Water Resources: Agriculture, the Environment, and Society

Author(s): David Pimentel, James Houser, Erika Preiss, Omar White, Hope Fang, Leslie
Mesnick, Troy Barsky, Stephanie Tariche, Jerrod Schreck and Sharon Alpert
Source: BioScience, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Feb., 1997), pp. 97-106
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological
Sciences
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 Water Resources: Agriculture, the
Environment, and Society
An assessment of the status of water resources

David Pimentel, James Houser, Erika Preiss, Omar White, Hope Fang, Leslie Mesnick,
Troy Barsky, Stephanie Tariche, Jerrod Schreck, and Sharon Alpert

Water is a renewable re- Hydrologic cycle. The earth's atmos-

source, but its availability phere contains approximately 1.3 x
Vis variable and limited. New water supplies likely 1013 m3 of water and is the source of
will result
Nearly every country in the world from all of the rain that falls on Earth.
experiences water shortages during Each year, approximately 151,000
certain times of the yearconservation,
(Gleick recycling, quads (1 quad = 1015 BTU) of solar
1993a), and more than 80 countries energy distills and moves 5 x 1014 m3
now suffer from serious water reuse,
short- and improved of water from the earth's surface
ages (Falkenmark and Lindh 1993). into the atmosphere-86% from
water use
Factors such as rainfall, tempera- efficiency oceans and 14% from land (Postel
ture, evaporation, and runoff deter- 1985). This is approximately 400
ratherwa-
mine water availability. Clean than from large times the total amount of fossil en-
ter resources per capita are declining ergy (320 quads) burned each year in
development projectsthe world. Although only 14% of
rapidly as the needs of the growing
population increase (Pimentel et al. the evaporation occurs from land,
1994). Population growth industries,
not only and between individual approximately 24% (1.2 x 1014 m3
reduces water availability communities.
per per- Consider that agricul- per year) of the world's precipita-
son but stresses the entire environ- ture alone consumes 87% of the tion falls onto land (Shiklomanov
mental system. As the world popula-fresh water withdrawn in the world 1993). The sun's energy therefore
tion increased from 3.8 billion to 5.4 (Postel 1992). Water shortages can transfers a significant portion of the
billion during the last two decades, be expected to severely reduce biodi- water from the oceans to the conti-
water use worldwide increased three- versity in both aquatic and terres- nents each year.
fold (Postel 1992). In addition, fac- trial ecosystems (Postel et al. 1996). The 1.3 x 1013 m3 of water in the
tors such as pollution, erosion, run- In this assessment of the status of atmosphere is a small percentage
off, and salinization associated with water resources, we analyze con- (0.001%) of the 1.4 x 1018 m3 water
irrigation, plus the overall ineffi- sumption of water by individuals, estimated to be in the oceans (WRI
cient use of water, contribute to the agriculture, and energy production. 1989). The total amount of fresh
decline in water resources (Pimentel We also address the relationship of water held on the surface of the
et al. 1994). water availability to biodiversity. earth in streams and lakes is ap-
Major difficulties exist in allocat- Finally, considering projected popu- proximately 1 x 1014 m3. This repre-
ing the world's scarce freshwater lation growth, climate change, and sents approximately 0.3 % of the total
resources. These problems exist be- water use patterns, we suggest strat- fresh water on Earth, including wa-
tween and within countries, between egies for improving water use to ter in ice caps, glaciers, ground wa-
meet the increasing and conflicting ter, and as soil moisture. Approxi-
needs of agriculture, society, and the mately 23% of the total fresh water
David Pimentel is a professor and James environment in future decades. on Earth is stored as ground water,
Houser, Erika Preiss, Omar White, Hope which is 82 times more abundant
Fang, Leslie Mesnick, Troy B1arsky, than the amount of fresh water in
Water resources
Stephanie Tariche, Jerrod Schreck, and streams and lakes (Shiklomanov
Sharon Alpert are graduate students in
Water resources depend on the hy-1993).
the College of Agriculture and Life Sci-
drologic cycle, on climate change,
ences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
14853-0901. ? 1997 American Insti- and to some degree on fossil water Groundwater
in resources. Ground
tute of Biological Sciences. the ground. water has accumulated over many

