BoenFie Study Club

A level Chemistry
Topic 1a – Atomic Structure

1) Fundamental particles

• Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons

• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus which contains most of the mass of
the atom and all of the positive charge
• The neutrons help to reduce repulsion between the positively charged protons
• The electrons are arranged in energy levels (shells) around the nucleus
• The electron arrangement of an element determines its chemical properties i.e. what
reactions it does

Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/2000 -1

2) Mass number and isotopes

• Atomic number = number of protons in the nucleus

• Mass number = number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
• Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
• Number of electrons = number of protons (in a neutral atom)

9 Mass number = 9 Atomic number = 4

Be
4 4 protons, 5 neutrons, 4 electrons

3) Isotopes

• Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
• For example, chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl. Both have 17 protons but they
have 18 and 20 neutrons, respectively
• Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they have the
same electron arrangement
• Isotopes of an element may have different physical properties, such as rate of
diffusion, because they have different masses

4) Ions

• Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons

• As an atom Cl has 17 electrons. A Cl- ion has gained one electron so it now has 18
• As an atom Na has 11 electrons. An Na+ ion has lost one electron so it now has 10
• Early models of atomic structure predicted that atoms and ions with noble gas
electron arrangements should be stable e.g. Cl- has the same electron arrangement
as argon and Na+ has the same electron arrangement as neon
 Topic 1b – Formulae & Equations
Revision Notes
1) Formulae

a) Elements

• For most elements the formula is just the symbol e.g. Na for sodium, S for
sulphur
• The exceptions are the seven diatomic elements – H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and
I2

b) Ionic compounds

• Compounds of a metal and a non-metal are made of ions.

• Metal ions have a positive charge and non-metal ions have a negative
charge.
• To work out the formula of an ionic compound
▪ Write the formulae of the ions
▪ Adjust the number of each ion so that there is no overall
charge

Example 1 – magnesium bromide Example 2 – aluminium nitrate

Ions are Mg2+ and Br- Ions are Al3+ and NO3-
Need 2 x Br- to balance Mg2+ Need 3 x NO3- to balance Al3+
Formula is MgBr2 Formula is Al(NO3)3

• The formulae for ions are given on the attached sheet. This sheet is not
available in exams so the formulae will have to be learnt.

c) Covalent compounds

• Some formulae for covalent compounds can be worked out from the name.
• The prefix mono- means one, di- means two and tri- means three.
• Therefore, carbon monoxide is CO, silicon dioxide is SiO2 and sulphur trioxide
is SO3
• Other formulae have to be learnt e.g. ammonia is NH 3 and methane is CH4

2) Equations

• There are no word equations at A-level. An equation means a balanced

symbol equation.
• To write a balanced symbol equation:
▪ Identify the reactants and products
▪ Write a word equation
▪ Write down the formula for each substance
▪ Balance the equation by putting numbers in front of formulae
▪ Add state symbols (s), (l), (g) or (aq)
Example – marble chips and hydrochloric acid

Reactants are calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid

Products are calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid  calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water

CaCO3 + HCl  CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Ca 1 1
C 1 1
O 3 3
H 1 2
Cl 1 2

2 in front of HCl balances the equation

CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Adding state symbols

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

 Topic 1c – Calculations
Revision Notes

1. Molar Mass

• Molar mass is calculated by adding up the masses of the atoms in the formula
• The percentage of the total made up by a particular element can also be calculated

Example - sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

Na 2 x 23.0 = 46.0
C 1 x 12.0 = 12.0
O 3 x 16.0 = 48.0

Total = 106.0

% by mass of oxygen = 48.0 x 100/106.0

= 45.3%

2. Empirical & Molecular Formulae

• Write down mass or % of each element

• Divide each one by the atomic mass of that element
• Find the ratio of the numbers (divide them all by the smallest one)

In a substance containing only sodium, sulphur and oxygen, the composition

is found to be 32.4% sodium and 45.0% oxygen. Calculate the substance’s
empirical formula.

% sulphur = 100 – 32.4 – 45.0

= 22.6%

Na S O

Composition 32.4 22.6 45.0

R.a.m. 23.0 32.1 16.0
Comp/r.a.m. 1.41 0.70 2.81
 by smallest 2.01 1 4.01

Empirical formula is Na2SO4

 • Molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula

Empirical formula = CH2O & Mr = 60. Find molecular formula.

