The Physical Causes of Water Scarcity (southern Africa)

The causes of water scarcity are varied. Some are natural and others are as a result of human activity.
The current debate sites the causes as largely deterministic in that scarcity is a result of identifiable
cause and effect. However, if water scarcity is the point at which water stress occurs (the point at which
various conflicts arise, harvests fail and the like), then there are also less definable sociological and

political causes. Many of the causes are inter-related

and are not easily distinguished. Some of the main physical causes are listed below Population growth

The main cause of growing water scarcity is the growing demand resulting from population increase.
The population growth rate for each country in southern Africa varies between 2.2 and 3.8 %. The major
increase in demand is due to the development needs of the growing population and, primarily, from the
need to grow sufficient food to feed the increasing population.

Food production

The region is already experiencing considerable problems in relation to food security. None of the
countries in SADC were able to weather the droughts of the early 1990s without outside assistance or
the importing of considerable quantities of cereal. As the demand for food increases with increasing
population, the position is reached where even in good years there will be insufficient water to meet the
demands. This raises the debate of food security and self-sufficiency. Some countries in the region –
notably Botswana – having realised that there is insufficient water available to ensure self-sufficiency in
food production and have consequently opted to ensure food security through economic growth. In
time of need, food is imported. This constitutes a reliance on “virtual water” which is the water required
to produce the food at its point of production rather than needing that water to be available at the point
of consumption.

South Africa can be regarded as both requiring internal transfers of food stuffs when regions within the
country are unable to meet local needs, and requiring the import of food stuffs when there is a net
shortage throughout the country.

Climatic change and variability

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There is a great deal of debate regarding the issue of global climate change. Whilst there is a wide-
spread view that global warming is happening, this is yet to be conclusively scientifically proven and the
effect of this phenomenon on water resources is unknown. The consensus is that the effect will be to
accentuate the extremes with more pronounced droughts and more severe flooding.

Land use

Eucalyptus plantations on the hillside with banana plantation in the foreground: both ‘thirsty crops’
typical of the Low yeld

Land use changes have a variety of impacts on water resources. Whilst reduction of vegetation cover
may result in greater run off, it reduces groundwater infiltration and the storage capacity of dams and
lakes through siltation. The draining of large scale wetlands or large scale deforestation may change the
micro-climate of a region.

The need for improved farming methods and greater understanding of the soil/water interface is
evident in many parts of the country. The consequences of poor land management and farming
methods is to push communities ever closer to the point of vulnerability where even small changes in
conditions can have disastrous effects.

Another issue related to land use is the development of “thirsty” crops, particularly in sensitive areas
such as mountain catchments. An example is forestry development. Whilst this can offer employment
and a variety of other benefits, there are cases where the runoff from such areas is substantially
reduced causing water scarcity for downstream users.

Water quality

Pollution of water supplies reduces the availability of water for use. This is particularly severe during
times of water shortages. In times of plenty the ability of a river to accept a given pollution load is
greater because of greater dilution factors. As water becomes scarcer, therefore, rivers and streams
become increasingly sensitive to the effects of pollution, as do those human and other living organisms
which depend on the water.

Water contamination can result from a variety of causes including agricultural return flows, industry,
and domestic uses. Pollution can take the form of both point source and diffuse contamination. Both

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surface and groundwater are often affected. Destruction of the riverine environment reduces the
natural ability of the river to cope with pollution.

Water demand

A growing and mismanaged demand for water will hasten the arrival of

conditions of scarcity. The widespread

misconception by many people that there is plenty of water and that the only problem is getting it to
the right place at the right time still persists as a residue from the era of supply driven water resources
management. Moving to a deliberate and purposeful policy scenario of demand management is urgently
required of South Africa and other governments in the SADC region, although this may not be politically
palatable in the short term. Reducing and managing the demand for water, enforcing greater efficiency
of use and introducing water conservation measures requires policy and legislative attention.

Water demand and supply for a region, country or local municipality requires a high standard of
management. Unfortunately, the standard of water demand management is suspect and suitably
qualified staff are severely lacking in South Africa. An integrated approach that takes all the above
causes into account is required; communication between all the local authorities involved is
paramount. The increase in population is seemingly uncontrollable so with every day that passes, more
pressure is being applied to our already shaky water management systems. There are of course certain
municipalities that are on top of the situation. Individuals feel helpless and frustrated with the
inefficient, bureaucratic public service that we are currently burdened with. One way of gaining more
control of your water requirement is to be become more water self-sufficient. Individuals and
businesses can start by saving more water where possible and by recycling water on their properties,
e.g. grey water irrigation systems. Harvesting rain can take you a step further towards water self-
sufficiency; once the rainwater harvesting systems are installed, the rain collected off your roof is free
water and stored in water tanks. Water Rhapsody has 16 years of experience in water conservation and
is currently number 1 in water saving systems in South Africa.

Socio-Political Causes of Water Scarcity

Poverty and economic policy

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Poverty is a major factor in water scarcity and susceptibility to drought. This can be illustrated in a

number of ways. Firstly, as was seen in the drought emergency of

the early 1990s in South Africa, the price of water in rural areas for basic survival can become very high.
As traditional sources failed, people did not have the resources to provide alternatives (such as drilling
new boreholes) and had to resort to buying water from vendors at extremely high costs. In periods of
stress, those communities which have resources and access to credit, are able to survive. In other words,
a given situation of water shortage will have more extreme consequences for the poor than for the rich
– for one set of people it will spell disaster and for the other it will mean only inconvenience.