February 1997 97

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millions of years in aquifers located Table 1. Regions of the world with day; Table 1). Water stress occurs
below the surface of the earth. An water problems (based on the criterion when water availability ranges from
estimated 8.2 x 1015 m3 of water arethat yearly water availability per capita 1000 to 1700 m3 per person per year
now present in the world's aquifers is less than 1000 m3/yr) and their per (Engelman and LeRoy 1993). The
(WRI 1989). Most aquifers are re- capita water availability (Falkenmark result is a lack of water for irriga-
and Lindh 1993).
plenished slowly, with an average tion, industry, and protection of the
recharge rate that ranges from 0.1% Region Water availability environment. Twenty-six nations,
to 0.3% per year (Covich 1993). per capita (m3/yr)including Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Syria,
Assuming an average 0.2% recharge Iraq, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, are
rate, only 16.4 x 1012 m3 of water per Egypt 40 currently defined as water scarce
year is available for sustainable use. Malta 50 (Engelman and LeRoy 1993, Postel
The amount of fresh water stored in West Bank 126 1992). At least 11 countries experi-
the top 0.2 m of world soil is esti- Gaza Strip 133 ence water stress, including Ethio-
Yemen 220
mated to be 16.5 x 1012 m3 (Levine et
Jordan 255
pia, Kenya, Somalia, Algeria, and
al. 1979). On average, water ac- Israel 376 Libya.
counts for nearly one-quarter of the Saudi Arabia 300 Even in countries that possess
weight of the upper-soil level. Libya 300 abundant water resources, such as
Hai-Luan River
In the United States, ground wa-
Basin, China 308
the United States, many existing
ter provides approximately 46% of Huai He River sources of water are being stressed
the water used by all households Basin, China 424 by withdrawals from groundwater
(Solley et al. 1993), although ap- Syria 440 wells and diversions from rivers and
Tunisia 600
proximately 97% of the water used reservoirs to meet the needs of homes,
Kenya 610
by rural households is from ground- cities, farms, and industries.' Increas-
water sources (NGWPF 1987). Irri- ing requirements to leave water in
gation for agriculture also relies streams and rivers to meet environ-
heavily on ground water. For ex- and patterns mental,
ofhuman, and recreational su
rainfall,
ample, 66% of irrigation water inqualities, temperature, needs further complicate the prob-evap
Texas and 38% in California is rate, vegetation lem. In thecover,
past, water management
and ru
pumped from ground water (Solley The average in the United States has focused on
precipitation fo
et al. 1993). continents is developing approximatelyways to exploit the 70
Population growth and the yr asso- (7 million country's supplies of freshAustr
liters/ha). water.
ciated increase in irrigated agricul-
South America Manyvarylarge dams from
were built dur-this
significantly,
ture have led to the mining of ground- ing with
the early twentieth
450 century
mm/ to
water resources-that is, the rate1600of mm/yr, respectively
increase the supply of fresh water. (
water withdrawal is considerably manov 1993). The Africa,
era of constructing largehowev
dams
faster than the recharge rate, relatively
caus- arid and conveyance
despite systems to meet
having
lar average rainfall
ing water tables in the United States water demand in the United
to Statesother
to fall approximately 3-120 nents
cm/yr because its warm climate causes is drawing to a close; the limited
in some irrigated regions (Sloggett
80% of its water to evaporate before water supply and established infra-
and Dickason 1986). The Ogallala
it is available for use (Budyko 1986). structure require that demand be
Ne-areas simply receive insuffi- managed effectively within the avail-
Some
aquifer, which underlies parts of
braska, Kansas, Colorado, Okla- cient rainfall (less than 500 mm/yr) able supply (Figure 1). New water
homa, New Mexico, and Texas is for agriculture, which leads to seri- supplies likely will result from con-
nearly half depleted, and recharge ous water and food problems. Of the servation, recycling, reuse, and im-
rates are only a small fraction of the 14 Middle Eastern countries, nine proved water use efficiency rather
withdrawal rates (Soule and Piper are facing shortages of water (less than from large development pro-
1992, Thomas 1987). In Beijing, than 1000 m3 per person per year; jects, as in the past (Postel et al.
China, water tables are falling at a Postel 1992). Egypt, which receives 1996).
rate of 1 to 2 m/yr (Postel 1992). The practically no rainfall and also has a
rapid depletion of ground water by high rate of evaporation, depends Climate and other human-induced
irrigation poses serious threats to almost totally (97%) on the lower environmental changes. Estimates of
the sustainable use of groundwater Nile, which flows in from its up- water resources and their availabil-
supplies in rural and irrigated farm- stream neighbors, including the ity are based on present world cli-
ing regions. Sudan and Ethiopia. mate patterns. However, the contin-
Some hydrologists define water ued loss of forests and other
Water availability. Although water scarcity based on the flow or runoff vegetation and the accumulation
is a renewable resource, its avail- in rivers after evaporative losses carbon dioxide, methane gas, an
ability is finite in terms of the amount (Falkenmark and Lindh 1993). In nitrous oxides in the atmosphere m
available per unit time in various general, a nation is considered water
regions of the earth (Table 1). Over- scarce when the availability of wa- 1W. Solley, 1995, personal communication
all water availability is affected by ter drops below 1000 m3 per person Department of the Interior, US Geological
many factors, such as the amounts per year (2740 liters per person per vey, Washington, DC.

98 BioScience Vol. 47 No. 2

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 500-

Water use Reservoirs (4%)

400-
Municipal (7%)
Water resources are withdrawn for

300
use and consumption in many hu-
= man activities. The term use implies
Agricultural
irrigation (65%)
Industry (24%)
that some of the withdrawn water is
returned for reuse, for example,
cooking water or wash water. In
contrast, consumption means that
0-
the water is nonrecoverable and is
18 60 180 1900 1920 1940 1 960 1980 2000
Year not returned to the water resource. Total withdrawn = 4130 km 3

Figure 1. Total reservoir storage Human use of water. The water con-
capac- Reservoirs (79/%)
Municipal (2%)

ity (in millions of acre-feet; 1 acre-foot

tent of all living organisms ranges industry (4%)