Empirical mass = 30 so molecular formula = 2 x empirical formula = C 2H4O2

3) Atom economy

Atom economy = Molecular mass of desired product x 100%

Molecular masses of all products

Example

Bromoethane, CH3CH2Br, reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce ethanol, CH3CH2OH.

CH3CH2Br + NaOH  CH3CH2OH + NaBr

In the above example

Molecular mass of desired product = 46.0

Molecular masses of all products = 46.0 + 102.9
= 148.9

Atom economy = 46.0/148.9 x 100%

= 30.9%

• Chemical processes with a high atom economy produce fewer waste materials
• Atom economy can be improved by finding a use for waste product
 Topic 2a – Mass Spectrometry
Revision Notes
1) Mass Spectrometry

• The mass spectrum of an element gives the following information:

o Number of peaks = number of isotopes

o M/z of peak = mass number of isotope
o Size of peak = relative abundance (i.e. percentage)

The mass spectrum for zirconium

• The 5 peaks in the mass spectrum shows that there are 5 isotopes of zirconium -
with relative isotopic masses of 90, 91, 92, 94 and 96 on the 12C scale.
• In this case, the five species detected (with their relative abundances) are:

90
Zr+ 51.5%, 91
Zr+ 11.2%, 92
Zr+ 17.1%, 94
Zr+ 17.4%, 96
Zr+ 2.8%

a) Operation

• Four processes take place inside a mass spectrometer; ionisation, acceleration,

deflection and detection
• The sample is vaporised and then ionised using high energy electrons form an
electron gun. X(g) + e-  X+(g) + 2e-
• Ionisation is necessary to allow the remaining processes to take place. The energy of
the electrons from the gun is controlled so that only one electron is knocked off each
atom or molecule in the sample i.e. only 1+ ions are formed
• The positive ions are accelerated by a negatively charged plates which also focus the
ions into a beam
• The ions are deflected by a magnetic field. The amount of deflection depends on
mass:charge ratio (m/z). As the ions have the same charge, deflection depends on
mass with heavier ions deflected less and lighter ions deflected more. The strength of
the magnetic field can be altered so that ions of different m/z are detected
• When an ion hits the detector a small current is produced which is recorded. The size
of the current is proportional to relative abundance
 b) Uses

• A mass spectrum can be used to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element
(see below)
• Mass spectrometry can be used to identify elements from the mass numbers of
the isotopes e.g. in space probes
• On another planet, such as Mars, the number of isotopes and their mass
numbers will be the same as on Earth. However, the relative abundances may
well be different so the relative atomic mass will be different as well.
• Mass spectrometry can also be used to determine the relative molecular mass of
a covalent molecule (see Topic 16 – Analytical Techniques for more details)

2) Relative atomic mass

• Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of an atom of an element taking
the mixture of isotopes into account. However, learn the technical definition
from definitions sheet
• To calculate relative atomic mass, add together (mass number x abundance/total
abundance) for each isotope
• Abundances can be given as percentages or may have to be worked out from the line
heights on the spectrum

Example 1:

Calculate the relative atomic mass of Cl from the following information.

75% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 35

25% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 37

Total abundance = 100%

Average mass of a Cl atom = (mass no x percent/100) + (mass no x percent/100)

= (35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100)
= 35.5

Example 2:

Calculate the relative atomic mass of unknown metal Z from the following information.

M/z Abundance
188 1.5
189 2.5
190 3.0
192 4.5

Total abundance = 11.5

Average mass of a Z atom = (188 x 1.5/11.5) + (189 x 2.5/11.5) +

(190 x 3.0/11.5) + (192 x 4.5/11.5)
= 24.52 + 41.09 + 49.57 + 75.13
= 190.3
Example 3:

A mass spectrum of a sample of indium shows two peaks at m/z = 113 and m/z = 115. The
relative atomic mass of indium is 114.5. Calculate the relative abundances of these two
isotopes.

