ASM Specialty Handbook
Heat-Resistant Materials
levated-Temperature Characteristics of
Engineering Materials
IDGH-TEMPERATURE ALLOYS broadly
refer to materials that provide strength, environ-
mental resistance, and stability within the 260 to
1200 'C (500 to 2200 'F) temperature range.
They have generally been used in the presence of
combustion from heat sources such as turbine
engines, reciprocating engines, power plants, fur-
naces, and pollution control equipment. fu order
to retain strength under these conditions, it is
imperative that their microstructures remain sta-
ble at high operating temperatures.
During the last few decades, a better under-
standing of alloying effects, advances in melting
technology, and the development of controlled
thermomechanical processing have led to new
and improved high-temperature alloys. Most
such alloys have sufficient amounts of chromium
(with or without additions of aluminum or sili-
con) to form cbromia (C!'203), alumina (Ah03),
and/or silica (Si02) protective oxide scales,
which provide resistance to environmental degra-
dation. However, oxides cannot protect against
failure by creep, mechanical or thermal fatigue,
thermal shock, or embrittlement. In actual serv-
ice, failure of a component/material is typically
caused by a combination of two or more attack
modes, which synergistically accelerate degrada-
tion.
This article briefly reviews the elevated-tem-
perature characteristics of various engineered
materials. Although emphasis has been placed on
the most commonly employed-most notably
chromium-alloyed steels and superalloys-low-
density metals (titanium- aluminum-, and magne-
sium-base alloys), refractory metal alloys, in-
tennetallics, ceramics, and carbon-carbon
composites are also discussed. The high-tem-
perature property data presented are comparative,
the intent being to provide the reader with an
understanding of alloy group rankings (see, for
example, Fig. I to 5). More detailed informa-
tion/data on specific alloys can be found in the
many cited articles found throughout this Volume.
Cast Irons and Steels
Heat-resistant cast irons are basically alloys
of iron, carbon, and silicon having high-tempera-
tore properties markedly improved by the addi-
tion of certain alloying elements, singly or in
combination, principally chromium, nickel, mo-
lybdenum, aluminum, and silicon in excess of
3%. Silicon and chromium increase resistance to
heavy scaling by forming a light surface oxide
that is impervious to oxidizing atmospheres. Both
elements reduce the toughness and thermal shock
resistance of the metal. Although nickel does not
appreciably affect oxidation resistance, it in-
creases strength and toughness at elevated tem-
peratures by promoting an austenitic structure
that is significantly stronger than ferritic struc-
tures above 540 'C (1000 'F). Molybdenum in-
creases high-temperature strength in both ferritic
and austenitic iron alloys. Aluminum additions
are very potent in raising the equilibrium tem-
perature (A1) and in reducing both growth and
scaling, but they adversely affect mechanical
properties at room temperature.
Alloy cast irons that have successfully been
used for low-stress elevated-temperature applica-
tions include:
• High-silicon irons (4 to 6% Si), with or without
molybdenum additions (0:2 to 2.5%), used at
temperatures up to 900 'C (1650 'F)
• Austenitic nickel-alloyed irons (18 to 34% Ni
with 0.5 to 5.5% Cr), used at temperatures up
to 815 'C (1500 'F)
• High-chromium white irons (12 to 39%), used
at temperatures up to 1040 'C (1900 'F)
Applications for these alloys include cylinder liners,
exhaust manifolds, valve guides, gas turbine hous-
ings, turbocharger housings, nozzle rings, water
pump bodies, and piston rings in aluminum pistons.
More detailed infonnation on heat-resistant irons
can be found in the article ''High-Alloy Cast Irons"
in this Volume.
Carbon steel, the most widely used steel, is
suitable where corrosion or oxidation is relatively
mild. It is used for applications in condensers,
heat exchangers, boilers, superheaters, and stills.
The widespread usage reflects its relatively low
cost, generally good service performance, and
good weldability. The basic low-carbon grade
contains nominally 0.15% C and is used in vari-
ous tubing applications. Medium-carbon grades
Copyright © 1997 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
contain 0.35% C (max) with manganese contents
ranging from 0.30 to 1.06%. These grades are
used for tubing, pipe, forgings, and castings.
For low-stress applications, plain carbon steels
can be used at temperatures ~25 °C (800 °F).
Temperatures up to about 540 °C (1 000 °F) can
be withstood for only short periods. Figures 1 to
5 compare· the elevated-temperature properties of
carbon steels with those of other alloy systems.
Carbon-molybdenum steels contain 0.50%
Mo with a carbon content of about 0.20%. These
steels are used in the same kind of equipment as
carbon steel, but they can be more highly stressed
because the molybdenum addition increases
short-time tensile strength and reduces the creep
rate for a given stress and temperature. If graphi-
tization under service conditions is probable, the
maximum service temperature for carbon-molyb-
denum steels is about 450 'C (850 "F).
Chromium-Molybdenum Steels. Creep-re-
sistant low-alloy steels usually contain 0.5 to 1%
Mo for enhanced creep strength, along with chro-
mium contents between 0.5 and 9% for improved
corrosion resistance, rupture ductility, and resis-
tance against graphitization. Small additions of
carbide fonners such as vanadium, niobium, and
titanium may also be added for precipitation
strengthening and/or grain refmement. The ef-
fects of alloy elements on transformation harden-·
ing and weldability are, of course, additional fac-
tors.
The three general types of creep-resistant low-
alloy steels are:
• Plain chromium-molybdenum steels include
the !Cr-0.5Mo and 1.25Cr-0.5Mo alloys used
at temperatures up to 510 'C (950 'F); 2.25Cr-
1Mo steel, the most widely employed grade,
used at temperatures up to 580 'C (1075 'F);
5Cr-0.5Mo steel used at temperatures up to
620 'C (1150 'F); and the 7Cr-0.5Mo and
9Cr-1Mo alloys, used at temperatures up to
650 'C (1200 'F).
• The chromium-molybdenum-vanadium steels
provide higher creep strengths and are used in
applications where allowable design stresses
may require deformations less than 1% over
the life of components operating at tempera-
tures up to 540 °C (1000 °F). The most com-
4 I Introduction