= 1231 m3) in the United States from

from 60% to 95%. Humans need to
1880 to 1990 (USGS 1995).
consume 1 to 2 liters of water per Agricultural

day per person (Watson 1988). irrigation (87%)

lead to global warming, which wouldAmericans use approximately 400

change precipitation and tempera-liters of water per person per day for
ture patterns (Downing and Parrydrinking, cooking, washing, dispos-
1994). Meeting agricultural and ing of wastes, and other personal
other societal needs for fresh water uses (USBC 1994). This use is much Total consumption= 2360 km 3

will become even more difficult in higher than the average world per-
some regions; however, in other re-sonal use of 90 liters per person per
Figure 2. Annual human water use
gions benefits might accrue becauseday (Brewster 1987). Worldwide,worldwide (data from Shiklomanov
of warmer temperatures and higher total use of fresh water averages 1993). Water withdrawn refers to wa-
rainfall for agriculture. approximately 1800 liters per per- ter pumped, and consumption refers to
son per day for all uses (WRI 1991).water that is used and is nonrecover-
For example, California, which is
already experiencing water short- Total US freshwater withdrawals able (per year).
are approximately 1280 billion li-
ages, is likely to have a 20%-40%
decrease in mountain snowpack and ters per day, or approximately 5100United States is used for agriculture
water flow through its river basins liters per person per day including(Solley et al. 1993).
(Vaux 1991). And the snowpack water use in irrigation, with 77% Different crops and regions vary
would most likely melt earlier in the coming from surface water and 23% in their water requirements. Rain-
year, creating early summer short- withdrawn from ground waterfall patterns, temperature, soil qual-
ages and more severe water short- (Solley et al. 1993). In China, only ity, and vegetative cover all influ-
ages late in the summer (Vaux 1991). approximately 1100 liters per per- ence soil moisture levels. For ideal
On the other hand, areas like Canada son per day are withdrawn for all growing conditions, soil moisture
may benefit from warming, which purposes, one-fourth of the use in should not fall below 50% in the
would create longer growing sea- the United States (Zhang 1990). root zone (Blackshaw 1990), but for
sons; however, these areas may be Postel et al. (1996) report that hu- some crops, like rice, more than
faced with water shortages (Parry mankind now uses 26% of total 50% is needed for full yields
and Carter 1989). evapotranspiration and 54% of (Bhuiyan
all 1992). Good vegetative
If mean annual temperatures rise runoff in rivers, lakes, and other cover, high levels of soil organic
30-40C, rainfall in the US corn belt accessible sources. matter, active soil biota, and slow
region is projected to decline by ap- water runoff increase the percola-
proximately 10% (Downing and Crop production. Agricultural pro- tion of rainfall into the soil for use
Parry 1994). Low rainfall and in- duction consumes more fresh water by growing crops.
creased evaporation rates would than any other human activity The transfer of water to the atmos-
combine to limit corn production in (Falkenmark 1989). US agriculture phere from the terrestrial environ-
the region (Rosenzweig and Parry accounts for 87% of the fresh water ment by transpiration through vegeta-
1994). The predicted global warm- consumed after being withdrawntion is estimated to range between
ing could increase world irrigation (Figure 2). Plants render all water 38% and 65% of precipitation de-
needs by 26% to maintain current that passes through them nonrecov-pending on the terrestrial ecosystem.2
production (Postel 1989). In addi- erable through evaporation and tran-The processes of carbon dioxide fixa-
tion to global warming, population spiration. In the United States, ap-tion and temperature control require
growth and associated activities may proximately 62% of the water used plants to transpire enormous amounts
influence water resources through in agriculture comes from surfaceof water. For example, a squash plant
other environmental changes, such sources and 38% comes from transpires ten times its fresh weight in
as deforestation, desertification, soil groundwater sources (Solley et al.
erosion, and loss of biodiversity 1993). Approximately 68%2T.
of all 1995, personal communication.
Dawson,
(Heywood 1995). ground water withdrawnCornell
in the
University, Ithaca, NY.