Difference between mass numbers = 115 - 113

=2

Relative atomic mass lies 1.5/2 along this difference i.e. 75% of the way

Abundances are m/z =113, 25%, m/z 115, 75%

 Topic 2b – Electronic Structure
Revision Notes
1) Orbitals

• An orbital is the region in which an electron can be found

• Each orbital can hold up to two electrons of opposite spin
• Orbitals have different shapes called s, p, d, and f
• S orbitals are spherical in shape and come in sets of one

• P orbitals are hour-glass or egg-timer shaped and come in sets of three (which can
hold up to 6 electrons)

• D orbitals come in sets of five and f orbitals come in sets of seven (which can hold up
to 10 and 14 electrons, respectively)

2) Energy levels (or shells)

• The first energy level (or shell) only contains an s orbital, labelled 1s
• The second energy level contains an s orbital and three p orbitals, labelled 2s and 2p
• The third energy level contains an s orbital, three p orbitals and five d orbitals,
labelled 3s, 3p and 3d
• The order in which the orbitals are filled is as follows: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
• Note that the 4s fills before the 3d

Ionisation energy
Energy

4f

4d

4p
3d
4s
3p
4s of "lower"
3s energy than 3d

2p

2s

1s

Distance from nucleus

Some examples of electronic structures are shown below.

Hydrogen 1 electron 1s1
Nitrogen 7 electrons 1s2 2s2 2p3
Sodium 11 electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Sulphur 16 electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Calcium 20 electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 or [Ar] 4s2
Iron 26 electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 or [Ar] 4s2 3d6

• There are 2 exceptions to the pattern: chromium and copper

• Cr is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 and Cu is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
• These electronic structures are more stable than the alternative structures that follow
the pattern
• When transition metals, like iron and copper, form ions they lose their 4s electrons
before their 3d electrons
• Fe2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 or 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d6
• There are various models to illustrate atomic structure. The model chosen depends
on what we are trying to explain e.g. bonding can be explained by representing Na
as 2.8.1 and Cl as 2.8.7 with both seeking to gain a full outer shell. Explaining why
copper(II) sulphate is blue requires us to use the sub-shell model
 Topic 3 – Moles
Revision Notes

1. Moles

• In Chemistry, amounts are measured in moles

• A mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles. Particles can be atoms, molecules, ions or
electrons
• For a solution, moles = concentration x volume/1000 (volume in cm 3)

2. Reacting Mass Calculations

Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you are told about
Step 2 – Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 – Find the mass of the thing you are asked about.

Example

Work out the mass of HCl formed from 6.0g of hydrogen

H2 + Cl2  2HCl

Step 1: Moles H2 = 6.0  2.0 = 3.0 (mass  molar mass)

Step 2: Moles HCl = 3.0 x 2/1 (from equation) = 6.0
Step 3: Mass HCl = 6.0 x molar mass = 6 x 36.5 = 219g (moles x molar mass)

3. Titration Calculations

• Concentration is usually measured in moles of solute per cubic decimetre of solution,

mol dm-3
• A cubic decimetre, 1dm3, has the same volume as a litre i.e. 1000cm3
• The volume of a solution is often measured in cm 3. This needs to be converted to
dm3 by dividing by 1000 before calculating a concentration in mol dm-3

Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you know the concentration and volume of.
Step 2 – Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 – Find the unknown concentration or molar mass

Example

25 cm3 of NaOH needed 21.5 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 for neutralisation. Calculate the
concentration of the NaOH solution.

H2SO4 + 2NaOH  2NaCl + 2H2O

Step 1: Moles H2SO4 = 0.1 x 21.5  1000 = 2.15 x 10-3 (conc x vol  1000)
Step 2: Moles NaOH = 2.15 x 10-3 x 2 (from equation) = 4.30 x 10-3
Step 3: Conc NaOH = 4.30 x 10-3  (25  1000) = 0.172 mol dm-3 (moles  volume in dm3)
4. Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation is:

PV = nRT
Where: P = pressure in Pa
V = volume in m3 (1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 106 cm3)
n = number of moles
R = gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T = Kelvin temperature (C + 273)

Example

0.166 mol of oxygen is in a sealed container whose volume is 1725 cm 3. The temperature is
300 K. Calculate the pressure of the oxygen inside the container.
(The gas constant R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1)

PV = nRT
P = nRT/V

T has correct units but V is in cm3 rather than m3

1725 cm3 = 1725 x 10-6 m3
= 1.725 x 10-3 m3

P = 0.166 x 8.31 x 300/(1.725 x10-3)

= 239906 Pa
= 240 kPa

For a fixed number of moles of gas, the ideal gas equation reduces to:

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

This version can be used to calculate the effect of changes in P, V or T on such a

sample.

