Reproductive system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about sexual reproductive systems. For the reproductive systems of asexual organisms,
see Asexual reproduction.
Reproductive system

pictorial illustration of the human male reproductive

system.
Latin systemata genitalia
The reproductive system or genital system is a system of organs within an organism which work
together for the purpose of reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and
pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system.[1] Unlike most organ systems,
the sexes of differentiated species often have significant differences. These differences allow for a
combination of genetic material between two individuals, which allows for the possibility of greater
genetic fitness of the offspring.[2]
The major organs of the human reproductive system include the external genitalia (penis and vulva) as
well as a number of internal organs including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and ovaries).
Diseases of the human reproductive system are very common and widespread, particularly
communicable sexually transmitted diseases.[3]
Most other vertebrate animals have generally similar reproductive systems consisting of gonads, ducts,
and openings. However, there is a great diversity of physical adaptations as well as reproductive
strategies in every group of vertebrates.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Human reproductive system
• 1.1 Male reproductive system
• 1.2 Female reproductive system
• 1.3 Production of gametes
• 1.4 Development of the reproductive system
• 1.5 Diseases of the human reproductive system
• 1.5.1 Examples of congenital abnormalities
• 1.5.2 Examples of cancers
• 1.5.3 Examples of infections
• 1.5.4 Examples of functional problems
• 2 Other vertebrates
• 2.1 Mammals
• 2.2 Birds
• 2.3 Reptiles
• 2.4 Amphibians
• 2.5 Fish
• 3 Invertebrates
• 3.1 Cephalopods
• 4 See also
• 5 References

[edit] Human reproductive system

Further information: Human reproduction
Human reproduction takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the
erect penis of the male is inserted into the female's vagina until the male ejaculates semen, which
contains sperm, into the female's vagina. The sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into the
uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon successful fertilization and implantation,
gestation of the foetus then occurs within the female's uterus for approximately nine months, this
process is known as pregnancy in humans. Gestation ends with birth, the process of birth is known as
labor. Labor consists of the muscles of the uterus contracting, the cervix dilating, and the baby passing
out the vagina. Human's babies and children are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care
for many years. One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glands in the female
breasts to nurse the baby.[4]
Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every
reproductive organ, numerous differences typically occur in secondary sexual characteristics.

[edit] Male reproductive system

Main article: Male reproductive system (human)

Partially shaved erect male genitalia. 1. Testicles, 2. Epididymis, 3. Corpus cavernosum penis, 4.
Foreskin, 5. Frenulum, 6. Urethral opening , 7. Glans penis, 8. Corpus spongiosum, 9. Penis, 10.
Scrotum.
The human male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside of the body and around the
pelvic region of a male that contribute towards the reproductive process. The primary direct function of
the male reproductive system is to provide the male gamete or spermatozoa for fertilization of the
ovum.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories. The first category is
sperm production and storage. Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the temperature
regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for development and storage. The
second category are the ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate,
and the vas deferens. The final category are those used for copulation, and deposition of the
spermatozoa (sperm) within the male, these include the penis, urethra, vas deferens, and Cowper's
gland.
Major secondary sexual characteristics includes: larger, more muscular stature, deepened voice, facial
and body hair, broad shoulders, and development of an adam's apple. An important sexual hormone of
males is androgen, and particularly testosterone.[5]

[edit] Female reproductive system

Main article: Female reproductive system (human)

Photograph of the vulva. 1. Pubic bone, 2.Clitoral hood, 3. Clitoris, 4. Labia majora, 5. Labia minora
(enclosing the Vaginal Opening), 6. Perineum.
The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside of the body and
around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process. The human
female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vagina, which acts as the receptacle for the
male's sperm, the uterus, which holds the developing fetus, and the ovaries, which produce the female's
ova. The breasts are also an important reproductive organ during the parenting stage of reproduction.
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and urethra; during
intercourse this area is lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to
the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. At
certain intervals, typically approximately every 28 days, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes
through the fallopian tube into the uterus. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and
unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through a process known as menstruation.
Major secondary sexual characteristics include: a smaller stature, a high percentage of body fat, wider
hips, development of mammary glands, and enlargement of breasts. Important sexual hormones of
females include estrogen and progesterone.[5]