February 1997 99

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water per day, and many deciduous Table 2. Estimated liters of water re-
amount of land under irrigation is
trees transpire two to six times their quired to produce 1 kg of food and
slowly expanding, even though salin-
fresh weight per day. forage crops. ization, waterlogging, and siltation
The water required to grow vari- are decreasing productivity of some
Crop Liters/kg
ous food and forage crops ranges irrigated lands.3 Despite a small an-
from 500 to 2000 liters of water per nual increase in irrigated areas, the
Potatoes 500
kg of yield produced (Table 2). For per capita irrigated area has been
Wheat 900
instance, 1 ha of US corn transpires Alfalfa 900 declining since 1978 (Postel 1992).
approximately 4 million liters (4000 Sorghum 1110 For example, per capita irrigated
m3/ha) of water during its growing Corn 1400 land in the United States has de-
season, and an additional 2 million Rice 1912 clined 8% between 1978 and 1988
liters/ha evaporate concurrently from Soybeans 2000 (USDA 1993).
Broiler chicken 3500
the soil (Donahue et al. 1990). Thus, Beef 100,000 Irrigation requires a significant
during the growing season approxi- amount of energy for pumping and
mately 600 mm (6 million liters/ha) moving irrigation water. Annually,
of rainfall is needed for corn produc- approximately 120 x 1012 kcal/yr, or
tion. Even with 800-1000 mm (8-10 Livestock production.
approximately 10% of theProduc total en-
million liters/ha) of annual rainfall kg of animalergy protein
expended each year in require
US crop
in the corn belt region, corn usually proximately 100 times
and livestock production, ismoreused to w
suffers from lack of water at some than producing 1 kg of
pump water for irrigation. Partially vege
point during the summer growing protein (Pimentel
irrigated wheat uses and Pime
4.2 times more
season (Troeh and Thompson 1993). 1996). In the energy
United States,
than rainfed wheat, and in l
High-yielding rice requires much stock directlytheuse only
US, irrigated 1.3%
alfalfa requires three of
more water for production, from 10 total water used in
times more agriculture,
energy than if it is rainfed
to 18 million liters of water/ha. Up (Singh and Mittal
including the water 1992). In Ne- for
required
to 50% more rice per hectare is age and grain production
braska, irrigated corn production gre
produced under flooded conditions increases the water requirement
requires more than three times the
than under sprinkler irrigation. livestock production.
energy of rainfed cornProduci
production
The biomass and total yields of kg of beef requires approxim
(Pimentel 1980). Delivering the 7
soybeans (2.3x 103 kg/ha) and wheat 100 kg of hay-forage
million liters of and
irrigation water 4 k
(2.7 x 103 kg/ha) produce less bio- grain (Pimentel
needed et al. of
by a hectare 1980).
irrigated corn Pro
mass and total yields than corn (7.6 ing this much fromforage and
surface water sources grain
requires
x 103 kg/ha) or rice (6.2 x 103 kg/ha) quires approximately 100,000
approximately 8 million kcal of fos- li
on average (USDA 1993). Neverthe- of water to produce
sil fuel (Pimentel approxim
1980). This irriga-
less, soybeans are highly consump- 100 kg of plant tion energybiomass
is 1.5 times the totalplus
of
tive of water, requiring approxi- liters to produce 4 kg
all other energy inputs of g
required for
mately 4.6 million liters/ha for (Falkenmark corn 1994).
production. IfOnthe waterrange
has to
transpiration. Wheat, by contrast, more than 200,000 liters
be pumped from a depth of 100 m, of w
requires only approximately 2.4 are needed totheproduce 1 kg of
energy cost rises to approximately
million liters/ha. (Thomas 1987). 24,500 Forage,
kcal, more than threesome
times
Sorghum and millet production als, and livestock can
the energy cost bewater
of surface prod
require only 250-300 mm (2.5-3 with rainfalls (Gleick 1993a). In some areas, wa- 20
of only 150 to
million liters/ha) of annual rainfall per year (1.5-2ter must be pumped liters/ha
million from 200 m,
(Gleick 1993a), and some cereal pro- et al. 1990, USDA
requiring a 1993),
much greater but
fossil en-
duction can take place with annualduction is low under such arid con- ergy investment. Furthermore, the
rainfall levels as low as 200-250 ditions. dollar cost of delivering 7 million
Animals vary in the amounts of liters of water per hectare from a
mm (Rees et al. 1990). Under these
water required for their production. depth of 30 m is approximately
relatively arid conditions, crop yields
In contrast to beef, 1 kg of broiler $1000/ha (Hinz 1985). Few crops
are low (1-2.5 x 103 kg/ha), even
chickens can be produced with ap- are sufficiently valuable to justify
with adequate amounts of fertilizer
(USDA 1993). proximately 2.5 kg of grain requiring spending $1000/ha for irrigation
approximately
US agricultural production is pro- 3500 liters of water. alone. In regions with falling ground-
jected to expand because of increased water tables, the high costs of pump-
Irrigation and energy use. Both wa- ing ground water eventually make
food needs and the increase in popu-
ter and energy resources are ex- crop production progressively less
lation. The projected 30% increase
in US crop and livestock production pended in the irrigation of arid land economical.
during the next two decades to make them productive. Approxi-
will In total, approximately 10 mil-
significantly stress water resources 16% of the world's cropland
mately lion kcal are expended for machin-
in the central United States. Increas- is irrigated (WRI 1992) and approxi- ery, fuel, fertilizers, pesticides, par-
ing crop yields carries a parallel in- mately 33% of the world's food is
crease in freshwater consumption in produced on this irrigated land 3D. Haith, 1994, personal communication.
agriculture. (Postel 1992). Worldwide, the Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.

100 BioScience Vol. 47 No. 2

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tial irrigation, and other inputs to
produce 1 ha of corn in the United
States (Pimentel and Wen 1990). The
large quantities of energy needed to
pump irrigation water place signifi-
cant demands on energy and water
Nuclear
resource management. This factor
can be expected to influence the eco-
nomics of irrigated crops and selec-
tion of specific crops worth irrigating.
Table 3. Withdrawal of water for energy production and electricity generation
(after Gleick 1994a).
Energy technology Water used for energy Water used for electricity
productiona (m3/106 kWh) generation (m3/106 kWh)
Open pit mining 72 NAb
Uranium milling 29-36 NA
Nuclear fuel reprocessing 180 NA
Nuclear plant Light Water Reactor NA 3200