mon composition contains 1% Cr, 1% Mo, and
0.25% v.
• Modified chromium-molybdenum steels con-
tain various microalloying elements such as
vanadium, niobium, titanium, and boron and
are used for thick-section components in hy-
drogen-containing environments. Depending
on the grade, these modified grades can be
used at temperatures up to 455 to 600 °C (850
to 1110 •F).
Chromium-molybdenum steels are widely
used for pressure vessels and piping in the oil and
gas industries and in fossil fuel and nuclear power
plants. Product forms include forgings, tubing,
pipe, castings, and plate. Figures 3 and 5 compare
the properties of chromium-molybdenum steels
with those of other alloy systems. Detailed infor-
mation on the compositions and properties of
these steels, which are covered by various ASTM
specifications, can be found in the article "Ele-
vated-Temperature Mechanical Properties of
Carbon and Alloy Steels" in this Volume.
Chromium hot-work die steels (types H!O to
H19) have good resistance to thennal softening
(high hot hardness) up to 540 •c (1000 •F) be-
cause of their medium chromium content (5%)
and the addition of carbide-forming elements
such as molybdenum, tungsten, and vanadium.
An increase in silicon content (up to 1.20%) im-
proves oxidation resistance at temperatures up to
8oo ·c (1475 •F).
Stainless Steels and Superalloys
When the severity of the service environments
precludes the use of cast irons, carbon steels, or
low-aHoy steels, more highly alloyed materials
such as stainless steels and superallOys must be
considered. As shown in Fig. 6, some wrought
superalloys-particularly those based on the
austenitic Fe-Ni-Cr system-----evolved from stain-
less steel technology. In fact, some stainless
steels are also considered iron-base superalloys.
Examples include A-286 (UNS 566286), a pre-
cipitation-hardening austenitic stainless steel,
and 19-9-DL (UNS S63198), a solid-solution-
strengthened austenitic stainless steel.

Temperature, oc

Engineering
alloys

100

•
a.
"'§
~

"'
c
~
10

Elastomers

Polymer
foams

0'01a"oc______3:::o::o----.::o::o-''------,s"'o"o____""'aJo'"o___1'"o"'oc-o-----,1.,.40Lo______2,.,ooo
Temperature (T), K

Fig. 1 Short-term high-temperature yield strength for various materials. The broken property envelope lines indicate that ceramic strength values are compressive, not tensile or yield.
These data should not be used in material selection and design for long-term creep and stress rupture. Source: Ref 1, 2
 Elevated-Temperature Characteristics of Engineering Materials I 5

Test temperature, oc
204 427 649 871 1093 1316 1538
280 1931
Ti-8 A!~1 Mo-1 V titanium alloy,
duplex annealed
240 1655

·;;
~
200 1379 ..
a.

ic
301 stainless steel,
cold worked "'~
c
160 1103
~
~c
Rene 41 nickel-base alloy, ..,!l
·;;
/ heat treated c
l'! 120 827
..
l'!

*
E
E
::>
80
316 stainless steel, annealed
552
1ii
jj
::>
Tungsten (unalloyed)

40

Test temperature, oF

Fig. 2 Effect of temperature on the ultimate tensile strength of various metals and alloys. Source: Ref 3

Generally, however, stainless steels can be dif-
ferentiated by their lower alloying content. For
example, compare the analysis of type 304 stain-
less with Waspaloy alloy (UNS N07001), a pre-
cipitation-hardening nickel-base high-tempera-
ture alloy. Type 304 includes carbon, manganese,
silicon, chromium, and nickel. Waspaloy alloy,
in addition to these elements, includes molybde-
num, cobalt, titanium, aluminum, zirconium, and
boron. These additional elements in the right
combination give Waspaloy alloy its consider-
able strength and corrosion resistance at tempera-
tures of up to 870 "C (1600 "F).
Stainless Steels (Ref 7, 8)
Stainless steels for elevated-temperature appli-
cations include ferritic, martensitic, precipitation-
hardening, and austenitic grades. Next to the su-
peralloys, the stainless steels provide the best
combination of high-temperature corrosion resis-
tance and high-temperature mechanical strength
of any alloy group. More detailed information on
stainless steels can be found in the articles "Ele-
vated-Temperature Mechanical Properties of
Stainless Steels" and "Elevated-Temperature
Corrosion Properties of Stainless Steels" in this
Volume.
resistance up to 815 "C (1500 "F). Where ele-
vated-temperature strength is a requirement, the
use of this composition is limited because of its
relatively low creep strength. Although it is duc-
tile between about 400 and 590 "C (750 and 1100
0
F), this steel will be brittle when it is cooled to
ambient temperature after prolonged heating in
this range (sigma-phase embrittlement). The brit-
tleness may be eliminated by reheating to about
760 "C (1400 "F). The 27% Cr stainless steel,
type 446, which has relatively low elevated-tem-
perature strength, is used between 870 and 1095
"C (1600 and 2000 "F) in applications where the
most severe oxidation is encountered. It is also
subject to the same embrittling phenomena as
OOOr-------------~~--------~~-------------------------,
12% Cr MoV steels
450
~
a.
"'.-• 300
type 430 steel. The major application of type 446
steel is in such items as furnace parts, soot blow-
ers, and thennocouple protection tubes, where
stresses are relatively low.
The martensitic stainless steels most com-
monly used for elevated-temperature applica-
tions are the so-called "Super 12 Chrome" steels
that contain molybdenum (up to 3%) and/or tung-
sten (up to 3.5%) for greater strength at elevated
temperatures. Other elements, such as vanadium,
niobium, and nitrogen, may also be added in
small amounts for additional strengthening. The
12% Cr martensitics with the aforementioned al-
loying additions can be used at temperatures up
to 650 "C (1200 "F), but they provide only mod-