[edit] Production of gametes

Main articles: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

The production of gametes takes place within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis.
Gametogenesis occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal diploid
number of chromosomes in humans (n=46) into haploids cells containing only 23 chromosomes.[6]
In males this process is known as spermatogenesis and takes place only after puberty in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes. The immature spermatozoon or sperm are then sent to the
epididymis where they gain a tail and motility. Each of the original diploid germs cells or primary
spermatocytes forms four functional gametes which is each capable of fertilization.
In females gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in the ovarian follicles of the ovaries.
This process does not produce mature ovum until puberty. In contrast with males, each of the original
diploid germ cells or primary oocytes will form only one mature ovum, and three polar bodies which
are not capable of fertilization.
It has long been understood that in females, unlike males, all of the primary oocytes ever found in a
female will be created prior to birth, and that the final stages of ova production will then not resume
until puberty.[6] However, recent scientific data has challenged that hypothesis.[7] This new data
indicates that in at least some species of mammal oocytes continue to be replenished in females well
after birth.[8]

[edit] Development of the reproductive system

Main article: Development of the urinary and reproductive organs

The development of the reproductive system and urinary systems are closely tied in the development of
the human fetus. Despite the differences between the adult male and female reproductive system, there
are a number of homologous structures shared between them due to their common origins within the
fetus. Both organ systems are derived from the intermediate mesoderm. The three main fetal precursors
of the reproductive organs are the Wolffian duct, Müllerian ducts, and the gonad. Endocrine hormones
are a well known and critical controlling factor in the normal differentiation of the reproductive system.
[9]
The Wolffian duct forms the epididymis, vas deferns, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal
vesicle in the male reproductive system and essentially disappears in the female reproductive system.
For the Müllerian Duct this process is reversed as it essentially disappears in the male reproductive
system and forms the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina in the female system. In both sexes the gonad
goes on to form the testes and ovaries, because they are derived from the same undeveloped structure
they are considered homologous organs. There are a number of other homologous structures shared
between male and female reproductive systems. However, despite the similarity in function of the
female fallopian tubes and the male epididymis and vas deferens, they are not homologous but rather
analogous structures as they arise from different fetal structures.
Examples of homologous human reproductive organs
Male organ Female organ Shared function
Cowper's gland Bartholin's glands Lubrication secretions
Penis Clitoris Erectile tissue and sensation
Testes Ovary Gamete production
Ejaculatory fluid and
Prostate gland Skene's gland
sensation

[edit] Diseases of the human reproductive system

Main article: Reproductive system disease

Like all complex organ systems the human reproductive system is affected by many diseases. There are
four main categories of reproductive diseases in humans. They are: 1) genetic or congenital
abnormalities, 2) cancers, 3) infections which are often sexually transmitted diseases, and 4) functional
problems cause by environmental factors, physical damage, psychological issues, autoimmune
disorders, or other causes. The best known type of functional problems include sexual dysfunction and
infertility which are both broad terms relating to many disorders with many causes.
Specific reproductive diseases are often symptoms of other diseases and disorders, or have multiple, or
unknown causes making them difficult to classify. Examples of unclassifiable disorders include
Peyronie's disease in males and endometriosis in females. Many congenial conditions cause
reproductive abnormalities but are better known for their other symptoms, these include: Turner
syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Cystic fibrosis, and Bloom syndrome.[10]
It is also known that disruption of the endocrine system by certain chemical adversely affects the
development of the reproductive system and can cause vaginal cancer.[11] Many other reproductive
diseases have also been link to exposure to synthetic and environmental chemicals. Common chemicals
with known links to reproductive disorders include: lead, dioxin, styrene, toluene, and pesticides.[12]

[edit] Examples of congenital abnormalities

• Kallmann syndrome - Genetic disorder causing decreased functioning of the sex hormone-
producing glands caused by a deficiency of a hormone.
• Cryptorchidism - Absence of one or both testes from the scrotum.
• Androgen insensitivity syndrome - A genetic disorder causing people who are genetically male
(i.e. XY chromosome pair) to develop sexually as a female due to an inability to utilize
 androgen.
• Intersexuality - A person who has genitalia and/or other sexual traits which are not clearly male
or female.

[edit] Examples of cancers

• Prostate cancer - Cancer of the prostate gland.

• Breast cancer - Cancer of the mammary gland.
• Ovarian cancer - Cancer of the ovary.
• Penile cancer - Cancer of penis.
• Uterine cancer - Cancer of the uterus.
• Testicular cancer - Cancer of the testicles.
• Cervical Cancer - Cancer of the cervix.

[edit] Examples of infections

• HIV - Infection by the retrovirus known as human immunodeficiency virus.

• Genital warts - Sexually transmitted infection caused by some sub-types of human
papillomavirus (HPV).
• Herpes simplex - Sexually transmitted infection caused by a virus called herpes simplex virus
(HSV) type 2
• Gonorrhea - Common sexually transmitted disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium
Neisseria gonorrheae
• Yeast infection - Infection of the vagina by any species of the fungus genus Candida.
• Pelvic inflammatory disease - Painful infection of the female uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or
ovaries with associated scar formation and adhesions to nearby tissues and organs.
• Syphilis - Sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum.
• Pubic lice - Infection of the pubic hair by crab lice, Phthirius pubis.
• Trichomoniasis - Sexually transmitted infection by the single-celled protozoan parasite
Trichomonas vaginalis.