Coal
Water use in energy production. Pro- Surface mining and revegetation 7 NA
ducing energy for all types of fuel Other plant operations 325 NA
requires pumping large quantities of Coal combustion (cooling towers) NA 2600
water. Based on the current per capita Coal gasification 140-340 NA
Coal liquification 120-250 NA
use of electricity (24,300 kWh; USBC
1994) in the United States, the Oil
amount of water consumed by a Onshore oil extraction and production 6-29 NA
conventional coal-generating plant Enhanced oil recovery 433 NA
is 29 m3 per capita per year (Gleick Oil combustion (cooling towers) NA 2600
Oil shale (mine retort) 110-220 NA
1994a). If cooling towers are used,
water consumption jumps to 63 m3 Hydroelectric NA 17,000
per capita per year. For an average
hydroelectric plant, water consump- aNuclear and fossil fuel production
tion increases to 413 m3 per capita bNot applicable.
per year, largely due to evaporation
from the reservoirs (Gleick 1994a).
to produce 1they have less water perkWh
million capita than (T
other same
Producing the
To produce a total of 1 million kWh world regionsamount
(Gleick 1994b,
requires 1190 m3, 2590 m3, and enhanced oil c) and because every majorrequire
recovery river in
16,930 m3 (Gleick 1994a), respec- ing 433 m3 the
water per milli
region crosses international bor-
tively, for a conventional plant, a produced. ders (Gleick 1993b). Furthermore,
plant with cooling towers, and a their populations are increasing rap-
hydroelectric plant. Conflicts over water resources. The idly, some having doubled in the last
Electric power production re- rapid rise in consumption of fresh20 to 25 years (PRB 1995). The
quires large amounts of water to be water for food production and othercombination of water scarcity and
pumped. For example, thermoelec- uses has spurred conflicts over waterpopulation growth ensures that con-
tric power generation withdraws resources. At least 20 nations obtain flicts, like Syria's diversion of the
approximately the same amount of more than half of their water from Jordan headwaters, which played a
US water as agriculture (496 million rivers that cross national boundaries leading role in the June 1967 Arab
m3/day versus 534 million m3/day; (Gleick 1993a), and 14 countries and Israeli War (Gleick 1993a), will
Solley et al. 1993) but presents no receive 70 % or more of their surface continue.
significant consumption problems water resources from rivers that are Many conflicts have erupted on
because 97% of the water that is totally outside their borders. For the African continent over the use of
withdrawn is returned directly to its example, Egypt obtains 97% of its the Nile River (Gleick 1994c). This
source (Solley et al. 1993). fresh water from the River Nile, river, the second longest in the world,
Currently, for example, with on- which originates in other countries, is shared by the Sudan, Ethiopia,
shore oil extraction, between 0.2 m3 including the Sudan; for Botswana, Egypt, Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda,
and 1.2 m3 of water must be with- the percentage of water obtained Tanzania, Zaire, Eritrea, and
drawn for the amount of oil (37,800 from rivers outside its borders is Uganda. The Nile is so dammed and
kWh, or 32.5 million kcal) that is 94%; and for Syria it is 79% (Gleick overused that for parts of the year
consumed per capita per year (Table 1993a). Approximately 47% of little
the or no fresh water reaches the
3; USBC 1994). When the world's surface water located in international sea (Postel 1995). The Egyptians have
sources of oil and natural gas are drainage basins is shared by two or been using the Nile for irrigation for
depleted, other sources of fuel may more countries (McCaffrey 1993) 5500 years, but until recently other
have to be developed. Oil shale, coal and this water supports approxi-nations in the upper drainage basin
have made little use of Nile water
gasification, or coal liquification will mately 40% of the world's popula-
require pumping between 20 and 50 tion (Postel 1993). In addition, many (McCaffrey 1993). However, all the
times more water to produce an underground aquifers are shared by nations through which the Nile
equivalent amount of energy as sur- several countries. passes are becoming increasingly
face mining (Table 3). For instance, Historically, countries in thedependent on it as their populations
increase and their food situations
oil produced from oil shale by mine Middle East have had the most con-
retort requires 110-220 m3 of water flicts over water, largely becauseworsen.