The ferritic grades, which have good resis- ~

tance to oxidation at elevated temperature, are not
known for their mechanical strength at high tem- 150
perature. Instead, these alloys are primarily used
in corrosion-resistant applications. Another lim-
iting factor for high-chromium ferritic stainless
steels is sigma-phase embrittlement due to high-
temperature exposure. Two examples of ferritic
stainless steels are given below. Temperature, oc
The 17% Cr stainless steel, type 430, is used in
applications that require oxidation and corrosion Fig. 3 Stress to produce rupture in100 h for various alloys. Source; Ref 4
6 I Introduction
erate strength above 540 °C (1000 °F). Straight
(unalloyed) martensitic grades can only be used
at temperatures up to 400 °C (750 °F). Property
data for martensitic stainless steels are given in
Fig. 3 to 5.
The austenitic stainless steels are essentially
alloys of iron, chromium, and nickel. These steels
as a class are the strongest steels for service above
about 540 oc (1000 °F). Property data for the
austenitic grades are given in Fig. 2 to 5. Some of
the more commonly employed alloys are dis-
cussed below.
Type 304 is the most common grade of austeni-
tic chromium-nickel steels, which as a group are
used for handling many corrosive materials or
resisting severe oxidation. Type 304 steel has
excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation,
has high creep strength, and is frequently used at
temperatures up to 815 oc (1500 °F). Type 304
steel is being used successfully and economically
in high-temperature service in such applications
as high-pressure steam pipes and boiler tubes.
radiant superheaters, and oil-refinery and process
industry equipment.
Types 321 and 347 stainless steels are similar
to type 304 except that titanium and niobium,
respectively. have been added to these steels. The
titanium and niobium additions combine with
carbon and minimize intcrgranular corrosion that
may occur in certain media after welding. How-
ever. the use of niobium (or titanium) does not
ensure complete immunity to sensitization and
subsequent intergranular attack when the steel is
exposed for long times in the sensitization range
of 425 to 815 °C (800 to 1500 °F). However,
types 321 and 347 stainless steels are widely used
for service in this temperature range.
Type 316 stainless steel, which contains mo-
lybdenum, is used for high-strength service up to
about 815 °C (1500 °F), and it will resist oxida-
tion up to about 900 oc (1650 °F). However,
above this temperature, in still air. the molybde-
1400
1200
•
n. Maraging '\··
steels
"-2
0
1000
0
"- 12% Cr steels
tc BOO
~ temperatures~about 870 °C (1600 °F) and be-
~ 600
a2
:i! 400
~ steels
200
Ala~
0 Superalloy Development. Nickel-base su-
500 700 800 900
Fig. 4 Maximum service temperatures of various creep-resistant materials. Source: Ref 5
num will form an oxide that will volatilize and
result in rapid oxidation of the steel.
For service above about 870 oc (1600 °F),
types 309 and 310 stainless steels. which contain
about 23 to 25% Cr, are used. These steels have
the best high-temperature strength of the austeni-
tic stainless steels at these temperatures, and be-
cause of their chromium contents, they can be
used in applications where extreme corrosion or
oxidation is encountered.
The highest service limits for oxidation resis-
tance of stainless steels is achieved by the highly
alloyed type 330 grade. This alloy, which con-
tains 19% Cr, 25%Ni, and 1.0% Si. is suitable for
continuous service at temperatures as high as
1150 °C (2100 °F).
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
have the highest room-temperature strengths of
all the stainless steels. They ftll an important gap
between the chromium-free 18% Ni maraging
steels and the 12% Cr quenched and tempered
martensitic grades. One grade, the austenitic A-
286, has moderate strength and long-tenn service
capability up to 620 °C (1150 °F).
Valve steels are austenitic nitrogen-strength-
ened steels that have been used extensively in
automotive/internal combustion engine valve ap-
plications. Examples of such alloys include 21-
2N (21Cr, 8Mn, 2Ni + N), 21-4N (21Cr, 9Mn,
4Ni + N), 21-IZN (21Cr, 12Ni, 1.25 Mn + N),
and 23-8N (21Cr, 8Ni, 3.5Mn + N). The nitrogen
contents in these alloys range from 0.20 to
0.50%. These engine valve grades are used at
temperatures up to 760 oc (1400 °F), but they
provide fairly low strength at the upper end of
their temperature capability.
Cast heat-resistant alloys are primarily used
in applications where service temperatures ex-
ceed 650 °C (1200 °F) and may reach extremes
as high as 1315 °C (2400 °F). Many of the cast
heat-resistant alloys are compositionally related
to the wrought stainless steels and to the cast
corrosion-resistant alloys. The major difference
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Temperature, K
between these materials is their carbon content.
With only a few exceptions, carbon in the cast
heat-resistant alloys falls in a range from 0.3 to
0.6%, compared with the O.ot to 0.25% C that is
normally associated with the wrought and cast
corrosion-resistant grades.
The standard cast heat-resistant grades have
high creep strength and generally good oxidation
resistance, show better carburization behavior
than the corresponding wrought alloy, and are
available in product forms such as tubes. retorts,
and hangers at relatively low cost for the alloy
content. Detailed information on the composi-
tions and properties of cast heat-resistant alloys
can be found in the article ''High-Alloy Cast
Steels" in this Volume.
Cast duplex nickel-chromium alloys near the
eutectic composition (about 50% Cr) develop
compact chromia scales rapidly and show excep-
tional resistance to oxidation and fuel ash corro-
sion. Small niobium additions, as in IN-657, im-
prove creep strength. Such duplex alloy~ are
described in the article "Nickel-Chromium and
Nickel-Thoria Alloys" in this Volume.
Superalloys
Superalloys are nickel-, iron-nickel-, and co-
balt-base alloys generally used at temperatures
above about 540 oc (1000 °F). As shown in Fig.
6, the iron-nickel-base superalloys are an exten-
sion of stainless steel technology and generally
are wrought, whereas cobalt- and nickel-base su-
peralloys may be wrought or cast, depending on
the application/composition involved. Appropri-
ate compositions of all superalloy base metals
can be forged, rolled to sheet, or otherwise
formed into a variety of shapes. The more highly
alloyed compositions normally are processed as
castings. Properties can be controlled by adjust-
ments in composition and by processing (includ-
ing heat treatment), and excellent elevated-tem-
perature strengths are available in finished
products. Figures 1 to 5 illustrate the excellent
elevated-temperature characteristics of superal-
loys. As indicated in Fig. 5, no other alloy system
has a better combination of high-temperature cor-
rosion resistance and stress-rupture strength.
Some superalloys, particularly nickel-base cast-
ing alloys, can be used at temperatures that are
approximately 85% of their incipient melting
point. Such alloys exhibit outstanding creep and
stress-rupture properties at temperatures in ex-
cess of 1040 oc (1900 °F). The oxidation resis-
tance of most superalloys is excellent at moderate
low. Some alloys can be used at temperatures up
to 1200 °C (2200 °F). Coatings can further en-
hance high-temperature corrosion resistance.
More detailed information regarding the compo-
sitions, properties, and processing of superalloys
can be found in the Sections "Properties of Super-
alloys" and "Special Topics" in this Volume.
peralloys were created at approximately the tum
of the century with the addition of 20 wt% Cr in
an 80 wt% Ni alloy for electrical heating ele-
 Elevated-Temperature Characteristics of Engineering Materials I 7