[edit] Examples of functional problems

• Impotence - The inability of a male to produce or maintain an erection.

• Hypogonadism - A lack of function of the gonads, in regards to either hormones or gamete
production.
• Ectopic pregnancy - When a fertilized ovum is implanted in any tissue other than the uterine
wall.
• Hypoactive sexual desire disorder - A low level of sexual desire and interest.
• Female sexual arousal disorder - A condition of decreased, insufficient, or absent lubrication in
females during sexual activity
• Premature ejaculation - A lack of voluntary control over ejaculation.

[edit] Other vertebrates

See also: Sexual reproduction
Vertebrate animals all share key elements of their reproductive systems. They all have gamete
producing organs or gonads. These gonads are then connected by oviducts to an opening to the outside
of the body, typically the cloaca, but sometime to a unique pore such as a vagina or intromittent organ.

[edit] Mammals

A newborn joey suckles from a teat found within its mother's pouch
Most mammal reproductive systems are similar, however, there are some notable differences between
the "normal" mammal and humans. For instance, most mammalian males have a penis which is stored
internally until erect, and most have a penis bone or baculum. Additionally, males of most species do
not remain continually sexually fertile as humans do. Like humans, most groups of mammals have
descended testicles found within a scrotum, however, others have descended testicles that rest on the
ventral body wall, and a few groups of mammals, such as elephants, have undescended testicles found
deep within their body cavities near their kidneys.[13][14]
Marsupials are unique in that the female has two vaginae, both of which open externally through one
orifice but lead to different compartments within the uterus; males usually have a two-pronged penis
which corresponds to the females' two vaginae. Marsupials typically develop their offspring in an
external pouch containing teats to which their newborn young (joeys) attach themselves for post uterine
development. Also, marsupials have a unique prepenial scrotum.[15] The 15mm (5/8 in) long newborn
joey instinctively crawls and wriggles the several inches (15 cm), while clinging to fur, on the way to
its mother's pouch.
The uterus and vagina are unique to mammals with no homologue in birds, reptiles, amphibians, or
fish.[16] In place of the uterus the other vertebrate groups have an unmodified oviduct leading directly
to a cloaca, which is a shared exit-hole for gametes, urine, and feces. Monotremes (i.e. platypus and
echidnas), a group of egg-laying mammals, also lack a uterus and vagina, and in that respect have a
reproductive system resembling that of a reptile.

[edit] Birds

Male and female birds have a cloaca, an opening through which eggs, sperm, and wastes pass.
Intercourse is performed by pressing the lips of the cloacae together, which is sometimes known as the
"cloacal kiss", during which time the male transfers his sperm to the female. A few species of birds
(e.g. most waterfowl) have a intromittent organ which is known as a phallus that is analogous to the
mammals' penis. The female lays amniotic eggs in which the young gestate. Unlike most vertebrates
female birds typically have only one functional ovary and oviduct.[17] As a group, birds, like
mammals, are noted for their high level of parental care.

[edit] Reptiles

Reptiles are almost all sexually dimorphic, and exhibit internal fertilization through the cloaca. Some
reptiles lay eggs while others are viviparous (animals that deliver live young). Reproductive organs are
found within the cloaca of reptiles. Most male reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually
retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single
median penis-like organ, while male snakes and lizards each possess a pair of penis-like organs.

A female frog sitting in a mass of its own spawn

[edit] Amphibians

Most amphibians exhibit external fertilization of eggs, typically within the water, though some
amphibians such as caecilians have internal fertilization.[18] All have paired, internal gonads,
connected by ducts to the cloaca.

[edit] Fish

Main article: Fish#Reproductive_method

Fish exhibit a wide range of different reproductive strategies. Most fish however are oviparous and
exhibit external fertilization. In this process, females use their cloaca to release a large quantities their
gametes, called spawn, into the water and one or more males release "milt", a white fluid containing
many sperm over the unfertilized eggs. Other species of fish are oviparous and have internal
fertilization aided by pelvic or anal fins that are modified into an intromittent organ analogous to the
human penis.[19] A small portion of fish species are either viviparous or ovoviviparous, and are
collectively known as livebearers.[20]
Fish gonads are typically pairs of either ovaries or testes. Most fish are sexually dimorphic but some
species are hermaphroditic or unisexual.[21]

[edit] Invertebrates
See also: Reproductive system of gastropods
Invertebrates have an extremely diverse array of reproductive systems, the only commonality may be
that they all lay eggs. Also, aside from cephalopods, and arthropods, nearly all other invertebrates are
hermaphroditic and exhibit external fertilization.