February 1997 101

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 Distribution of river water has Table 4. Cost of delivering 1000 liters of clean, safe water in the United States.
also created conflicts between sev-
eral states of the United States, Treatment Cost Source
Mexico, and Canada (Gleick 1994c).
For instance, the Colorado River is
Chlorination 0.3-17? Troyan and Hanson 1989
Sewage treatment 8-100 EPA 1980, Gleick 1993a
shared by several states, including
California, Nevada, Colorado, New Activated carbon 13? Gammie and Giesbreck 1986
Mexico, Utah, and Arizona. BecauseRemoving salts 21? EPA 1980
Potable water (processing) 30-334 Unpublished dataa
these states depend heavily on theDesalinization (ocean water) Approximately $2.00 Gruen 1994, Ingram 1991, Kally
river water, the Colorado River is a
trickle by the time it reaches the
aJ. Rogers, 1980, personal communication. Village of Cayuga Heights, NY.
Gulf of California and after Mexico
takes its share of the water (Postelinto streams and lakes ranges from
m3 (Bolling 1990). If US farmers
1995). paid the full cost of water, they
8? to 100 per 1000 liters (EPA 1980,
Dam construction on the GangesGleick 1993a). If salt water from would probably manage irrigation
River has also led to water rightsoceans has to be desalinated, water the more effectively (LaVeen and
disputes. The Ganges River arises in costs are enormous, ranging up King
to $2 1985).
the Himalayas and flows throughper 1000 liters (Table 4). At this The 12% of US cropland that is
irrigated
India and eventually into Bangladesh.rate, for an average per capita use of produces 27% of the dollar
Between 1961 and 1975, India con-water of 5100 liters/day (the value total of all crops (USDA 1993).
structed a dam to divert water to a US freshwater withdrawal rate), it
However, this 27% dollar value does
tributary that carries water to would cost approximately $10 notper
take into account the costs to the
Calcutta (McCaffrey 1993). This person per day to use desalinated government of supplying and subsi-
dam has reduced the flow of water water. In some cases, sewage efflu-
dizing a large portion of US irriga-
ent might be used for crop andtion
to Bangladesh, where it is needed for for-water. The construction cost
irrigation. In addition, the naturalage production, and this would re- for western irrigation is ap-
subsidy
flow of the Ganges is essential to duce overall water costs (Tanji and
proximately $4870/ha, which repre-
prevent siltation and flooding in Enos 1994). sents an annual construction cost
Bangladesh and to prevent salt wa- Cleaning water and reducing the subsidy of approximately $440 . ha-1
ter intrusion from the Bay of Bengal.BOD (biological oxygen demand) is 0 yr-1 over the life of the project (US
India's continued diversion of more energy costly; removing 1 kg of BOD Congress 1989). An annual $540/ha
and more water from the Ganges hasrequires 1 kWh (Trobish 1992). Most is added to the construction cost for
recently led to riots and protests inof the cost of cleaning water arises water and power for moving water
Bangladesh (Khurshida 1989). from the energy and equipment costs (LaVeen and King 1985). Thus, the
involved in pumping and delivering total subsidy for irrigation per hec-
Limits to water use water. Delivering 1 m3 (1000 liters tare in the western region of the
or 1 metric ton) of water in the United States is approximately $980
Utilization of fresh water is limited United States requires the expendi- * ha-1 . yrl; based on these data, this
by pollution, economic costs, andture of approximately 1140 kcal. irrigation costs approximately 100/m3.
land management practices. Excluding the energy for pumping The total annual government subsidy
sewage, the amount of energy re- is estimated to be approximately $4.4
Costs of water treatment. Surface quired to process 1 m3 in a tertiary billion for the 4.5 million ha irri-
and groundwater pollution not only waste water treatment plant requires gated in the West.
pose a threat to public and environ- approximately 70 kcal of energy.s Other nations have similar pat-
mental health, but the high cost of The cost of water treatment and the terns of subsidies. For example, farm-
water treatments further limits the energy used to purify water will most ers in Mexico pay only 11% of their
availability of water for use. De- likely increase in the future as popu- water's full cost, and farmers in In-
pending on the water quality and the lation growth increases both water donesia and Pakistan pay only 13%
purification treatment used, potable pollution and water demand. (Postel 1992). Such undercharging
water costs from 30? to 33? per for irrigation water in the United
1000 liters (Table 4; Gleick 1993a).4 Economic costs and subsidies for States and other nations encourages
the planting of relatively low-value
If the water has to be run through water. Because the high cost of treat-
crops
charcoal filters for further purifica- ing and delivering water can limit its and the inefficient use of wa-
tion, it costs an additional 13? per availability and use, many ter.
govern- In general, vegetable and fruit
1000 liters. If salts also have to be ments throughout the world subsi-crops return more per dollar invested
removed from the water, costs rise dize water for agriculture. Forinex-irrigation water than field crops.
ample, farmers in California pay For
as example, in Israel 1 m3 of water
by an additional 21? per 1000 liters
(EPA 1980). In the United States, the little as 0.50 per m3, whereasfromthe irrigation produces 794 worth
cost of treating sewage for release public pays approximately 250of pergroundnuts and 57? worth of
tomatoes but only 130 worth of corn
grain and 12?
SB. Cross, 1994, personal communication.
4J. Rogers, 1980, personal communication. worth of wheat
Village of Cayuga Heights, NY. Village of Cayuga Heights, NY. (Fishelson 1994).