ments. In the late 1920s, small amounts of alumi-

,£ 1500,-----------,-------------,-----------,------------,
num and titanium were added to the 80Ni-20Cr
alloy, with a significant gain in creep strength at §_
0
elevated temperatures. It soon became apparent
£
that iron and cobalt alloys could be more effec- Nickel-base
tively strengthened by solid-solution additions,
while nickel alloys could be strengthened by a
~c Platinum-group
alloys
Cobalt-base
superalloys
superalloys

coherent phase, "( '. Concurrent with these addi- ~ 1000 f--------~i---------~-+----\l?r"'------t------------1
tions, the carbon present in the alloys was identi- ~
fied as having a strengthening effect when com- § Stainless
bined with other alloying elements to form M6C steels Molybdenum Tungsten
and M23C6 carbides. Other grain-boundary fonn- .ll Aluminum alloys alloys

~
alloys
ers, such as boron and zirconium, were added to
polycrystalline materialS to hold the material to- 12 Cr steels
gether.
In the early development time period (about
!~
Cr-Mo-V
steel
1926), Heraeus Vacuumschmelze A.G. received
Carbon
a patent for a nickel-chromium alloy that con-
tained up to 15 wt% Wand 12 wt% Mo, thereby ·I
c
steel

introducing the refractory metals into superalloy 0

~
compositions. The purpose of adding refractory 0~--------~--------~~------~~------~
0 500 1000 1500 2000
metals was to increase the high-temperature Creep resistance: Temperature for 20 ksi stress-rupture capability in 10,000 h, oc
strength of the nickel-base alloy. By the 1930s
there were two iron-base "heat-resisting alloys" Fig. 5 Relative oxidation/stress-rupture capabilities of various alloy systems. Source: Ref6
containing either tungsten or molybdenum addi-
tions, and the use of these two metals was widely
accepted in cobalt-base alloys. In the early 1950s,
nickel-base superalloys is represented by Hastel- third c1ass includes oxide-dispersion-strength-
alloys containing about 5 wt% Mo were intro-
loy X, which is essentially solid-solution ened (ODS) alloys such as MA 754 and MA
duced in the United States. The commercial ex-
strengthened but probably also derives some 6000, which are strengthened by dispersions of
ploitation of molybdenum additions took place in
strengthening from carbide precipitation pro- inert particleS such as yttria coupled in some
1955. A cast alloy containing 2 wt% Nb was
duced through a working-plus-aging schedule. A cases withy' precipitation (MA 6000).
available in the late 1950s In the early 1960s,
tungsten and tantalum were widely accepted for
alloying in nickel-base alloys. The demonstration
of the effectiveness of rhenium additions in
nickel-base alloys occurred in the late 1960s.
Some highly alloyed nickel-base castings have
total refractory metal contents exceeding 20 wt%.
Finally, also in the late 1960s, hafnium additions
were found to stabilize and strengthen grain- Balance Ni* + Cr*
boundary structures. Figure 7 charts the develop-
ment of superalloys from 1940 to the 1990s.
Superalloy Systems. As stated above, superal-
loys can be divided into three types: iron-nickel-,
nickel-, and cobalt-base. Each of these is briefly
!
446, 309, 310,
reviewed below. 321,347
The most important class of iron-nickel-base
superalloys includes alloys that are strengthened
by intermetallic compound precipitation in a Add Nb"
face-centered cubic (fcc) matrix. The most com-
mon precipitate isy', typified by A-286, V-57, or ~ 601,214,

~
Incoloy 901, but some alloys precipitate gamma 602CA
(y "),typified by lnconel718. Other
ir,on-nic:kel-b;ase superalloys consist of modified
stainless steels primarily strengthened by solid-
solution hardening. Alloys in this last category
from 19-9DL (18-8 stainless with slight 617,556, 314, RAB5H,
chrorrlimn and nickel adjustments, additional so- 160, C-263 DS,330,45TM
lution hardeners and higher carbon) to Incoloy
800H (21% Cr, high nickel, and small additions
"""muuand aluminum). The iron-nickel-base AddW* Add AI* and Ti*

8-·___,/
superalloys are used in the wrought condition.
The most important class of nickel-base super-
alloys is that strengthened by intennetallic-com-
-pound precipitation in an fcc matrix. The
\'-----1 Nimonic and
Udimet series

strengthening precipitate is y ', typified by Fig. 6 Relationship of high-temperature alloy formulations for stainless steels and superalloys based on the Fe-Ni-Cr sys-
or Udimet 700. Another class of tem. Asterisk indicates addition of other elements. Source: VDM Techno1ogies Corp.
8 I Introduction

1200.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
Mechanical Single
alloying crystals
Directional
structures ~ MABOOO " CMSX-10

1100 ~
Cast alloys +!Wand Nb

I
+Ta

I
MAR-M-22
IN5.91 I
+Hf \ DS eutectics

MAR-M-002 DS
~

CMSX-2
99.....

