to and
from the RFID tags, though short-term data storage is still required. The
configuration information of a reader (e.g., the reader address, and configuration
for filtering) is stored consistently during the entire operation of the RFID reader.
Furthermore, in some cases, data acquired from the tags needs to be stored for
short-term processing and forwarding to the middleware.
Figure 10.4: RFID tags and reader/sensor

KEYPOINT
RFID readers communicate with the RFID tags via radio waves and pass
information to the backend computer system in digital form.
END KEYPOINT

When large numbers of RFID tags are presented to the RFID reader, data
processing utilities are required to capture the high-volume data flows that occur.
A reader can either process the field data from the tags, or the command data
from the middleware (e.g., read/write commands). Pre-processing (e.g., filtering
and aggregation) is used to relieve the middleware from processing too many
notifications at any one time. Commands provided by the middleware (e.g.,
invoking a write operation on a tag) need to be stored for a short while and
translated into internal RFID reader commands.

10.6.5 RFID Middleware

RFID middleware acts as mediation between the RFID tag and the enterprise
systems back-end. It is responsible for handling notifications, such as filtering,
aggregation, enrichment, etc., according to specific rules implemented in the
middleware.
KEYPOINT
RFID middleware acts as mediation between the RFID tag and the enterprise
systems back-end.
END KEYPOINT

Data processing in the middleware is similar to pre-processing in the RFID

reader. Notifications that are irrelevant for the business process are filtered-out
and faulty information is eliminated. The filtered notifications are then processed
further to develop business events that are sent to enterprise computing back-
end systems. This information can either be held locally in the middleware, or
come from external devices, which are connected to the middleware (e.g.,
sensors, field databases, human user interfaces). Connections may also be
developed to external information systems so that supplementation of the
existing information by external sources can occur. For external information
systems to operate successfully with RFID systems, automatic identification
infrastructures are needed, such as the Object Naming Service (ONS) or the use
of external WWAI network nodes (see Figure 10.5).

Figure 10.5: RFID Middleware

KEYPOINT
RFID middleware acts as an effective data-filter, and subsequently develops
business events from the processed data that are sent to enterprise computing
back-end systems.
END KEYPOINT
10.7 Other AIDC technologies

Other AIDC technologies that may occasionally be used in automation

environments are summarised in Table 10.7.

Table 10.7: Other AIDC technologies

Technology Description
Magnetic Strips These strips are attached to products or containers in warehouse
and factory settings, and are used for product identification. The
magnetic strip consists of a thin plastic film with small magnetic
particles whose pole orientations are used to encode bits of data
onto the film. The plastic film is usually mounted onto a plastic card
(such as a credit card), or paper ticket to provide a robust
infrastructure, and as means of automatic identification.
Advantages include: the ability to hold large amounts of data, and
the ability to alter data held, if necessary.
Disadvantages, from a manufacturing point-of-view, include: the
need to have the strip in contact with the scanning equipment for
correct reading; the absence of shop-floor methods that can
readily encode data to magnetic strips; and the expense of the
technology.
Optical Character Here specially designed alphanumeric characters that are machine
Recognition readable by an optical reading device are deployed in factory and
warehouse applications. Optical character recognition is a 2-D
symbology, and scanning involves interpretation of both the
vertical and horizontal features of each character during decoding.
The use of hand-held operators, therefore, may require a certain
level of skill on the part of human operators, to ensure that
characters are read correctly; often this requires multiple scans of
the code.
The benefit of optical character recognition is that both machines
and humans can read the same text.
Disadvantages include: the need for near-contact scanning; lower
scanning rates; and higher error rates compared to barcode
scanning.
Machine vision Used principally for automated inspection tasks, machine vision
read 2-D matrix symbols, such as data matrix, or stacked
barcodes. Applications of machine vision also include other types
of automatic identification problems, and these applications may
grow in number as the technology advances.

KEYPOINT
Other AIDC technologies that may occasionally be used include: magnetic strips,
optical character recognition, and machine vision technologies.
END KEYPOINT
10.8 Case Study

At its factory in Galway, Thermo King employees press a button to alert

management whenever parts need to be replenished, thereby preventing work
stoppages and part overstocks.

Using AeroScout tags, the system is built onto the company's existing Wi-Fi
system and was integrated by IMEC Technologies. This year, the firm is also in
the process of expanding its usage of RFID at the Galway facility to include to
asset tracking. The immediate challenge for Thermo King involved the
development of what it calls its e-Kanban system (a signaling system to trigger
an action such as inventory replenishment) that enables it to better manage the
number of parts available at all assembly stations.