102 BioScience Vol. 47 No. 2

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 As fossil energy prices increase, that extend down to the crop from the
a soil contained in the splashes is
irrigation costs also increase. For sprinkler arm (Sweeten and Jordancarried downhill on land with a slope
example, from 1973 to 1983 US 1987). Water application efficiency
greater than 1% (Foster et al. 1985).
irrigation costs increased from $551 of the LEPA system ranges from 88%In most fields, raindrop splash and
million to $2.5 billion per year to 99% (Sweeten and Jordan 1987).sheet erosion are the dominant forms
(Sloggett 1985). As a result, many Combined ridge-tillage (planting crops of erosion (Foster et al. 1985). Eroded
US farmers who had been irrigating on top of permanent ridges) and LEPA
soils absorb from 10 to 300 mm .ha-1
low-value crops such as alfalfa can significantly increase irrigation- yr-1 less water, or from 7% to 44%
switched to high-value crops such as efficiency (Lal 1994). of total rainfall (Pimentel et al. 1995).
cotton, lettuce, and strawberries The "drip" or "microirrigation"As expected, loss of rainwater se-
(Lacewell and Collins 1986). technique developed in the 1960sverely reduces crop productivity. A
has spread rapidly worldwide, espe-runoff of even 20% to 30% of total
Improving agricultural water use. cially to Israel, Australia, New rainfall can result in significant wa-
Coupled with inefficient crop choice, Zealand, and some regions in the ter shortages for crops and ultimately
some irrigation practices waste large United States. Drip irrigation deliv- low crop yields (Elwell 1985).
amounts of water. Most farmers use ers water to each individual plant by Because soil erosion decreases
flooding or channeling methods toplastic tubes. This method uses from both soil depth and its organic mat-
irrigate their crops; thus, irrigation30% to 50% less water than surface ter content, the ability of the re-
efficiency, or the amount of water irrigation (Tuijl 1993). Although drip maining soil to retain water is sig-
reaching the crop, worldwide is esti-systems achieve up to 95% efficiency, nificantly decreased (Fullen 1992).
mated to be less than 40%. Large they are expensive and energy inten- Thus, soil erosion is a self-degrading
amounts of water are lost throughsive, and relatively clean water process-asis erosion removes topsoil
pumping and transporting (Postelneeded to prevent the clogging of theand organic matter, runoff intensi-
1992). In the United States, less thanfine delivery tubes (Snyder 1989). A fies and erosion worsens, only to be
50% of irrigation water actuallycomparison of drip irrigation with repeated with more intensity during
reaches the crop (van der Leeden et subirrigation and seepage for tomato subsequent rains. For example, Lal
al. 1990). production in Florida indicated that(1976) reported that in the tropics,
Although improving irrigation ef-drip irrigation reduced water needs erosion may reduce water infiltra-
ficiency is difficult, conservation tech-by 50% but added $328/ha to the tion by up to 93% and dramatically
nologies can improve irrigation and production costs (Pitts and Clark increase water runoff and loss. Wa-
reduce the irrigation water needed to1991). ter runoff and the transport of sedi-
produce the same crop yield. For ex- Planting trees to serve as shelterments, nutrients, and pesticides from
ample, some farmers are turning tobelts reduces evaporation and tran-agriculture to surface and ground
"surge flow" irrigation to replace tra- spiration from the crop ecosystem waters are the leading cause of
ditional flooding and channeling irri-from 13% to 20% during the grow- nonpoint source pollution in the
gation (Verplaneke et al. 1992). This ing season (Mari et al. 1985). TheUnited States (EPA 1994).
practice involves an automatedresulting increase in crop yields Water runoff and soil loss can be
gated-pipe irrigation system that uses ranges from 10% to 74% for corn reduced by using vegetative cover,
such as intercropping and ground
a microprocessor control instead of (Gregersen et al. 1989). Furthermore,
releasing water in a continuous, slowthis practice can reduce wind ero-cover (Lal 1993). For example, when
silage corn is interplanted with red
stream in field channels. Using this sion by as much as 50% (Troeh et al.
method, farmers in Texas have been1991). Also, intercropping cropsclover, water runoff can be reduced
able to reduce water pumping 38%with trees, if they are "hydraulic from 45% to 87% and soil loss can
to 56%, compared with continuouslifters" (e.g., Acer and Eucalyptus),be reduced 46% to 78%, compared
flood irrigation of the same area may increase water availability forwith silage corn grown without clo-
(Sweeten and Jordan 1987). the crop as well as productivity.6 ver (Wall et al. 1991). Reducing
Another strategy is irrigating at water runoff in this way is an impor-
night to reduce evaporation. ThisRunoff and erosion. Because crops tant step in increasing water avail-
technique improves irrigation effi- require large quantities of water forability to crops, conserving water,
ciency by two to three times their growth, it is vital that as muchdecreasing nonpoint pollution, and
(Dubenok and Nesvat 1992). The water as possible percolate into theultimately decreasing water short-
use of low-pressure sprinklers also soil instead of running off. Soil ero-ages (NGS 1995).
may improve water efficiency by sion often limits the amount of wa-
60% to 70%, compared with high-ter available for crop use (Lal and Salinization and waterlogging. Dis-
pressure sprinklers (Verplaneke et Stewart 1990). When raindrops hit solved salts in surface and ground
al. 1992). Avoiding overhead water- exposed soil they have an explosive water used for irrigation can in-
ing can reduce evaporation and wa- effect, launching soil particles into crease soil salinity. Irrigation water
ter needs by 45% (O'Keefe 1992). the air. If the water does not perco- that is applied to crops returns to the
Low-Energy Precision Applicationlate into the soil, it runs off and atmosphere via plant transpiration
(LEPA) is another technique for con-carries soil with it. More than half of and evaporation, leaving the dis-
serving water. LEPA sprinklers de- solved salts behind in the soil. Soil
6See footnote 2.
liver water to the crop by drop tubes type, drainage, and water table depth