The ideal gas equation can be combined with n = m/Mr or with  (density) = m/V

PV = mRT/Mr

P = RT/Mr

If these versions are used, mass must be in grams and density in g m -3

5) Percentage yield

• Most organic reactions do not give 100% conversion of reactant to product

• Reasons for this include the fact that most organic reactions are reversible, there
may be side products and there will be loss of the desired product during purification

% yield = Actual moles of product x 100%

Possible moles of product

Example

In the following reaction, 2.18g of bromoethane produce 0.75g of ethanol. Calculate the
percentage yield.
CH3CH2Br + NaOH  CH3CH2OH + NaBr

Moles of reactant (bromoethane) = mass/molar mass

= 2.18/109
= 0.020 mol
Possible moles of ethanol = 0.020 mol (from equation)
Actual moles of ethanol = 0.75/46.0
= 0.0163 mol
Percentage yield = 0.0163/0.020 x 100%
= 82%

6) Ionic equations

• Ionic equations leave out ions that are unchanged in a reaction. They give a clearer
picture of what is happening in a reaction
• To go from a symbol equation to an ionic equation:
o Split up anything that is (aq) and ionic (acids, alkalis and salts)
o Cancel ions that are on both sides

Example
Symbol equation: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Split up into ions: H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) 

Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

Cancel Na+ & Cl-: H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l)

 Topic 4a – Bonding
Revision Notes

1) Introduction

• Atoms form bonds to get a full outer shell of electrons

• Elements in Group 0 (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) do not normally undergo chemical
reactions as they have full outer shells and, so, do not need to form bonds to other
elements
• There are three types of bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic
• Crystals (solids) have one of four types of structure: giant ionic, simple molecular,
giant covalent and giant metallic. Giant structures have millions of atoms or ions held
together in 3 dimensions. Simple molecular substances consist of a countable number
of atoms e.g. H2O, C12H22O11
• Giant covalent is sometimes called giant molecular or macromolecular
• To melt a substance the forces holding the particles together need to be broken
• To conduct electricity there must something charged that can move (ions or
electrons).

2) Types of Bonding

▪ Ionic bonding – metals transfer electrons to non-metals producing positive metal ions
and negative non-metal ions. An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. NaCl

▪ Covalent bonding – A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. Only non-metals

can get a full shell by sharing electrons. The bond is the attraction of the shared
electrons for the two nuclei. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. Cl 2

▪ In dative covalent bonds, one atom donates a lone pair of electrons to form the
bond. The atom accepting the electrons has an empty orbital
▪ Examples of species that donate lone pairs include NH 3, H2O, Cl-
▪ Examples of species that accept lone pairs include H+ and BF3
 ▪ Metallic bonding – metals lose their outer shell electrons to produce a lattice of
positive metal ions surrounded by delocalised (free) electrons.

3) Types of Structure

a) Giant ionic lattices e.g. sodium chloride

o Lattice of oppositely charged ions.

o High melting and boiling points (strong forces of attraction between ions
need to be broken).
o Do not conduct when solid (ions not free to move).
o Conduct when molten or dissolved in water (ions then free to move).
o Are brittle (layers of ions cannot slide over each other without repelling)

Note – should be Na+ and Cl-

b) Molecular lattices e.g. iodine and ice

o Consists of molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces (see

section 5 below)
o Low melting and boiling points (weak forces of attraction between
molecules are easily broken)
o Do not conduct (no free electrons)

Structure of ice ( is hydrogen,  is oxygen)

 c) Giant metallic lattices e.g. magnesium

o Lattice of metal ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

o High melting and boiling points usually (strong forces of attraction between
metal ions and free electrons need to be broken)
o Conduct when solid as delocalised electrons can move
o Are malleable (bendy) and ductile (can be drawn into wires) because the
delocalised electrons allow the layers of ions to slide over each other without
repelling

d) Giant covalent lattices e.g. diamond, graphite

o Lattice of non-metal atoms joined by strong covalent bonds

o Very high melting and boiling points usually (many strong covalent bonds to
be broken)
o Diamond doesn’t conduct (no free electrons)
o In graphite each C forms covalent bonds to 3 other C’s within the layers.
There are weak forces between the layers allowing them to slide over each
other (hence use in pencils and as a lubricant). Fourth outer shell electron is
delocalised and can move between the layers allowing graphite to conduct
electricity

Diamond graphite

4) Electronegativity and bond polarity

• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a covalent bond.

