ME 132, Spring 2005, UC Berkeley, A.

Packard 144

16 State Variables

For any system (mechanical, electrical, electromechanical, economic, biological, acoustic,

thermodynamic, etc.) a collection of variables q1 , q2 , . . . , qn are called state variables, if the
knowledge of

• the values of these variables at time t0 , and

• the external inputs acting on the system for all time t ≥ t0 , and

• all equations describing relationships between the variables qi and the external inputs

is enough to determine the value of the variables q1 , q2 , . . . , qn for all t ≥ t0 .

In other words, past history (before t0 ) of the system’s evolution is not important in de-
termining its evolution beyond t0 – all of the relevant past information is embedded in the
variables value’s at t0 .

Example: The system is a point mass, mass m. The point mass is acted on by an external
force f (t). The position of the mass is measured relative to an inertial frame, with coordinate
w, velocity v, as shown below.

Claim #1: The collection {w} is not a suitable choice for state variables. Why? Note that
for t ≥ t0 , we have Z t· Z τ
1
¸
w(t) = w(t0 ) + v(t0 ) + f (η)dη dτ
t0 t0 m

Hence, in order to determine w(t) for all t ≥ t0 , it is not sufficient to know w(t0 ) and the
entire function f (t) for all t ≥ t0 . You also need to know the value of v(t0 ).

Claim #2: The collection {v} is a legitimate choice for state variables. Why? Note that
for t ≥ t0 , we have Z t
1
v(t) = v(t0 ) + f (τ )dτ
t0 m

Hence, in order to determine v(t) for all t ≥ t0 , it is sufficient to know v(t0 ) and the entire
function f (t) for all t ≥ t0 .
ME 132, Spring 2005, UC Berkeley, A. Packard 145

Claim #3: The collection {w, v} is a legitimate choice for state variables. Why? Note that
for t ≥ t0 , we have
w(t) = w(t0 ) + tt0 v(η)dη
R

v(t) = v(t0 ) + tt0 m1 f (τ )dτ

R

Hence, in order to determine v(t) for all t ≥ t0 , it is sufficient to know v(t0 ) and the entire
function f (t) for all t ≥ t0 .

In general, it is not too hard to pick a set of state-variables for a system. The next few
sections explains some rule-of-thumb procedures for making such a choice.

16.1 Legitimate choice by writing down first order evolution equa-

tions

Suppose for a system we choose some variables (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) as a possible choice of state
variables. Let d1 , d2 , . . . , df denote all of the external influences (ie., forcing functions) acting
on the system. Suppose we can derive the relationship between the x and d variables in the
form
ẋ1 = f1 (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t), d1 (t), . . . , df (t))
ẋ2 = f2 (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t), d1 (t), . . . , df (t))
.. .. (73)
. .
ẋn = fn (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t), d1 (t), . . . , df (t))
Then, the set {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is a suitable choice of state variables. Why? Ordinary differ-
ential equation (ODE) theory tells us that given

• an initial condition x(t0 ) := x0 , and

• the forcing function d(t) for t ≥ t0 ,

there is a unique solution x(t) which satisfies the initial condition at t = t 0 , and satisfies the
differential equations for t ≥ t0 . Hence, the set {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } constitutes a state-variable
description of the system.

The equations in (73) are called the state equations for the system.

16.2 Choice of states from a block diagram

Given a block diagram, consisting of an interconnection of

• integrators,

• gains, and
ME 132, Spring 2005, UC Berkeley, A. Packard 146

• static-nonlinear functions,

driven by external inputs d1 , d2 , . . . , df , a suitable choice for the states is

• the output of each and every integrator

Why? Note that

• if the outputs of all of the integrators are labled x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then the inputs to the
integrators are actually ẋ1 , ẋ2 , . . . , ẋn .
• The interconnection of all of the base components (integrators, gains, static nonlinear
functions) implies that each ẋk (t) will be a function of the values of x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t)
along with d1 (t), d2 (t), . . . , df (t).
• This puts the equations in the form of (73).

We have already determined that that form implies that the variables are state variables.

16.3 Problems
1. Shown below is a block diagram of a DC motor connected to an load inertia via a
flexible shaft. The flexible shaft is modeled as a rigid shaft (inertia J1 ) inside the
motor, a massless torsional spring (torsional spring constant Ks ) which connects to
the load inertia J2 . θ is the angular position of the shaft inside the motor, and ψ is
the angular position of the load inertia.

- 1 -
R
-
R ψ(t) - y(t)
J2

−
?
Ks ¾ e
+
6

- −1
J1

- β +
-e+ - R
? -
R
u(t)
+6 θ(t)
−γ ¾

Choose state variables (use rule given in class for block diagrams that do not contain
differentiators). Find matrices A, B and C such that the variables x(t), y(t) and u(t)
are related by
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
y(t) = Cx(t)
ME 132, Spring 2005, UC Berkeley, A. Packard 147

Hint: There are 4 state variables.

2. Using op-amps, resistors, and capacitors, design a circuit to implement a PI controller,

with KP = 4, KI = 10. Use small capacitors (these are more readily available) and
large resistors (to keep currents low).