February 1997 103

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all influence salt accumulation Conclusions water pollution. According to the
(Dinar and Zilberman 1991). World- World Health Organization (1992),
wide, approximately half of allThe availability and quality of freshapproximately 90% of all illnesses
irri-
gation systems are adversely affected water has become a major interna-in developing countries result from
by salinization (Szabolcs 1989). Ag-problem. Limited water re-waterborne parasites and pathogens.
tional
ricultural land lost by salinization sources
is and inefficient water use, As fossil energy supplies decline,
estimated to be approximately 2 with the rapidly growing large amounts of water will be needed
combined
million ha/yr (Umali 1993). world population, will further stressto make use of some less common
Subsurface runoff and leaching the world's finite freshwater supply.forms of fossil energy, such as shale
from saline soil can increase salt Competition for water within re-oil. New renewable energy technolo-
levels in river and stream water. gions and countries continues to gies that require less water than ex-
Some ground water and aquifers grow. also isting fossil energy technologies need
accumulate salts after extensive irri- Water resources, along with fer-to be developed.
gation (Stolte et al. 1992). As the tile soil, energy, and biodiversity, Water limits exist in many regions
Colorado River flows through the are vital to maintaining the world's of the world even without the effects
Grand River Valley in Colorado and food supply. Agricultural produc- of the projected global warming. By
water is withdrawn for irrigation,tion currently accounts for approxi- causing changes in rainfall patterns
some is later returned to the river mately 87% of the world's freshwa- and more rapid evaporation, global
along with an estimated 18 x 103 kg/ ter consumption. In the future, the warming is likely to intensify the wa-
ha of salts leached from the irrigated need for and the use of water in ter crisis in many regions of the earth.
land (EPA 1976). At times during agriculture will increase as the pro- Increased water stress, with or with-
the summer, the Red River in Texas duction of food and fiber is aug- out global warming, is projected to
and Oklahoma is more saline than mented to meet the needs of the have a negative impact on agricultural
expanding world population.and
seawater, because of leached salts In forest production and other plant
(USWRC 1979). Disposal of saline and animal species throughout the
many parts of the world, per capita
water also has a detrimental impact freshwater resources available for world ecosystem.
on agriculture and aquatic species food production and for other hu-To avoid further water problems
(Kelman and Qualset 1991). The man needs are declining and are and lessen projected harsh outcomes
addition of salts to water not only becoming scarce in the arid regions.
for the future, humankind must con-
severely limits water use, but the In the future, in arid regions whereserve water and energy, and must
process of desalinization is expen- groundwater resources are the pri- protect land and biological re-
sive. mary source of water, irrigationsources-all of which are vital for a
sustainable economy and environ-
The severity of water use and salin- probably will have to be curtailed
ment. Humans can manage water
ization is illustrated by the Aral Sea and the types of crops and livestock
in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The resources more efficiently in agri-
altered to'meet the changing water
surface area of the Aral Sea has been situation. culture and in other activities. Con-
reduced by nearly 50% and its vol- To encourage conservation and servation of water and -pollution
control by individuals as well as by
ume by 75 % during the last 33 yearsto increase overall efficiency, subsi-
(Postel 1995), while its salinity hasdies for irrigation water should society
be is essential if the integrity of
more than tripled (WRI 1994). Thephased out. Irrigation technologies the water supply is to be protected.
reduction and salinization in the Aral that make efficient use of water for
Sea was brought about by diversion crop production must be encour- Acknowledgments
of river water for irrigation pri- aged. In general, more efficient use
marily for cotton production (WRI of water in agricultural production We thank the following people for
1994). could be achieved by providing farm-reading an earlier draft of this ar-
Waterlogging is another prob- ers with incentives to conserve wa- ticle and for their many helpful sug-
lem associated with irrigation. ter and soil resources. Controlling gestions: S. I. Bhuiyan, International
Over time, seepage from canals erosion also helps conserve water by Rice Research Institute; T. Dawson,
and irrigation of fields results in reducing rapid water runoff. Pro- Cornell University; Wen Dazhong,
the rise of water tables and water- tecting forests and other biologicalChinese Academy of Sciences; J. D.
logging. In the absence of adequateresources facilitates effective use of Hamilton, George Washington Uni-
drainage, this water rises into thewater resources and helps maintain versity; M. Giampietro, National
root zone and damages the growingthe hydrologic cycle. Nutrition Institute, Rome; P. Gleick,
crops. These waterlogged fields areMost human activities adversely Pacific Institute, Oakland, Califor-
sometimes referred to as "wet affect the quality of freshwater re- nia; J. Hardy, Cornell University; P.
sources. Chemical and pathogen
deserts" because they are rendered Harriot, Cornell University; R. D.
unproductive (Postel 1992). To pollution of water supplies not only Lacewell, Texas A&M University;
diminish the quality of water but J. Lancaster, Science Policy Insti-
prevent salinization and waterlog-
ging, sufficient water and adequatecause human health problems. Agri- tute, Boston, Massachusetts; J. Letey,
drainage must be available to leach cultural and industrial chemicals and University of California, Riverside;
out salts anddrain the excess water the lack of community sanitary fa- G. Levine, Cornell University; M.
from the soil. cilities are the primary causes of Pimentel, Cornell University; Z.

104 BioScience Vol. 47 No. 2

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