. _.
MAR-M-200 M21 M246 MAR-M-200 + HfDS
IN6202
1000
IN100
a TRW~+Re
IN6203
Vacuum~ 8190~0 ABO IN792
melting 713C D R77
Udimet700 N115 IN738
Udimet sao
+MO~ N105
Udimet720

900
+Co~ D W152

X40D

Wrought
alloys Cast j•o Nl-base
+AI
• Co-base
Ni-base
N81 Wrought
Cast
1o Co-base
6. OS and SC
Hastelloy 8 P/M .& ODS Nl-base

700L________________L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~------------~~------~;------~

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990s
Year introduced
Fig. 7 Temperature capability of superalloys with approximate year of introduction. OS, directionally solidified; SC, single-crystal; P/M, powder metallurgy; ODS, oxide-dispersion-
strengthened. Source: adapted from Ref 9

Nickel-base superalloys are used in both cast
and wrought forms, although special processing
(powder melallurgy/isolhennal forging) fre-
quently is used to produce wrought versions of
the more highly alloyed compositions (Udimet
700/Astroloy, IN-100).
An additional aspect of nickel-base superalloys
has been the introduction of directional-solidifi-
cation and single-crystal casting technology. As
shown in Fig. 7, these alloys exhibit better high-
temperature properties than polycrystalline
wrought or cast alloys.
Low-Density Metals
Density is very important in the design of air-
craft because excess weight in engine and struc-
tural components decreases load-carrying capac-
ity. As a result, materials with a high
strength-to-weight ratio are in ever-increasing
demand. Low-density alloys, which are com-
monly referred to as light metals, include magne-
sium-, aluminum-, and titanium-base alloys.
Magnesium alloys have the lowest densities
(-1.8 g!cm3) of any structural alloy. Magnesium
alloys for elevated-temperature applications usu-
ally contain thorium (up to 3 wt%). The magne-
sium-thorium-zirconium cast alloys HK31A
(Mg-3.3Th-0.7Zr) and HZ32A (Mg-3.3Th- 425 "C (700 to 800 "F) for applicalions in which
2.1Zn-O. 7Zr) are intended primarily for use at good creep resistance is needed.
lemperatures of 200 "C (400 "F) and higher. At HK31A and HM21A alloys, produced in sheet
260 "C (500 "F) and slighlly higher, HZ32A is and plate fonns, are suitable for use at tempera-
equal to or better than HK31A in short-time and tures up to 315 and 345 OC (600 and 650 "F),
long-time creep strength at all extensions. The respectively. However, HM21A has superior
HlO!A alloy has higher tensile, yield, and short- strength and creep resistance, as shown in the
time creep strengths up to 370 "C (700 "F). following table:
Anolhercast alloy, QH21A (Mg.2.5Ag-1.0Th-
0.7Zr), retains a high yield strenglh up to 300 "C Stress forO. I% c~pinlOOh
(570 °F), This alloy is relatively expensive due to Alloy Ml'• 100
its silver content.
At205"C(400"F)
Rare earth (RE) additions also contribule to
HM2IA 86.2 12.5
improved elevated-temperature performance. Al- HIOIA 41 6.0
loys WE54 (Mg-5.2Y-3.0RE-0.7Zr) and WE43
At 260 "C (500 "F)
(Mg-4.0Y-3.4RE-0.7Zr) have high !ensile
HM21A 72.4 10.5
strengths and yield strengths, and they exhibit HK31A 28 4.0
good properties at temperatures up to 300 °C (570
At315"C(600"F)
"F) and 250 "C (480 "F), respeclively. The WE54
HM21A 52 7.5
alloy retains its properties at high temperature for IIK31A 14 2.0
up to 1000 h, whereas WE43 retains its properties
at high temperature in excess of 5000 h.
Thorium-alloyed wrought a1loys are also used Additional data on magnesium alloys are given
at elevated temperatures. Alloy HM31A (Mg- in Fig. 1 to 3. As these data indicate, the elevated-
3.0Th-l.2Mn), produced in extruded forms, is of temperature performance of magnesium alloys is
moderate strength. It is suitable for use in appli- comparable to that of some aluminum alloys.
cations requiring good strength and creep resis- Most other alloy systems, however, have superior
tance at temperatures in the range of 150 to 425 high-temperature properties.
"C (300 to 800 "F). Aluminum alloys have higher densities (-2.8
Alloy HM21A (Mg-2.0Th-0.6Mn), produced g/cm3) and higher room-temperature strengths
as forgings, is useful at temperatures up to 370 to than magnesium alloys. Some cast aluminum al-