The manual part-replenishment system employed prior to adopting RFID had

several shortcomings. If workers discover they are running out of parts they must
contact management, either by phone or by walking to the person in charge of
ordering replenishment. If the company's on-floor inventory of parts runs out,
work is stopped until additional components can be brought in from the
warehouse. To avoid such problems in the past, companies typically store a high
level of inventory at assembly stations. When space is tight companies need to
establish a kanban system in which they only pull inventory [from the warehouse]
when it is required.

Thermo King first began discussing an automated solution with IMEC and
AeroScout in early 2008 and the group conducted a proof-of-concept trial in April
of that year, in which it tested the hardware to ensure proper read rates, then
deployed the system throughout the entire factory in August. With the system,
Ben-Assa says, the firm has installed approximately 100 AeroScout 2.4 GHz T2
tags, with a tag mounted next to each container of parts.

When a container of parts runs low, an employee presses a button on its tag,
which transmits its ID number to the Wi-Fi access points already installed
throughout the facility to allow wireless laptop connectivity. The tag transmits not
only its unique ID number, but also the assembly part serial number previously
encoded when that tag was first installed. AeroScout Mobile View software links
the ID number with the location at which the tag was installed, then transmits an
e-mail alert to staff members in charge of replenishment, with the station number
and the part number required, as well as the time at which the order was sent.

10.9 Unit Review

BULLETLIST
Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) is the use of technology to
provide direct data entry to a computer, or other micro-processor controlled
system, without resorting to manual methods of data-entry, such as via a
keyboard.

AIDC technologies consist of three principal technologies that are applied

sequentially; these are data encoding, machine reading, and data decoding.

AIDC can be categorised into optical, electromagnetic, magnetic, smart card,

touch technique, and biometric technology types.

Errors with AIDC technology are measured by two parameters: First Read Rate,
and the Substitution Error Rate.

Two types of barcode technology can be identified: linear barcode technology,

and two-dimensional barcode technology.

Barcodes in Code 39 consist of an arrangement of nine bars and spaces, which

form a unique character for each arrangement; and a quiet-zone, consisting of
empty space, which both precedes and succeeds the barcode in its presentation.

The two basic types of 2-D barcodes are stacked barcodes, and matrix
symbologies.

Radio Frequency Identification technology represents the greatest threat to

conventional barcode dominance as a data-capture mechanism.

RFID technology advantages include non-contact and non-direct identification,

greater data-containment opportunities, and the ability to re-write to some tags, if
necessary.

A RFID system consists of a number of RFID tags, RFID middleware, and the
plant’s back-end computing systems. Communication can occur in both
directions, both from the RFID tag backwards, and from the computing systems
forwards.

There are two types of RFID tag: active tags, which are battery-powered; and
passive tags, which rely on power drawn from the reader to be activated.

There are three different types of RFID memory: read only memory; random
access memory; and write once / read many memory.

RFID readers communicate with the RFID tags via radio waves and pass
information to the backend computer system in digital form.

RFID middleware acts as mediation between the RFID tag and the enterprise
systems back-end.
Other AIDC technologies that may occasionally be used include: magnetic strips,
optical character recognition, and machine vision technologies.
ENDLIST

10.10 Self-Assessment Questions

NUMLIST
List the principal types of AIDC technologies, and the categories that these
technologies can take.

What are the types of barcode technology that can be identified?

What is the major barcode standard that informs the use of barcodes made by
most of contemporary industry?

What are the two basic types of two-dimensional barcodes?

What are the advantages that are associated with Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) technology?

What are the major constituents of an RFID tag?

How does RFID middleware act in the RFID system?

Specify some other AIDC technologies.

ENDLIST

10.11 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

NUMLIST
AIDC technologies consist of three principal technologies that are applied
sequentially; these are data encoding, machine reading, and data decoding.
AIDC can be categorised into optical, electromagnetic, magnetic, smart card,
touch technique, and biometric technology types.

Two types of barcode technology can be identified: linear barcode technology,

and two-dimensional barcode technology.

Most major industries use a barcode standard that is based upon a subset of
Code 39, known as AIM USD-2.

The two basic types of two-dimensional barcodes are stacked barcodes, and
matrix symbologies.
RFID technology advantages include non-contact and non-direct identification,
greater data-containment opportunities, and the ability to re-write to some tags, if
necessary.

An RFID tag consists of an infrastructure that contains a microchip, capacitors,

and antenna-coil. Depending on the tag type, it may or may not contain a battery.

RFID middleware acts as mediation between the RFID tag and the enterprise
systems back-end. It works as an effective data-filter, and subsequently develops
business events from the processed data that are sent to enterprise computing
back-end systems.

Other AIDC technologies that may occasionally be used include: magnetic strips,
optical character recognition, and machine vision technologies.
END LIST