[edit] Cephalopods

All cephalopods are sexually dimorphic and reproduce by laying eggs. Most cephalopods have semi-
internal fertilization, in which the male places his gametes inside the female's mantle cavity or pallial
cavity to fertilize the ova found in the female's single ovary.[22] Likewise, male cephalopods have only
a single teste. In the female of most cephalopods the nidamental glands aid in development of the egg.
The "penis" in most unshelled male cephalopods (Coleoidea) is a long and muscular end of the
gonoduct used to transfer spermatophores to a modified arm called a hectocotylus. That in turn is used
to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the "penis"
is long and able to extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfer the spermatophores directly to the
female.
Many cephalopods shed their gonads during reproduction, and thus only reproduce once. Most
cephalopods die after reproducing. Females nautilus however, can regenerate their gonads, making
them the only cephalopods to spawn once per year. The females in many cephalopod species exhibit
some level of parental protection for their eggs.

[edit] See also

• Major systems of the human body
• Reproductive system disease
• Sexual reproduction
• Human sexuality
• Human sexual behavior
• Sex organ
• Plant sexuality

[edit] References
1. ^ Introduction to the Reproductive System. SEER's Training Website. U.S. National Cancer
Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program.
2. ^ Reproductive System 2001 Body Guide powered by Adam
3. ^ STD's Today National Prevention Network, Center for Disease Control, United States
Government, retrieving 2007
4. ^ Sexual Reproduction in Humans. 2006. John W. Kimball. Kimball's Biology Pages, and
online textbook.
5. ^ a b Hormones of the Reproductive System 2006. John W. Kimball. Kimball's Biology Pages,
and online textbook.
6. ^ a b Development of sex cells in Reproductive system, Body Guide. Adam.
7. ^ Tilly JL, Niikura Y, Rueda BR (August 2008). "The Current Status of Evidence for and
Against Postnatal Oogenesis in Mammals: A Case of Ovarian Optimism Versus Pessimism?".
Biol. Reprod. 80 (1): 2. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.108.069088. PMID 18753611.
8. ^ Johnson J, Canning J, Kaneko T, Pru JK, Tilly JL (March 2004). "Germline stem cells and
follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary". Nature 428 (6979): 145–50.
 doi:10.1038/nature02316. PMID 15014492.
9. ^ EDRI Federal Project Inventory: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Abnormal
Reproductive Development US EPA. Dr. William R. Kelce. 2006.
10. ^ Genetic Conditions > Reproductive system. 2007. Genetics Home Reference. U.S.
National Library of Medicine.
11. ^ "Endocrine Disruptors" (PDF). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
2006. http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/docs/endocrine.pdf. Retrieved
2007-11-29.
12. ^ Infertility and Related Reproductive Disorders. 2003. Ted Schettler, MD. The
collaborative on health and the environment.
13. ^ Werdelin L, Nilsonne A (January 1999). "The evolution of the scrotum and testicular
descent in mammals: a phylogenetic view". J. Theor. Biol. 196 (1): 61–72.
doi:10.1006/jtbi.1998.0821. PMID 9892556.
14. ^ Descent of the testicles. P.Z. Myers. Pharyngula blog. 2004.
15. ^ Renfree, Marilyn; Tyndale-Biscoe, C. H. (1987). Reproductive physiology of
marsupials. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33792-5.
http://books.google.com/?
id=HpjovN0vXW4C&pg=PA129&lpg=PA129&dq=marsupial+scrotum.
16. ^ Evolution of the mammalian vagina. P.Z. Myers. Pharyngula blog. Tuesday,
November 01, 2005.
17. ^ Avian Reproduction: Anatomy & the Bird Egg Gary Ritchison. BIO 554/754
Ornithology. Eastern Kentucky University.
18. ^ Grzimek, B. (1974). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia: Volume 5 Fishes II &
Amphibians.. New York: Van Nostrand Reihnhold Co.. pp. 301–302.
19. ^ Fish Reproduction
20. ^ Science, Biology, and Terminology of Fish reproduction: Reproductive modes and
strategies-part 1. 2002. MARTIN MOE. THE BREEDER'S NET Online Magazine
21. ^ Bony Fish Reproduction 2002. SeaWorld/Busch Gardens Animal Information
Database.
22. ^ Cephalopods. The Living World of Molluscs. Robert Nordsieck.