• When there is a big difference in electronegativity between the atoms at either end
of a covalent bond the electrons will be pulled towards the more electronegative
atom (shared unequally). This is a polar covalent bond (the molecule has a
permanent dipole)
• For example, fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen so the H-F bond is polar

δ+ δ-
HF
 • Polar molecules have permanent dipoles that don’t cancel out (e.g. H 2O) because the
dipoles are at an angle
• Non-polar molecules either have no dipoles (e.g. Cl 2) or dipoles that cancel out (e.g.
CO2) because the dipoles are at 180

5) Intermolecular Forces

• Intermolecular forces (IMF) only occur in simple molecular substances.

Mentioning molecules or IMF in questions about ionic, metallic or giant
covalent substances is a chemical error (CE) and will lose all marks for that
question
• There are 2 types of intermolecular force

a) Van der Waal’s

o Arise from temporary dipole (uneven distribution of electrons) in one molecule that
induces dipole in another molecule
o The more electrons, the stronger the van der Waal’s forces between molecules
o Van der Waal’s forces occur in all simple molecular substances

b) Hydrogen bonds

o Only occur when hydrogen is bonded to one of the 3 most electronegative elements:
N, O and F. Other elements are not electronegative enough
o There is a large difference in electronegativity between H and N/O/F. This makes H
δ+ and N/O/F δ-
o δ+ H is strongly attracted to lone pair on N/O/F in another molecule
o Diagram must show lone pairs, dipoles and H-bond shown by dotted line (see
example for NH3 below. (Note that N in NH3 has 1 lone pair, O in H2O has 2 lone
pairs and F in HF has 3 lone pairs)



H
H 
 
 N
N H
H
H
H 


o Water, ammonia and HF have higher melting and boiling points than expected due to
the strength of the hydrogen bonds that have to be broken
o Ice is less dense than water because, in ice, the molecules are held further apart so
there is more space in the structure
6) Shapes of Molecules

The following procedure allows the shape of a molecule to be worked out:

▪ Draw a dot-cross diagram
▪ Count number of electron pairs round the central atom
▪ Pairs of electrons repel each other and get as far apart as possible
▪ Lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs so bonds are pushed closer together
e.g. 107 in ammonia compared with the tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5 in
methane

Number of pairs Examples Name of shape Bond angle

(explanation)
2 bonding pairs BeCl2 Linear 180
(repel equally)
3 bonding pairs BF3 Trigonal planar 120
(repel equally)
4 bonding pairs CH4, NH4+, PCl4+ Tetrahedral 109.5
(repel equally)
5 bonding pairs PCl5 Bipyramidal 90 and 120
(repel equally)
6 bonding pairs SF6, PCl6- Octahedral 90
(repel equally)
3 bonding, 1 lone NH3 Pyramidal 107
(lp repels more than bps)
2 bonding , 2 lone H2O, NH2- V-shaped 104.5
(lps repels more than bps)
4 bonding, 2 lone XeF4 Square Planar 90
(lps repels more than bps)

This can be done mathematically e.g. PCl 4+

Outer shell electrons (P) 5

Bonds formed 4
Adjust for charge (lost e-) -1
Total for P 8
Pairs for P 4
Lone pairs (pairs-bonds) 0

 tetrahedral, bond angle 109.5

 Topic 4b – Periodicity
Revision Notes

1) Blocks in the Periodic Table

An element can be assigned to the s, p or d block by working out which sub-level its
outermost electron is in:

• Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 so is in the s-block

• O is 1s2 2s2 2p4 so is in the p-block
• Sc is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 so is in the d-block

2) Ionisation Energies

a) First ionisation energy

• Evidence that electrons are arranged in shells or energy levels can be obtained
by measuring ionisation energies
• The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy needed to remove one
mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms i.e.