It is for this reason that the macroeconomic policy of a country, and its effectiveness in addressing
poverty, will have an important role in determining what constitutes conditions of water stress. Similar
climatic conditions in two countries will cause famine in the poorer country and a temporary, limited
economic depression in the wealthier country.

Legislation and water resource management

Poor or inadequate legislation can exacerbate the effects of water scarcity. Water law which gives
certain users exclusive rights to use of water is necessary to provide security for investment (usually in
the agricultural sector), but it can result in other users being put in serious jeopardy during times of
scarcity. Whilst existing and future water law in South Africa will no doubt protect the rights of all
people to basic minimum supplies of water, a legislative system which is not equitable will result in
restrictions on the development of some sectors of society. This is clearly illustrated in the effects of the
riparian doctrine in the existing Water Act (1956).

The management of water resources and the policies guiding the development of water resources can
also have a direct effect on the ability of some sectors to survive periods of water scarcity. If these are
inequitable, inefficient, or do not provide for at least the basic needs of all citizens, then a particular
occurrence of water scarcity will result in conditions of drought where, if the water resource
management regime had been different, this would have been avoided.

International waters

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The use of water in international rivers by upstream countries may lead to conditions of drought in
downstream countries. South Africa has many international rivers and is in the position of being both an
upstream and downstream riparian country. This is a problem which is obviously exacerbated during
times of scarcity. It is important that communication is maintained between riparian countries through a
variety of mechanisms including special protocols, joint commissions, memoranda of agreement,
treaties etc. It is important that these are established during times of plenty rather than in times of
crisis. The effect of proper and equitable sharing of international water resources is to assist in avoiding
disaster conditions in neighbouring states and to avoid the inevitable social, economic and political
repercussions of these conditions within South Africa.

Sectoral resources and institutional capacity

Knowing what needs to be done and implementing it are two separate issues. Because of the overall
economic status of most of the countries in Southern Africa, the resources to implement programmes
designed to reduce water scarcity are very limited. This is also the cause of institutional weaknesses
which result in overbearing bureaucracy and inefficiencies. Although South Africa does not have the
same economic problems of its neighbours, very little has been invested in the past in implementing
sound disaster management policy. In South Africa it is not so much a matter of lack of resources as a
lack of will.

Institutional and financial weakness results in water not being available which could otherwise have
relieved water scarcity.

Sectoral professional capacity

Closely related to the financial and institutional circumstances noted above is the critical problem facing
water sector professionals. South Africa and the region is not without highly competent and motivated
professionals, but the conditions of employment and the incentives are generally not able to compete,
particularly with those offered in the private sector. Disaster management has not been a professional
option where experience and expertise have been developed in South Africa. The lack of sufficient
expertise to manage water resources and develop and implement policy is a direct contributor to water
scarcity.

Political realities

Politicians and decision-makers are the persons who have greatest influence on the allocation of scarce
budgets and the adoption of policy. Unfortunately, the horizons of many politicians do not coincide with
the horizons of prudent water resource management, resulting in decisions being made on the basis of
short term political expediency. To have the political will to develop policy and supportive legislation
which will introduce the discipline necessary to manage water scarcity in South Africa and the sub-
Continent, requires considerable political courage and foresight. Political tension and conflict within
countries and between countries often have a greater influence on de facto policy than the practice of
sound water policy.

Sociological issues

There are a number of sociological and cultural issues which exacerbate the water scarcity situation.
These are often as a result of practices which were not originally a threat to the environment but have

5
become a threat as population pressures and modern consumerism increases. The resulting pressures
on the environment, for example from over grazing, have a direct and detrimental effect on water
resources.

Other phenomena such as racism, tribalism and civil war also result in critical incidences of water
scarcity for some sectors of the population. The apartheid era in South Africa resulted in large
proportions of the population suffering critical shortages of water whilst neighboring communities
enjoyed, and often wasted, an excess of water. The protracted civil wars in Mozambique and Angola
have resulted in the already limited infrastructure being destroyed or lapsing into disrepair. The long-
term economic and social impacts of these issues often predetermine the overall political and economic
framework from which many of the other causes of water scarcity stem.

Commercial farmers are generally good custodians of soil and water

Water is such an important resource and so undervalued. This is changing around the world, faster in
water-scarce countries such as South Africa. Political interference and unfair water policies are not a
thing of the past, especially in South Africa. Coming from a farm, I grew up thinking that the water in our
dams was ‘ours’. After all, our family built the dams for water storage at considerable financial
expense. However, it was a shock to many farmers when they were told that they would have to pay for
the water stored in their dams and water tanks (indirectly, this meant paying for rainfall!). Landowners
(e.g. farmers) have a responsibility to be good custodians of the land. It is folly not to as crop production
will deteriorate if good soil and water conservation practices are not implemented. The policy of water
being a nation al resource that belongs to all South Africans does have its pitfalls. As with many other
natural resources, communal ownership tends to result in certain individuals or groups trying to get
more than other people sharing the resource. This is usually based on short-term greed with inevitable
negative consequences. An example is communal grazing lands in the Lowveld. Each stock owner tries
to build his herd numbers up to the maximum regardless of the land’s carrying capacity. Overgrazing
leads to soil erosion which leads to degraded ecosystems and watercourses becoming silted-
up. Another example is the pollution of rivers by local communities- they dump household waste,
sewerage and whatever else they don’t want into the river with no regard for downstream communities
who need to drink the river water. Of course this leads back to socio-political factors; if these
communities were educated, provided with basic services and lifted out of poverty, perhaps they would
treat the environment with more respect and recognise the benefits of sustainable resource use.

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