MPo ksi
500 70
450 224.0-T7
_ _______
60 (permanent mold casting)
400
350 50
242_0-T571
~ _}._ mold casting)
(permanent
.
~
300
40
-----~-----'"'\,,,
250
30
~ 200
""',
240.0-F (sand casting) \ '-,
~ 150 20
100
10
50
~OL0--~20~0--1~00~0L_~10~0~2~00~30~0~40~0~5+,00~00~0~700
Temperature, "F
200-150 100 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Temperature, oc
Fig 8 Tensile strengths of aluminum alloys 240.0-F,
• 224.0-T?, and 242.0-T571 as functions of
temperature
Ioys are used in applications at moderately ele-
vated temperatures (e.g., pistons in internal com-
bustion engines). One commonly employed alloy
is permanent mold cast alloy 242 (Al-4Cu-2Ni-
2.5Mg). As shown in Fig. 8, this alloy retains its
strength at temperatures as high as ~ 150 °C (300
0
F). Some other cast aluminum alloys can be used
at slightly higher temperatures (175 "C, or 350
"F).
The 7xxx series of wrought age-hardenable al-
loys that are based on the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu system
develop the highest room-temperature tensile
properties of any aluminum alloys produced from
conventionally cast ingots. However, the strength
of these alloys declines rapidly if they are ex-
posed to elevated temperatures (Fig. 9), due
mainly to coarsening of the fine precipitates on
which the alloys depend for their strength. Alloys
of the 2xxx series, such as 2014 and 2024, per-
form better above these temperatures but are not
nonnally used for elevated-temperature applica-
tions.
Strength at temperatures above about 100 to
200 "C (200 to 400 "F) is improved mainly by
solid-solution strengthening or second-phase
hardening. Another approach to improve the ele-
vated-temperature perfonnance of aluminum al-
loys has been the use of rapid solidification tech-
nology to produce powders containing high
supersaturations of elements such as iron or chro-
mium that diffuse slowly in solid aluminum. In
this regard, several experimental materials based
on the Al-Fe-Ce, AI-Fe- V -Si, and Al-Cr-Zr sys-
tems are now available that have promising creep
properties up to 350 "C (650 "F) (Ref 10). Addi-
tional data on aluminum alloys are given in Fig.
I to 5.
Titanium alloys provide an outstanding com-
bination of low density (-4.5 g/cm3) and high
strength (up to 1100 MPa, or 160 ksi, yield
strength). Alloys have been developed that have
useful strength and resist oxidation at tempera-
tures as high as 595 "C (I 100 "F). The improved
elevated-temperature characteristics of these al-
loys, combined with their high strength-to-
weight ratios, make them an attractive alternative
Elevated-Temperature Characteristics of Engineering Materials I 9
Temperature, oF
32 120 212 300 390 480
600
1
7 075-i6
•
~
500 1---- ~
"•'" 400
r- f.\ ;2618-TB
~ 300
r- f-.\
..
t;
""
~
200 -----
~~
2219-TB
>'
100
-....__; I>.
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature, oc
Fig. 9 Values of 0.2% yield stress of aluminum alloys af-
ter exposure for 1000 h at temperatures between
0 and 350°C
to nickel-base superalloys for certain gas turbine
components.
Most of the titanium alloys for elevated-tem-
perature applications are near-alpha alloys based
on the Ti-Al-Sn-Zr system. Important alloying
elements are molybdenum, silicon, and niobium.
Molybdenum enhances hardenability and en-
hances short-time high-temperature strength or
improves strength at lower temperatures. Minor
silicon additions improve creep strength, while
niobium is added primarily for oxidation resis-
tance at elevated temperature. Examples of these
near-alpha alloys are Ti-1100 (Ti-6AI-2.75Sn-
4Zr-0.4Mo-0.45Si) and !Ml-834 (Ti-5.5Al-4Sn-
4Zr-0.3Mo-1Nb-0.5Si). Specific yield strengths
(density corrected) of titanium- and nickel-base
alloys are compared in Fig. 10. Additional data
are shown in Fig. 1, 2, and 4. As these data clearly
show, titanium alloys have far greater elevated-
temperature strength than do plain carbon steels
and low-density aluminum- and magnesium al-
loys. More detailed information can be found in
the article ''Titanium and Titanium Alloys" in this
Volume.
Refractory Metal Alloys
Refractory metals include tungsten, molybde-
num, niobium, tantalum, and rhenium. These
metals and their alloys have melting points in
excess of 2200 "C (4000 "F), which is substan-
tially higher than those of stainless steels or su-
peralloys. As indicated in Fig. 1 to 5, the creep
strength of some refractory metals (tungsten and
niobium) exceeds that of superalloys. There are,
however, a number of deficiencies of refractory
metals and alloys that have precluded their being
viable alternatives to superalloys in gas turbine
engine applications: the open body-centered cu-
bic structure (precluding high creep resistance
relative to the melting point), lack of low-tem-
perature ductility in the VIa metals (tungsten and
molybdenum), severe lack of oxidation resis-
tance for all, and significantly higher density than
superalloys for all except niobium. Detailed in-
formation on the processing and properties of
these materials, as well as efforts made to over-
come Some of the aforementioned deficiencies
(e.g., coatings to prevent catastrophic oxidation)
can be found in the article ''Refractory Metals and
570 660
Alloys" in this Volume.
80
70 ·;;;
.-•
60 ~ Structural lntermetallics
50
~
The search for new high-temperature structural
40
">'
30 ID materials has stimulated much interest in ordered
1 20 intermetallics. Recent interest has been focused
L'--; 10 on nickel aluminides based on NhAl and NiAl,
iron aluminides based on Fe3Al and PeAl, and
300 350 titanium aluminides based on ThAI aod TiAJ.
These aluminides possess many attributes that
make them attractive for high-temperature struc-
tural applications. They contain enough alumi-
num to form, in oxidizing environments, thin
films of aluminide oxides that often are compact
and protective. They have low densities, rela-
tively high melting points, and good high-tem-
perature strength properties.
Nickel, iron, and titanium aluminides, like
other ordered intennetallics, exhibit brittle frac-
ture and low ductility at ambient temperatures.
Poor fracture resiStance and limited fabricability
restrict the use of aluminides as engineering ma-
terials in most cases. Nevertheless, these materi-
als appear the most likely to replace superalloys
in high-perfonnance applications. A brief review
of these materials is given below. More detailed
information can be found in the article "Structural
Intennetallics" in this Volume.
Nickel Aluminides. The nickel aluminide
based on NiAl has a melting point of 1638 °C
(2980 °F), compared with a solidus temperature
of about 1300 "C (2370 "F) for most superalloys.
NiAl has excellent cyclic-oxidation resistance to
1300 "C (2370 "F), low density, and, through
minor alloy additions, can provide creep strength
superior to that of superalloys. While it has good
ductility in single-crystal fonn, its polycrystalline
ductility must be improved significantly, which
provides a challenge to alloy developers.
Considerable research also has been conducted
on the NhAl compound, which has a lower melt-
ing point than NiAl but still offers strength and
density advantages over current superalloys. Bo-
ron additions significantly enhance ductility over
a wide temperature range up to its melting point.
NhAI ingots produced using conventional elec-
troslag remelt (ESR) and vacuum induction melt-
ing (VIM) techniques be-have superplastically
when thennomechanically worked at low strain
rates, such .as those associated with isothermal
forging.
Advantages claimed for "ductilized" nickel
aluminides over conventional nickel-base super-
alloys include:
• Lower densities due to the higher aluminum
content of the aluminides
• Much simpler chemical compositions than
many superalloys
• Single-phase structure
• Strength derived from their ordered structure,
not from precipitates of second phases; thus,
no special heat treatments, such as aging, are
required
10 I Introduction