M(g)  M+(g) + e-

b) Successive Ionisation Energies of an element

• Second and subsequent ionisation energies of an element can also be measured

i.e.
M+(g)  M2+(g) + e-

• Second ionisation is greater than first ionisation energy as it is harder to remove

an electron from a positive ion than from a neutral atom
• Jumps in ionisation energies occur when going from one energy level (shell) to
another. The jump occurs because the new energy level is closer to nucleus and
less shielded

c) Trends Down Group 2 (Be-Ba)

• 1st ionisation energy decreases down Group 2 (and all other groups)
• With each successive element, there is an extra electron shell, so the outer
electron is further from the nucleus and more shielded. Less attraction
between the nucleus and the outer shell
• This is evidence for electrons being arranged in energy levels (shells)
3) Trends Across Period 3 (Na-Ar)

Be able to describe and explain trends in the following:

1st ionisation energy Describe – general increase

Explain – bigger nuclear charge, same shielding
Dip from Mg to Al because Mg is losing 3s electron, Al is losing 3p.
3p is higher in energy, easier to remove.
Dip from P to S because P is 3p3, S is 3p4. Mutual repulsion of paired
electrons in S make electron easier to remove than in P.

Atomic radius Describe – it decreases

Explain – bigger nuclear charge, same shielding

Electronegativity Describe – it increases

Explain – bigger nuclear charge, same shielding, stronger attraction
between nucleus and shared pair of electrons

Melting & boiling Na, Mg and Al have metallic bonding.

points Attraction between positive ions and delocalised free electrons is
strong so melting points are high.
Melting point increases from Na to Mg to Al because metal ion has
greater charge and there are more free electrons per ion so metallic
bonding is stronger.
Si has very high melting point. Giant covalent structure has many
strong covalent bonds to be broken.
P4, S8 and Cl2 have low melting points. These are simple covalent
molecules held together by weak Van der Waal’s forces. Van der
Waal’s forces increase with molecular mass so S8 has highest melting
point, then P4 then Cl2.
Ar has simple atomic structure. Fewest electrons, weakest Van der
Waal’s forces between atoms

Periodic trends are repeated across different rows of the Periodic Table. Any trend in
properties across Period 3 will also be shown across Period 2 (and period 4, 5 etc)
 Topic 5a – Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Revision Notes

1) Formulae

Be able to recognise and use the different ways of showing organic compounds:

• Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

e.g. C2H6O for ethanol

• Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element
in a molecule e.g. CH2 for ethene (from molecular formula C2H4  2)

• General formula is the simplest algebraic formula for a member of a homologous

series e.g. CnH2n+2 for alkanes

• Structural formula is the minimum detail that shows the arrangement of the atoms
in a molecule e.g. CH3CH2OH for ethanol

• Displayed formula shows the relative positioning of atoms and the bonds between
them e.g. for ethanol:

All bonds should be shown. Do not put –OH for the alcohol group

2) Functional groups and naming organic compounds

Be able to recognise and use the following terms:

• A homologous series is a series of organic compounds having the same functional

group with successive members differing by CH2
• Alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and halogenoalkanes are all homologous series
• A functional group is a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions
of a compound e.g. C=C for alkenes and –OH for alcohols

The rules for naming organic compounds were devised by IUPAC (International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry). They are as follows.

1) The functional group gives the ending of the name e.g. –ol for an alcohol
2) The number of carbons gives the first part of the name e.g. prop- or propan- for
3 carbons
3) Number the carbon chain to give the functional group carbon the lowest number
4) Any side chains (branches) or halogens go at the front of the name with commas
between numbers and dashes between numbers and words e.g. 2,2-
dimethylhexane
5) With more than 1 side chain or halogen, use alphabetical order e.g. 1-bromo-2-
methylbutane
3) Structural isomers

• Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
• There are 3 types of structural isomers: chain, position and functional group
• Position isomers differ in the location of the functional group e.g.

1-bromobutane 2-bromobutane

• Chain isomers have different arrangements of the carbon chain e.g.