• Yield strengths that increase with increasing Temperature, "F

temperatures (as high as 650 to 750 °C, or
0 100 300 500 700 900
1200 to 1380 •F) 1300
• Very good oxidation resistance to 1100 oc I I I I I - 180
(2010 •F) due to their high aluminum content
lnconel718
• Potential lower cost than many superalloys
when full-scale production is achieved 1100
"
Ti-~ 1'------
160

While as-cast properties of nickel alurninides "'

"-
" ~ - 1 40 ~

..,.,i
suggest possible use in applications such as hot-
forming dies, turbochargers, permanent molds, "'
"
~
900
~ )'.. -........ IN-100
- 1 20

Ti62~
~
and advanced pistons, relatively little research
".,.,
0
has been performed to date on the suitability of
producing nickel aluminides by investment cast- cf'

"' 700
~ -----------
IMI829
100 ~
cf'

--------------- ~
~
ing. 0 lnconel718

l
~

-~
0
Iron and titanium aluminides, unlike the
~
u
nickel-aluminum compounds, do not offer the ~ ---..Ii-811 80
same creep strength at very high temperatures.
0
0

£
500
IN-100
- ~
8
They do, however, have unique specific (density- "
0 - 60
0
0
0
corrected) properties that should ensure their use 0 0

of some rotating components. FeAI. for example,

300
has good strength to 700 •c (1290 "F), while its 40
high melting point (1340 •c, or 2444 •F) and - - - - Density correction "" yield stress x
Ti-6242S density
good oxidation resistance may well lead to its use Nickel-base alloy density - 20
as a matrix material in metal-matrix composites. 100
Both ThAI and TiAl have good specific
strength at temperatures to llOO •c (2010 •F). 0
However, compared with superalloys, they each -17 100 200 300 400 500
have limitations, such as inferior oxidation resis- Temperature, "C
tance (ThAI) and ductility (TW)-areas requir-
ing further development.
Fig. 10 Specific yield strengths for various titanium-base and nickel-base alloys

Nonmetallic Materials
Polymer~Matrix Composites. Generally,
polymers or polymer-matrix composites are not
considered heat-resistant materials. Most organic
polymers soften or melt below 205 •c (400 °F).
As a result, most polymeric materials arc used at
or just above ambient temperature (less than 100
oc, or 212 °F), Polymer-matrix composites are
attractive, however, because they provide major
weight and durability advantages. They have spe-
cific stiffness and strength values of not less than
twice that of metallic structures. They also have
similar advantages in fatigue strength.
The most successful high-temperature poly-
meric material developed to date is a polyimide
resin reinforced with graphite fibers. Graphite-re-
inforced polyimide composites haye been re-
ported to be suitable for use in air at 288 oc (550
•f) for at least 5000 h. At 316 •c (600 •F), the
useful life of these composites is in the range of
1200 to 1400 h. More detailed information on
polymer-matrix composites can be found in Vol-
ume 1, Composites, of the Engineered Materials
Handbook published by ASM International.
Ceramics, both in monolithic and composite
fonns, offer the prospect of useful heat resistance,
possibly to temperatures near 1650 •c (3000 •F),
coupled with low density and in some cases ex-
cellent oxidation and corrosion resistance. Unfor-
tunately, these ceramics also are brittle, prone to
thermal shock, and less thermally conductive
than heat-resistant metals, leading to severe defi-
ciencies under tensile loading. These are inherent
properties determined by the nature of the intera-
tomic bonds. Mechanical properties also are
highly variable, depending sensitively on prepa-
ration technique, impurities, and surface finish; in
ceramics the process basically detennines the
properties. Processing of ceramics is also quite
costly. Nevertheless, the toughness and thermal
shock resistance of silicon nitride (ShN4) and its
ability to form protective Si02 layers makes it a
candidate for turbine or diesel applications. Sili-
con carbide (SiC) has similar properties. Other
applications include heat exchangers, recupera-
tors, and furnace components.
Oxides, such as alumina (Ah03) and zirconia
(Zr02), are also used for high-temperature appli-
cations. Zirconia has been in service as a thermal
barrier coating in aircraft combustors on superal-
loys for many years. However, the oxide-type
ceramics tend to be less desirable mechanically
than are carbide-nitride ceramics, although they
are very stable in oxidizing atmospheres.
Ceramic-matrix composites also show great
potential. A wide variety of reinforcing materials,
matrices, and corresponding processing methods
have been studied. The most successful fiber-re-
inforced composites have been produced by hot
pressing, chemical vapor infiltration, or directed
metal oxidation, a process that uses accelerated
oxidation reactions of molten metals to grow ce-
ramic matrices around preplaced filler or rein-
forcement material preforms. Much of the work
has been on glass and glass-ceramic matrices
reinforced with carbon fibers. Other fiber-rein-
forced ceramic composites include SiC fibers in
SiC, produced by chemical vapor infiltration and
deposition, SiC-fiber-reinforced Ah03, and zir-
conium carbide composites reinforced with zir-
conium diboride, produced by directed metal oxi-
dation. Multidirectionally reinforced ceramics
have also been produced, such as silica reinforced
with Ah03 or fused quartz.
The excellent high-temperature strength, oxi-
dation resistance, and thermal shock resistance of
ShN4 has led to the development of SiCw-rein-
forced Si3N4. The major phase, ShN4, offers
many favorable properties, and the SiC whiskers
provide significant improvement in fracture
toughness. Whisker-reinforced ShN4 is a leading
candidate material for hot-section ceramic-en-
gine components. More detailed information on
nonreinforced and reinforced ceramic materials
can be found in the article "Structural Ceramics"
in this Volume.
Carbon~Carbon Composites. The highest
temperature capability of any material considered
for high-temperature use is exhibited by carbon-
carbon composites, graphite fibers in a carbon-
graphite matrix. Carbon-carbon composites are
now used for one-time service in rocket-nozzle
and missile exit core structures and in turbine
aircraft brake shoes; SiC-coated carbon-carbon
parts are being used as the nose cap and heating
edges of the space shuttle.
Because carbon fibers tend to increase in
strength with increasing temperature, carbon-
carbon composites retain their tensile strength at
extreme temperatures. Carbon-carbon compos-
 Elevated-Temperature Characteristics of Engineering Materials I 11

Engineering
alloys
Glasses

1ooor---------------~--------~

Porous

ceram~ics••::-·~;~~~:;··•••
.. ,
' .
Bnck
,,-,,~\

•
'
••
.: Engineering
composites
/.' ,'and ,' :;
• I I I •
: ,' ,' pottery ..,........_-.l/7
:'
...
100 !-----.~··/
'' ''
"' ' ''

:".,, ....--~~.-
"-
::; '
'' ''
l .' ' Engineering
~
c ~~-~~:'~. plastics

~ Cement,
concrete
10

Elastomers

Polymer
foams
{J--+-----r--------1
0.1
0.1 10 100 1000 10,000
Relative cost/unit volume

Fig. 11 Strength plotted against relative cost per unitvolumeforvariousengineered materials. Broken property envelope lines indicate that the strength values are compressive, not ten-
sile, strengths. See text for details. Source: Ref 1, 2

ites provide unmatched specific stiffness and
strength at temperatures from 1200 to 2200 °C
(2192 to 3992 "F). At temperatures below 1000
°C (1832 °F), carbon-carbon composites exhibit
specific strength equivalent to that of the most
advanced superalloys. As a result of their carbon
constituents and weakly bonded reinforced ma-
trix, carbon-carbon composites also have supe-
rior thennal shock, toughness, ablation, and high-
speed friction properties. Another outstanding
feature is the low density (-1.6 g/cm3) of carbon-
carbon composites.
Because carbon-carbon is not stable in oxidiz-
ing environments at temperatures above about
425 °C (800 °F), coatings are essential. Refrac-
tory carbides such as SiC are applied by various
processes. The selection and performance of
coatings is the focus of the article "Carbon-Car-
bon Composites" in this Volume.
Cost Considerations
From a competitive standpoint, alloy selection
must be based on expected cost-effectiveness.
The best choice is usua11y the lowest-cost mate-
rial able to meet design criteria. However, a
higher-cost material offering greater reliability
may be justified for certain components in a sys-
tem that is critical and/or expensive to shut down
for maintenance. Knowledge of alloy capabilities
can be helpful in making a wise decision.
Figure 11 provides an overview of the costs of
various materials. The relative cost is calculated
by dividing the cost per kilogram of the material
in question by the cost per kilogram of low-car-
bon (mild) steel reinforcing rod (rebar). Materials
offering the greatest strength per unit cost lie
toward the upper left comer. Included here would
be steels and aluminum alloys. As alloying in-
creases in steels, costs go up. Hence, stainless
steels containing chromium (an expensive alloy-
12 I Introduction
ing element) are much more costly. Further alloy-
ing to produce superalloys results in even higher
costs. Superalloys with high cobalt or refractory
metal contents are very expensive.
Some materials are expensive because of high
processing costs. An example here would be the
engineering ceramics shown in Fig. 11. The costs
of the principal starting materials (silicon, car-
bon, and nitrogen) are relatively low, but the cost
of engineering ceramics is significantly increased
by raw material preparation (mixing, milling,
etc.), fonning and fabrication (hot pressing or hot
isostatic pressing), thermal processing (sinter-
ing), and finishing (grinding, polishing, and in-
spection).
REFERENCES
1. M.F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical
Design, Pergamon Press, 1992, p 24-55
2. M.P. Ashby, Materials and Process Selection
Charts, Pergamon Press, 1992, p 1-57
3. F.J. Clauss, Engineer's Guide to High~Tem~
perature Materials, Addison-Wesley Publish-
ing Co., 1969, p 2
4. G.A. Webster and RA. Ainsworth, High Tem-
perature Component Life Assessment, Chap-
man & Hall, 1994, p 13
5. A Weronski and T. Hejwowski, Thennal Fa-
tigue of Metals, Marcel Dekker, loc., 1991,
p 83
6. Superallnys n, C.T. Sims, N.S. Stoloff, and W.C.
Hage~ Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1987, p 15
7. "Steels for Elevated Temperature Service,"
United States Steel Corp., 1974
8. K.P. Rohrbach, Trends in High-Temperature
Alloys,Adv. Mater. Proc., Vol148 (No.4), Oct
1995, p 37-40
9. W.J. Molloy, lovestment-Cast Superalloys-A
Good Invesbnent, Adv. Mater. Proc., Vol138
(No.4}, Oct 1990, p 23-30
10. J.R Pickens, High-Strength Aluminum P/M
Alloys, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials, Vol2,
ASM Handbook, ASM lotemational, 1990, p
200-215