Pentane 2-methylbutane

• A molecular formula can be common to compounds from different families. These are
functional group isomers e.g.
o C3H6O can be either propanal, CH3CH2CHO, or propanone, CH3COCH3
o C3H6 can be either propene or cyclopropane
o C3H6O2 can be propanoic acid, methyl ethanoate or ethyl methanoate
o C2H6O can be either ethanol or methoxymethane, CH3OCH3 (an ether)

• For CHEM1, the only pair of functional group isomers needed is alkenes
and cyclic alkanes (both of which have general formula CnH2n)
 Topic 6b – Alkanes
1) General

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with general formula C nH2n+2

• Saturated = only single C-C bonds
• Hydrocarbon = contains C and H only
• Alkane molecules are non-polar so the only intermolecular forces are Van der Waal’s
forces

2) Boiling points

• Boiling point increases with chain length – more electrons, more Van der Waal’s
forces between molecules
• Boiling point decreases as branching increases – branched alkanes have less surface
area in contact so intermolecular forces are weaker (or straighter chains can pack
closer, more Van der Waal’s forces between molecules)
• The first four alkanes are gases and are used as fuels (methane for domestic heating
and cooking, propane as LPG and in canisters for camping/caravanning, butane for
cigarette lighters and in canisters)
• Petrol consists of liquid alkanes with between 5 and 8 carbons

3) Fractional Distillation

• Crude oil (petroleum) is a mixture of many compounds, most of which are alkanes
• Crude oil is separated into fractions, many of which can be used directly as fuels
• The separation process is called fractional distillation. This involves:
o Separation is based on the different boiling points of alkanes
o The boiling points of alkanes depend on the size of the molecule (and
strength of Van der Waals forces)
o Vaporised crude oil is fed into a column that is hot at the bottom and cool at
the top
o Smaller molecules with lower boiling points come out at the top of the
column. Larger molecules with higher boiling points come out at the bottom

4) Cracking

• Crude oil contains more long chain alkanes than are needed. Cracking breaks
these alkanes down into products for which there is higher demand
• Cracking involves the breaking of C-C bonds in alkanes and this requires a high
temperature
Example: C10H22  C8H18 + C2H4
Decane octane ethene

• Thermal cracking gives a high proportion of alkenes. It needs a high temperature

(400-900C) and a high pressure (7000 kPa)
 • The alkenes from thermal cracking are used to make polymers and alcohols
• Catalytic cracking produces motor fuels and aromatic hydrocarbons. It needs a
zeolite catalyst, a high temperature (450C) and a slight pressure

5) Combustion

a) Introduction

▪ Complete combustion requires a plentiful supply of oxygen e.g.

C5H12 + 8O2  5CO2 + 6H2O
▪ Combustion of fossil fuels, including alkanes, results in the release of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere
▪ In a limited supply of air, incomplete combustion occurs forming CO or C (soot)
C5H12 + 5.5O2  5CO + 6H2O
C5H12 + 3O2  5C + 6H2O
▪ Incomplete combustion wastes petrol meaning more fuel is needed

b) Catalytic converters

▪ The pollutants produced by car engines include carbon, C, carbon monoxide, CO,
sulphur dioxide, SO2, oxides of nitrogen, NOx and unburnt hydrocarbons
▪ Carbon monoxide and carbon come from the incomplete combustion of the
hydrocarbons in petrol and are toxic. Carbon is also a respiratory irritant
▪ Sulphur dioxide is produced when traces of sulphur in the fuel react with oxygen.
SO2 causes acid rain
▪ Oxides of nitrogen are produced when oxygen and nitrogen from the air react
together due to the very high temperatures reached inside car engines. NO 2 is
toxic, triggers asthma attacks and forms HNO 3 (i.e. acid rain) when it reacts with
water and oxygen
▪ Small amounts of hydrocarbons pass straight through a car engine without being
burnt
▪ Catalytic converters consist of a honeycomb of ceramic material coated with
platinum, palladium or rhodium (Pt/Pd/Rh)
▪ The honeycomb produces a large surface area on which reactions can occur
▪ Catalytic converters reduce the emission of CO and NO by allowing them to react
together to make harmless products

2CO(g) + 2NO(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g)

c) Global Warming

• In the troposphere (lowest level of the atmosphere), various gases absorb

infrared radiation and keep the atmosphere warm
• Infrared radiation is absorbed by C=O bonds in CO 2, O-H bonds in H2O and C-H
bonds in methane. The absorbed energy makes the bonds vibrate
• Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases, like CO 2, may contribute to global
warming because of the increased absorption of IR radiation

d) Acid Rain

• Combustion of fuels containing sulphur produces sulphur dioxide

• Acid rain is formed when SO2 dissolves in water
• SO2, which is acidic, can be removed from flue gases using CaO, which is a base.
This is a neutralisation reaction.

SO2 + CaO  CaSO3